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THEOLOGICAL, 



BIBLICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL 



*• 



DICTIONARY: 



SERVING AS A 



GENERAL NOTE-BOOK AND ILLUSTRATIVE COMMENTARY 



OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT, 



CYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE, 



BY 

JOHN ROBINSON, D.D. 

RECTOR OF CLIFTON, WESTMORELAND, 

AND AUTHOR OF ARCH.EOLOGIA GR.ECA, MODERN HISTORY, HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 

HISTORY OF WESTMORLAND, &C. &C. &'C. 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED. 



LONDON: 
PRINTED FOR SHERWOOD, GILBERT, & PIPER, 

TATERNOSTER ROW 

1835. 



^«°^ 

^v^ 

y* 



TO 



HIS GRACE 



THE 



ARCHBISHOP OF YORK, 



Sj-c SfC. 



My Lord, 

Your own dignified character, no less than the ex- 
alted station which you fill in the Established Church 
of this kingdom, was a sufficient inducement for my wish- 
ing to introduce the following work to the public under 
the auspices of your respectable name. Your Grace's 
ready acquiescence in acceding to that wish, is an instance 
of liberality for which my thanks are due. 

I trust, my Lord, it will be readily believed that my 
sole object in the compilation of this Dictionary has been 
the cause of truth and of piety. A work like the present, 
accessible to persons of all ranks, seems to be particularly 
requisite at a time when the doctrines and the principles 
of our holy religion have been misunderstood, and too often 
misrepresented, both as to their nature and their effects. 
If I have sometimes seen occasion to commend that Na- 



VI 

tional Establishment of which I have the honour to be a 
member, I hope that the candid of every sect will not as- 
cribe any commendation of that kind to venal motives. 

Your Grace was pleased to think favourably of a former 
work of mine. If the present should obtain a similar 
reception, and my labour should not appear to be fruit- 
lessly employed, I shall feel a real satisfaction. 

I am, my Lord, 
With sentiments of the greatest respect, 
Your Grace's 
Most faithful and obedient Servant, 

JOHN ROBINSON. 

Ravenstonedale, May 10, 1815. 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIRST EDITION 



It is a truth which has been acknowledged by Christians of all ages 
and countries, that a just understanding of the Bible, as the foun- 
dation of Christianity, is a most desirable acquisition. The Sacred 
Volume is a treasure equally valuable to the learned and the un- 
learned, to the wise and the simple, to the rich and the poor, to men of 
all ranks and stations. The duties it enjoins, and the doctrines it 
delivers, are of universal concern, and such as deserve the attention 
and regard of all mankind. 

Of this Volume it has been justly observed, that it ennobles the 
noble, and enriches the great ; that it supports the poor, and guides 
the ignorant ; and that, by exhibiting the bright prospects of immor- 
tal happiness, it consoles the mind of man under the inevitable evils 
which, in this state of probation, he is called to endure. It displays 
to view the ways of God to man ; it is addressed to every man's own 
bosom ; it appeals to every man's sense and conscience ; it calls on 
every individual, and enforces that call by the most awful sanctions ; 
it proposes no subject of trifling consideration, but offers life or death, 
blessings or curses, heaven or hell. 

Indeed, the importance of the Bible as a revelation from Heaven, 
on subjects which concern our everlasting felicity ; and the necessity 
of understanding the SacredVolume, in order to a participation of the 
blessings it reveals ; are points so generally acknowledged by all who 
admit the divine authority of its pages, that it may be thought need- 
less to expatiate upon them. We may, however, be allowed to ex- 
press our surprise and regret, that, whilst the distribution of " the 



via PREFACE. 

word of life" has become a matter of general interest, so little atten- 
tion should be paid to an object of nearly equal importance, — the fa- 
cilitating of an acquaintance with the oracles of God. To this the 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge forms an honourable and 
a solitary exception ; and it were greatly to be desired, that the mem- 
bers of the Established Church, laity as well as clergy, would con- 
sider the well-founded claims of that Society on their liberality and 
pecuniary assistance. 

Though the doctrines and precepts of the Bible are remarkable 
for their clearness and plainness, yet we need not be surprised if some 
of its historic relations, and accounts of local matters, appear to us 
dark and confused. Many of them date very early in the history of 
the world, and some of them from the beginning of time. Some of 
them refer to customs and manners peculiar only to the eastern part 
of the world, and therefore little understood by us who live at so 
remote a distance. Some refer to persons whose actions are only 
incidentally mentioned, and of whom the inquisitive reader will desire 
further information than is afforded in the Sacred Volume. Others 
relate to cities and kingdoms once great and flourishing, now ruined 
and deserted; and of these we wish for more geographical and 
historical information, than perhaps is contained in the Bible. 
The prophetic parts of Scripture contain many predictions which 
relate to particular persons and states, and the completion of 
which, though not always noticed in the Bible, is recorded in other 
histories ; and a knowledge of the time and manner of their fulfilment 
induces us to confide in others of the same kind, and justifies our 
belief in the Sacred Oracles. 

From these and other considerations, Dom Augustin Calmet, a 
Benedictine monk, and Abbot of Senones, was led to compose his 
Dictionary of the Holy Bible, in two volumes folio, to which he af- 
terwards added two more volumes, first published under the title of 
a Supplement, but afterwards incorporated with the original work. 
This excellent publication, which has been translated into Latin, 
Dutch, English, and several other languages, has been the principal 
source whence I have derived most of what has been composed in 
the following work, on all subjects immediately connected with the 
Bible. 

But as Calmet's Dictionary was intended for the service of those 



PREFACE. ix 

who used the Vulgate Latin Version, the author has introduced per- 
petual references to that version, which I have diminished ; and, in- 
stead of passages of Scripture being given in Latin, they are, for the 
most part, given in the words of our English translation. Calmet 
has many historical articles, collected from Josephus and other 
writers, which, as they do not occur either in the Bible or Apocrypha, 
have been mostly rejected. On the contrary, I have added and ex- 
plained a great number of articles, which are not to be met with in 
Calmet, and many of which are of considerable importance. Besides, 
as Calmet was a member of the Church of Rome, he has mingled in 
his remarks sentiments which Protestants in general justly reject, 
and which, therefore, I have uniformly endeavoured to omit. 

As it has been my anxious wish, not willingly to neglect, or im- 
pair truth, I have attempted to offer what I conceive to be the ge- 
nuine representations, doctrines, or inferences of the Bible ; and for 
that purpose I have consulted a great number of theological writers, 
whose names, and the works from which I have quoted, are gene- 
rally noticed at the end of each article. On the geography and natu- 
ral history of Scripture I have consulted the latest and best autho- 
rities ; and the accounts of recent travellers in the East have fur- 
nished information on these subjects, of which I have gladly availed 
myself. 

With respect to that part of the work which treats of the different 
sects into which the Christian world is divided, I trust that I have 
been guided by candour. It was my intention to give a fair and can- 
did statement of existing sentiments, and of differences of opinion, 
on the important subject of religion. If, therefore, I have misrepre- 
sented the tenets and principles of any sect or party whatever, I have 
failed in my object. Nothing, indeed, would give me more pain than 
the consciousness of having misrepresented them. It has been justly 
observed, that " since, unhappily, there are still so many subjects of 
debate among those who ' name the name of Christ/ it is, doubtless, 
every one's duty, after divesting himself, as much as possible, of pre- 
judice, to investigate those subjects with accuracy, and to adhere to 
that side of each disputed question, which, after much investigation, 
appears to him to be the truth. But he transgresses the favourite 
precept of his Divine Master, when he casts injurious reflections, or 
denounces anathemas, on those who, with equal sincerity, view the 



x PREFACE. 

matter in a different light ; and, by his want of charity, does more 
harm to the religion of the Prince of Peace, than he could possibly 
do good, were he able to convert all mankind to his own orthodox 
opinions." 



The present new Edition has undergone all such revisions as the 
state of Biblical literature rendered necessary ; and the author hopes, 
that, like the first Edition, it will be favourably received in all pious 
families, and found useful in all seminaries of public and private edu- 
cation ; especially to students of divinity in our Universities. 



A GENERAL 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF THE 

HISTORY OF THE BIBLE; 

SERVING TO RECTIFY THE DATES AND EVENTS IN THE 
FOLLOWING WORK. 

* The Author places the true Date of the Birth of Christ, four years before 
the common Mr a, or A.D. 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

1 THE Creation. 4000 ; 

Julian 1st Day. The creation of light. before 

Period, 2nd Day. The creation of the firma- A.D. 



The sea, the waters, plants, 

The sun, moon, and stars. 

The fishes and birds. 

The creation of land animals, 



710 ment. 

3rd Day. 
and trees. 

4th Day. 

5th Day. 

6th Day. 
and of man. 

God causes the animals to appear before 
Adam ; who gives them names. God cre- 
ates the woman, by taking her out of the 
side of the man ; and gives her to him for 
a wife. He brings them into paradise. 

7th Day. God rests from the work of 
creation ; and sanctifies the repose of the 



4004 



1 Cain born, son of Adam and Eve. 

2 Abel born, son of Adam and Eve. 

129 Cain kills his brother Abel 

130 Sethborn, son of Adam and Eve. 
235 Enos born, son of Seth. 
325 Cainan born, son of Enos. 
395 Mahalaleel born, son of Cainan. 
460 Jared born, son of Mahalaleel. 
622 Enoch born, son of Jared. 
687 Methuselah born, son of Enoch. 
874 Lamech born, son of Methuselah. 
930 Adam dies, aged 930 years. 
987 Enoch translated; hehad lived 365 years. 

1042 Seth dies, aged 912 years. 

1056 Noah born, son of Lamech. 

1140 Enos dies, aged 905 years. 

1235 Cainan dies, aged 910 years. 

1290 Mahalaleel dies, aged 895 years. 

1422 Jared dies, aged 962 years. 

1 536 God informs Noah of the future Deluge, 

and commissions him to preach repentance 

to mankind, 120 years before the Deluge. 

(1 Pet. iii. 20. 2 Pet. ii. 5. Gen. vi. 32.) 
1556 Japheth born, the eldest son of Noah. 2444 

(Gen. v. 32. ; x. 21.) 
1558 Shem born, the second son of Noah. 2442 
1651 Lamech dies, the father of Noah, aged 2349 

■777 years. 
1656 Methuselah dies, the oldest of men; 

aged 969 years, (Gen. v. 27.) in the year 

of the Deluge. 

God commands Noah to prepare to enter 

the ark, on the 10th day of the second 

month, (November.) 
Seventeenth day of the same month 

Noah enters the ark, with his wife, his 

sons, and their three wives. 



3999 
3998 
3871 
3870 
3765 
3675 
3605 
3540 
337S 
3313 
3126 
3070 
3013 
2958 
2944 
2860 
2765 
2710 
2578 
2464 



2344 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

Rain on the earth 40 days. The waters 
continue on the earth 150 days. Seven- 
teenth day of the seventh month the ark 
rests on the mountains of Ararat. 

First day of the tenth month, the tops 
of the mountains begin to appear. (Gen. 
viii. 5.) 

Forty days afterwards Noah sends forth 
the raven. (Gen. viii. 6, 7.) 

Seven days afterwards Noah sends forth 
the dove ; it returns. 

Seven days afterwards he sends it out 
again ; it returns in the evening, bringing 
an olive branch in its bill. 

Seven days afterwards he sends it forth 
again ; it returns no more. (Gen. viii. 8. 12.) 

1657 Noah being now 601 years old, the first 2343 
day of the first month he takes off the roof 

of the ark. 

Twenty-second day of the second month 
Noah quits the ark. He offers sacrifices of 
thanksgiving. 

God permits to man the use of flesh; and 
appoints the rainbow as a pledge that he 
would send no more an universal Deluge. 
(Gen. ix. 9.) 

1658 Arphaxad born, the son of Shem. 2342 
1663 About seven years after the Deluge, 2337 

Noah, having planted a vineyard, drank of 
the wine to excess ; falling asleep, he was 
uncovered in his tent. His son Ham ex- 
posed him ; is cursed for it. 
1693 Salah born, son of Arphaxad. 2307 

1723 Heber born, son of Salah. 2277 

1757 Phaleg born, son of Heber. 2243 

1770 About this time men undertook the 2230 
building of the Tower of Babel ; where 
God confounded their language, and dis- 
persed them throughout the world. 

1771 Here may be fixed the beginning of the 2229 
Assyrian monarchy, by Nimrod. (Gen. x. 

9, 10.) From this year to the taking of 
Babylon by Alexander the Great, are 1993 
years ; which is the period that Callis- 
thenes found in the astronomical calcula- 
tions of the Chaldeans. 

The Egyptian empire began about the 

same time, by Ham the father of Mizraim ; 

this empire continued 1663 years, till the 

taking of Egypt by Cambyses. 

1787 Reuborn, the son of Phaleg. 2213 

1819 Serugborn, son of Reu. 2J81 

1 849 Nahor born, son of Serug. 1 1 5 1 

1878 Terah born, the son of Nahor. 1 1 22 

1948 Haran born, the son of Terah. 2062 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

2006 Noah dies, aged 950 years. 1994 

2008 Abram born, the son of Terah. 1992 

2018 Sarai born, wife of Abram. 1982 

2083 The calling of Abram from Ur of the 1917 

Chaldees : he goes to Charre, or Haran, in 

Mesopotamia. His father Terah dies there, 

aged 205 years. (Gen. xi. 31, 32.) 

2083 The second calling of Abram from Ha- 1917 
ran. He comes into Canaan with Sarai 

his wife, and Lot his nephew ; and dwells 
at Sichem. 

2084 Abram goes into Egypt : Pharaoh takes 1916 
his wife, but soon restores her again. Ab- 
ram quits Egypt : he and Lot separate. 

2091 The kings of Sodom and Gomorrah re- 1909 
volt from Chedorlaomer. 

2092 Chedorlaomer, and his allies, war against 1908 
the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, &c. 
Sodom is pillaged ; Lot is taken captive ; 
Abram pursues them, disperses them, re- 
takes the booty ; and rescues Lot. Mel- 
cbizedech blesses him. 

The Lord makes a covenant with Ab- 
ram, and promises him a numerous pos- 
terity. (Gen. xv.) 

2093 Sarai gives her maid Hagar for a wife 1907 
to her husband Abram. 

2094 Ishmael born, the son of Abram and Ha- 1906 
gar. Abram was 86 years old. (Gen.xvi. 

16.) 

2107 The new covenant of the Lord with Ab- 1893 
ram : God promises him a numerous pos- 
terity: chat iges his name from Abram to 
Abraham, and that of Sarai to Sarah. 
(Gen. xvii.) 
Circumcision instituted. 

2115 Isaac born, the son of Abraham and Sa- 1855 
rah. Sarah makes Abraham turn away 
Hagar and Ishmael. Hagar causes her 
son Ishmael to take an Egyptian woman 
to wife, by whom he has several children. 

2145 Sarah dies, aged 127 years. 1855 

2175 Jacob and Esau born, Isaac being 60 1825 
years old. 

2184 Abraham dies, aged 175 years. 1816 

2231 Ishmael dies, the eldest son of Abraham, 1769 
aged 137 years. 

2245 Isaac blesses Jacob instead of Esau. 1755 
Jacob withdraws into Mesopotamia, to his 
uncle Laban. Here he marries Leah, 
then Rachel. 

2265 Jacob resolves to return to his parents 1735 
in Canaan. Laban pursues him, and over- 
takes him on Mount Gilead. Esau comes 
to meet him, and receives him with much 
affection. Jacob arrives at Shechem. 

2276 Joseph, being seventeen years old, tells 1724 
his father Jacob his brothers' faults; they 
hate him, and sell him to strangers, who 
take him into Egypt. Joseph sold again 
as a slave to Potiphar. 

2287 Joseph explains the dreams of the two 1713 
officers of Pharaoh. 

2288 Isaac dies, aged 180 years. 1712 

2289 Pharaoh's dreams explained by Joseph ; 1711 
Joseph is made governor of Egypt. 

2296 The beginning of the seven years of 1704 
scarcity, foretold by Joseph. 

2297 Joseph's ten brethren come into Egypt 1703 
to buy corn. Joseph imprisons Simeon. 

22!)8 Joseph's brethren return into Egypt 1762 
with their brother Benjamin. Joseph dis- 
covers himself, and engages them to come 
into Egypt with their father Jacob, then 
130 years old. 

2315 Jacob's last sickness: he blesses Eph- 1695 
raini and Manasseh ; foretells the cha- 
racters of all his sons; desires to be 
buried with his fathers. Jacob dies aged 
147 years. 

2369 Joseph dies, aged 110 years. He fore- 1631 
tills the departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt, and desires his 001168 may betaken 
with them Into Canaan 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

2385 Levi dies, aged 173 years. 1615 

2427 A new king in Egypt, who knew nei- 1573 
ther Joseph nor his services. He perse- 
cutes the Israelites. 

About this time lived Job, famous for 
his virtue, wisdom, and patience. 

2430 Aaron bom, son of Amram and Joche- 1570 
bed. 

2433 Moses born, brother to Aaron; is ex- 1567 
posed on the banks of the Nile ; is found 
by Pharaoh's daughter, who adopts him. 

2473 Mosesgoes to visit his brethren; kills an 1527 
Egyptian; being informed that Pharaoh 
knows of it, he retires into Midian ; mar- 
ries Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro : 
has two sons by her ; Gershon and Eliezer. 

2513 The Lord appears to Moses in a burning 1487 
bush, while feeding his father-in-law's 
flocks ; sends him to Egypt, to deliver 
Israel. 

Moses returns into Egypt. His brother 
Aaron comes to meet him to Mount Horeb. 
The two brothers declare to Pharaoh the 
commands of the Lord : Pharaoh refuses 
to set Israel at liberty ; but loads them 
with new burdens. Moses performs se- 
veral miracles in his presence. 

Ten plagues inflicted on Pharaoh and 
his people, to oblige him to dismiss the 
Israelites. 

The Israelites celebrated the last pass- 
over; and Pharaoh expelled them from 
Egypt- 
Alter the passage of the Israelites 
through the Red Sea, the destruction of 
the Egyptians, and other remarkable inci- 
dents, the law is given on Mount Sinai. 

2514 After the delivering of the law with se- 1486 
veral circumstances of terror, the covenant 

of the people with God, their gross idolatry, 
and many other incidents, the tabernacle 
is erected. 
2512 The Israelites continue a good while at 1488 
Kadesh-barnea. 

2552 After wandering in the deserts of Arabia, 1448 
Petraea, and Idumsea, thirty-seven years, 
they return to Mozeroth, near Kadesh- 
barnea, in the thirty-ninth year after the 
Exodus. 

2553 After their murmuring for want of 1447 
water, the death of Aaron, in the 123d 
year of his age, and the erection of the 
Brazen Serpent, to cure them-of the biting 

of fiery serpents ; upon Sihon king of the 

Amorites refusing them a passage through 

his dominions, the Israelites make war 

against him, and take his country. 

Distribution of the countries of Sihon 

and Og, to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, 

and to the half tribe of Manasseh. 

Moses dies, being 120 years old ; he was 

succeeded by Joshua, who, in six years' 

time, made the conquest of the promised 

land. 
2561 Joshua dies, aged 110 years. 1439 

After his death, the elders govern about 

eighteen or twenty years ; during which 

time happen the wars of Judah with Ado- 

ni-bezek. 
2599 Othniel delivers them: conquers Cu- 1401 

shan-rishathaim: judges the people forty 

years. 
2661 Second Servitude, under Eglon, king of 1339 

Moab, about 62 years after the peace of 

Othniel. 
2679 Ehud delivers them, after about twenty 1321 

years. 
Year un-7 Third Servitude of the Israelites 
certain. J under the Philistines. Shamgar de- 
livers them. 
2719. Fourth Servitude, under Jabin, king of 128? 

Ila/.or. 

Deborah and Barak deliver them, after 

twenty years. From 26U9 to 27i'J. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



xm 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

2752 Fifth Servitude, under the Midianites. 1248 
2759 Gideon delivers Israel. He governs them 1241 

nine years. From 2759 to 2768. 
2768 Abimelech, son of Gideon, procures him- 1232 

self to be made king of Shechem. 

2771 Abimelech killed after three years. 1229 

2772 Tola, judge of Israel after Abimelech : 1228 
governs twenty-three years. 

2795 Jair judges Israel, chiefly beyond Jor- 1205 

dan. Governs twenty-two years. 
2799 Sixth Servitude, under the Philistines 1201 

and the Ammonites. 
2817 Jephthah delivers the Israelites beyond 1183 

Jordan. 
2820 The taking of the city of Troy, 408 years 1180 

before the first Olympiad. 
2823 Jephthah dies, Ibzan succeeds him. 1177 
2830 Ibzan dies, Elon succeeds him. 1170 

28i0 Elon dies, Abdon succeeds him. 1160 

2848 Abdon dies. The high-priest Eli sue- 1 152 
ceeds as judge of Israel. 

Seventh Servitude, under the Philistines, 
40 years. (Judg. xiii. 1.) 

2849 Samuel born. 1151 
Under his judicature God raises Sam- 
son, born 2846. 

2861 God begins to manifest himself to Samuel 1139 

2887 Samson delivered to the Philistines by 1113 
Delilah ; kills himself under the ruins of 

the temple of Dagon, with a great multi- 
tude of the Philistines. He defended Is- 
rael twenty years ; from 2867 to 2887. 

2888 War between the Philistines and the 1112 
Israelites. The ark of the Lord taken by 

the Philistines. Death of the high-priest 

Eli. He governed forty years. 
The Philistines send back the ark with 

presents. It is deposited at Kirjath-jearim. 
Samuel is acknowledged chief and judge 

of Israel, 39 or 40 years. 
2909 Saul is appointed king, and consecrated 1091 

in an assembly of the people at Mizpah. 

He reigned 40 years. (Acts xiii. 21.) 
2911 War of the Philistines against Saul. 1089 

Saul not having obeyed Samuel's orders, 

is rejected of God. 
2930 War of Saul against the Amalekites 1070 

2941 Samuel sent by God to Bethlehem, to 1059 
anoint David. 

2942 War of the Philistines against the Is- 1058 
raelites. David kills Goliath. 

2943 Saul, urged by jealousy, endeavours to 1057 
slay David. 

2944 David retires to Achish, king of Gath; 1056 
withdraws into the land of Moab. 

2947 Samuel dies, aged 98 years. He had 1053 
judged Israel twenty -one years, before the 
reign of Saul. He lived thirty-eight-years 
afterwards. 

2949 War of the Philistines against Saul. Saul 1 051 
causes the ghost of Samuel to be raised. 
He loses the battle, and kills himself. 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

2949 David acknowledged king by Judah, and 1 05 1 
consecrated a second time. Reigns at He- 
bron. 
2956 Abner quits Ishbosheth ; resorts to Da-. 1044 
vid. Is treacherously slain by Joab. 
Ishbosheth assassinated. 
David acknowledged king over all Is- 
rael ; consecrated the third time at Hebron. 

2958 War of the Philistines against David. 1042 

2959 David brings the ark from Kirjath-jea- 1041 
rim to Jerusalem : commits it to Abinadab. 

2960 David's design to build a temple to the 1040 
Lord : is diverted from it by the prophet 
Nathan. 

David's war against the Philistines, 
against Hadadezer, against Damascus, 
and against Idumea : continued about six 
years. 
2967 David's war against the king of the Am- 1033 
monites, who had insulted his ambassadors. 

2971 Solomon born. 1029 

2972 Amnon, David's son, ravishes Tamar. 1028 
2974 Absalom kills Amnon. 1026 
2981 Absalom's rebellion against his father 1019 

David. 
Absalom killed by Joab. 
2983 The beginning of the famine sent by God 1017 
to avenge the death of the Gibeonites, un- 
justly slain by Saul ; ended in 2986. 

2987 David numbers the people. God gives 1013 
him the choice of three plagues, by which 

to be punished. 

2988 David prepares for the building of the 1012 
temple, on Mount Zion ; in the threshing- 
floor of Araunah. 

Adonijah aspires to the kingdom. Da- 
vid causes his son Solomon to be crowned. 
Solomon proclaimed king by all Israel. 

2990 David dies, aged 70 years; having 1010 
reigned seven years and a half over Judah, 
at Hebron ; and thirty-three years over all 
Israel at Jerusalem. Solomon reigns alone, 
having reigned about six months in the 
life-time of his father David. He reigned 
40 years. (1 Kings xi. 42.) 

2992 Hiram, king of Tyre, congratulates Solo- 1008 
mon on his accession to the crown ; Solo- 
mon requires of him timber, and work- 
men to assist in building the temple. 

3000 The temple of Solomon finished; being 1000 
seven years and a half in building. Dedi- 
cated the year following, probably because 

of the solemnity of the year of Jubilee, 
which then happened. 

3001 Dedication of the temple. 999 
3026 Jeroboam rebels against Solomon. 974 

He flies into Egypt. 
3029 Solomon dies. 971 

Rehoboam succeeds him ; alienates the 
Israelites, and occasions the revolt of the 
ten tribes. Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, ac- 
knowledged king of the ten tribes. 



KINGS OF JUDAH. 

264 YEARS. 
Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

3029 Rehoboam intends to subdue the ten 971 
tribes, but forbears. Reigned 17 years. 
(1 Kings xiv. 21.) 



3032 Rehoboam becomes impious. 968 

3033 Shishak, king of Egypt, comes to Jeru- 967 
salem, plunders the temple, and the king. 



KINGS OF ISRAEL. 

388 YEARS. 
Year of the Year before 



World. 



Christ. 



3030 Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, king of Is- 970 
rael, abolishes the worship of the Lord ; and 
sets up the golden calves. Reigned 19 
years. 



XIV 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



KINGS OF JUDAH. 

Year of the Year before 

World. Christ 

3046 Rehoboam dies ; Abijam succeeds him ; 954 
reigns three years. 

3047 Abijam's victory over Jeroboam; who 953 
loses many thousands of his troops. 

3049 Abijam dies ; Asa succeeds him. 951 



3053 Asa suppresses idolatry in Judah. 



3064 Asa engages Ben-hadad, king of Syria, 
to make an irruption into the territories 
of the king of Israel, to force Baasha to 
quit his undertaking at Ramah. 



947 



3 Asa dies, having reigned 41 years. 910 

Jehoshaphat succeeds Asa. Expels su- 
perstitious worship. 



3107 Jehoshaphat accompanies Ahab in his 893 
expedition against Ramoth-gilead, where 

he narrowly escapes a great danger. 

3108 Jehoshaphat equips a fleet for Ophir ; 892 
Ahaziah, king of Israel, partaking of the 
design, the fleet is destroyed by tempest. 

Elijah removed from this world in a fiery 
chariot. 



3115 Jehoshaphat dies; reigned 25 years. 885 
Jehoram succeeds. 

3116 Jehoram at the importunity of his wife, 884 
Athaliah, introduces into Judah the wor- 
ship of Baal. 



3120 Ahaziah accompanies Jehoram, king of 880 
Israel, to the siege of Ramoth-gilead. 
Ahaziah slain by Jehu. 
Athaliah kills all of the royal family ; 
usurps the kingdom. Joash is preserved, 
and kept secretly in the temple six years. 
3147 Joash repairs the temple. 8,53 



3165 Joash dies ; Amaziah succeeds him, and 835 
reigns twenty-nine years. 



3194 Amaziah dies; Uzziah, or Azariah, suc- 
ceeds him ; reigns fifty-two years. 

In Judah, the prophets Isaiah and Amos 
under this reign. 



Year of the 
World. 



KINGS OF ISRAEL. 



Year before 
Christ. 



3047 Jeroboam overcome by Abijam, who 953 
kills 500,000 men. 

3050 Jeroboam dies ; Nadab, his son, sue- 950 
ceeds, and reigns four years. 

3054 Nadab dies ; Baasha succeeds him, and 946 

reigns twenty years. 
3064 Baasha builds Ramah, to hinder Israel 936 

from going to Jerusalem. 



3074 Baasha dies; Elah, his son, succeeds 926 
him ; reigns two years. 

3075 Elah, killed by Zimri, who usurps the 925 
kingdom seven days. 

Omri besieges Zimri in Tirzah, who 

burns himself in the palace. 
3079 Omri builds Samaria, makes it the seat 921 

of his empire. 
3086 Omri dies. 914 

Ahab, his son, succeeds ; reigns 22 years. 



3096 The prophet Elijah presents himself be- 904 
fore Ahab, and slays the false prophets of 
Baal. 

3107 Ahab wars against Ramoth-gilead; is 893 
killed in disguise. 

3108 Ahaziah falls from the platform of his 892 
house ; is dangerously wounded. 

Ahaziah dies; Jehoram, his brother, 
succeeds him. 

3109 Elisha foretells victory to the army of 891 
Israel, and procures water in abundance. 



3119 Samaria besieged by Ben-hadad, king of 881 
Syria. 

Ben-hadad and his army seized with a 
panic fear, fly in the night-time. 

3120 Jehoram marches with Ahaziah against 880 
Ramoth-gilead ; is dangerously wounded, 

and carried to Jezreel. 

Jehu rebels against Jehoram ; kills him. 
Jehu reigns twenty-eight years. (2 Kings 

x. 36.) 

3148 Jehu dies ; Jehoahaz, his son, succeeds 852 
him. Reigns seventeen years. 

3165 Jehoahaz dies: Joash, or Jehoash, sue- 835 
ceeds him. 

3168 Hazael, king of Syria, dies ; Benhadad 832 
succeeds him. 

3178 Joash obtains a great victory over Ama- 822 
ziah, king of Judah. 

3181 Joash, king of Israel, dies; Jeroboam II. 819 
succeeds him ; reigns forty-one years. Un- 
der this reign, the prophets Jonah, Hosea, 
and Amos, in Israel. 



3222 Jeroboam II. dies ; Zachariah, his son, 778 
succeeds him ; reigns six months ; perhaps 
ten years. The chronology of this reign is 
perplexed. 

3232 Zachariah killed by Shallum, after reign- 768 
ing six months. 

3233 Shallum reigns one month; is killed by 1C1 
Menahem ; who reipns ten years. 

3243 Menahem dies ; lVkahiah, his son, sue- 757 

ceeds. 
3345 Pekahiah assassinated by Pekah, son of 755 

Remaliah, who reigns twenty-eight years. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Year of the 
World. 



Year before 
Christ. 



KINGS OF JUDAH. 



3246 Uzziah dies; Jotham, his son, succeeds; 754 
reigns sixteen years. 

3261 Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of 739 
Israel, invade Judah. 

3262 Jotham dies ; Ahaz succeeds him ; reigns 738 
sixteen years. 

Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of 
Israel, continue their hostilities against 
Judah. 
3264 Ahaz invites to his assistance Tiglath- 736 
pileser, king of Assyria, and submits to pay 
him tribute. 



3278 Ahaz, king of Judah, dies; Hezekiah, 
his successor, restores the worship of the 
Lord in Judea, which Ahaz had sub- 
verted . 



3291 Sennacherib invades Hezekiah; takes 709 
several cities of Judah. 

Hezekiah's sickness. Isaiah foretells his 
cure ; gives him a sign, the shadow's re- 
turn on the dial of Ahaz. 

Hezekiah gives money to Sennacherib, 
who yet continues his war against him. 
He sends Rabshakeh to Jerusalem ; and 
marches himself against Tirhakah, king 
of Cush or Arabia. Returning to Judea, 
the angel of the Lord destroys many thou- 
sands of his army ; he retires to Nineveh, 
where he is slain by his sons. 



Year of the 
World. 



Year before 
Christ. 



KINGS OF ISRAEL. 



3264 Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, defeats 
and slays Rezin king of Damascus. 

Enters the land of Israel, takes many 
cities and captives ; chiefly from Reuben, 
Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. The 
first captivity of Israel. 

3265 Hoshea, son of Elah, slays Pekah, and 
usurps the kingdom. 

3276 Shalmaneser succeeds Tiglath-pileser, 

king of Nineveh. 
3280 Shalmaneser besieges Samaria ; 



3283 Takes it after three years' siege. Car- 
ries beyond the Euphrates the tribes that 
Tiglath-pileser had not already carried into 

captivity. 

THUS ENDED THE KINGDOM OF 
ISRAEL. AFTER IT HAD SUBSISTED 
TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FOUR 
YEARS. 



736 



735 
724 



JUDAH alone. 

3306 Hezekiah dies ; Manasseh succeeds him ; 694 

reigns 55 years. 
3323 Esarhaddon becomes master of Babylon ; 677 

re-unites the empires of Assyria and Chal- 

dea. 
3329 Manasseh taken by the Chaldeans, and 671 

carried to Babylon. 
3347 The war of Holophernes ; who is slain in 653 

Judea by Judith. 
3361 Manasseh dies. He returned into Judea 639 

a good while before, but the time is not 

exactly known. Ammon succeeds him; 

reigns two years. 
3363 Ammon dies ; Josiah succeeds him. Ze- 637 

phaniah prophesies at the beginning of 

his reign. 
3370 Josiah endeavours to reform abuses. He 630 

restores the worship of the Lord. 
3376 Jeremiah begins to prophesy, in the 624 

thirteenth year of Josiah. 

3394 Josiah opposes the expedition of Necho, 606 
king of Egypt, against Carchemish. Is 
mortally wounded, and dies at Jerusalem. 
Jeremiah composes lamentations on his 
death. (2 Chron. xxxv. 25.) 

Jehoahaz is set on the throne by the peo- 
ple ; but Necho returning from Carche- 
mish, deposes him, and instals Eliakim, or 
Jehoiakim, his brother, son of Josiah, 
reigns 11 years. 

3395 Habakkuk prophesies under this reign. 605 
3398 Nebuchadnezzar besieges and takes Car- 602 

chemish ; comes into Palestine, besieges 
and takes Jerusalem; leaves Jehoiakim 
there, on condition of paying him a large 
tribute. Daniel and his companions led 
captive to Babylon. (? Kings xxiii. 36. 



2 Chron. xxxv. 5, 6. Jeremiah xxvi. 1.; 
xlvi. 2.) 
3402 Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a great sta- 
tue, explained by Daniel. 

3404 The history of Susannah at Babylon. 
Jehoiakim revolts against Nebuchadnezzar. 

3405 Cyrus born, son of Cambyses and Man- 
dane. 

Jehoiakim revolts a second time against 
Nebuchadnezzar. Is taken, put to death, 
and cast to the fowls of the air. Reigned 
eleven years. 

3410 Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 

341 1 He foretells the taking of Jerusalem, and 
the dispersion of the Jews. (Ezek. iv. v. 
viii. ix. x. xi. xii.) 

Zedekiah takes secret measures with 
the king of Egypt to revolt against the 
Chaldeans. 

34 1 r Zedekiah revolts. 

Nebuchadnezzar marches against Jeru- 
salem, besieges it ; quits the siege to repel 
the king of Egypt, who comes to assist 
Zedekiah. Returns to the siege. 

3416 Jerusalem taken on the ninth day of the 
fourth month (July) the eleventh year of 
Zedekiah. 

Zedekiah, endeavouring to fly by night, 
is taken, and brought to Riblah to Nebu- 
chadnezzar. His eyes are put out, and he 
is carried to Babylon. 

3416 Jerusalem and the temple burnt ; se- 
venth day of the fourth month. 

The Jews of Jerusalem and Judea car- 
ried captives beyond the Euphrates : the 
poorer classes only left in the land. 

THUS ENDED THE KINGDOM OF 
JUDEA, AFTER IT HAD SUBSISTED 



598 
596 



590 

5S9 



581 



XVI 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Year of the Year be/ore 

World. Christ. 

FOUR HUNDRED AND SIXTY- 
EIGHT YEARS, FROM THE BEGIN- 
NING OF THE REIGN OF DAVID ; 
AND THREE HUNDRED AND 
EIGHTY-EIGHT YEARS FROM THE 
SEPARATION OF JUDAH AND THE 
TEN TRIBES. 



Gedaliah made governor of the remains 
of the people. He is slain. 

3434 Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a great tree. 566 

3435 His Metamorphosis into an ox. 565 
3445 His return to his former condition. 555 
3444 He sets up a golden statue for worship. 556 

Nebuchadnezzar's death, after reigning 
forty -three years, from the death of Nebo- 
nassar, his father, who died in 3399. 

Evilmerodach, his son, succeeds him ; 
reigns but one year. 
3450 Cyrus meditates the destruction of the 550 
empire of the Medes and Chaldeans ; be- 
gins with the Medes; having overcome 
Astyages, king of the Medes, his uncle by 
the mother's side, he gives him the go- 
vernment of Hyrcania. 

3455 Cyrus marches against Darius the Mede, 545 
his uncle ; but first wars against the allies 

of his uncle Darius ; particularly against 
Croesus, king of Lydia. 

3456 He attempts Babylon, and takes it. 544 

3457 He sets the Jews "at liberty ; and permits 543 
their return into Judea. The first year of 

his reign over all the East. 

3458 The Jews, returning from captivity, re- 542 
new the sacrifices in the temple. 

3475 Cyrus dies, aged seventy years. Cam- 525 

byses succeeds him. 

3478 Cambyses wars in Egypt; five years. 522 

3480 He kills his brother Smerdis. 520 

3483 Cambyses dies. 517 

Darius, son of Hystaspes, otherwise 

Ahasuerus, acknowledged king of the 

Persians. 

3486 Darius allows the Jews to rebuild their 514 
Temple. 

Here, probably, end the seventy years 
of captivity foretold by Jeremiah, which 
began in the year of the world 3416. 

3487 The feast of Darius, or Ahasuerus ; he 513 
divorces Vashti. 

3488 He espouses Esther. 512 

3489 The dedication of the Temple of Jeru- 511 
salem, rebuilt by Zerubbabel. 

3495 Hainan's plot against all the Jews ends 505 
in his own destruction. 

3538 Ezra is sent to be governor of Judea, and 462 
separates the Jews from their strange 
wives. 

3559 Nehemiah sent governor to Judea. He 441 
rebuilds the walls, repeoples Jerusa'em, 
and proceeds to reform the church and 
state, whilst Ezra publishes his edition of 
the Hebrew Scriptures. 

3571 Nehemiah goes from Jerusalem to the 429 
Persian court, and comes again with a new 
commission. In the time of his adminis- 
tration Zechariah and Malachi both pro- 
phesy. 

3580 The death of Nehemiah, and the reduc- 420 
tion of Judea to the prefecture of Syria, un- 
der which it was governed by the high- 
priest. 

3672 The Samaritans obtain Alexander's 328 
permission to build a temple on Mount 
(lorizim. 

3681 Judea in the division of the kings of 319 
Syria. 

3684 Ptolemy, son of Lagus, conquers it : car- 316 
ri(-n many Jews into Egypt. 

3(190 Antigonus retakes Judea from Ptolemy. 310 

3692 Ptolemy, son of Lagus, conquers De- 308 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

metrius, son of Antigonus, near Gaza; 
becomes again master of Judea. 

Judea returns to the jurisdiction of the 
kings of Syria, the Jews pay them tribute 
some time. Judea is in subjection to the 
kings of Egypt, under the reign of Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus, if what we read con- 
cerning the version of the Septuagint be 
true. 

3727 The Septuagint version supposed to be 273 
really made about this time. 

3743 Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, begins 257 
to reign, grants to the Jews the privilege of 
free denizens throughout his dominions. 

3758 Ptolemy Euergetes makes himself mas- 242 
ter of Syria and Judea. 

The high-priest Jaddus dying in 3682, 
Onias I. succeeds him, whose successor 
is Simon the Just, in 3702. He dying in 
3711, leaves his son Onias II. a child ; his 
father's brother, Eleazar, discharges the 
office of high-priest about thirty years. 
Under the priesthood of Eleazar the ver- 
sion of the Septuagint is said to have been 
made. 

After the death of Eleazar in 3744, Ma- 
nasseh great uncle of Onias, and brother 
or Jaddus, is invested with the priesthood. 

3771 Manasseh dying this year, Onias II. pos- 229 
sesses the high-priesthood. Incurs the 
indignation of the king of Egypt, for not 
paying his tribute of twenty talents : his 
nephew Joseph gains the king's favour, and 
farms the tributes of Coelo Syria, Phenicia, 
Samaria, and Judea. 

3783 Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt, dies ; 217 
Ptolemy Philopator succeeds him. 

3785 Onias II. high-priest, dies; Simon II. 215 
succeeds him. 

3786 Antiochus the Great wars against Pto- 214 
lemy Philopator. 

3787 Ptolemy Philopator defeats Antiochus 213 
at Raphia, in Syria 

Ptolemy attempts to enter the temple 
of Jerusalem ; is hindered by the priests. 
He returns into Egypt, condemns the Jews 
in his dominions to be trod to death by 
elephants : God gives his people a miracu- 
lous deliverance. 

3800 Ptolemy Philopator dies ; Ptolemy Epi- 200 
phanes, an infant, succeeds him. 

3802 Antiochus the Great conquers Phenicia 198 
and Judea. 

3805 Simon II. high-priest, dies ; Onias III. 195 
succeeds him. 

3815 Antiochus, declaring war against the 185 
Romans, is overcome, and loses great part 
of his dominions. He preserves Syria and 
Judea. 

3817 Antiochus dies ; leaves Seleucus Philo- 183 
pator his successor. Antiochus, his other 
son, surnamea afterwards Epiphanes, at 
Rome as an hostage. 

3836 Apollonius sent into Judea by Antiochus 1 64 
Epiphanes. He demolishes the walls of 
Jerusalem, and oppresses the people. He 
builds a citadel on the mountain near the 
temple, where formerly stood the city of 
David. 

Judas Maccabeus, with nine others, re- 
tire into the wilderness. 

3837 The martyrdom of old Eleazar, at An- 163 
tioch ; of the seven brethren, Maccabees, 
and their mother. 

3838 Upon the death of Mattathias, his son, 162 
Judas Maccabeus, is made captain of the 
Jews, and vanquishes several of Anti- 
ochus's commanders, recovers Jerusalem, 
and the sanctuary, and institutes, the feast 
of the dedication. 

3810 Antiochus Epiphanes dies a miserable 160 
deatli in the East, and is succeeded by 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Year of the Year before 

World. Chrnl. 

his son, Antiochus Eupator, who, under 
the tuition of Lysias, still oppresses the 
Jews, but is still vanquished by Judas; 
as are likewise the Edomites and Am 
monites. 

3843 Upon the death of Judas, who is slain 157 
manfully fighting, Jonathan Maccabeus is 
made captain of the Jewish forces, who de- 
feats Bacchides, the general of Demetrius, 
and makes peace with him. 

3852 Demetrius, upon Alexander Balus, an 148 
impostor, pretending to the kingdom of 
Syria, makes his court to Jonathan ; but 
Jonathan takes part with Balus, who de- 
feats and slays Demetrius, and becomes 
king of Syria. 

3854 Demetrius Nicanor, eldest son to the late 146 
Demetrius Soter, by the help of Ptolemy 
Philometer, king of Egypt, regains the 
kingdom of Syria, from Alexander Balus, 
who is beheaded by the king of Arabia. 

3860 Tryphon brings young Antiochus, sur- 140 
named Theos, son of Alexander Balus, 
into Syria, and claims for him his father's 
crown ; but as he designed it for himself, 

he, to prepare his way, treacherously mur- 
ders Jonathan. 

3861 Simon Maccabeus succeeds Jonathan. 139 
Simon acknowledges Demetrius Nica- 
nor, who had been dispossessed of the 
kingdom of Syria, and obtains from him 

the entire freedom of the Jews. 
3864 Antiochus Sidetes, brother of Demetrius 136 

Nicanor, becomes king of Syria ; allows 

Simon to coin money, and confirms all the 

privileges the Syrian kings had granted to 

the Jews. 
3S66 Antiochus Sidetes quarrels with Simon, 134 

and sends Cendebeus into Palestine to 

ravage the country. 

3869 Simon killed by treachery, with two of 131 
his sons, by Ptolemy, his son-in-law, in the 
castle of Docas. 

3870 Hyrcanus, or John Hyrcanus, succeeds 130 
his father Simon. 

Antiochus Sidetes besieges Hyrcanus in 
Jerusalem . 

Hyrcanus obtains a truce of eight days, 
to celebrate the feast of tabernacles. Makes 
peace with Antiochus. 

3873 Antiochus Sidetes goes to war against 127 
the Persians ; Hyrcanus accompanies him. 
Antiochus is conquered and slain. 

3874 Hyrcanus shakes offthe yoke of the kings 126 
of Syria, sets himself at perfect liberty, and 
takes several cities from Syria. 

3875 He attacks the Idumeans, and obliges 125 
them to receive circumcision. 

3894 He besieges Samaria; takes it after a 106 
nine years' siege. 

3895 Hyrcanus dies, after a reign of twenty- 105 
nine years. 

3898 Judas, otherwise called Aristobulus, or 102 
Philellen, succeeds John Hyrcanus ; associ- 
ates his brother Antigonus with him in the 
government ; leaves his other brethren, 
and his mother in bonds. Lets his mo- 
ther starve in prison ; takes the diadem, 

and title of king. Reigns one year. 

3899 Aristobulus dies ; Alexander Janneus, 101 
his brother, succeeds him ; reigns twenty- 
six years. He attempts Ptolemais; but 
hearing that Ptolemy Lathyrus is coming 

to relieve this city, he raises the siege, and 

wastes the country. 
3002 Alexander Janneus, king of the Jews, 98 

makes an alliance with Cleopatra, and 

takes some places in Palestine. 
3906 Attacks Gaza, takes it and demolishes it. 94 
3926 Alexander Janneus dies, aged forty- 74 

nine years. 

Alexandra, otherwise Salome, or Salina, 

his queen, succeeds him ; gains the Pha- 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

risees to her party, by giving them great 
power. Reigns nine years. 
3935 Alexandra dies ; Hyrcanus, her eldest 65 
son, and brother of Aristobulus, is acknow- 
ledged king. Reigns peaceably two years. 
Battle between Hyrcanus and Aristobu- 
lus ; Hyrcanus is overcome at Jericho. 

3938 Peace concluded between the brothers, 62 
on condition that Hyrcanus should live 
private, in the enjoyment of his estate ; 

and Aristobulus be acknowledged high- 
priest and king. Thus Hyrcanus having 
reigned three years and three months, 
resigns the kingdom to Aristobulus II. 
who reigns three years and three months. 

3939 Hyrcanus, at the instigation of Antipa- 61 
ter, seeks protection from the king of the 
Arabians. 

Aretas, king of the Arabians, undertakes 
to replace Hyrcanus on the throne. 

Aristobulus is worsted, and forced to 
shut himself up in the temple of Jeru- 
salem. 

3940 Pompey comes to Damascus, and orders 60 
Aristobulus and Hyrcanus to appear before 
him. Hears the cause of the two brothers, 

and advises them to live in good under- 
standing with each other. 

3941 Aristobulus withdraws into Jerusalem, 59 
and maintains the city against Pompey, 
who besieges it. The city and temple ta • 
ken. Aristobulus taken prisoner. Hyrca- 
nus made high-priest and prince of the 
Jews ; but not allowed to wear the diadem. 
Judea reduced to its ancient limits, and 
obliged topay tribute to the Romans. 

END OF THE KINGDOM OF SYRIA. 

3955 Julius Caesar, making himself master 45 
of Rome, sets Aristobulus at liberty, and 
sends him with two legions into Syria. 

Those of Pompey's party poison Aris- 
tobulus. 

3957 Antipater obtains for his son Phazael, 43 
the government of Judea, and that of 
Galilee for his son Herod, who, being sum- 
moned by the Sanhedrim, and in danger 
of being condemned, retires in great rage 
to his government. 

3961 Herod causes Malichus to be killed, to 39 
revenge the death of his father, Anti- 
pater. 

3963 Mark Antony coming into Bithynia, 37 
some Jews resort to him, and accuse He- 
rod and Phazael before him ; but Herod 
coming thither, wins the affections of 
Antony. 

3964 Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, prevails 36 
with the Parthians to place him on the 
throne of Judea. The Parthians seize 
Hyrcanus and Phazael, and deliver them 

up to Antigonus. 
3967 After several fights, Herod marches 33 
against Jerusalem : the city is taken : 
Antigonus surrenders himself to Sosius, 
who insults him. 

Antigonus carried prisoner to Antony 
at Antioch, who orders him to be be- 
headed. End of the reign of the Asmo- 
neans, after 126 years. Auaneel, high- 
priest, the first time. 

3969 Alexandra, mother of Mariamne and 31 
Aristobulus, obtains of Herod, that Aris- 
tobulus might be made high- priest. 

3970 Herod causes Aristobulus to be 30 
drowned, after he had been high-priest 

one year. 

Herod is sent for by Antony to jus- 
tify himself concerning the murder of 
Aristobulus. 

War between Augustus and Mark 
Antony. 

Herod sides with Antonv. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Year of the Year before 

World. Chrtit 

3973 The battle of Actium : Augustus ob- 27 

tains the victory over Antony. 
3074 He goes to Rome to make his court to 2(> 

Augustus : obtains the confirmation of 

the kingdom of Judea. 
397G Herod puts to death his wife Mari- 24 

amne, the daughter of Alexandra. 
3982 Herod undertakes several buildings, IS 

contrary to the religion of the Jews. 

Builds Caesarea of Palestine. 
39S5 Herod undertakes to rebuild the tern- 15 

pie of Jerusalem. 

3999 Annunciation of the incarnation of ] 
the Son of God, to the Virgin Mary. He- o c^ 
rod condemns and slays his two sons, ^ . 
Alexander and Aristobulus. Birth of ^ ^ 
John the Baptist, six months before the ° ^ 
birth of Jesus. fcn . 

4000 The birth of our Lord and Saviour 1 4 
Jesus Christ, the fourth year before A.D. 

4001 The circumcision of Jesus Christ. Anti- 3 
pater returns from Rome. Is accused and 
convicted of a design to poison Herod. 

Wise men come to worship Jesus 
Christ. Flight into Egypt. 

Massacre of the innocents at Bethle- 
hem. Antipater put to death by order of 
Herod. 

Herod dies, five days after Antipater. 

Archelaus appointed king of Judea, by 
the will of Herod. 

4002 Return of Jesus Christ out of Egypt. 2 3 
Archelaus obtains a part of his father's 
dominions, with the title of tetrarch. 

4004 The Vulgar Era, or Anno Domini: the V. E. 
fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of or 
which has but eight days. A. D. 

4009 Archelaus banished to Vienne in Gaul. 9 6 
4012 Jesus Christ, at twelve years of age, 12 9 
goes into the temple of Jerusalem ; con- 
tinues there three days unknown to his 
parents. 

4031 Pilate sent governor into Judea. He 31 28 
attempts to bring the Roman colours and 
ensigns into Jerusalem ; but is opposed 

by the Jews. 

4032 John the Baptist begins to preach. 32 29 

4033 Jesus Christ baptized by John the 33 30 
Baptist. 

Jesus goes into the desert. 

After forty days, Jesus returns to 
John. He calls Andrew, Simon, Philip, 
and Nathanael. 

The marriage of Cana, where Jesus 
changes water into wine. 

Jesus comes to Capernaum ; thence to 
Jerusalem, where he celebrates the first 
passover. 

Nicodemus cornes to Jesus by night. 
Herod Antipas marries Herodias, his 
I. rot her Philip's wife ; he being yet alive. 

John the Baptist declares vehemently 
against this marriage ; he is put in prison. 

Jesus withdraws into Galilee ; con- 
verts the Samaritan woman, and several 
Samaritans. 

Preaches at Nazareth, and leaves this 
city, to dwell in Capernaum. 

og of Simon, Andrew, James, and 
John. 

Jesus works several miracles. 

Matthew called. 

4034 The second passover of our Saviour's ."<1 31 
public ministry. 

Our Saviour's Sermon on the Mount. 
John the Baptist, In prison, send-, 
putation to Jesus Christ, to inquire bfhi 

was the Messiah. 

4036 Mission of the Apostles, into several 35 32 

pails of Judea. 

John the Baptist slain, by the order of 

Herod, at the Instigation of Herodias, in 

the 17th year of Tiberius. 



Year of the Year before 

WotM. Christ. 

Jesus Christ's third passover 
Transfiguration of Jesus Christ 
Mission of the seventy-two disciples 
Jesus goes to Jerusalem at the feast 
of Pentecost. 

His relations would have him go to the 
feast of tabernacles : he tells them his 
hour is not yet come ; however, he goes 
thither, about the middle of the feast. 

4036 Lazarus falls sick and dies: Jesus 36 33 
comes from beyond Jordan, and raises 

him to life again. 

Jesus comes to Jerusalem, to be pre- 
sent at his last passover. 

His institution of the Eucharist. His 
condemnation and crucifixion. His re- 
surrection and appearance to several. 
The admission of Matthias in the num- 
ber of the Apostles, the effusion of the 
Holy Ghost, and the first establishment 
of the Christian church. 

4037 Seven deacons chosen. 37 34 
St. Stephen martyred. 

James the Less made Bishop of Jeru- 
salem. Philip the Deacon baptizes the 
eunuch of queen Candace. 

The dispersion of the apostles from 
Jerusalem. 

4038 The conversion of St. Paul. 38 35 
Agrippa the Younger, being much 

involved in debt, in Judea, resolves on 
going to Rome. 

4040 He falls under the displeasure of Ti- 40 37 
berius, and is put into prison. 

Pilate ordered into Italy. 
Tiberius dies ; Caius Caligula succeeds. 
Agrippa set at liberty ; and promoted 
to honour. 

4041 St. Paul escapes from Damascus, by 41 38 
being let down in a basket. 

He comes to Jerusalem ; Barnabas in- 
troduceshiratothe apostles and disciples. 

He goes to Tarsus in Cilicia, his own 
country. 

Caligula gives Agrippa the tetrarchy 
of his uncle Philip ; he returns into Ju- 
dea, and passing through Alexandria, is 
ridiculed by the inhabitants. 

Pilate kills himself. 

4043 Caligula orders Petronius to place his 43 40 
statue in the temple of Jerusalem. The 

Jews obtain some delay from Petronius. 
Agrippa endeavours to divert the em- 
peror from his thoughts, at last obtains, 
as a great favour, that this statue should 
not be set up. 

4044 Caius Caligula dies; Claudius sue- 44 41 
ceeds him. Agrippa persuades him to 
accept the empire offered by the army. 
Claudius adds Judea and Samaria to 
Agrippa's dominions. 

4046 Agrippa deprives the high-priest Mat- 46 43 
thias of his priesthood ; bestows it on 
Elioneus, son of Cithrus. 

4047 Causes James the Greater to be seized ; 47 44 
and beheads him. 

Paul and Barnabas go to Jerusalem 
with the contributions of the believers 
of Antioch. 

At their return to Antioch, the church 
sends them forth to preach to the Gen- 
tiles, wherever the Holy Ghost should 
had them. 

4018 Paul and Barnabas go to Cyprus: 48 45 
the, ice to Pamphylia, Pisidia, and l,y- 
eaooia. 

At Lystra, the people prepare sacri- 
fices for tli, -mi as gods. 

(Oil Judaizing Christians enforce the law 51 48 
on the coin erted Gentiles. 

4052 The council of Jerusalem determines 52 49 
that ;i: Gentiles should not 

be obliged to the observation of the legal 
ceremonies. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



XIX 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

4052 Peter comes to Antioch, and is re- 52 49 

proved by Paul. 
4053. Paul and Barnabas part on account 53 50 
of Jobn Mark. 

Timothy adheres to Paul, and receives 
circumcision. 

Luke, at this time, with Paul. 
Paul passes out of Asia into Macedo- 
nia. 

4054 From Athens Paul goes to Corinth. 54 51 
The Jews expelled Rome under the 

reign of Claudius. 

Felix sent governor into Judea, in- 
stead of Cumanus. • 

4055 First Epistle of Paul to the Thessalo- 55 52 
nians. His Second Epistle to the Thes- 
salonians, some months after the First. 

Probably also about this time the 
Epistle to the Galatians. 

Paul leaves Corinth, after a stay of 
eighteen months ; takes ship to go to Je- 
rusalem ; visits Ephesus in his way. 

Apollos arrives at Ephesus : preaches 
Jesus Christ. 

4056 Paul, having finished his devotions 56 53 
at Jerusalem, goes to Antioch. 

4057 Paul passes into Galatia and Phrygia, 57 54 
and returns to Ephesus, where he con- 
tinued three years. 

Claudius, the emperor, dies, being poi- 
soned by Agrippina. Nero succeeds him. 
4059. The First Epistle of Paul to the Co- 59 56 
rinthians. 

Paul forced to leave Ephesus on ac- 
count of the uproar raised against him 
by Demetrius, the silversmith. 

He goes into Macedonia. 

Second Epistle to the Corinthians. 
4060 Epistle to the Romans. 60 57 

Paul goes into Judea, to carry contri- 
butions. 

Is seized in the temple of Jerusalem. 

Is sent prisoner to Caesarea. 

4063 Porcius Festus made governor of Ju- 63 60 
dea, in the room of Felix. 

Paul appeals to the emperor. He is 
put on ship-board, and sent to Rome. 
Paul shipwrecked at Melita. 

4064 He arrives at Rome, and continues 64 61 
there a prisoner two years. 

Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. 

4065 Epistle of Paul to the Philippians 65 62 
Epistle of Paul to the Colossians. 

-1066 Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews; 66 63 
written from Italy, soon after he was 
set at liberty. 
4067 Paul comes out of Italy into Judea, 67 64 
passes by Crete, Ephesus, and Macedo- 
nia. 

It is thought from Macedonia he 
writes his First Epistle to Timothy. 
Paul's Epistle to Titus. 



Year of the Year before 

World. Christ. 

Peter writes his Second Epistle, pro- 
bably, from Rome. 

Nero sets fire to the city of Rome; 
throws the blame on the Christians, se- 
veral of whom are put to death. 

4068 Paul goes to Rome the last time, is 68 65 
there put into prison ; also Peter. 

Second Epistle of Paul to Timothy. 
The martyrdom of Peter aud Paul at 
Rome. 

4069 Disturbances at Caesarea, and at Jeru- 69 66 
salem. 

Florus puts several Jews to death. 

The Jews rise, and kill the Roman 
garrison at Jerusalem. 

A massacre of the Jews of Caesarea in 
Palestine. 

Cestius, governor of Syria, comes into 
Judea. 

He besieges the temple of Jerusalem ; 
retires ; is defeated by the Jews. 

The Christians of Jerusalem, seeing 
a war about to break out, retire to Pella, 
in the kingdom of Agrippa, beyond Jor- 
dan. 

Vespasian appointed by Nero for the 
Jewish war. 

Vespasian sends his son Titus to 
Alexandria ; comes himself to Antioch, 
and forms a numerous army. 

4070 Vespasian enters Judea ; subdues Ga- 70 67 
lilee. 

Divisions in Jerusalem. 
The zealots seize the temple, and com- 
mit violences in Jerusalem. 

4071 Nero, the emperor, dies. Galba sue- 71 68 
ceeds him. 

Vespasian takes all the places of 
strength in Judea about Jerusalem. 

4072 Vespasian declared emperor by his 72 69 
army. Is acknowledged all over the East. 

4073 Titus marches against Jerusalem, to 73 7o 
besiege it. 

The factions unite at first against the 
Romans, but afterwards divide again. 

The Romans become masters of the 
court of the people ; set fire to the gal- 
leries. 

A Roman soldier sets the temple on 
fire, notwithstanding Titus commands 
the contrary. 

The Romans being now masters of the 
city and temple, offer sacrifices to their 
gods. 

The last inclosure of the city taken. 
4074 Titus demolishes the temple to its very 74 71 

foundations. 

He also demolishes the city; reserving 
the towers of Hippicos, Phazail, and 
Mariamne. 

Titus returns to Rome with his fa- 
ther Vespasian ; they triumph over Judea. 



THEOLOGICAL, BIBLICAL, 



ECCLESIASTICAL 



DICTIONARY 



AAR 



A'ARON, pnK, signifies mountain or 
mountainous, but others derive it from 
the root to teach or divine. In the former 
sense, it may refer to Aaron as the founder 
of God's holy worship, given upon Mount 
Sinai ; and in the latter, as a teacher sent 
by God. 

Aaron was of the tribe of Levi, the son 
of Amram and Jochebed, and the brother 
of Moses and Miriam. (Exod. vi. 20.) He 
was born in the year of the world 2430, 
about a year before the edict of Pharaoh, 
which enjoined the Hebrews to destroy all 
their male children, (ibid. i. 22) ; and hence 
it is evident that he was three years older 
than his brother Moses. (Ibid. vii. 7-) When 
God had revealed himself to Moses in the 
burning bush, and declared the resolution 
he had formed of delivering the Hebrews 
through his means from the oppressions of 
the Egyptians, Moses would have excused 
himself to the Deity, by pleading the dif- 
ficulty of the undertaking and his natural 
impediment of speech. God, however, 
informed him, that his brother Aaron should 
be his prophet and interpreter, and, in the 
addresses to Pharaoh, deliver what was 
necessary to be said. (Ibid. iv. 15.) At the 
same time, the Lord inspired Aaron with a 
design of meeting Moses, who departed 
from the country of Midian, in order to 
return into Egypt. Aaron, therefore, ad- 
vanced as far as Mount Horeb, where 
Moses acquainted him with the commission 
he had received from God. Aaron ex- 
pressed great joy at this information, and 
promised to obey the divine will in all 
things. They then continued their journey 
together into Egypt, where they arrived in 
the year of the world 2513, and before 
Christ 1491. On their arrival they as- 
sembled the elders of Israel, and imparted 
to them the joyful news of their speedy 
deliverance. They also presented them- 
selves before Pharaoh, declared to him the 



orders they had received, and, in con- 
formity with the commission delivered to 
them by God, performed miracles in the 
presence of the king. However, the heart 
of Pharaoh being hardened, he commanded 
them to return to their tasks ; and not 
content with oppressing the Hebrews as 
before, he ordered his officers not to supply 
them with straw, whilst he employed them 
in making bricks. The distressed Israelites, 
overwhelmed with despair, inveighed bit- 
terly against Moses and Aaron, whom 
they accused as the authors of this addition 
to their misery. God, however, assured 
Moses and Aaron, that he would remove 
the oppression of the Egyptians, and over- 
come the obstinacy of Pharaoh, by such 
a multitude of plagues and prodigies, as 
would induce him to dismiss the He- 
brews. This, in effect, he accomplished. 
See Moses. 

During the march of the children of Is- 
rael through the wilderness, Aaron and his 
sons were appointed by God to exercise 
for ever the office of priests in the taber- 
nacle. (Ibid. xxix. 9.) In point of dignity, 
Aaron was considered as next to Moses, 
(ibid. xix. 24). Previously, however, to 
this event, when the Amalekites attacked 
the Hebrews, Moses ascended to the top of 
a high hill, with Aaron and Hur in his 
company ; and whilst Joshua was engaging 
the enemy in the plain, Moses held up his 
hands in prayer, and Aaron and Hur sup- 
ported them. (Ibid. xvii. 10, &c.) 

Moses having ascended Mount Sinai, to 
receive the law of God, after the Lord 
had ratified the covenant made with Israel, 
Aaron, his sons and seventy elders, fol- 
lowed him, though not to the top of the 
mountain. (Ibid. xxiv. 1, 2, and 9 — 11.) 
There, without receiving any hurt, they 
saw where the Lord was present with 
Moses. Whilst Moses was absent upon the 
mount, he appointed Aaron and Hur to be 
B 



AAR 



AAR 



the rulers of the people ; but as the ab- 
sence of Moses continued forty days, and 
was longer than had been expected, the 
people became impatient, and addressed 
themselves to Aaron in a tumultuous 
manner. " Make us," said they, " gods 
which shall go before us ; for as for this 
Moses, the man that brought us up out of 
the land of Egypt, we wot not what is be- 
come of him." Aaron, in all probability, 
perplexed by the resolute importunities of 
the people, ordered them to bring their 
pendants and the ear-rings of their wives 
and children. These being melted down, 
were formed into a golden calf. When this 
idol was finished, the people placed it upon 
a pedestal, and danced around it, saying, 
" These be thy gods, O Israel, which brought 
thee up out of the land of Egypt." 

Moses, being informed by God of the sin 
which the Israelites had committed, imme- 
diately descended from the mount, carrying 
in his arms the tables of the law, engraven 
by the Almighty himself. When he came 
near the camp, and observed what was 
passing there, he threw the tables on the 
ground ; and broke them, and at the same 
time reproached the people with their 
transgression, and Aaron with his weak- 
ness. In the greatest confusion, Aaron 
attempted to excuse himself, by imputing 
the blame to the wickedness of the people, 
and by a pretence that he only cast the 
ear-rings into the fire, and that the golden 
calf had been formed of them by mere 
chance. (Ibid, xxxii. 1, etseq.) Aaron, how- 
ever, afterwards acknowledged his fault, 
for which he humbled himself, and God 
was pleased to continue him in the priest- 
hood. 

After the tabernacle was built, Moses 
consecrated Aaron with the holy oil, and in- 
vested him with the sacred ornaments. 

About the year of the world 2514, Aaron 
and his sister Miriam, observing the great 
power which Moses possessed over the 
people, began to envy him ; but to afford 
some plausible pretext for their quarrel, 
they alleged that the cause of his offence, 
was his marrying Zipporah, an Ethiopian, 
or rather a Midianite, a Cushite (Numb, 
xii. 1, et seq.). For this conduct Miriam 
was immediately struck with a leprosy, 
and her punishment operating on the mind 
of Aaron, he acknowledged his fault, and 
asked the forgiveness of Moses, both for 
himself and his sister. See Miriam. 

Some time after this, Korah, Dathan 
and Abiram, rebelled against Moses and 
Aaron. Korah being of the tribe of Levi, 
pretended that the office of high-priest 
belonged to him as much as to Aaron. He 
was supported in his pretensions by Dathan 
and Abiram, who were both of the tribe of 
Judah, and desirous of participating with 
Moses in the sovereign authority and go- 
vernment of the people. God discovered 
2 



his indignation against these rebels in a 
remarkable manner : the earth opened and 
swallowed them up with others of their ad- 
herents ; and immediately after, a devour- 
ing flame of fire issued forth from the 
tabernacle, and consumed two hundred and 
fifty Levites, the accomplices of Korah, 
who insolently attempted, of their own 
accord, to burn incense to the Lord. The 
next day, the Israelites murmuring against 
Moses and Aaron, the Almighty sent 
among them a plague, which seized upon 
the camp, and destroyed part of the people. 
Aaron, however, taking his censer, ran 
and placed himself between the dead and 
the living, and the plague was stayed. 
(Numb, xvi.) God also wrought another 
miracle to secure the priesthood to Aaron. 
Moses having taken twelve rods from the 
princes of the twelve tribes, and Aaron's 
separately, he placed them in the taber- 
nacle before the sanctuary, after writing 
upon each the name of the tribe to which 
it belonged, and upon the rod of Aaron, the 
name of that high-priest. The next day, 
when they were viewed, Aaron's rod, which 
was made of an Almond-tree, appeared to 
be covered with leaves, and in full blossom : 
but the rest were in the same condition in 
which they were the day before. This rod 
was therefore placed within the most holy 
place, to perpetuate the remembrance of the 
miracle (ibid. xvii.). 

Aaron married Elisheba, the daughter of 
Aminadab, of the tribe of Judah, and by her 
had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and 
Ithamar. (Exod. vi. 23.) The first two 
were killed by fire from heaven, as a punish- 
ment for presuming to offer incense with 
strange fire in their censers. (Levit. x. 1,2). 
From the other two the race of the high 
priests was continued in Israel. 

Aaron and Moses not sufficiently ex- 
pressing their confidence in God, when he 
commanded them to strike the rock at 
Kadesh, (Numb. xx. 8—11.) the Lord, in 
his wrath, declared to them, that they 
should not enter the promised land. Soon 
after, God ordered Aaron to ascend mount 
Hor, at the foot of which the Israelites 
were encamped, and where he should be 
gathered to his fathers. As soon, therefore, 
as Aaron had arrived upon the mount, he 
stripped himself of his pontifical ornaments 
in the sight of all the people, and put them 
on Eleazar his son and successor in the 
priesthood. This being performed, he died 
in the arms of his brother and Eleazar his 
son, in the year of the world 2552, at the 
age of one hundred and twenty-three years, 
and was buried by Moses and his son 
in a cave of Mount Hor. All Israel 
mourned for him thirty days. (Numb. xx. 24, 
et seq.) 

The Hebrews observe the death of Aaron, 
and they fast on this occasion, on the first 
day of the fifth mouth, which they call Ab, 



AAR 



AAR 



and which, if we suppose the year to begin 
at Easter, pretty nearly corresponds with 
our July, O. S. The sepulchre of Aaron 
has hitherto remained unknown. In one 
place (Deut. x. 6), the scripture tells us, 
that Aaron died at Mosera, and in other 
places (Numb, xxxiii. 38, and Deut. xxxii. 
50), that he died upon Mount Hor; the 
reason of which probably is, that Mount 
Hor was near the encampment at Mosera. 
Dr. Wells, however, thinks, that the He- 
brew text in Deut. x. 6, 7- has been cor- 
rupted by the ignorance or negligence of 
transcribers. He proposes, therefore, to 
restore the true reading from the Hebrew, 
Samaritan, and Penrateuch, which says, 
that the Israelites, after encamping in the 
desert of Zin, which is Kadesh, journeyed 
thence, and pitched in Mount Hor, where 
Aaron died and was buried. The place of 
Aaron's interment was kept a secret from 
the Israelites, that, in after ages, they might 
not pay to him any superstitious worship, 
or that the Arabians, in the midst of whom 
the Hebrews were at that time, might not, 
upon their departure, violate the sanctity 
of his grave. 

Lin reviewing the life of Aaron, we may 
observe, that he at once appears as an 
assistant, and is so far inferior to his bro- 
ther Moses. Aaron, however, possessed 
some advantages, which seem to have en- 
titled him to prior consideration. He was 
the elder brother, an eloquent speaker, and 
favoured with divine inspiration. No cause 
is assigned why he was not preferred to 
Moses, in respect to authority; and, there- 
fore, no other cause can now be assigned, 
than the good pleasure of God. 

II. Among the most confirming signs 
given by God to Moses, must be reckoned 
the interview with his brother Aaron, at 
Mount Horeb. This being predicted by 
God, and directly happening, was very 
convincing to Moses. It is probable, also, 
that Aaron would not have undertaken a 
journey of two months, from Egypt to 
Mount Sinai, at great hazard and expense, 
unless he had been well assured of the au- 
thority which sent him. At the same time, 
he could not have expected to find Moses 
where he did find him, unless by divine 
direction, since the place, afterwards called 
the Mount of God, was then undistin- 
guished and unfrequented. Aaron, there- 
fore, was a sign to Moses, by meeting him 
there, and Moses was a sign to Aaron. 
Without doubt, Aaron informed Moses of 
the events in Egypt, the death of the former 
Pharaoh, &c. 

III. It may be reasonably supposed, that 
though Moses and Aaron had no pretension 
to sovereign authority by descent, yet they 
were of consideration by their property, 
their office, or some other means. Had 
Aaron not been above the lower class of 
people, who were kept to their daily bond- 

o 



age, he could ill have spared time and cost 
for a journey to Horeb. It seems altogether 
probable, that Aaron was a governor over 
the Israelites while building the pyramids. 
Moses and Aaron appear to be acknow- 
ledged by Pharaoh himself, and evidently 
by many of his servants, as persons of great 
consideration, and as the proper agents for 
transacting business, remonstrating, &c. 
between the Israelites and the king. Aaron 
performed the miracles before Pharaoh, 
without any recorded wonder expressed by 
the king of Egypt, how a person kept to 
his daily labour, could acquire such skill, 
eloquence, &c. Had Moses and Aaron been 
merely private persons, Pharaoh w T ould 
probably have punished them for their im- 
pertinence. 

IV. The crime of which Aaron was guilty, 
whilst Moses was in the mount receiving 
the law, is not to be palliated; though, 
perhaps, it was not so gross as is usually 
represented. See Calf. 

If the faith or patience of Aaron were 
exhausted, and if he also supposed that 
Moses was dead, no collusion between 
them could exist. If he had expected 
the speedy return of Moses, he durst not 
have acted as he did. If he had received 
any late information respecting Moses, he 
would not have ventured on what he knew 
would be punished. The activity of Aaron 
in building the calf, and his subsequent sub- 
mission to Moses, are utterly inexplicable, 
had not a divine conviction been employed 
on this occasion. Aaron, though blameably 
active, seems more to have suffered and 
tolerated, than to have promoted the evil. 
The expression is remarkable : ' The Lord 
plagued the people because they made the 
calf, which Aaron made.' (Exod. xxxii. 35.) 

V. The sedition of Aaron and Miriam 
against Moses affords another argument 
against the supposition of any collusion 
between the two brothers. At first, indeed, 
Aaron assumes a high tone, and pretends 
to no less gifts than his brother ; but after- 
wards he confesses his folly, and, with 
Miriam, submits. Aaron was not visited 
with the leprosy ; but he could well judge 
of its reality on his sister. It belonged to 
him to exclude her from the camp during 
seven days; and from his expression of 
'flesh half consumed,' it appears that this 
was a very inveterate kind of the disease, 
and, therefore, the more remarkable. 
Aaron's affection, interest, and passion, all 
concurred to harden him against any thing 
less than a full conviction of the divine in- 
terposition. He well knew, that it was 
not in the personal power of Moses to 
inflict this disease, in so sudden a manner. 
See Priest, Moses, Calf, Pyramids, 
Egypt. 

VI. The departure of Aaron for death* 
is singular and very impressive. Wo st .in 
to view this feeble old man ascending the 

B 2 



AAR 



ABA 



mountain to a convenient height, where lie 
transferred the insignia of his office to his 
son, and then proceeding beyond the sight 
of the people, and giving up the ghost with 
that faith, resignation, and meekness, which 
became one, who had been honoured with 
the Holy Spirit, and with the typical repre- 
sentation of the great High-priest of the 
human race. 

VII. In the general character of Aaron, 
is much of the meekness of his brother 
Moses. He seems willing to serve his bre- 
thren, and is too easily persuaded against 
his own judgment. This appears, when 
the people excited him to make the golden 
calf, and when Miriam urged him to rival 
his brother. It would, indeed, seem, that 
Miriam was the chief promoter of the se- 
dition, as well from her dislike to a foreign 
woman, as from her being named in it 
before Aaron, and from the disease, with 
which she was afflicted. Aaron was less 
punished, because less guilty, and because 
he sympathized with his sister, as well as 
on account of the importance of his priestly 
office. 

VIII. On the whole, it seems probable, 
that we may add to the express history of 
Aaron the following particulars: 1. Aaron 
was in authority before the return of Mo- 
ses into Egypt. 2. A part, at least, of his 
authority consisted in overseeing the Israel- 
ites at work on Pharaoh's buildings ; 
though it does not appear, that he was one 
of the officers that were beaten, because it 
was not his turn to be at work. 3. He 
greatly assisted in ordering the people at 
their departure from Egypt, and was per- 
haps general inspector, or perhaps trea- 
surer to the caravan. 4. He was a good 
writer, as well as an eloquent speaker. 5. 
He had his particular department in the 
camp, beyond which his authority scarcely, 
if at all, extended. 6. Though he received 
the ear-rings from the people, yet, whether 
the calf was made by his own hands, or 
under his express directions, may be doubt- 
ed from the order of the narration. 

IX. When we consider the talents of 
Aaron, his natural eloquence, his pro- 
bable acquirements, that God often spoke 
to him as well as to Moses, and that Egyp- 
tian priests were scribes as a duty of their 
profession, it seems very likely, that he as- 
sisted his brother in writing some parts of 
the books, now called the books of Moses ; 
that, at least, he also kept journals of public 
transactions, and perhaps transcribed the 
orders of Moses, especially those relating to 
the priest's office. 

This accounts for the difference of style 
observable in these books, and for such 
smaller variations in dilferent places as na- 
turally arise from two persons recording 
the same facts, without Lessening in any 
degree, the authority, the antiquity, or the 
real value of these books. It accounts also 



for the third person being used when 
speaking of Moses, and perhaps for some 
of the praise and commendation bestowed 
on Moses, where Aaron seems chiefly in 
fault. In Deuteronomy, Moses uses the 
pronouns, I and me, ' I said,' the Lord 
said ' to me,' which seldom or never occur 
in the former books. — Additions to Calmet's 
Dictionary. 

AB, according to the Jewish computation, 
the eleventh month of the civil, and the 
fifth of the ecclesiastical year. It answers 
to the moon of July, and contained thirty 
days. On the first day of this month, the 
Jews observe a fast, in memory of the death 
of Aaron; and on the ninth another, in 
commemoration of the burning of Solomon's 
Temple on that day by the Chaldaeans, and 
of the second temple by the Romans. The 
Jews believe, that on this day, the persons, 
who had been sent to view the land of 
Canaan, returned to the camp, and excited 
the people to rebel. They also fast on this 
day, in memory of the emperor Adrian's 
edict, which forbade them to continue in 
Judea, or even to lament the ruin of Jeru- 
salem. Lastly, they fast on the eighteenth, 
because in the time of Ahaz, the lamp in 
the sanctuary was extinguished in that night. 

AB'ANA, ronx, signifies made of stone 
or a building, and is a river of Damascus, 
mentioned by Naaman, the king of Syria's 
general, in the following terms : " Are not 
Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, 
better than all the rivers of Israel?" (2 Kings 
v. 12.) Calmet is of opinion that this ri- 
ver is the same as the Barrady or Chry- 
sorrhoas, which, according to Maundrell, 
derives its source from the foot of Mount 
Lebanus towards the east, and flowing 
through and about Damascus, continues its 
course till its waters are lost in the wilder- 
ness, at the distance of about four or five 
leagues from that city. Radziville, however, 
informs us, that the rivers Abana and Phar- 
par watered the city of Damascus, and that 
at the time he visited that country they 
were unnavigable, and well stocked with 
fish. On the other hand, Thevenot, who 
was a curious and minute observer of every 
thing in the neighbourhood of Damascus, 
never mentions the rivers Abana and Phar- 
par, but informs us of three rivers, which 
water Damascus, and which unite their 
streams a little below that city. The best 
Arabian geographers, also, do not once 
mention the names of Abana and Pharpar. 
Abulfeda relates, that the stream which sup- 
plies Damascus, issues from a cavern on the 
west side of the city, and immediately di- 
vides ; and this account corresponds so ex- 
actly with Maundrell's description, that they 
sufficiently confirm each other. It is, there- 
fore, generally supposed that Abana and 
Pharpar were only branches of the river 
Barrady, or as it was more anciently called, 
Chrysorrhoas. — Universal History, vol. ii 






ABA 



ABB 



Benjamin ofTudela thinks that part of 
the Barrady, which runs through Damascus, 
to be Abana. 

AB'ARIM, p"*i3jr, signifies passages or 
passengers, or furies, and was the name of 
certain mountains beyond Jordan (Numb, 
xxvii. 12), which reached far into the coun- 
try of the Moabites, and of the tribe of 
Reuben, on each side of the river Arnon. 
It is probable that they derived their name 
from the abarim, or passages, between the 
hills, of which they were formed, and which 
consisted of the mountains Nebo, Pisgah, 
Peor, &c. Near these mountains the Israel- 
ites had several encampments. (Numb, xxiii. 
14—28.) 

AB'BA, NIK, in the Syriac as well as 
in the Hebrew language, signifies father, 
and is expressive of love and confidence. 
St. Paul says, " We have received the spirit 
of adoption, whereby we cry, Abba, Fa- 
ther." (Rom. viii. 15.) Jesus Christ pray- 
ing in the garden, says, "Abba, Father, all 
things are possible unto thee." (Mark xiv. 
36.) 

Abba is more particularly used in the 
Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, as a 
title given to the bishops. By the bishops 
themselves, the title of Abba is bestowed 
more eminently on the bishop of Alexan- 
dria; and this induced the people to give 
him the denomination of Baba, or Papa, 
which signifies grandfather, and which is a 
title that was borne by him long before it 
was bestowed on the bishop of Rome. 

Abba is a Jewish title of honour, which 
was given to certain Rabbins called Ta- 
naites. It is also used by some writers of 
the middle age to designate the superior of 
a monastery. 

St. Mark and St. Paul use this word in 
their Greek (Mark xiv. 36 ; Rom. viii. 15 ; 
Galat. iv. 6), because it was then commonly 
known in the synagogues, and the primitive 
assemblies of the Christians. Selden, Wit- 
sius, Doddridge, Whitby, and others, are 
of opinion, that St. Paul alluded to a law, 
which existed among the Jews, and which 
forbade servants or slaves to call their 
master Abba, or Father ; and that the 
apostle intended to convey the idea, that 
those who believed in Christ, were no longer 
slaves to sin, but being brought into a state 
of holy freedom, they might consequently 
address God as their father. 

A'BBESS, the superior of an abbey or 
convent of nuns. The abbess possesses the 
same rights and authority over her nuns, 
which the abbots regularly exercise over 
their monks. She is not, indeed, allowed 
to perform the spiritual functions annexed 
to the priesthood, with which the abbot is 
usually invested ; but there are instances of 
some abbesses, who have a right, or rather 
a privilege, of commissioning a priest to act 
fur them. They possess even a kind of epis- 
copal jurisdiction, as well as some abbots 



who are exempted from the visitation of 
their diocesan. 

ABBEY, a monastery, governed by a 
superior under the title of abbot or abbess. 
At first monasteries were only religious 
houses, to which persons retired from the 
noise and bustle of the world, that they 
might spend their time in solitude and de- 
votion. However, these religious houses 
soon degenerated from their original insti- 
tution, and procured great privileges, ex- 
emptions and opulence. Before the refor- 
mation, they prevailed very much in Great 
Britain, particularly in England. In pro- 
portion as they increased in riches, the state 
became poor ; for the lands, which these 
regulars possessed, could never revert to the 
lords who bestowed them. These places 
were entirely abolished by Henry VIII. He 
first appointed visitors to inspect the lives 
of the monks and nuns, which were found 
in some places very disorderly. The abbots 
perceiving the dissolution of their houses 
unavoidable, were induced to resign them 
to the king, who, by that means, became 
possessed of the abbey lands. These lands 
were afterwards granted to different persons, 
whose descendants enjoy them at this day. 
The clear yearly revenue of the several r e- 
ligious houses, at the time of their dissolu- 
tion, w T as estimated at 2,853,000/. an im- 
mense sum in those days. In some respects, 
these religious institutions were useful, in 
others extremely pernicious. Abbeys were 
then the repositories, as well as the semi- 
naries of learning. Many valuable books 
and national records have been preserved 
in their libraries ; the only places in which 
they could have been safely lodged in those 
turbulent times. Indeed, the historians of 
this country are chiefly indebted to the 
monks for the knowledge they possess of 
former national events. In these houses 
the arts of painting, architecture, and print- 
ing, were cultivated. Every house of this 
kind, had at least one person whose office 
it was to instruct youth. Abbeys were also 
hospitals for the sick and poor, and afforded 
entertainment to travellers, at a time when 
there were no inns. See Monastery. 

ABBOT, or Abbat, the chief ruler of a 
monastery or abbey. The governors of the 
primitive monasteries were distinguished 
from the clergy, though frequently con- 
founded with them, because a degree above 
laymen. In those early times, the abbots 
were subject to the bishops and the ordi- 
nary pastors. Their monasteries being re- 
mote from cities and built in the farthest 
solitudes, they had no share in ecclesiastical 
affairs ; but having among them several per- 
sons of learning, they opposed the rising 
heresies of those times. This induced the 
bishops to call them out of those deserts 
and fix them in the suburbs of cities, and 
at length in the cities themselves. From 
that tune the abbots degenerated, and learn- 



ABE 



ABE 



ing to be ambitious, assumed the rank of 
prelates, and aspired at independence. They 
aimed at so much power, that some severe 
laws were enacted against them at the coun- 
cil of Chalcedon. However, many of them 
carried their point, obtained the appellation 
of lord, and were distinguished by other 
badges of the episcopate, particularly the 
mitre. 

Hence arose new distinctions among the 
abbots. Those were termed mitred abbots, 
who were privileged to wear the mitre, and 
exercise episcopal authority within their re- 
spective precincts, being exempted from the 
jurisdiction of the bishop. Some were 
called cr osier ed abbots, from their bearing 
the crosier or pastoral staff. Some were 
styled oecumenical or universal abbots, in 
imitation of the patriarch of Constantino- 
ple ; while others were termed cardinal ab- 
bots, from their superiority over all other 
abbots. In Britain, the mitred abbots were 
lords of parliament, and called abbots sove- 
reign and abbots general, to distinguish 
them from other abbots. In Roman Catho- 
lic countries, the principal distinctions are 
those of regular and commendatory. The 
former take the vow, and wear the habit 
of their order ; but the latter are seculars, 
though obliged by their bulls to enter into 
orders, when of a proper age. 

ABED'NEGO, way, Aubednegoo, or 
Obednegoo, denotes servant of light, or ser- 
vant of Nago, or Nego, which signifies the 
sun, or morning star, so called from its 
brightness, or which was supposed to be 
a deity of the Babylonians. It is the 
Chaldee name given by the king of Babylon 
to Azariah, the companion of Daniel. (Dan. 
i. 7-) Abednego, with his two companions, 
Shadrach and Meshach, was thrown into 
the fiery furnace at Babylon, because he 
refused to worship the statue erected by the 
command of Nebuchadnezzar. But the con- 
demnation of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed- 
nego, finally redounded to the glory of God ; 
for the Almighty did not suffer them to be 
injured by the flames, but sent his angel 
into the midst of the fire to preserve them 
in the furnace. (Dan. iii.) 

A'BEL, bin, or Hebel, signifies vanity, 
breath, or vapour, and is the name given to 
the second son of Adam and Eve. He was 
born in the second year of the world, and 
before Jesus Christ 4002. Some are of 
opinion that be and Cain were twins ; some, 
that Abel was the younger ; some, that he 
was born fifteen years after Cain ; and others 
that an interval of thirty years took place 
between tbe birth of these two brothers. 
Some eastern writers say, that Avina, his 
sister, who is also called Delbora, Decla, or 
Edocta, was born at the same time with 
Abel. Cain and Abel, instructed by their 
father Adam, in their duty to the Creator, ■ 
offered to God the firsl fruits of their la- 
bours, Cain, as an husbandman, of his com ; 
6 



and Abel, as shepherd, of the firstlings of 
his flock, and the fat thereof, as it is ren- 
dered in our translation of the Bible. (Gen. 
iv. 4.) The offering of Abel is by some sup- 
posed to have been the paschal lamb ; but 
Le Clerc thinks that it was milk, though his 
opinion is ably controverted by others. God 
was pleased to shew, either by fire sent 
from heaven, which consumed the sacrifice, 
or by some other means, that the offerings 
of Abel were agreeable to hirn, whilst those 
of Cain were otherwise. Cain perceiving 
this distinction became melancholy, and, lis- 
tening to the suggestions of envy, formed 
the design of killing his brother ; and hav- 
ing invited Abel to go with him into the 
field, he there murdered him. (Id. ibid. 8, 9.) 

It should be remarked, that in our trans- 
lation of the Bible, no mention is made of 
Cain inviting his brother into the field ; but 
in the Samaritan text, and in the principal 
ancient versions, the words are express. In 
some Hebrew copies is a kind of chasm, as 
' and Cain said unto Abel his brother,' — ' and 
it came to pass, &c.' without inserting what 
he said to his brother. 

As the scripture does not specify either 
the manner of the murder, or the instru- 
ment, with which it was perpetrated, expo- 
sitors are much divided respecting these 
particulars. Certain, however, it is, that 
the blood of the innocent person crying to 
heaven, the Lord demanded Abel at the 
hand of Cain, his brother, whom he pu- 
nished. See Cain. 

Jerome tells us, that a tradition prevailed 
among the Jews, that Abel was murdered 
in the plain of Damascus ; and near a vil- 
lage called Sinie, travellers are shewn a 
tomb, which is said to be that of Abel, and 
from which the adjacent country is sup- 
posed to have received the ancient name of 
Abilene. This tomb is thirty yards in 
length ; Josephus is of opinion, that Cain 
buried Abel in it to prevent a discovery of 
the murder. Maundrell's Journey. 

It is asserted in a Hebrew book, intituled 
Cozri, that the foundation of the quarrel be- 
tween Cain and Abel proceeded from Cain's 
desiring to possess Palestine, exclusively of 
his brother Abel. 

St. Paul in commendation of Abel, tells 
us, that by faith he offered unto God a more 
excellent sacrifice than Cain ; that he was 
declared righteous, God himself having tes- 
tified that he accepted his gift, and that by 
reason of his faith, his blood still speaketh 
even after his death (Heb. xi. 4.) The 
same apostle compares the voice of Abel's 
blood to that of Jesus Christ (ibid. xii. 24); 
and our Saviour himself, in the gospel, dis- 
tinguishes him by the name of righteous, 
and places him at the head of those saints, 
who had been persecuted for righteousness' 
sake. (Matth. xxiii. 35; Luke xi. 51.) 

It has been asked, why had Almighty 
God respect to the offering of Abel, and not 



ABE 



ABE 



to that of Cain ? The reason appears plainly 
this, that Cain offered only of the fruit of 
the ground, which had no respect to Christ, 
and only to God as the creator of the world ; 
but Abel offered the firstlings of his flock, 
and the fat thereof, which was a bloody 
sacrifice, typifying the death of Christ, " the 
Lamb slain from the beginning of the world;" 
and thus exercised his faith in the promised 
Messiah. Hence the apostle says, " By 
faith Abel offered unto God a more excel- 
lent sacrifice than Cain." (Heb. xi. 4.) By 
faith, that is. by believing the promise, which 
God had made to mankind in Christ ; and 
he manifested his faith by offering such a 
sacrifice, as represented the death of Christ, 
by whom therefore his sacrifice was well 
pleasing and acceptable to God. It is not 
improbable (^and it seems to be suggested 
in the history itself) that there was a main 
difference in this, that Cain offered the vile 
and refuse, and Abel the most precious part 
of his treasures. Thus it is said of the 
one, that he M brought (barely) of the fruit 
of the ground;" and of the other, that he 
" brought of the firstlings of his flock, and 
of the fat thereof." If this were truly the 
case, the sacrifice of Abel was therefore more 
acceptable than Cain's, because it expressed 
a more grateful sense of the divine good- 
ness. To this may be added, that probably 
the general course of Cain's life was vicious 
and immoral; and the very offering up of 
his sacrifice was not attended with that de- 
votion, which was necessary. Bishop Beve- 
ridge, Bishop Conybeare, Xe. 

A'BEL, bnx, denotes mourning, and was 
the name of a city, which was afso denomi- 
nated, AbeVoeth-liriacha, or Abel-Maim. Ac- 
cording to some, it was situated in Syria, to 
the north of Damascus, between Libanus, 
and Antilibanus. Dr. Wells, however, sup- 
poses it to have been situated in the north 
part of the land of Israel, in the tribe of 
Naphtali, and this supposition seems best 
founded. Sheba, the son of Bichri, when 
pursued by the troops of king David, fled 
to this city; and the inhabitants, that they 
might free themselves from the siege of 
Joab, cut off Sheba's head, and threw it over 
the wall. (2 Sam. xx. 14 — 18.) About eighty 
years after, it was taken and ravaged by 
Benhadad, king- of Syria (1 Kings xv. 20.) 
About two hundred years after this event, 
it was taken by Tiglath-pileser, who reduced 
the inhabitants to captivity, and carried 
them into Assyria. (2 King's xv. 29.) It 
was afterwards rebuilt, and, according to 
some, became the capital of the country of 
Abilene. 

ABELIANS, Abclins, Abelites, or Abelo- 
nitcs ; a sect of heretics mentioned by St. 
Austin, which arose in the diocese of Hippo 
in Africa. Though Moses never mentions 
Abel's posterity, yet some explain what is 
said respecting the blood of Abel crying unto 
God from the ground (Gen. iv. 19.),"as meant 
7 



of the posterity of this righteous person : 
but others are of opinion, that he alwavs 
continued in a state of celibacy. — This latter 
conjecture gave rise to the Abelians, who 
condemned marriages, not as if this state 
of life was in itself blameable, for they 
themselves were married : but they enjoined 
continence, and abstained from that conver- 
sation with their wives, which was allowable. 
They said, they would not be the means of 
bringing unhappy creatures into the world, 
to be polluted with original sin. However, 
that their sect might continue, they adopted 
the sons and daughters of their neighbours, 
who were to inherit their fortunes, on con- 
dition that they should belong to their so- 
ciety 7 , and marry upon the same terms. This 
sect arose in the reign of the emperor Ar- 
cadius, and terminated in that of Theodosius 
the vounger. 

A'BEL OF THE VINEYARDS, or, as 
it is rendered in our translation of the 
Bible, Plain of the Vineyards, was a town, 
situated, according to Jerome and Eusebius, 
six or seven miles from Philadelphia, or 
Rabbath, the capital of the Ammonites. (Judo-, 
xi. 33.) V ° 

A'BEL THE GREAT, was the name of 
a large stone, which was found in a field 
belonging to one Joshua, a Bethshemite, 
and upon which the ark was placed, when 
it was sent back by the Philistines. It was 
supposed to have been called by this name, 
which signifies great mourning, on account 
of the great number of Bethshemites de- 
stroyed by God on this occasion ; for the 
scripture informs us, that fifty thousand 
threescore and ten Bethshemites were smit- 
ten, because they looked into the ark of the 
Lord. (1 Sam. vi. 18, 19.) 

A BEL-MEHO'LAH, nVirortnie, signi- 
fies the mourning of weakness, or of sickness, 
and is sometimes also called Abelmea. It 
was the birth-place of Elisha (1 Kings, xix. 
16.), and is conjectured to have been situated 
near the river Jordan. According to Euse- 
bius, this town stood in the great plain, six- 
teen miles to the south of Scythopolis. Not 
far from it, Gideon obtained a victory over 
the Midianites. (Judg. vii. 22.) 
A'BEL-SHIT'TnLa^^-^K/A/SfXcTart;/, 
signifies the mourning of the thorns, or preva- 
rications, and is the name of a city, which 
was situated in the plains of Moab, beyond 
Jordan, opposite to Jericho. Eusebius savs, 
that it stood in the neighbourhood of Mount 
Peor. Moses encamped at Abel-slnttim 
some time before the Hebrew army passed 
the Jordan, under the command of Joshua. 
At this place, the Israelites fell into ido- 
latry, and worshipped Baal-Peor, for which 
God punished them severely by the hands 
of the Levites (Numb, xxxiii. 49 ; xxv. 1 ; 
Josh. ii. 1.) Hence some think it derived 
its name. Some are also ol' opinion, that 
in the neighbourhood of this place, grew a 
great quantity of that kind o( wood which 



ABI 



ABI 



is called shittim-wood, and of which the ark 
was made. (Exod. xxv. 5 — 12, &c.) Wells's 
Geography. 

ABl'AH, rvnK, signifies the father of the 
Lord, or the Lord is my father ; or it may 
denote, the Lord is my will, or the will of 
the Lord. It was a name by which Abi, the 
daughter of Zachariah, was sometimes de- 
signated. 

It was also the name of the second son 
of Samuel, and brother of Joel. Samuel 
having entrusted his sons with the adminis- 
tration of public justice, and admitted them 
to a share in the government, they con- 
ducted affairs so ill, that they obliged the 
people to require of him a king. (1 Sam. viii. 
2.) This event took place in the year of the 
world 2909, and before Jesus Christ 1095. 

ABI'ATHAR, "WIN, signifies excellent 
father, or father of him that survived, and 
was the name of the son of Ahimelech, the 
tenth high priest of the Jews. And when 
Saul sent his emissaries to Nob, in order 
to destroy all the priests at that place, 
Abiathar, who was then young, was pre- 
served from the slaughter, and retired to 
David in the wilderness. There he con- 
tinued in the quality of high priest, while 
Saul, from aversion to Ahimelech, whom he 
supposed to have betrayed his interests, 
transferred the dignity of the high priesthood 
from Ithamar's family to that of Eleazar, by 
conferring this dignity upon Zadok. Thus 
there were, at the same time, two high 
priests in Israel: Abiathar in the party of 
David, and Zadok in that of Saul. (2 Sam. 
viii. 17; 1 Chron. xviii. 16.) In this state 
matters continued, from the death of Ahi- 
melech till the reign of Solomon, when 
Abiathar, attaching himself to the party of 
Adonijah, was deprived of the priesthood by 
Solomon, in the year of the world, 2989. — 
During the reign of Solomon, the race of 
Zadok alone performed the functions of this 
ministry, exclusively of the family of Itha- 
mar, according to that, which had been pre- 
dicted to Eli, the priest. (1 Sam. ii. 33, &c; 
iii. 11, 12, &c.) Some say that the name of 
Abiathar was sometimes given to Ahimelech, 
or Abimelech; and, on the contrary, that 
his father Ahimelech was sometimes called 
Abiathar. (Mark ii. 26) The probability 
however is, that the expression in the Evan- 
gelist is merely a short mode of quotation, 
equivalent to " in Abiathar," "in the history 
of Abiathar," or that portion of the history 
in which Abiathar is the principal person. 

A'BIB, 3*3K, according to Jerome, sig- 
aifiea green fruits or ears of corn, and was 
the name given l>y the Hebrews to the first 
month of their ecclesiastical year. (Exod. 
xiii. 4) This month was afterwards called 
Nisan, and answered nearly to our March, 
(). S. It was the seventh month of the civil 
year, and contained thirty days. 

AB'IGAIL, b'3 s 3K, signifies father of joy, 
or the joy of the father, and is the name of 



a woman, who was first the wife of Nabal of 
Carmel, and afterwards of David. Nabal 
treated David with the greatest ingrati- 
tude and contempt, and refused him the 
present which he requested. Abigail, being 
informed of the answer which her husband 
had sent by the messengers of David, has- 
tened to remedy this fault. Having laden 
some of her asses with provisions, she her- 
self, attended by several of her domestics, 
went to meet David, and addressed him with 
such respect and discretion, that she not 
only disarmed him of his rage, and stopped 
the effects of his indignation, but, by her 
sprightly conversation, so wrought upon him, 
that he conceived for her a great esteem. 
David having accepted her presents, Abigail 
returned home. Nabal died ten days after. 
As soon as the news of his death was brought 
to David, he sent to demand Abigail for his 
wife. She received this honour with great 
acknowledgments; and when the days of 
mourning for her husband were finished, she 
went to the camp of David, and they were 
married. The issue of this marriage, as 
some think, were two sons, Chilean and 
Daniel; but as the 2nd of Samuel speaks 
only of Chileab, and says nothing of Daniel, 
and as the 1st of Chronicles mentions only 
Daniel, and nothing of Chileab, it is sup- 
posed that they were two names for one and 
the same person. Daniel signifies a mighty 
J2idge, and Chileab an imprisoner. It is 
therefore very possible that the idea of their 
names is the same ; especially if one was a 
popular name given him for some particular 
cause or on some particular occasion. (1 Sam. 
xxv.; 2 Sam. iii. 3, &c; 1 Chron. iii. 1.) 
Patrick, &c. 

ABI'HU, irvnN, signifies, he is my fa- 
ther, or his father, or father of the Lord. 
Abihu was the son of Aaron, the high priest, 
and Elisheba, and, together with his brother 
Nadab, was consumed by fire sent from God, 
because he had offered incense with strange 
fire, instead of taking it from the altar of 
burnt offerings (Levit. x. 1, 2). This mis- 
fortune happened within eight days after 
the consecration of Aaron and his sons, in 
the year of the world 2514, and before Jesus 
Christ 1490. Some commentators believe 
that this fire came from the altar of burnt 
offerings ; others, that it proceeded from the 
altar of perfumes. Several interpreters are 
of opinion that Nadab and Abihu had drunk 
wine too freely, at the feast of the peace 
offerings, and by that means forgot to take 
the sacred fire in their censers. This con- 
jecture is founded on the command of God, 
which was immediately after delivered to 
the priests, and which forbade them the use 
of wine all the time they should be employed 
in the service of the temple. It is said that 
the fire did not consume their bodies, nor 
burn their clothes, but killed them in the 
manner men are sometimes destroyed by 
lightning. (Ibid. 5.) Patrick, Grotiua, ike. 



ABI 



ABI 



ABI'JAH, rrON, signifies the same as 
Abiah. It was the name of some princes 
among the Hehrews. Abijah, the son of 
Jeroboam, the first king of the ten tribes, 
died very young. This prince having been 
seized with a dangerous disease, his mother, 
at the instigation of king Jeroboam, her hus- 
band, disguised herself, and went to inquire 
of the prophet Ahijah whether her son would 
recover. Ahijah told her he should die, 
and that he would be the only person of his 
family that would receive funeral honours, 
and be lamented by Israel ; that all the other 
descendants of Jeroboam would be either 
eaten by dogs, or devoured by birds, as a 
punishment for his ingratitude and impiety. 
On the return of his mother, Abijah died, 
in the year of the world 3046, and before 
Jesus Christ 958. (1 Kings xiv. 1. et 
seq.) 

Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, king of 
Judah, and of Maachah or Micaiah, the 
daughter of Uriel or Absalom. Some com- 
mentators have supposed Maachah to have 
been the grandmother, and Micaiah the 
mother of Abijah ; and that the united name 
of his mother's father was Uriel Absalom. 
He succeeded his father in the year of the 
world 3306. This prince was at war with 
Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. Abijah, 
having procured an army of four hundred 
thousand men, of Judah and Benjamin, en- 
camped upon mount Zemaraim, upon which 
Samaria was afterwards built. 

It is observable, that many MSS. and 
printed Bibles, read only 40,000, and 80,000 
instead of 400,000, and 800,000, as in our 
translation ; but the Hebrew, Septuagint, 
Josephus, and the best Latin Bibles, both 
MS. and printed, agree in this place with 
the larger number. If we consider the na- 
ture and composition of the Jewish, as well 
as other eastern armies, we shall probably 
not be inclined to dispute the possibility 
that 400,000 men could be collected even in 
such a country as Judea. The numbers 
which compose the gross amount of Asiatic 
armies, are very far from denoting the true 
number of soldiers composing that army. 
In tact, when w r e deduct those whose atten- 
dance is of little advantage, we should not 
be very distant from truth, if we should say 
that nine out of ten are such as would be 
excluded from any army in Europe ; and we 
ought not absolutely to despise the sug- 
gestion, that when we read 40, instead of 
400, the true fighting corps of soldiers only 
are reckoned and stated. In accounts of other 
Asiatic armies, we may read sufficient to 
justify the possibility of such numbers being 
assembled for the purposes of warfare, as the 
scripture lias recorded ; and of these pur- 
poses plunder is not the least in the opinion 
of those who usually follow a camp. 

At the same time, it may be worthy of 
observation, that under such circumstances, 
no conclusive estimate of the population of 
9 



a kingdom can be drawn from such assem- 
blages. 

Jeroboam marched against Abijah at the 
head of eight hundred thousand men, col- 
lected in every part of his dominions. Abi- 
jah, hoping to induce the enemy's army 
again to submit to the house of David, and 
to return to the worship of the Lord, wished 
to harangue them. But, while he was speak- 
ing, Jeroboam ordered part of his troops to 
file off behind the mountain, without the 
enemy perceiving it, and to surround Abi- 
jah's army, which was so greatly inferior in 
number. Abijah and his people observing 
this, cried unto the Lord, and implored his 
assistance. The priests sounded the holy 
trumpets. God struck the hearts of the 
enemy with terror, and the army of Judah 
attacked them with so much fury, that they 
killed five hundred thousand on the spot. 
Abijah, pursuing his victory, took several 
cities from Jeroboam, and the Israelites 
were so much humbled under the hand of 
Judah, that they had not courage to under- 
take any thing against them. Abijah is re- 
proached by the Rabbins for neglecting to 
destroy the profane altar which Jeroboam 
had erected at Bethel, and to suppress the 
worship of the golden calves at that place. 
He was married to fourteen wives, by whom 
he had twenty-two sons and sixteen daugh- 
ters. He imitated the impiety and bad con- 
duct of his father, reigned three years, and 
was succeeded by hie son Asa, in the year 
of the world 3049. (2 Chron. xi. 20; xiii. 2, 
3, &c.) Fragments annexed to Calmefs Dic- 
tionary, No.- xxxvi. p. 59. 

Abijah was the name of the wife of Ahaz, 
the mother of Hezekiah, king of Judah. 
She was the daughter of Zechariah, who was 
thought by some to be the person who was 
killed by the command of Joash, between 
the temple and the altar. (2 Chron. xxiv. 21.) 

Abijah was also the name of one of the 
descendants of Eleazar, the son of Aaron. 
He was chief of one of the four-and-twenty 
companies of priests, whom David distri- 
buted into so many classes. (1 Chron. xxiv. 
10.) — Zechariah, the father of John the 
Baptist, was of the course of Abia or Abijah, 
which was the eighth of the twenty-four. 
(Luke i. 5.^ 

ABILE'NE, 'AfiCkrivr], signifies the father 
of the apartment, or of murmuring. It was 
a small province between Libanus and Anti- 
libanus, and is thought by some to have 
been situated within the borders of Naph- 
tali, though it was never subdued by that 
tribe. Abela or Abila, the capital of Abi- 
lene, was to the north of Damascus and 
l'aneas, and to the south of Heliopolis. Of 
this canton Lysanias was governor in the 
fifteenth year of Tiberius. (Luke iii. 1.) 

ABIM'ELECH, lbn~*iK, signifies father 
of the king, or my father, the king. It was 
the name of several primes mentioned in 
Scripture. Abimslech, king of Gerar, who, 



ABI 



ABI 



being smitten with the beauty of Sarah, 
Abraham's wife, and not knowing but she 
was Abraham's sister, took her from him, 
and intended to marry her. God, however, 
did not permit him to defile her, but ap- 
peared to him in the night, and threatened 
him with death, if he did not instantly re- 
store her to Abraham her husband. Abi- 
melech pleaded ignorance in excuse for this 
action, and said that Abraham had assured 
him that she was his sister. The next day, 
therefore, he sent her back to Abraham, 
and complained that he had been deceived 
by him. Abraham confessed that she was 
his wife, but told the king that she was also 
his sister ; being the daughter of his father, 
but born of a different mother. Abimelech 
gave great presents to Abraham, and to 
Sarah a thousand pieces of silver, with 
which, as the text (Gen. xx. 16.) is generally 
understood by expositors, he desired her to 
purchase a veil for a covering to her face. 
At the same time he cautioned Abraham 
not to expose himself again to a like incon- 
venience : it is probable that Abimelech re- 
quested Sarah to purchase a veil that all 
might know she was a married woman ; for 
the wearing of a veil was anciently a token 
of subjection to the power of a husband. 
But if the words a covering of the eyes, refer 
to Abraham, the king might mean that 
Sarah needed no other defence of her chas- 
tity than her husband, who was so dear to 
God, that God would defend Abraham, and 
Abraham her. Some interpret the words, 
as if Abimelech meant, that the money 
which he had given was a mulct, and a tes- 
timony how much he had suffered on her 
account. (Gen. xx. 1, 2, 3, &c.) Patrick's 
and Le Clerc's Commentaries. 

The event of which we have been treat- 
ing took place in the year of the world 2107, 
and before Jesus Christ 1897- Sarah, there- 
fore, was at this time ninety years old ; and 
it may seem strange, that a woman of her 
age should be desired by a king, who could 
command the most youthful beauties in his 
dominions. But, according to some inter- 
preters, persons of ninety were at that 
time as fresh and vigorous as those of forty 
are now. Sarah might also surpass many 
of her co-evals, by reason of her sterility, 
which is a great preserver of beauty. How- 
ell's History of the Bible. 

Abimelech offered to Abraham the choice 
of any part of his dominions, that was most 
agreeable to him, for an habitation. He 
also begged that Abraham would intercede 
with God for the cure of his family, which 
for the sake of Sarah, had been afflicted 
with sonic grievous disorder, that appears 
to have rendered the women unable to con- 
ceive, or, as some say, to bring forth. 

It appears (Gen. xx. 17.) that Abime- 
lech himself was seized with some indis- 
position which was the cause of impotency. 
Calmet. 
10 



In our translation of the Bible, it is said of 
Sarah, after the speech of Abimelech to her, 
thus she was reproved. (Gen. xx. 16.) It is, 
however, very probable, that this trans- 
lation is incorrect. Abimelech was de- 
sirous of purchasing the friendship of Abra- 
ham ; and Abraham already had so far jus- 
tified both Sarah and himself, that the king 
was satisfied. The Hebrew word should 
not have been translated reproved but in- 
quired into, or examined. Abimelech, there- 
fore, intends nothing more, than that she 
is acquitted after a full hearing ; and the 
passage in the Chaldee paraphrase is trans- 
lated in this manner. Universal History, 
vol. iii. p. 262, 263. 

Abimelech, king of Gerar, and son to 
him of whom we have been speaking, though 
some think that it was the same person. 
One day, this prince, seeing Isaac sport 
with his wife Rebekah, whom he called his 
sister, ordered Isaac to be sent for, and 
complaining of his dissimulation, charged 
him with a design of involving him and his 
subjects in guilt and punishment. It seems 
therefore, that Abimelech was not un- 
mindful of what had formerly befallen the 
nation on account of Sarah. The only 
apology offered by Isaac for his conduct 
was the fear of death. This apology being 
accepted by Abimelech, he published a 
declaration, that no person, on pain of 
death, should trouble Isaac or his wife. 
This transaction took place in the year of 
the world 2200, and before Jesus Christ 
1804. Now as Isaac grew extremely 
rich and powerful, his posterity excited 
the envy of the Philistines. Abimelech, 
therefore, said to him, * go from us, for 
thou art much mightier than we,' or accord- 
ing to Shuckford, ' thou art increased from 
us or by us.' Upon this command, Isaac im- 
mediately retired into the valley of Gerar, 
and afterwards to Beersheba, where some 
time after he was visited by Abimelech who 
wished to enter into an alliance with him. 
In the company of Abimelech, were Ahuz- 
zath his favourite, and Phicol the com- 
mander in chief of his army. Isaac, when 
he received them, said, ' wherefore come 
ye to me, seeing ye hate me, and have sent 
me away from you?' To this, Abimelech, 
replied, that he had observed how much 
God had favoured him, and that he was 
rising to a great height of power and prospe- 
rity. He therefore requested that Isaac 
would enter into friendship with him by a 
new covenant, or by a revival of the old 
covenant, which had existed between 
his father Abimelech and Abraham. He 
desired, he said, no other terms, than that 
the Philistines and their posterity should 
be treated and considered by Isaac and his 
posterity, as he and his family had been 
treated and considered by Abimelech and 
his people. They were splendidly enter- 
tained by Isaac ; and the treaty being con- 



ABI 



ABI 



eluded, the next morning they departed in 
peace. (Gen. xxvi.) 

Abimelech, the son of Gideon, was 
born of a concubine, whom Gideon kept at 
Shechem. After the death of his father, 
Abimelech, who was a bold aspiring youth, 
possessed himself of the government, and 
procured himself to be acknowledged king 
or judge of Israel, first by the inhabitants 
of Shechem, over whom his mother had 
influence, and afterwards by a great part 
of the other Israelites. Those of Shechem 
having presented him with seventy shekels 
of silver, with this money he levied a troop 
of vagabonds, who attended him. Being 
come to his father Gideon's house in Oph- 
rah, he killed seventy of his brethren on 
one stone; and Jotham only, who was the 
youngest, escaped, and was delivered from 
his cruelty. Soon after this massacre, the 
inhabitants of Shechem, with those ofMillo, 
assembled near the oak of Shechem, for the 
purpose of creating Abimelech, the son of 
Gideon, king. When Jotham was informed 
of their design, he appeared upon the top of 
Mount Gerizim, and reproved them by his 
celebrated fable of the trees. See Jotham. 

In a short time, divisions arose among the 
inhabitants of Shechem, who reflecting on 
the injustice of their conduct, detested the 
cruelty of Abimelech in the massacre of his 
brethren. Whilst, therefore, he was absent 
from Shechem they revolted, and placed 
an ambuscade in the mountains, with a de- 
sign to kill him on his return. Abimelech 
obtained intelligence of what was transact- 
ing from Zebul, whom he had left gover- 
nor of Shechem. The Shechemites had in- 
vited one Gaal to their assistance. Gaal 
being informed that Abimelech had col- 
lected some troops, and was marching to- 
wards Shechem, went out with the forces he 
had, and gave him battle, but was defeated; 
and, as he was attempting to re-enter the 
city, Zebul drove him thence, and obliged 
him to retire. Afterwards, Abimelech de- 
feated the Shechemites, destroyed the city, 
and burnt the tower ; but going thence to 
Thebez, a town about three leagues to the 
east, a woman from the top of the tower, 
threw on his head a piece of a mill-stone, 
which fractured his skull in such a manner, 
that his brains issued from the wound. — 
It has been thought that the woman did not 
throw on Abimelech a piece of a mill-stone, 
but a division of the mill itself The word recab, 
the rider, from the upper riding on the under 
stone, is inserted to explain the foregoing 
words. This rider or upper stone, the wo- 
man had only to take off the peg which 
united the mill-stones, even ifitwerenot al- 
ready separated, and such a stone, two 
feet in breadth, was amply sufficient to 
fracture the skull of any man on whom it fell. 
Finding himself mortally wounded, he called 
to his armour-bearer, and desired him to put 
an end to his life, that it might not be said, 



he died by the hands of a woman. This 
event took place in the year of the world 
2769, and before the vulgar aera 1235. Abi- 
melech judged Israel three years, and was 
succeeded by Tolah. (Judg. ix.) — Fragments 
annexed to Calmet's Diet. No. cix. p. 16. 

Abimelech, the priest of the Lord who 
gave to David Goliath's sword which had 
been deposited in the temple, and some of 
the show-bread, at the time this prince fled 
from the persecutions of Saul. (1 Sam. xxi. 
I.) The Septuagint and several Latin co- 
pies read Abimelech ; but in the Hebrew, it 
is ibD-nN, Achimelech, or Ahimelech, which is 
the true reading. See Ahimelech. 

ABLRAM, OTnN, signifies father of ele- 
vation, or of fraud, and was the name of two 
persons mentioned in the Bible ; 1. Abiram, 
the eldest son of Hi el, the Bethelite. Joshua 
having destroyed the city of Jericho, pro- 
nounced the following curse : ' Cursed be 
1 the man before the Lord, that riseth up 
' and buildeth this city Jericho : he shall lay 
' the foundation thereof in his first born, and 
' in his youngest son shall he set up the 
' gates of it.' (Joshua vi. 26.) About five 
hundred and thirty- seven years after this 
imprecation, Hiel of Bethel, having under- 
taken to rebuild Jericho, whilst he was laying 
the foundation of it, lost his eldest son Abi- 
ram ; and when they hung up the gates of 
it, his youngest son Segub. (1 Kings xvi. 34.) 
The rebuilding of Jericho, and the death of 
Abiram and Segub, took place in the year of 
the world 3090, and before Christ 914. 

This is a remarkable instance of the fulfil- 
ment of a prophetic denunciation, on a person 
who, perhaps, would not credit the report or 
the truth of the prediction. It has been 
questioned whether, supposing that Hiel had 
many children, they all died from the eldest 
to the youngest, during the time of his 
building, or whether only his eldest and his 
youngest son died at the commencement and 
the termination of his undertaking. It is 
probable, that the site of the ancient city, 
which was at a short distance from new Je- 
richo, was chosen by Hiel, as an extremely 
pleasant situation ; but he, not knowing, or 
not believing the unhealthiness of the place, 
determined there to build the city. In con- 
sequence of this determination, the younger 
part of his family, his children, being the 
weakest, first felt the influences of the si- 
tuation, to which, perhaps, they were ex- 
posed freely and without fear, and died, one 
after another ' from Abiram, his first-born, 
' to Segub his youngest.' No blame seems to 
be attached to Hiel. It is mentioned merely 
as a remarkable fulfilment of a prediction ; 
and the unhealthiness of the soil was very 
probably the means in the hand of Providem v, 
of accomplishing the prophecy of Joshua, 
respecting there-building of Jericho. Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Diet. No. v. — bee 
Jericho. 

Abiram, the son oi' Eliab, and grand- 



ABI 



ABN 



son of Phallu, of the tribe of Reuben. He 
was one of those, who conspired with Korah 
and Dathan against Moses in the wilderness, 
and was swallowed up alive with his compa- 
nions in the bowels of the earth, which open- 
ed to receive them. (Numb, xvi.) 

AB'ISHAG, JWIN signifies ignorance of 
the father, or my father has seized K has taken, 
is arrived. It was the name of a young 
woman, a native of Shunam in the tribe of 
Issachar. David, at the age of seventy, find- 
ing no warmth in his bed, was advised by 
his physicians to procure some young per- 
son, who might communicate to him the 
heat he wanted. For this purpose, his ser- 
vants presented to him Abishag, who was one 
of the most beautiful young women in Is- 
rael. David married her, but did not know 
her : she continued with him a year. (1 Kings 
i. 1, 2, &c.) After the death of David, 
Adonijah demanded her in marriage, but 
Solomon supposing that, when married to 
one of the king's wives, he might affect the 
regal power, caused him to be put to death. 
(1 Kings ii. 17.) 

ABISH'AI, "wnx, signifies the present 
of my father, or the father of the present ; or 
the father of the sacrifice, or the sacrifice of my 
father. Abishai, the son of Zuri and Ze- 
ruiah, David's sister, was a very valiant 
man, and principal general in David's ar- 
mies. He vanquished Ishbi-benob, a giant 
who was descended from the Rephaim, and 
who bore a lance, the head of which weighed 
three hundred shekels of brass. The giant, 
was on the point of killing David, when Abi- 
shai prevented him by giving him a mortal 
wound. (2 Sam. xxi. 16.) Abishai and Da- 
vid having one night entered the tent of Saul, 
and finding him asleep, Abishai would have 
pierced him with his sword, but David would 
not permit him. (1 Sam. xxvi. 7, &c.) — 
When David, that he might preserve himself 
from Absalom, was obliged to leave Jerusa- 
lem, Abishai showed an inclination to kill 
Shimei, who insulted David with very offen- 
sive language : but the king checked his zeal, 
and told him that the Lord permitted this. 
(2 Sam. xvi. 9—12.) Abishai commanded 
a third part of David's army against Absa- 
lom. (Ibid xviii. 2.) He also commanded a 
part of the army, when his brother Joab gave 
battle to the Ammonites. (Ibid. x. 10.) It is 
said in scripture, that he lifted up his spear 
against three hundred, and slew them all. 
(Ibid, xxiii. 18) ; but it is not known on 
what occasion this happened. The time and 
manner of his death are also unknown. 

ABLUTION, was a ceremony used by the 
ancients, and is still practised in several 
parts of the world. It consisted in washing 
the body, and was always performed before 
sacrificing, or even entering their houses. — 
Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremo- 
nies, even as external worship itself. They 
were enjoined by Moses, adopted by the hea- 
thens, and have been continued by Maho- 
12 



met and his followers. They were used by 
the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, and 
the Jews. Ablutions were practised by the 
ancient Christians before receiving the sacra- 
ment; and they are still retained by the Ro- 
mish Church before, and sometimes after 
mass. The Syrians, Copts, &c. have their 
solemn washings on Good Friday ; and the 
Turks have their ablutions, their gast, their 
wodon, aman, taburat, gusul, &c. The 
Indians feel a great veneration for the 
waters of the Ganges; and when they 
cannot wash themselves in those sacred 
streams, the Bramins tell them that other 
waters will be equally effectual, if whilst 
bathing they say, « O Ganges, purify me !' 

AB'NER, inx, 'Afievtp-, signifies fa- 
ther of the light, or lamp of the father, or 
the son of the father, and was the name of the 
son of Ner, uncle to king Saul, and general 
of his armies. Abner by his influence and 
great authority, preserved the crown to 
Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, and supported 
him at Mahanaim, beyond Jordan, during 
seven years, against David, who then reigned 
at Hebron, in the tribe of Judah. (2 Sam. iii. 
I.) Between the two parties of David and 
Ishbosheth, happened several skirmishes, in 
all of which David obtained the advantage. 
The two generals, Joab and Abner, one of 
whom commanded the troops of David, the 
other those of Ishbosheth, marching one 
day at the foot of Gibeon with their armies, 
Abner challenged Joab to fight twelve of 
Joab's men, with an equal number of his, 
and said, 'let the young men arise and play 
' before us.' Joab consenting to this pro- 
posal, twelve men of Benjamin, who be- 
longed to Ishbosheth, and twelve of the ser- 
vants of David, immediately appeared and 
fought till they slew each other. After this 
a general battle ensued, in which Abner 
and his men were defeated and put to flight. 
In this battle were the three sons of Ze- 
ruiah, David's sister ; Joab, Abishai, and 
Asahel. Asahel being very swift, undertook 
to pursue after Abner, who endeavoured to 
escape ; but Abner finding himself hard 
pursued by Asahel, struck him with the 
back part of his spear, and killed him on 
the spot. Notwithstanding this, Joab and 
Abishai continued to follow Abner till sun- 
set. When Abner's whole army were 
collected upon an eminence, he called to 
Joab, and said, ' shall the sword devour for 
ever? knowest thou not that it will be bit- 
terness in the latter end ? how long shall it be, 
then, ere thou bid the people return from 
following their brethren ?' Immediately after 
Joab sounded a retreat, and the army with- 
drew from the pursuit of Abner. (2 Sam. ii.) 

Sometime after, Abner quarrelled with Ish- 
bosheth, on account of Rizpah, a concubine 
of Saul, with whom Ishbosheth accused him 
of familiarity. Abner was very much pro- 
voked at this reproach, and threatened to es- 
tablish the throne of David over both Israel 



ABO 



ABR 



and Judah, from Dan even to Becrsheba. 
He immediately entered into a private cor- 
respondence with David, and at a public in- 
terview with that prince, offered him his ser- 
vices, and promised to make him king over 
all Israel. David, who was then at Hebron, 
received Abner and his attendants very 
kindly, and entertained them sumptuously. 
Soon after Abner had departed from Hebron, 
Joab and his people returned thither from 
an expedition against the Philistines, and 
were informed that Abner had concluded 
an alliance with David. Joab, therefore, 
expostulated with David, and said, that he 
had entertained a man who came only as 
a spy upon his actions. But not satisfied 
with this expostulation, he sent a messenger 
after Abner and desired him to return. On 
the return of Abner, Joab, under pretence 
of saluting bim, stabbed him to the heart, 
partly through jealousy, and partly to re- 
venge the death of his brother Asahel. — 
When David was informed of what had 
passed, he showed publicly his concern, 
made for Abner a solemn funeral, which he 
himself attended in person, and in honour of 
him composed a mournful song. This transac- 
tion happened in the year of the world 2956, 
and before Jesus Christ 1048. (2 Sam. iii. 6, 
7, &c) 

ABOMINATION. The scripture gene- 
rally terms idolatry and idols abominations, 
not only because the worship of idols is in 
itself abominable, but because the ceremo- 
nies of idolaters were almost always at- 
tended with licentiousness, and with actions 
of an infamous and abominable nature. — 
Shepherds were an abomination to the 
Egyptians. (Gen. xlvi. 34.) The Hebrews 
were to sacrifice in the wilderness the 
abominations of the Egyptians ; that is to 
say, their sacred animals, oxen, rams, goats, 
and lambs, the sacrifice of which were 
considered by the Egyptians as abominations, 
and utterly unlawful. (Exod. viii. 26.) Moses 
also calls those animals abominable, the use 
of which were prohibited to the Hebrews. 

The abomination of desolation, foretold by 
Daniel (xi. 31.) denotes, according to the 
best interpreters, the idol of Jupiter Olym- 
pius, which was erected in the temple of 
Jerusalem, by the command of Antiochus 
Epiphanes. (2 Maccab. vi. 2; 1 Maccab. 
vi. 7-) By the same abomination of desolation 
(Matt. xxiv. 15.) seen at Jerusalem during 
the last seige of that city by the Romans, 
under Titus, is meant the ensigns of the Ro- 
man army, upon which were formed the 
images of their gods and emperors, and 
which were placed in the temple, after it and 
the city were taken. 

A'BRAM, Q-QN, signifies the father of 
elevation; A'braham, omnx, the father of 
a great multitude, or of many nations. Abram 
who was afterwards called Abraham, was the 
son of Terah, and was born at Ur, a city of 
Chaldea, in the year of the world 2008, and 
13 



before Jesus Christ, 1996. (Gen. xi. 26— 
31.) He spent the first years of bis life in 
the house of his father, who was a worship- 
per of idols. From the text of Joshua (xxiv. 
2), Nehemiah (ix. 7), and Isaiah (xliii. 27), 
many are of opinion, that Abram himself 
was at first a worshipper of idols, but that 
God giving him a better understanding, he 
renounced that impure mode of worship ; and 
on account of this renunciation, as some sup- 
pose, he suffered a severe persecution from the 
Chaldeans, who threw him into a fiery fur- 
nace, from which God miraculously delivered 
him. The text of the Vulgate in Nehemiah, 
(ix. 7)» already referred to, plainly says that 
he was delivered from the fire of the Chal- 
deans ; and the same is generally taught by 
the Jews. But Calmet thinks it probable, 
that this opinion is founded only on the am- 
biguity of the word Ur, which signifies fire, 
as well as the city of Ur, from which God 
called Abram, and sent him into the land of 
Promise. He is, therefore, of opinion, that 
Abram demonstrated to his father the vanity 
of idolatry, since he induced him to forsake 
the city of Ur, in which he was settled, and 
retire to the place, whither the Lord had 
called Abram. The first city to which they 
came, was Haran, in Mesopotamia, where 
Terah, Abram' s father, died. (Gen. xi. 31 , 32. ) 
Abram journeyed thence into Canaan, which 
was at that time in the possession of the 
Canaanites. Here God promised to give his 
posterity the property of this country, and to 
confer on him all kinds of blessings. The 
patriarch, however, did not acquire any 
possession in Canaan, but lived always as a 
stranger in the country. (Ibid. xii. 1,2, &c.) 
Sometime after his arrival in Canaan, about 
the year 2084, a great famine obliged Abram 
to go into Egypt, in order to procure pro- 
visions ; but, foreseeing that the Egyptians 
would be captivated with the beauty of Sarai, 
and fearing that they might not only force 
her from him, but also take away his life, if 
they knew that she was his wife, he desired 
her permission to say that she was his sister. 
To this Sarai consented. During their stay 
in Egypt, her beauty being spoken of to 
Pharaoh, she was forcibly taken away from 
Abram, and would have been married to 
Pharaoh, if God had not afflicted him with 
such grievous plagues that he was obliged to 
restore her. (Ibid. 10, 11, &c.) 

After the famine Abram left Egypt, and 
returned to Canaan, and pitched his tents 
between Bethel and Hai, where some time 
before he had built an altar. As Abram and 
his nephew Lot possessed large flocks, and 
therefore could not dwell together, they 
separated ; Lot retired to Sodom, and Abram 
to the plain of Mamre in Hebron. (Gen. xiii. 
1, 2, &c.) 

Some years after their separation, that is, 
in the year of the world 2092, and before 
Jesus Christ 1912, Lot being taken prisoner 
in the wars which Chedorlaomer and his 



ABR 



ABR 



allies, carried on against the kings of So- 
dom and Gomorrah, of Admah, Zeboiim, and 
Zoar, Abram with his people pursued the 
conquerors ; and having overtaken them at 
Dan, near the springs of Jordan, he de- 
feated them, retook all their spoil, together 
with his nephew Lot, and brought them 
back to Sodom. (Ibid. xiv. 1, 2, &c.) At 
his return, as he marched near Salem or 
Jerusalem, Melchizedek, king of this city, 
and priest of the most high God, met him, 
bestowed on him many blessings, and pre- 
sented him with bread and wine for himself 
and for the service of the army, or as some 
think, offered bread and wine to God, as a 
sacrifice of thanksgiving for him. (Gen. xiv. 
12, &c.) 

After this, the Lord renewed all the pro- 
mises which he had made to Abram, gave 
him fresh assurances that he should possess 
the land of Canaan, and that his posterity 
should be as numerous as the stars of hea- 
ven. (Ibid. xv. 1, 2.) As Abram had no 
children, and could no longer expect any by 
Sarai, he complied with her solicitations, 
and married her servant Hagar, who, he 
imagined, might have children, and thus 
God would perform the promise, which he 
had made to him, of a numerous posterity. 
After her marriage, Hagar finding that she 
had conceived, treated her mistress with 
contempt, and Sarai complaining of her con- 
duct, Abram told her that Hagar was still 
her servant. Hagar, therefore, being used 
with severity, fled ; but the angel of the 
Lord appeared to her in the wilderness, and 
commanded her to return to her master, and 
be more submissive to her mistress. In 
consequence of this command, Hagar re- 
turned to the house of Abram, and some- 
time after was delivered of Ishmael. (Ibid, 
xvi. 1, 2, &c.) 

In the year 2107, and before Jesus Christ 
1807, the Lord having renewed his cove- 
nant with Abram, and the promises which 
he had made to him, changed the name of 
Abram, or an elevated father, by which he 
had been hitherto designated, to that of 
Abraham, or the father of a great multitude ; 
and that of Sarai, which signifies my princess, 
to that of Sarah, or the princess. As a mark 
and earnest of the covenant, into which he 
had entered with Abram, God enjoined him 
to be circumcised, and to circumcise all the 
males of his family, and promised him ex- 
pressly, that within a year, Sarah his wife 
should bear to him a son. (Ibid, xvii.) 

In a short time after, the sins of Sodom 
and Gomorrah, and the neighbouring cities 
being completed, God sent three angels to 
destroy them. These angels came first into 
the valley of Mamre, where Abraham had 
pitched bis tents; and as soon as he saw 
(hem, he ran to meet them, invited them to 
cat, washed their feet, and hastened to pre- 
pare for them some meat. Sarah made 
cakes for them on the hearth, and when 
14 



they had eaten, they asked where was his 
wife Sarah? Abraham answering that she 
was in the tent, one of the angels said, ' I 
will surely return unto thee by the time of 
life ; and, lo, Sarah thy wife shall have a 
son.' Sarah, who was behind the door, 
heard this, and laughed ; and the angel said 
to Abraham, ' Wherefore did Sarah laugh ? 
Is any thing too hard for the Lord? At 
the time appointed I will return unto thee, 
according to the time of life, and Sarah shall 
have a son.' (Ibid, xvii.) The angels being 
ready to depart, Abraham waited on them 
with great respect, and accompanied them 
towards Sodom. Two of the angels ad- 
vanced with more haste, whilst the third 
walked with Abraham. This last, who is 
called by Moses, mn- Jehovah, which is the 
incommunicable name of God, is thought by 
the generality of Christian writers, to have 
been the Son of God, who thus appeared in 
the form of an angel. See Univ. History, 
vol. iii. p. 261, 262. As a farther proof of 
his favour, he informed Abraham, that the 
cry of Sodom and Gomorrah had reached 
heaven, and that he was determined to de- 
stroy them utterly, if, upon inquiry, he 
found their wickedness equal to the cry. 
Abraham, fearing lest his nephew Lot should 
be involved in the misfortune of these cities, 
or rather from his natural compassion, was 
induced to intercede for those righteous per- 
sons, who might be found among the wicked. 
The patriarch did not cease to expostulate 
with him, till he had obtained a promise, 
that if only ten righteous persons should be 
found in the city, he would spare the place 
for their sakes. Lot, however, was the only 
righteous man in the city ; and God pre- 
served him from the calamity of Sodom. 
(Gen. xix.) 

Sarah conceived according to the promise 
of God ; and Abraham leaving the valley of 
Mamre journeyed towards the south, and 
dwelt as a stranger at Gerar. Abimelech, 
king of that country, being captivated with 
the beauty of Sarah, forced her from her 
husband, but God having informed him that 
she was the wife of Abraham, he restored 
her. See Abimelech. 

In the year of the world 2108, before 
Jesus Christ 1896, and in the ninetieth year 
of her age, Sarah was delivered of her son 
Isaac, whom Abraham circumcised accord- 
ing to the command of God. Sarah herself 
suckled the child, and weaned him at the 
usual time, and Abraham feasted all his 
household on that day. Some time after, 
Sarah observed Ishmael, the son of Hagar, 
playing with her son Isaac and treating him 
with contempt. She therefore said to Abra- 
ham, cast out this bond woman and her son, 
for Ishmael shall not be heir with Isaac. 
Whatever reluctance Abraham might feel 
in complying with this request, as soon as 
God had declared to him that it was his 
will, he sent them away. (Gen. xxi.) 



ABR 



ABR 



About this time, Abimelech, king of 
Gerar, came with Phicol, the general of his 
army, to visit Abraham, and to enter into 
an alliance with him. Abraham presented 
him with seven ewe-lambs out of his flock, 
in consideration that a well which he had 
opened should be his own. Each of them 
swore to the covenant they had concluded ; 
and they called the place Beersheba, or the 
well of swearing, because of the covenant 
there ratified with oaths. Here Abraham 
planted a grove, built an altar, and conti- 
nued some time. (Ibid. xxi. 22, &c.) 

In the year of the world 2133, and before 
Jesus Christ 1871, God commanded Abra- 
ham to sacrifice his own son Isaac upon a 
mountain which he showed him. Obedient 
to the divine command, Abraham took his 
son with some servants, and conducted him 
towards mount Moriah. On their journey, 
Isaac said to his father, ' Behold the fire 
and the wood, but where is the lamb for 
a burnt offering V Abraham replied, ' My 
son, God will provide himself a lamb for 
a burnt offering.' When they had arrived 
within sight of the mountain, Abraham left 
his servants behind him, and ascended the 
mount with his son only. Having bound 
Isaac he prepared to sacrifice him ; but 
when he was ready to give the blow, an 
angel cried to him out of heaven, ' Lay not 
thine hand upon the lad, neither do thou 
any thing unto him : for now I know that 
thou fearest God, seeing thou hast not with- 
held thy son, thine only son, from me.' At 
the same time, Abraham seeing a ram en- 
tangled in a bush by his horns, took him, 
and offered him up as a burnt offering, 
instead of his son Isaac. He called the 
place Jehovah-jireh, or the Lord will see, or 
provide. (Gen. xxii.) 

Twelve years after this, Sarah, the wife 
of Abraham, died in the city of Hebron, 
otherwise called Arba. Abraham was pro- 
bably at Beersheba ; but being informed of 
her death, he came to Hebron, to mourn, 
and to perform for her the last offices. He 
appeared before the people assembled at 
the gate of the city, and entreated them to 
allow him the liberty of burying his wife 
among them; for as he was a stranger in 
the country, and at that time possessed no 
land of his own, he could pretend to no 
right of giving honourable interment to his 
dead in the sepulchres of that country, with- 
out the consent of the proprietors. He 
therefore requested that Ephron, one of the 
inhabitants, would sell him the field called 
Machpelah, to which there belonged a cave 
and sepulchre. Ephron complied with his 
request, and the purchase was made before 
all the people of Hebron, at the price of 
400 shekels of silver, or about 45/. sterling. 
Here Abraham buried his wife Sarah, after 
he had mourned for her according to the 
custom of the country. (Gen. xxiii.) 

Abraham, perceiving that he was grown 



old, sent Eliezer, the steward of his house, 
into Mesopotamia, and instructed him to 
bring a woman of his own nation, to whom 
he might marry his son Isaac. Eliezer 
executed his commission with great pru- 
dence, and brought Rebekah, the daughter 
of Bethuel, and grand- daughter of Nahor, 
whom Isaac married, and lodged <m the tent 
of his mother Sarah. This transaction took 
place in the year of the world 2148, and 
before Jesus Christ 1856. (Gen. xxiv.) 

After the death of Sarah, Abraham, in the 
one hundred and forty-first year of his age, 
married Keturah, by whom he had six sons ; 
Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, 
and Shuah. They were all heads of dif- 
ferent people, and dwelt in Arabia, in the 
neighbourhood of Palestine. At length, in 
the year of the world 2183, and before Jesus 
Christ 1821, Abraham died, at the age of 
one hundred and seventy-five years, and 
was buried with Sarah his wife in the cave 
of Machpelah. (Ibid, xxv.) 

I. In reviewing the history of this patri- 
arch, we may observe, that Abraham is in- 
troduced rather suddenly to the reader, in 
the sacred Scriptures : — 'The Lord had said 
to Abram,' (Gen. xii. 1) ; but it may be 
reasonably concluded, that before he would 
undertake a long, fatiguing, and uncertain 
journey, he would be well convinced of the 
authority, which commanded him to under- 
take that journey. It may be inferred that 
God had previously spoken to Abraham, 
perhaps often, though by what means we 
are ignorant. From other information than 
that contained in the Scriptures, we know 
that about this time, Chaldea became pol- 
luted with idolatry ; and it is therefore every 
way credible, that Abraham quitted his 
country principally from a dread of this evil. 
In Egypt, this evil was not at that time 
prevalent, and with it the parts, which were 
at a distance from the great cities, were 
little, if at all, infected. This accounts for 
Abraham's going northward, instead of fol- 
lowing the direct road, which communi- 
cated through Canaan, between Babylon and 
Egypt. Undoubtedly, the providence of God 
called Abraham to seek, for his own per- 
sonal quiet and that of his family, a country 
less polluted than Nineveh ; and were this 
all, so far he may be said to have had di- 
vine direction. — Every thing, however, leads 
us to suppose, that he had also a communi- 
cated direction to the same purpose. 

II. Abraham's estate, previously to his 
journey, was that of a man of substance. 
' He took Sarai his wife, Lot his nephew, 
and all his property.' It is, therefore, evi- 
dent that he was no adventurer for a fortune, 
but was already rich in worldly wealth, and 
had several dependents, most of whom, pro- 
bably, accompanied him to his new residence, 
and many of whom were ' servants born in 
his house.' 

III. Abraham calls Sarai his wife, sister, 



ABR 



ABR 



instead of ' wife.' (Gen. xii. 13, &c.) In the 
infancy of the human race, the relations of 
life were so very few, and so very intimate, 
that it was next to an impossibility for the 
nearest in blood not to intermarry. It is not 
incredible, that some families had formed a 
resolution of maintaining themselves dis- 
tinct by this custom, and that they chose 
to be thus restricted to the branches of their 
own families, cousins, &c. as among the Jews 
the restriction was afterwards enlarged to 
their own tribe. 

Independently, however, of this opinion, 
we may observe that every nation, and fre- 
quently every family, adheres to its own 
manners, which sometimes appear strange 
to others. It seems to have been the custom 
of the Hebrew families to use the term sister, 
and others of near consanguinity, to denote 
not only a general relation, but also a wife, a 
companion. See Father, Brother, Sis- 
ter. 

It is not necessary to suppose, that this 
custom commenced with Abraham when 
about to enter Egypt with Sarai. This was 
his general request long before (Gen. xx. 
13) ; and he again desired Sarai to use the 
title brother, when speaking of him, or to him, 
in her ordinary discourse with the Egyptian 
women. The report of the Egyptian women 
respecting her beauty, and the accidental 
sight of her by the chiefs of Pharaoh's house, 
induced Pharaoh to take her into his palace ; 
that is, to give her apartments in his harem. 
It is observable, that according to the cus- 
tom of the east, whilst Sarai was with Abra- 
ham, she conversed with no men, and that the 
eastern women, though very reserved, are not 
locked up. Sarai' s calling Abraham brother, 
was as likely to have been the immediate 
cause of her being taken from him, as his 
calling her sister. The original says, ' the 
Lord struck the house of Pharaoh with a 
great stroke, because of the word of Sarai, 
the wife of Abraham.' Independently of 
any reference this word might have to her 
calling him brother, it probably alluded to 
her complaints to God of the hardship and 
injury she suffered, and of the violence, with 
which she was treated. Had she been only 
Abraham's sister, by what right did Pharaoh 
detain her against her own consent, and that of 
her brother, who was her natural guardian ? 
His behaviour, or, at least, that of his offi- 
cers, seems too much to justify Abraham's 
former suspicion respecting the Egyptian 
manners. On the whole, so far as relates to 
this transaction in Egypt, we may admit, 
that though the fear of Abraham induced him 
to use art and management in this affair ; 
yet his fear was well founded, and does not 
appear to have overcome his faith, as is 
sometimes said, nor to have put him out of 
the regular custom ofhislife. It seems to have 
suggested what lu> thought a prudential ap- 
plication in public of what had been his usual 
custom in private. At the same time, per- 
16 



haps, by this very prudence, he risked as 
much from the anger of Pharaoh, when he 
turned him out without delay, as if he had 
trusted to the ordinary course of things, and 
to the simple way of his duty. 

In the story of Abimelech (Gen. xx. 2.), 
we may observe, that the original will bear 
the idea, that Abraham said to his wife, my 
sister, as well as of her, that my sister, that 
is, my dear sister. He thus addressed Sarah 
in the hearing of some of Abimelech's peo- 
ple; and Abimelech, thinking to confer ho- 
nour on Abraham and himself by anear con- 
nection, sent and took her. He behaved 
differently from Pharaoh : he meant good 
rather than harm ; and therefore God ex- 
postulated with him. To Abimelech, Abra- 
ham apologizes, by discovering their true 
relation, and his general request, — ' at every 
place to which we journey, call me brother.' 
These circumstances are very different from 
those of the haughty and oppressive Pha- 
raoh. 

The Arab women, at this day, when at 
home in their tents, have no veils, r though 
those in cities wear them ; and as Saran had 
been accustomed to dwell in tents only, this 
circumstance may account for her not wear- 
ing a veil. 

IV. The dignity and power of Abraham 
are incidentally stated in the story of his 
rescuing Lot. He had three hundred and 
eighteen servants born in his house, whom he 
could entrust with arms. This implies, that 
he had many not born in his house, some 
who must have been old, some women, and 
some children. If these be added together, 
they form a considerable tribe, and prove 
that Abraham was a man of no trifling pos- 
sessions. In fact, he appears to correspond 
exactly to a modern Emir ; to possess the 
right of sovereignty in no small degree ; and 
to be little other than an independent prince, 
even while dwelling in the territories of sove- 
reigns, by whom he was greatly esteemed. 

V. Abraham's affection for Sarah seems 
to have been very great However custom- 
ary a plurality of wives might be among the 
nations around him, he took no other wife 
than that of his youth, from the great love, 
it would seem, with which he loved her. His 
connection with Hagar was not proposed by 
himself, but by Sarah ; and in this Abraham 
was obedient to Sarah, and yielded to her 
wishes rather than to his own. The event 
of this connexion serves to show, that the 
miracle which preceded the conception of 
Isaac, principally, if not totally, regarded 
Sarah. The custom of having more than 
one wife, especially if the first was barren, 
is of very ancient origin, and is commosn in 
the east at this day, both among Jew and 
Arabs. In taking Hagar, therefore, Abra- 
ham only practised the same as his neigh- 
bours. After Hagar had become his wife, 
he ought not perhaps to have left her so en- 
tirely in the power of Sarah; but the sending 



ABB, 



ABR 



away of Ishmael and his mother appeared 
hard to Abraham himself, and to this action 
be appeared very reluctant, till God had 
promised his protection to Ishmael, His 
manner of sending them away was managed 
with much caution. They were sent away 
very early in the morning, before Sarah and 
many of his family could be spectators, and 
before the heat of the day ; and Ishmael, then 
about thirteen years old, was sufficiently able 
to carry the loaves or the skin of water. By 
this privacy, he avoided all farther harshness 
and bickerings between Sarah and her ser- 
vant ; and he did all he could to ensure the 
safety of Hagar and her son. 

It may be necessary to observe here, that 
some writers, thinking it improbable that 
Abraham, after the death of Sarah, should 
marry Keturah at the advanced age of one 
hundred and forty years, have dislocated the 
chronology of this period, by supposing that 
Abraham took Keturah as a concubine, in 
consequence of the barrenness of Sarah, his 
wife, even before he left Charran, and that 
Keturah's children were in the number of the 
souls that were born to him and Lot during 
their residence in that country. It would 
seem, however, evident from the whole tenor 
of the history, that Abraham was " childless" 
till the birth of Ishmael; (Gen. xv. 2, 3.) 
that he had no other son than Ishmael when 
he received the promise of Isaac ; (Gen. xvii. 
18.) and that Isaac and Ishmael, jointly, as 
his eldest sons, celebrated his funeral. (Gen. 
xxv. 9.) That Abraham should marry again, 
at the age of 140 years, shows his faith in 
the Divine promise, that he should be "a 
father of many nations;" for which purpose 
his constitution might be miraculously reno- 
vated, like that of Sarah. Besides, Abra- 
ham himself was born when his father Terah 
was advanced in years. " The souls gotten 
in Charran," denoted the joint increase of 
the households of Abraham and Lot. Even 
after their separation in the land of Canaan, 
Abraham took with him, in the pursuit of 
the Assyrian confederates, " three hundred 
and eighteen trained servants, born in his 
own house, 1 ' about eight or nine years after 
his arrival in Canaan; several of these, 
therefore, must have been born at Charran, 
in order to be then able to bear arms. See 
Hagar, Ishmael, and Concubine. 

VI. The covenant made with Abraham is 
well worthy of consideration, whether we 
regard its solemnity, occasion, or contents. 
The history of it is related in two parts ; the 
first is previous to the birth of Ishmael, and 
the second to that of Isaac, The first fore- 
tels that Abraham should have a numerous 
posterity, and that he need not make a 
stranger his heir ; and the second promises 
him a son by Sarah, and that with his son 
the covenant should be established. Re- 
specting the contents of the covenant, the 
following are worthy of observation : ( 1 ) The 
family of this patriarch has long been ex- 
17 



tremely numerous; from him are derived 
many tribes of Arabs, descending by Ish- 
mael and by Keturah. To say nothing of 
the Jews, there is not any other man tq 
whom so many nations refer their origin. 
Some may have begotten families, but Abra- 
ham is the father of nations. (2) The 
changing of the names, Abram into Abra- 
ham, and Sarai into Sarah. (3) Circumci- 
sion, the sign of the covenant. This sign 
had reference to posterity. As all the pos- 
terity descending from a circumcised person 
must be begotten by the part bearing the 
sign of conformity to the covenant, so the 
issue of such was considered as sacred to 
God, not because of its relation to a holy or 
sacred mother, but because it was derived 
from a part of the father, become holy or 
sacred. It seems probable, that had the 
circumcised part been the finger, the ear, 
&c. the attributed holiness to the posterity 
had not been valid. At least, the relation 
between the sign and the offspring had been 
neither appropriate, consequential, nor ap- 
parent. 

VII. On the story of Abraham's enter- 
taining the angels, some have thought, that, 
in addition to the person, whom Abraham 
addressed, and who remained some time 
after the others were gone towards Sodom, 
the Shekinah appeared. It seems, however, 
more probable, that this person gradually 
displayed, or suffered to appear, the tokens 
of the Shekinah, and without leading Abra- 
ham to suppose he had seen Jehovah, might 
convince him that he had seen his messen- 
ger. This sort of ambiguity, brightening 
into certainty, seems well adapted to the 
circumstances of the subsequent conversa- 
tion between Abraham and his glorious 
guest If Abraham had conceived he was 
speaking immediately to Jehovah, no room 
had been left for reasoning, or representa- 
tion in abatement of his anger. The narra- 
tor says, " Abraham stood before Jehovah," 
and " Jehovah spake," &c. ; but Abraham 
uses merely the word Adonai, behold I 
have spoken to Adonai, &c. It seems, 
therefore, that here was an instance of the 
" unawaredness" with which Abraham en- 
tertained angels. Though he supposed the 
dignity of his guest to be great, yet it was 
much greater than he supposed. He saw 
the human part of this appearance fully; 
but he saw the celestial part very imper- 
fectly, and in such a manner only as flesh 
and blood are capable of seeing it. 

VIII. On Abraham's faith, respecting his 
son Isaac, when called upon to offer him as 
a burnt sacrifice, it may be observed, that 
the patriarch must have been well convinced 
he followed no idle phantasy of his own 
brain, in proposing to slay him. The com- 
mon feelings of human nature, the uncom- 
mon feelings of the aged patriarch, all 
argued against such a deed. The length of 
the journey, the interval of time, the dis- 

C 



ABR 



ABS 



course of Isaac, all conspired to augment 
the anguish of the parent, unless that parent 
was well satisfied in his own mind that he 
acted under a divine direction. 

The eastern people, not only Christians 
and -Mahometans, hut also Indians and Infi- 
dels, have some knowledge of the patriarch 
Abraham, and highly commend him. But 
they tell many fabulous stories of him, and 
his history is embellished with a variety of 
fictions. Some have affirmed, that he 
reigned at Damascus, that he dwelt a long 
time in Egypt, and taught the Egyptians 
astronomy and arithmetic ; and others say, 
that he invented letters, and the Hebrew 
language, or the characters of the Syrians 
and Chaldeans, and that he was the author 
of several works. 

The fathers of the Church have spoken 
largely in commendation of this great patri- 
arch. The Old Testament, and the pro- 
phets, have proposed him as the perfect 
pattern of faith and obedience to God's 
commands. Our Saviour assures us in the 
Gospel, that Abraham earnestly desired to 
see the day of his coming, and that he saw 
it, and was glad. (John viii. 56.) In another 
place, he tells us, that the happiness of the 
righteous consists in being seated with Abra- 
ham, Isaac, and Jacob, in the kingdom of 
heaven, (Matt. viii. 11.) and in being re- 
ceived into Abraham's bosom, as into a 
place of rest. (Luke xvi. 22.) 

The emperor Alexander Severus, who 
knew Abraham only by the wonders related 
of him by Jews and Christians, conceived 
so great an idea of him, that he ranked him 
with Jesus Christ among his gods. Addi- 
tions to CalmeVs Dictionary; Hates' s New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. p. 146. 

ABRAHAM I'TES, an order of monks, 
who, in the ninth century, were extermi- 
nated for idolatry by the emperor Theophi- 
lus. It was also the name of another sect 
of heretics, who had adopted the errors of 
Paulus. These last derived their name from 
that of their leader Abraham, a native of 
Antioch, called by the Arabs, Ibrahim, and 
hence the name of Ibrahimiah is given by 
them to this sect. Tbe Abrahamites arose 
about the close of the eighth century, and 
were suppressed by the vigilance of Syriacus, 
Patriarch of Antioch. 

AB'SALOM, oibuax, signifies father of 
peace, or the peace of the father, or of consum- 
mation, or of recompence, and was the name 
of the son of David, who was born of Maa- 
cbali, the daughter of Talmai, king of Ge- 
shur. It is said that he was the most beau- 
tiful man in Israel, and had the finest head 
of hair. When he cut off his hair, which 
was done at certain periods, it weighed 
two hundred shekels by the king's weight. 
(2 Sam. xiv. 25.26.) In our translation of the 
Bible, it is said, that the hair on Absalom's 
head was cut off every year; but the He- 
brew does not designate the time. The 
18 



Targum, therefore, reads at stated times, 
or when it grew too heavy. The weight of 
Absalom's hair, when cut off, might be about 
thirty-one ounces; and we know by the 
relation of hair-dressers, that some women 
have thirty-two ounces of hair on their 
heads. Absalom had a sister both by the 
father and mother's side, named Tamar. 
He had also a brother called Amnon, who 
was also the son of David, but not born of 
Absalom's mother. Amnon conceived so 
violent a passion for his sister Tamar, that 
he began to pine away; but prevailing with 
the king to allow Tamar to enter his cham- 
ber, and to prepare something for him to 
eat, he ravished her, and then dismissed 
her with shame and reproach. Absalom 
not only received his sister into his house, 
but resolved to revenge the outrage which 
had been committed. But expecting, per- 
haps, that the king, his father, would punish 
so wicked an action, he forbore to say any 
thing to Amnon. About two years after this 
transaction, in the year of the world 2974, 
and before Jesus Christ 1030, Absalom went 
to a sheep-shearing, at Baalhazor, whither 
he invited the king and all the royal family. 
David excused himself, but being pressed 
by the intreaties of Absalom, he consented 
that Amnon and his brethren should accom- 
pany him. When they had become warm 
with wine, Amnon was assassinated by the 
orders of Absalom ; and the other princes, 
in great consternation, immediately fled to 
Jerusalem. Absalom retired to king Talmai, 
his mother's father, in the country of Geshur, 
where he continued three years, and whither 
David did not pursue him. (2 Sam. xiii.) 

Joab, observing that the king was desirous 
of seeing his son, found means, by the in- 
terposition of an artful woman of Tekoah, to 
procure his consent for the return of Absa- 
lom. This woman, in a speech composed 
for the purpose, persuaded the king that in 
some cases the life of a murderer might be 
saved. Absalom, therefore, returned to 
Jerusalem ; but David would not suffer him 
to appear in his presence. During two years, 
he continued in disgrace; but at the expi- 
ration of that time, . he sent for Joab, and 
intreated him to intercede with the king in 
his behalf. Joab, however, refusing to go 
to him, Absalom commanded his servants 
to set fire to a field of barley, which belonged 
to Joab. On being informed of this, JoaD 
went, and complained to Absalom, who con- 
fessed that the field had been set on fire by 
his orders, with the hope of procuring his 
mediation with the king. Joab related all 
that had passed to David, who commanded 
Absalom to be immediately introduced, and 
received him again into his favour. (Ibid, 
xiv.) 

Amnon, his elder brother, being dead, 
Absalom, after his reconciliation, considered 
hims( If as presumptive heir to the crown, 
and set up a magnificent equipage of chariots 



ABS 



ABS 



and horses. He came every morning to the 
gate of the palace, and calling all those, who 
wished to transact any business with the 
king, enquired of them their errand. When 
they had reported to him their business, he 
told them that their several causes seemed 
good and just, but that the king had deputed 
no man to determine them. Absalom also 
said, ' Oh that I were made judge in the 
land, that every man, which hath any suit or 
cause, might come unto me, and I would 
do him justice!' Absalom continued this 
practice for some time, and when any man 
came near to honour him, he put forth his 
hand, took him up, and kissed him. He 
practised this conduct during four years, 
and gradually won the affections of the peo- 
ple; and when he thought that he might 
declare himself, he requested permission of 
the king to go to Hebron, under pretence 
of performing there some vow, which he 
had made during his abode at Geshur. 
(Ibid, xv.) 

It is observable, that the text, in the se- 
venth verse, mentions forty years, as if Ab- 
salom had endeavoured to alienate the affec- 
tions of the people during that time. The 
learned Usher, however, has shewn, that the 
forty years should be reckoned from the 
time that David was appointed by Samuel, 
and not from that of his reconciliation with 
Absalom. This rebellion took place about 
four years after the reconciliation; and se- 
veral Latin MSS. Josephus and Theodoret, 
read four years only. Usher observes, that 
this rebellion broke out before or about 
Whitsuntide, in the year of the world 2980, 
and before Jesus Christ 1024. The par- 
ticular time of the year appears from the 
new fruits and parched corn, which Barzil- 
lai brought to David in his flight. (Ibid, 
xvii. 28.) 

Absalom having obtained the king's leave 
went to Hebron, and was accompanied by 
two hundred men, who followed him with- 
out knowing his wicked designs. In the 
mean time, he sent particular persons, whom 
he had attached to his interest, throughout 
all the tribes of Israel, and commanded them 
to sound the trumpet, and publish in every 
place, that Absalom was king at Hebron. 
Immediately a number of people joined him, 
and he was acknowledged by the greatest 
part of Israel. David being informed of 
Absalom's revolt, and that all Israel was of 
his party, fled with his officers from Jeru- 
salem. Absalom immediately marched to 
Jerusalem, which he entered without resist- 
ance. Ahithophel advised him to abuse his 
father's concubines publicly, that all the 
people might understand by this action, that 
the difference could never be reconciled, and 
therefore might continue firm to him, with- 
out any thoughts of returning to their former 
allegiance. (Ibid, xvi.) 

At the same time, Ahithophel proposed to 
Absalom, that some troops should be sent 
19 



in pursuit of David, before he should have 
time to collect any forces. From this coun- 
sel, however, Absalom was diverted by Hu- 
shai, David's ffiend, who pretended to be 
of his party, but who gave notice of it to 
David. 

The next day, Absalom marched against 
David with all his forces ; and having cross- 
ed the river Jordan, he disposed his troops 
to attack the king his father. David ordered 
his forces to march out of the city under 
the command of Joab. In this engagement 
Absalom's army was routed; twenty thou- 
sand of his troops were killed on the spot, 
and the rest saved themselves by flight. Ab- 
salom was mounted upon a mule ; and as he 
fled through the forest of Ephraim, in which 
the battle was fought, and was passing under 
a large oak, with very thick boughs, his 
hair was entangled among the branches, 
and his mule going on swiftly, he was left 
hanging. A man seeing him in this situa- 
tion, informed Joab, who took three darts, 
and thrust them through the heart of Ab- 
salom. Ten young men that bore Joab's 
armour compassed about, and smote Ab- 
salom, and slew him. His body was thrown 
into a great pit which was in the wood, and 
on it was laid a large heap of stones. 

Absalom had erected a pillar in the king's 
valley, saying, ' I have no son, and this 
shall be a monument to perpetuate my 
name.' He therefore called the pillar after 
his own name, and it was so denominated 
in the time of the author of the books of 
Samuel. (Ibid, xviii. 18.) Eastward of 
Jerusalem, in the valley of Jehoshaphat, is a 
monument which is shown to travellers, and 
which is said to be that of Absalom. Jose- 
phus, speaking of this monument, says, it 
was a marble column, distant about two fur- 
longs from Jerusalem. Travellers assure 
us, that all, who go near Absalom's pillar, 
throw a stone at it, to express their abhor- 
rence of the son's rebellion against his fa- 
ther, and that the heap of stones is so great 
as almost to cover the lower part of the mo- 
nument. Though we are told that Absa- 
lom's body was thrown into a pit, in the 
forest of Ephraim, under a great heap of 
stones, it is probable that David, who la- 
mented his son with such excessive grief, 
caused it to be removed and laid in the 
sepulchre of the kings, or perhaps near the 
monument. 

In a passage to which we have already 
referred, the Scripture seems to intimate, 
that Absalom, when he erected the monu- 
ment, had no children. In another place, 
however, it is said, that he had three sons, 
and one daughter of great beauty, who was 
called Tamar. (2 Sam. xiv. 27.) But it is 
probable, that these children, at least the 
sons, did not live. Some are of opinion, 
that Tamar, the daughter of Absalom, mar- 
ried Rehoboam, king of Judah. 

It is observable, that Absalom was the 
C 2 



ABS 



ABS 



first that used horses among the Israelites. 
Till his time, the kings rode upon mules, 
and the greatest nobles upon asses, as may 
be seen in the history of the Judges. Univ. 
Hist. vol. iv. p. 75 ; Bochart ; Patrick. 

ABSOLUTION signifies acquittal, and is 
also used for that act, by which the priest 
declares the sins of penitents remitted. The 
ministerial power of remitting sins was 
vested by Christ in the apostles, from whom 
it was derived to the Church. To more 
than this, the primitive Church never pre- 
tended, leaving the absolute, sovereign, in- 
dependent, irreversible power of absolution 
to God alone. The ancients reckoned five 
kinds of absolution: 1. That of baptism; 
2. That of the eucharist; 3. That of the 
word and doctrine ; 4. That of imposition 
of hands and prayer ; 5. That of recon- 
cilement to the communion of the Church, 
by a relaxation of her censures. The first 
two may be called sacramental ; the third, 
declaratory ; the fourth, precatory ; and the 
fifth, judicial. The first had no relation to 
penitential discipline, and was never given 
to persons, who had once received baptism. 
The second bore some relation to it, but did 
not solely belong to it ; for absolution was 
given to all baptized persons, who never fell 
under penitential discipline, as well as to 
those, who lapsed and were restored to com- 
munion. In both respects this absolution 
was called the perfection of a Christian. By 
the third, the ministers of Christ publicly 
declared to men the terms of reconciliation 
and salvation. The fourth was used as a 
concomitant of most other absolutions. By 
the fifth, penitents were finally restored to 
the peace and full communion of the church. 
Anciently, no sinners were absolved till they 
had performed their regular penance, ex- 
cept in case of imminent death. With re- 
spect to the ceremony of absolution, the 
penitent was publicly reconciled, in sack- 
cloth, at the altar, by tbis, or a similar 
form : ' He that forgave the sinful woman 
all her sins, for which she shed tears, and 
opened to the thief the gates of paradise, 
make you partaker of this redemption, ab- 
solve you from all the bonds of your sins, 
heal you by the medicine of his mercy, re- 
store you to the body of the Church by his 
grace, and for ever keep you whole and 
sound.' Tbe indicative form ' I absolve 
thee' instead of ' Christ absolve thee,' was 
not used till the twelfth century, a little 
before the time of Thomas Aquinas, who 
first wrote in its defence. Sometimes chrism 
or unction was added to the imposition of 
hands, in the reconciliation of such heretics 
and schismatics to the Church as had been 
baptized in heresy or schism ; and the rea- 
son of this was, because their baptism out 
of the Church was null and void, and they 
were supposed to want the true effect of 
baptism, the grace or unction of the Holy 
Spirit. The time of absolution was com- 
20 



monly the day of our Saviour's passion. 
Some penitents were received into the 
church by absolution, even after their death, 
particularly such as died during the course 
of their penance. Absolution was primarily 
lodged in the bishop, who committed it to 
the hands of the presbyters and deacons 
only. However, in cases of extreme neces- 
sity, some canons allowed a layman to ad- 
minister baptism, rather than that a cate- 
chumen should die unbaptized. 

Some crimes incapacitated a sinner from 
ever receiving absolution ; and these were 
idolatry, murder, and adultery. Though this 
rigour was afterwards abated, yet communion 
was denied to such apostates as remained 
obstinate and impenitent all their lives, and 
only desired reconciliation when death ap- 
proached. 

Speaking of the abuse of absolution in 
the Roman church, the judicious Hooker ob- 
serves, " They strangely hold, that whatso- 
ever the penitent doth, his contrition, con- 
fession, and satisfaction, have no place of 
right, to stand as material parts in this sa- 
crament, nor consequently any such force 
as to make them available for the taking 
away of sin, in that they proceed from the 
penitent himself, without the privity of the 
minister, but only as they are enjoined by 
the minister's authority and power ; except, 
therefore, the priest be willing, God hath, 
by promise, hampered himself so, that it is 
not now in his power to pardon any man ; 
he hath no answer to make, but such as that 
of the angel unto Lot, 1 can do nothing!" 
Describing the true nature and effects of 
absolution, he afterwards says, " The sen- 
tence therefore, of ministerial absolution, 
hath two effects: touching sin, it only de- 
clareth us freed from the guiltiness thereof 
and restored unto God's favour; but con- 
cerning right in sacred and divine myste- 
ries, whereof, through sin, we were made 
unworthy, as the power of the church did 
before effectually blind and retain us from 
access unto them, so, upon our apparent 
repentance, it truly restoreth our liberty, 
looseth the chains wherewith we are tied, 
remitteth all whatsoever is past, and ac- 
cepteth us no less returned, than if we had 
never gone astray !" 

Archbishop Tillotson has given his opin- 
ion of the use and intent of absolution in the 
following words : " Upon this miraculous 
gift of knowing the secrets of men's hearts, 
it seems to be very probable, that that which 
is commonly called, the power of the keys, 
did depend ; I mean the power of remitting 
or retaining sins ; for they, who had the 
privilege of knowing men's hearts, might do 
this upon certain grounds, and were secured 
from mistake in the exercise of their power 
upon particular persons ; which the priests 
and ministers of the church now are not, 
nor can be ; because they cannot see into 
men's hearts, whether they be truly penitent, 



ABS 



ABS 



and qualified for forgiveness, or not. For 
I cannot easily believe but that those words 
of our Saviour, whose sins ye remit, they 
are remitted ; and whose sins ye retain, they 
are retained, were intended to signify some- 
thing more than a mere declaration of the 
promises and threatenings of the gospel, 
which any man might make as well as the 
apostles and ministers of the church. For 
that God will forgive the penitent, and that 
he will not pardon the sinner, except he 
repent, is as true from any man's mouth, as 
from an apostle's : and as to the absolution 
of this, or that particular person, though a 
minister, by the skill and knowledge of his 
profession, is ordinarily and reasonably pre- 
sumed, by virtue of his office, to be a better 
judge of a man's repentance, than other 
persons are, and therefore may, with more 
authority and satisfaction to the penitent, 
declare his judgment and opinion concern- 
ing him ; yet not being able to see into his 
heart, he may be mistaken concerning him ; 
and if he be, his declaring his sins to be for- 
given, that is, his absolution of him, will do 
him no good; and on the other hand, his 
refusal to absolve him, if he be truly peni- 
tent, will do him no harm." 

The archbishop says, farther, that, " pro- 
testants do not make the absolution of the 
priest at all necessary to the forgiveness of 
sins, but only convenient for the satisfaction 
and comfort of the penitent. For which 
reason, our church does not require a for- 
mal absolution to be given to the dying 
penitent, unless he himself desire it : which 
is a certain argument, that in the judgment 
of our church, the absolution of the priest 
is not necessary to the forgiveness and sal- 
vation of the penitent." 

In the liturgy of the church of England 
are three several forms of absolution. The 
first, is that at morning prayer ; " Almighty 
God, &c. who hath given power, &c. He 
pardoneth and absolveth," &c. The second 
is used at the visitation of the sick : " Our 
Lord Jesus Christ, who hath left power to 
his church, &c. by his authority committed 
to me, I absolve thee," &c. The third is 
in the communion service : " Almighty 
God, &c. who hath promised forgiveness of 
sins, &c. have mercy on you," &c. These 
three different forms, says Bishop Sparrow, 
are in sense and virtue the same. " For 
as when a prince hath granted a commission 
to any servant of his, to release out of prison 
all penitent offenders whatever, it were all 
one, in effect, as to the prisoner's discharge, 
whether this servant says, by virtue of a 
commission granted to me, under the prince's 
hand and seal, 1 release this prisoner; or 
thus, the prince, who hath given me this 
commission, pardons you ; or lastly, the 
prince pardon and deliver you." 

Before concluding this article, it is neces- 
sary to observe, that a late writer seems to 
be of opinion, that the Roman Catholics do 



not believe that a priest, bishop, or even a 
pope, can forgive a person his sins, unless 
that person be sincerely sorry for them, 
firmly resolved to avoid them through grace 
in future, and disposed to give satisfaction 
by penitential works, according to his ca- 
pacity, to his offended God, and to make 
restitution, if he can, to his injured neigh- 
bour. Without these dispositions, they do 
not believe that God himself will forgive any 
man. Broughton's Dictionary of all Reli- 
gions ; Adams's Religious World displayed. 

ABSTEMII was a name given to such 
persons as could not partake of the cup in 
the sacrament, on account of their natural 
aversion to wine. 

ABSTINENCE is a religious duty, and 
denotes fasting or abstaining from necessary 
food. The Jewish law ordained, that the 
priests should abstain from wine, during the 
whole time that they were employed in the 
service of the temple. (Levit. x. 9.) The 
same abstinence was enjoined the Nazarites, 
during the time of their Nazariteship, or se- 
paration. (Numb, vi. 3.) The Jews were 
commanded to abstain from several sorts of 
animals. See Animal. 

By the Jewish law, the fat of all sorts of 
animals was forbidden to be eaten ; and the 
blood of every animal in general was prohi- 
bited under pain of death. (Levit. iii. 17 ; 
vii. 23, &c.) The Jews also did not eat the 
sinew which is on the hollow of the thigh, 
though otherwise pure, because the angel 
that wrestled with Jacob at Mahanaim, 
touched the hollow of Jacob's thigh, and by 
that means occasioned the sinew to shrink. 
(Gen. xxxii. 25.) 

Among the primitive Christians, some de- 
nied themselves the use of such meats as 
were prohibited by the law ; others treated 
this abstinence with contempt. St. Paul has 
given his opinion as to these matters, of 
which we have an account in his epistles. 
(1 Cor. viii. 7, 10; Rom. xiv. I, 2, 3.) The 
council of Jerusalem, which was held by the 
apostles, enjoined the Christian converts to 
abstain from meats strangled, from blood, 
from fornication, and from idolatry. (Acts, 
xv. 20.) St. Paul requires, that Christians 
should ' abstain from all appearance of evil,' 
(1 Thess. v. 22,) and also from every thing 
which is really evil, and contrary to piety 
and religion. 

The spiritual monaixhy of the western 
world introduced another sort of abstinence 
which may be termed ritual, and which con- 
sists in abstaining from particular meats at 
certain times and seasons, the rules of which 
are called rogations. 

The apostolical Lent was observed only a 
few days before Easter. In the course of 
the third century, it extended at Rome to 
three weeks : and before the middle of the 
succeeding age, it was prolonged to six 
weeks, and began to be called quadrage- 
siraa, or forty days' last. About the time 



ABS 



ABY 



of the council of Eliberis, Saturday was a 
day observed for keeping the lesser fast in 
some of the western churches, and three 
days of abstinence were observed in the 
week. However, in time, the fast on Sa- 
turday was observed with greater strictness, 
aad that on Wednesday was wholly disre- 
garded. On the days of humiliation, it was 
customary to pray in a kneeling posture, 
contrary to the practice of offering their 
devotions standing. The latter was usual 
at those times when any joyful event was 
commemorated, or any festival observed. 
The increasing passion for austerities, which 
during the third century was so observable, 
must be ascribed to the increasing belief in 
the power of malignant spirits, who were 
supposed to be continually inciting men to 
the commission of evil, and whose influence 
was thought to be considerably diminished 
by abstinence and mortification. This opi- 
nion may be easily traced to the Gnostic 
philosophy, which insensibly became inter- 
woven with the doctrines of Christianity ; 
but a great number of the rites introduced 
into the discipline of the church can be 
considered only as an accommodation to 
Paganism. Gregory's Hist, of the Christian 
Church. 

ABSTINENTS were a sect of heretics, 
that appeared in France and Spain, about 
the end of the third century. They are 
supposed to have borrowed part of their 
opinions from the Gnostics and Manichae- 
ans, because they opposed marriage, foi'bade 
the use of flesh meat, and placed the Holy 
Ghost in the rank of created beings. 

ABYSS, or Deep. By this name hell 
is designated in Scripture. (Luke viii. 31 ; 
Rom. x. 7; Rev. ix. 1; xi. 7, &c. ; Gen. 
vii. 11 ; Exod. xv. 5; &c. &c.) It is also 
the name of the deepest parts of the sea, 
and of the chaos, which in the beginning of 
the world, was covered with darkness, and 
upon which the Spirit of God moved. (Gen. 
i. 2.) According to some writers, by the 
Abyss we are to understand that vast quan- 
tity of water which is contained within the 
earth. 

In the opinion of the ancient Hebrews, 
and of the generality of the eastern people 
at this day, the Abyss, the sea, and waters, 
encompass the whole earth, that floats on 
the Abyss, of which it covers a small part. 
According to the same people, the earth 
was founded on the waters, or at least its 
foundations were on the Abyss. (Psalm 
xxxiii. 7*9; civ. 6.) Under these waters, 
and at the bottom of this Abyss, the scrip- 
ture represents the giants as groaning, and 
Buffering; the punishment of their sin. There 
an confined the Rephaim, those old giants, 
who, whilst living, caused surrounding na- 
tions to tremble. (Prov. ix. 18; xxi. 16, 
&c.) Lastly, in these dark dungeons, the 
kings of Tyre, Babylon, and Egypt, aw de- 
scribed by the prophets as expiating the 
22 



guilt of their pride and cruelty. (Isaiah 
xxvi. 14; Ezek. xxviii. S, &c.) 

These depths are the abodes of devils or 
wicked men : " I saw," says St. John, " a 
star fall from heaven unto the earth, and 
to him was given the key of the bottomless 
pit. And he opened the bottomless pit ; 
and there arose a smoke out of it, as the 
smoke of a great furnace ; and the sun and 
the air were darkened by reason of the 
smoke of the pit. And there came out of 
the smoke, locusts upon the earth. And 
they had a king over them, which is the 
angel of the bottomless pit." (Rev. ix. 1, 
2, 11.) In another place, the beast is re- 
presented as ascending out of the bottom- 
less pit, and waging war against the two 
witnesses of God. (Rev. xi. 70 Lastly, St. 
John says, " I saw an angel come down from 
heaven, having the key of the bottomless 
pit, and a great chain in his hand. And he 
laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, 
which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound 
him a thousand years, and cast him into the 
bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a 
seal upon him, that he should deceive the 
nations no more, till the thousand years 
should be fulfilled : and after that he must 
be loosed a little season." (Ibid. xx. 1, 
2, 3.) 

In the opinion of the Hebrews, fountains 
or rivers are derived from the Abyss or sea. 
(Eccl. i. 7-) At the time of the deluge the 
depths below, or the waters of the sea, broke 
down their banks, and the fountains forced 
their springs, and spread over the earth. 
The Abyss, which, in the beginning of the 
world, covered the earth, and was put in 
agitation by the Spirit of God, (Gen. i. 2,) 
or by an impetuous wind, was so denomi- 
nated because it afterwards composed the 
sea. Out of the midst of this abyss, the 
earth arose, like an island of the sea, and 
appeared suddenly, after having been for a 
long time concealed under water. 

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH is that, which 
is established in the empire of Abyssinia, in 
Africa. The Abyssinians are a branch of 
the Copts, with whom they agree in admit- 
ting only one nature in Jesus Christ, and in 
rejecting the council of Chalcedon. Hence 
they are also called Monophysites, and'Eu- 
tychians. The Abyssinian church is go- 
verned by a bishop, who is styled abuna, and 
who is sent into Abyssinia by the Coptic 
patriarch of Alexandria, residing at Cairo ; 
but as the abuna is ignorant of the Abyssi- 
tnian language, he takes little share in the 
'/government, and attends the court on days 
of ceremony only. In the Church of Abys- 
sinia, are different kinds of degrees* The 
desperas are neither priests nor deacons, but 
a sort of Jewish Levites, or chanters, who 
assist in all public offices of the church. 
The homos arc a kind of high priests, under 
whose care and superintendence, the infe- 
rior clergy, and the secular aflairs of the 



ABS 



AC-A 



parish are placed. The priests have their 
maintenance assigned them in the produc- 
tions of the country. The emperor has a 
kind of supremacy in ecclesiastical matters, 
and receives holy orders. They have monks 
and canons. The former lead an austere 
and regular life, are poor, and live in a state 
of celibacy. 

They differ from the Eutychians, in con- 
fessing that the nature of Christ is composed 
of two natures, the divine and human, which, 
being united, became one single nature. 
They practise circumcision on females as 
well as males. They eat no meats prohi- 
bited by the law of Moses ; but this prohibi- 
tion, as well as the rite of circumcision, is 
considered by them merely as a political in- 
stitution. They observe both Saturday and 
Sunday as sabbaths. Women are obliged to 
the legal purifications. Brothers marry 
their brothers' wives, &c. 

They celebrate the Epiphany with peculiar 
festivity; observe four lents ; pray for the 
dead ; and invoke angels. They adore 
images in painting, but abhor all those in 
relievo, except that of the cross. They ad- 
mit the Nicene, Constantinopolitan, Ephe- 
sian, and some other provincial councils ; 
and they consider the apocryphal books, and 
the canons of the apostles, as well as the 
apostolical constitutions, as genuine. They 
allow divorce, which is granted by the civil 
judge ; and their laws do not prohibit po- 
lygamy. They have at least as many mira- 
cles and legends of saints as the Romish 
Church ; and they pay so great a veneration 
to the Virgin Mary, that they charged the 
Jesuits with not rendering her sufficient 
homage. They maintain that the soul of 
man is not created, because, they say, God 
finished all his works on the sixth day. 
They disown the pope's supremacy, and 
transubstantiation, though they acknowledge 
the real presence of Christ in the sacrament. 
They administer the communion in both 
kinds. They believe in a middle state, in 
which departed souls must be purged from 
their sins, and may be greatly assisted and 
relieved by the prayers, alms, and penances, 
of their surviving friends. They use con- 
fession, and receive penance and absolution 
from the priests. 

At different times, the Abyssinians have 
expressed an inclination of being reconciled 
to the Church of Rome; but the missions of 
the Jesuits and others in the seventeenth 
century for that purpose, were frustrated 
by the tyrannical and impolitic measures of 
the missionaries themselves. In the same 
century, the Lutherans attempted to spread 
the knowledge of the gospel among the 
Abyssinians; but their missions were also 
Unsuccessful. 

The first conversion of the Abyssinians is 
ascribed by some to the famous prime mi- 
nister of their queen Candace, who is men- 
tioned in the Acts of the J post lis. How- 
23 



ever, it is probable, that the conversion of 
that empire was not perfected till the fourth 
century, when Frumentius, ordained bishop 
of Axuma by Athanasius, exercised his mi- 
nistry among them with great success. 
They were esteemed a pure church till they 
embraced the errors of Eutyches and Dios- 
corus. 

It is evident that at present the doctrines 
and ritual of the Abyssinian Church form a 
strange compound of Judaism and Chris- 
tianity, of ignorance and superstition ; and 
it seems difficult to determine, whether it 
be Jewish or Christian. It is, however, to 
be feared, that if it be Christian, it retains 
little more of Christianity than the name. 
Bruce' s Travels ; Universal History, fyc. 

AC AC IAN S were a sect of heretics of 
the fourth century, who derived their name 
from Acacius, bishop of Caesarea. This 
bishop denied the Son to be of the same 
substance as the Father, though some of his 
adherents allowed the Son to be of a similar 
substance. 

It was also the designation of another 
sect, who derived their name from Acacius, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and a favourer 
of the opinions of Eutyches. The events, 
which followed the formation of this last 
sect, furnish proofs that the supremacy of 
the bishop of Rome was far from being uni- 
versally acknowledged in the fifth century. 
Pope Felix II. deposed and excommuni- 
cated Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
who not only received the sentence with 
contempt, but in his turn, anathematized 
and excommunicated the Pope, and ordered 
his name to be erased from the diptychs, or 
sacred registers. This conduct of Acacius 
was approved by the emperor, the Church 
of Constantinople, by almost all the eastern 
bishops, and even by Andreas of Thessalo- 
nica, who was at that time the Pope's vicar 
for East Illyricum. This was the occasion 
of that general schism, which continued for 
twenty-five years, between the eastern and 
western churches. At length, the perseve- 
rance of the Latins triumphed over the op- 
position of the oriental Christians ; and the 
name of Acacius was erased from the dip- 
tychs, and branded with infamy. Though 
several articles were alleged against Aca- 
cius, as his attachment to the Monophysites, 
&c. yet the true reasons of the Pope's ha- 
tred to him were his denying the supremacy 
of the bishop of Rome, and his efforts to en- 
large the authority and prerogatives of the 
see of Constantinople. It is worthy of ob- 
servation, that the eastern bishops did not 
adhere to the cause of Acacius, from any 
other principle than a persuasion of the il- 
legality of his excommunication by the 
Roman pontiff, who, in their judgment, had 
no right to depose the first bishop of the 
east, without the consent of a general coun- 
cil. Moshc/m. 

ACADEMICS was a denomination given 



ACC 



ACC 



to the cultivators of a species of philosophy 
originally derived from Socrates, and after- 
wards illustrated and enforced by Plato. — 
The contradictory systems, which had been 
successively urged upon the world, were be- 
come so numerous, that, from a view of the 
variety and uncertainty of human opinions, 
many were led to conclude, that truth was 
beyond the reach of our comprehension. The 
consequence of this conclusion was absolute 
scepticism. Hence the existence of God, 
the immortality of the soul, the preferable- 
ness of virtue to vice, were considered by the 
Academics as uncertain. This sect, and that 
of the Epicureans, were the two principal hi 
repute at the time of Christ's appearance, 
and were embraced and supported by persons 
of wealth and high rank. A consideration 
of the principles of these two sects will en- 
able us to form an idea of the deplorable 
state of the world, at the time of Christ's 
birth, and of the necessity that existed of 
some divine teacher, who might convey to 
the mind true and certain principles of reli- 
gion and wisdom. 

ACC AD, ~t3K, 'Apxa$, signifies a vessel, a 
pitcher. It was the name of a city built by 
Nimrod, the situation of which is not suffi- 
ciently ascertained. By the Septuagint it is 
called Archad (Gen. x. 10.) Hence Dr. 
Wells is of opinion, that some marks of this 
name are still preserved in that of the river 
Argades, which flows near Sittace, a town 
situated at some distance from the Tigris, 
and anciently giving name to Sittacene, a 
country between Babylon and Susa. Hence 
also it is conjectured, that the city Sittace 
was formerly called Argad, or Archad, and 
derived its name of Sittace, or Psittace, from 
the great quantity of psittacias, or pistacias, 
a sort of nut, which grew in that neighbour- 
hood. Strabo mentions a region in these 
parts, by the name of Artacene, which was 
probably formed from Arcad, and might be 
the ancient denomination of the country Sit- 
tacene, as Arcad was of the city Sittace ; and 
Pliny expressly says, that Sittacene was the 
same as Arbelitis, or the country about 
Arbela. 

According to Abulfaragi, Accad is the 
same as Nisibis or Nisibeen, which is situ- 
ated in the northern part of Mesopotamia, 
between the Tigris and the Euphrates, though 
it has been placed on the banks of the for- 
mer by some geographers, who have con- 
founded that river with the stream that runs 
by it. Nesibis, Nisibis, Nisibeen, or Nesbin 
(for all these names have been given to it), 
is situated in a level plain, with the hills of 
Mardin on the north, at the distance of from 
five to ten miles; the high mountains of 
Sinjar (Singar) on the south, distant about 
ten or twelve leagues j and a flat desert coun- 
try, in general, to the east, and west. The 
town is seated on the western bank of the 
river Mygdonius, the Saocaras of Ptolemy, 
now railed merely the nVW of Ni:;ibccn, 
24 



which is still observed to overflow its banks 
on the falling of the autumnal rains, and the 
melting of the vernal snows ; confirming the 
accuracy of Julian, who described it as in- 
undating the country near the walls of the 
city, and watering the neighbouring fields. 
Several smaller streams run into this river, 
near the city itself. — Memoires de VAcademie 
Royale, torn, xxvii. p. 31 ; Buckingham's Tra- 
vels in Mesopotamia, vol. i. pp. 430 — 443, 
vol. ii. p. 463 ; Wells's Geography. 

AC'CHO, or Auchoo, isy, signifies close, 
inclosed. This city was afterwards called 
Ptolemais, (Acts xxi. 7-) and more latterly 
Acra or Acre. It is situated to the north of 
Mount Carmel, and enjoys every advantage 
both of land and sea. On the north and 
east sides is a spacious fertile plain ; on the 
west, the Mediterranean Sea; and on the 
south, a large bay extending from the city 
as far as Mount Carmel. On the division, 
this city fell to the tribe of Asher ; but the 
Israelites did not extirpate the inhabitants 
of Accho, which continued in the possession 
of the Canaanites. (Judg. i. 31.) 

During a long time, this city was the the- 
atre of contention between the Christians and 
Infidels, till at length, after a long siege, it 
was finally taken by the Turks, by whom it 
was treated with great indignity. Within 
the walls appear the ruins of the cathedral 
church ; of the church of St. John, the tute- 
lary saint of this city ; of the convent of the 
knights hospitallers ; and of the palace of 
the grand master of that order. This place 
is remarkable for the opposition, which Bona- 
parte here encountered from the English and 
Turks, who, under the direction of Sir Sid- 
ney Smith, compelled the French, after a 
long and memorable siege, to retire from 
Syria with great loss. 

ACCLAMATIONS, were shouts of joy 
expressed by the people to denote their ap- 
probation of the preacher. 1 1 seems scarcely 
credible to us, that practices of this nature 
should ever have found their way into the 
church, in which all ought to be reverence 
and solemnity. Yet such practices were 
common in the fourth century. The people 
were not only permitted, but even sometimes 
exhorted, by the preacher himself, to approve 
his talents by the clapping of hands, and 
loud acclamations of applause. The usual 
words employed on such an occasion were, 
1 Orthodox,' ' third apostle,' &c. These ac- 
clamations being carried to excess, and often 
misplaced, were prohibited by the ancient 
doctors, and at length abrogated. However, 
even at present we find among some sects 
practices, which are not "very decorous, and 
which consist of loud humming, frequent 
groaning, strange gestures of the body, &c. 
See Dancers, Shakers. 

ACCOMMODATION OF SCRIPTURE, 
is the application of Scripture, not to its 
literal meaning, but to something, to which it 
is analogous. Thus a scripture prophecy is 



ACE 



ACH 



said to be properly fulfilled, when that which 
is foretold comes to pass, and by way of ac- 
commodation, when an event happens to any 
place or people similar to what had before 
happened to some other. Thus the words of 
Isaiah, spoken to the people of his own time, 
are said to have been fulfilled in those who 
lived in the time of our Saviour : — ' Ye hy- 
pocrites, well did Esaias prophesy,' &c. 
The same words are afterwards accommo- 
dated by St. Paul to the Jews of his time. 
(Isa. xxix. 13; Matt. xv. 8; Acts xiii. 41). 

ACCURSED, denotes something under a 
curse, or sentence of excommunication. Ac- 
cording to the idiom of the Hebrew language, 
accursed and crucified were synonymous terms. 
By the Jews, every one who died upon a tree 
was reckoned accursed. (Deut. xxi. 23.) 

ACEL'DAMA, novbpn, 'Ayooe ai/mroc, 
signifies the field of blood, and was the name 
of that field, which the priests purchased with 
the thirty pieces of silver that had been given 
to Judas Iscariot, as the price of the blood of 
Jesus Christ Judas having brought back 
this money into the temple, and the priests 
not thinking it lawful to use it for the ser- 
vice of so holy a place, they bought with it 
the potter's field, to be a burying-place for 
strangers. (Matt, xxvii. 8 ; Acts i. 18.) This 
field is shown at this day to travellers. 

' It lies,' says Maundrell, ' on the west 
side of the valley of Hinnom, and at present, 
from the veneration that it has obtained 
among Christians, is called Campo Sancto. 
It is a small plot of ground, not more than 
thirty yards long, and about half as much 
broad. One moiety of it is taken up by a 
square fabric, twelve yards high, built for a 
charnel house. The corpses are let down 
into it from the top, there being five holes 
left open for that purpose. Looking down 
through these holes, we could see many bo- 
dies in different degrees of decay: from 
which it may be conjectured, that this grave 
does not make that quick dispatch with the 
corpses committed to it, which is commonly 
reported. The Armenians have the com- 
mand of this burying-place, for which they 
pay the Turks a rent of one sequin a day.' 
— Maundrell s Journey from Aleppo to Jerusa- 
lem, p. 101. 

ACEPHALI, signifies headless, and was 
a name given to a considerable body of the 
Monophysites, or Eutychians, who, by the 
submission of their leader Mongus to the de- 
cree of union published by the emperor Zeno 
in 482, had been deprived of their chief. This 
sect was afterwards divided into three others, 
called Anthropomorphites, Barsanuphites, 
and Esaianists ; and. these again were sub- 
divided into others, which are frequently 
mentioned by the ancient writers. It is, 
however, necessary to observe, that these 
subdivisions of the Eutychian sect are not 
to be too easily adopted. Some of them are 
entirely fictions ; and others are character- 
ized by a nominal, and not a real ditl'erence. 
25 



These branches of the Eutychian faction did 
not long flourish. They gradually declined 
in the following century ; and the influence 
and authority of the famous Baradeus contri- 
buted principally to their extinction, by the 
union he established among the members of 
that sect. — Mosheim. 

ACHA'IA, 'A%aia, signifies grief or trou- 
ble, and was a province of Greece, of which 
Corinth was the capital. In this city St. Paul 
preached, and St. Andrew suffered martyr- 
dom. (Acts xviii. 12.) Under Achaia, the 
Romans comprehended Greece properly so 
called, and the Peloponnesus. 

This seems to be the region intended when 
St. Paul, according to the Roman accepta- 
tion, mentions all the regions of Achaia, and 
directs his second Epistle to all the saints in 
Achaia. (2 Cor. xi. 10.) ' It is worthy of 
remark, that Luke (Acts xviii. 12.) calls Gal- 
lio the deputy, that is, the proconsul of Achaia, 
which indeed was the proper title for the 
chief magistrate there, at the time he wrote ; 
but it had not long been so, nor did it long 
continue to be the case. The propriety of 
the application, however, confirms, in no 
small degree, the authenticity of his narra- 
tive.' — Calmet. 

ACHA'ICUS, 'A%aVKoe, signifies a native 
of Achaia, and was the name of a disciple of 
St. Paul, who recommended him in a parti- 
cular manner to the Corinthians. Achaicus, 
with Stephanus and Fortunatus, was the 
bearer of St. Paul's first Epistle to the Corin- 
thians, A.D. 56. (1 Cor. xvi. 15. 17-) 

A'CHAN, py, signifies he that troubles or 
bruises, or a snake. It was the name of the 
son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, who hav- 
ing discovered a Babylonish garment, a wedge 
of gold, and two hundred shekels of silver, 
among the spoils of Jericho, took and con- 
cealed them. This action was contrary to 
the command of God, who had cursed the 
city of Jericho, and devoted it to destruction. 
Some days after, Joshua sent three thousand 
men to possess themselves of the little town 
of Ai, which was distant from Jericho three 
or four leagues. But these men were attack- 
ed by the inhabitants of Ai, and compelled 
to flee. Though the loss of the Israelites 
was not considerable, only thirty-six of them 
being killed in the action, yet they were 
much discouraged. Joshua and the elders 
rent their clothes, and put dust upon their 
heads, crying to the Lord, and begging that 
he would not forsake his people in the midst 
of their enemies. ' The Lord then said to 
Joshua, Get thee up, why liest thou upon thy 
face? Israel hath sinned, and they have 
also transgressed my covenant, which I com- 
manded them; for they have taken of the 
accursed thing, and have also stolen, and dis- 
sembled also, and they have put it even among 
their own stuff. Therefore 1 will be with 
you no more, unless ye destroy the accursed 
from among you. Up, sanctify the people 
against to-morrow : the lot shall discover him 



ACH 



ACH 



who is guilty of this crime, and he shall be 
burnt with fire, he and all that he hath.' 

The next day, therefore, Joshua assembled 
all the tribes of Israel, and having cast lots, 
the lot fell on the tribe of Judah, afterwards 
on the family of Zarhi, then on the house of 
Zabdi, and, lastly, on the person of Achan. 
* Joshua said unto Achan, My son, give, I 
pray thee, glory to the Lord God of Israel, 
and make confession unto him ; and tell me 
now what thou hast done ; hide it not from 
me. And Achan answered Joshua, and said, 
Indeed I have sinned against the Lord God 
of Israel, and thus and thus have I done : 
when I saw among the spoils a goodly Baby- 
lonish garment, and two hundred shekels of 
silver, then I coveted them, and took them ; 
and behold, they are hid in the earth, in the 
midst of my tent, and the silver under it.' 
Joshua immediately sent to Achan's tent 
messengers, who, finding in it what he had 
mentioned, brought the things to Joshua and 
all the Israelites, and laid them out before 
the Lord. Then Joshua and all the people 
taking Achan, and the silver, and the gar- 
ment, and the wedge of gold, his sons and his 
daughters, his oxen and his asses, his very 
tent, and every thing that pertained to him, 
brought them all into the valley of Achor. 
And Joshua said to Achan, ' Why hast thou 
troubled us 1 The Lord shall trouble thee 
this day.' Then they stoned him and all his 
family with stones, and afterwards consumed 
his property with fire. Upon Achan they 
raised a great heap of stones, which, says the 
author of the book of Joshua, remains there 
to this day. This event took place in the 
year of the world 2553, and before Jesus 
Christ 1451. (Josh. vi. 17 ; vii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 
A'CHIOR, "TiN'TiN, 'A%iwp, signifies bro- 
ther of light, or the light of the brother. It 
was the name of the general of the Ammo- 
nites, who, in the expedition of Holofernes 
into Egypt, joined that commander's army, 
with the auxiliary troops of his country. The 
inhabitants of Bethulia having shut their 
gates against Holofernes, and refusing to exe- 
cute his orders, he called the princes of Moab, 
and the commanders of the Ammonites, and 
in a great passion demanded of them who 
these people were that opposed his passage, 
for he thought that the Moabites and Am- 
monites, who were neighbours to the He- 
brews, could best inform him of the truth. 
Then Achior, genen ' of the Ammonites, an- 
swered, My lord, ttieft people were originally 
of Chaldea ; their ancestors dwelt first in 
Mesopotamia ; and because they would not 
worship the gods of the Chaldeans, they were 
obliged to leave their country, and settle in 
the laud, which they at present possess. He 
continued to relate to him Jacob's descent 
into Egypt \ the miracles wrought by Moses 
for the deliverance of the Israelites; and 

their conquest <>i' the land of Canaan. Lastly, 

he told him, that this people had heen always 
invincible, and, so long a8 they continued 
26 



faithful to God, were visibly protected by 
him ; but that, as soon as they showed any 
infidelity, God never failed to punish them. 
Now, therefore, he added, learn whether these 
people have committed any fault against their 
God ; if they have, attack them, for he will 
deliver them into your hands ; but if they 
have not, we shall not be able to conquer 
them, because God will undertake their de- 
fence, and cover us with confusion. (Judith 
v. 2, 3, &c.) 

On hearing these words, the great men of 
Holofernes' s army were inclined to kill 
A chior. H olofernes himself was transported 
with fury, and said to him, Since you have 
undertaken the office of a prophet, and have 
told us that the God of Israel would be the 
defender of his people, to prove to you that 
there is no other god besides Nebuchadono- 
sor, my master, after we shall have destroyed 
all these people with the edge of the sword, 
we will also kill you ; and you shall under- 
stand, that Nebuchadonosor is lord of all the 
earth. That you yourself may experience 
the vanity of your own prophecy, I will cause 
you to be earned to Bethulia, where you 
shall undergo the same dangers with this 
people, whom you consider as invincible. 
They carried him, therefore, through the 
hill countries, till they were pretty near the 
city, when they tied his hands behind him, 
and fastened him to a tree, that the people 
of Bethulia, who had come out against him, 
might take him, and carry him into the city. 
In the midst of the elders, and in a full as- 
sembly of the people of Bethulia, Achior de- 
clared to them what he had said, and what 
had befallen him. Then all the people of the 
city bowed their heads to the ground, and 
with great cries begged God's assistance, be- 
seeching him to vindicate the honour of his 
name, and to humble the pride of their ene- 
mies. After this, they comforted Achior; 
and Ozias, one of the leaders of the people, 
received him into his house, and entertained 
him splendidly. (Id. vi. 2, 3, &c.) 

Achior continued in Bethulia as long as 
the siege lasted ; but when God had delivered 
Holofernes into the hands of Judith, and she 
was returning to the city with his head, 
Achior was called. Seeing the head of Ho- 
lofernes, he was so terrified, that he fell with 
his face to the ground, and his spirits failed 
him ; but recovering soon after, he aban- 
doned the superstitions of the heathens, be- 
lieved in God, was circumcised, and received 
into the number of the Israelites. (Id. xiii. 
27, 20, &c. ; xiv. 6, &c.) See Judith. 

By some, the war with Holofernes is sup- 
posed to have taken place during the reign 
of Manasaeh, king of Judah, in the vear of 
the world 3340, and before Jesus Christ G5G; 
but according to others, it happened alter 
the return from the captivity at Babylon. 
A'CHISH, u'Ok, signifies thus it is, or is 

this? It was the name of a king of Gath. 
David having resolved to withdraw to some 



ACH 



ACO 



distant place from Saul, who sought an op- 
portunity to kill him, retired to Gath, a city 
of the Philistines, of which Achish was king. 
The officers that belonged to Achish seeing 
David, asked the king whether this was not 
that David, who was respected as a sovereign 
in his own country, and whether it was not 
he, of whom it was said at a time of public 
dancing, ' Saul hath slain his thousands, and 
David his ten thousands?' David hearing 
this, began to apprehend that his life was in 
danger. He therefore counterfeited mad- 
ness in the presence of the Philistines, scrab- 
bled on the doors of the gate, and let his 
spittle fall down on his beard. Upon this, 
Achish said to his servants, ' Lo, ye see the 
man is mad ; wherefore then have ye brought 
him to me ? Have I need of madmen, that 
ye have brought this fellow to play the mad- 
man in my presence ? Shall this fellow come 
into my house V (1 Sam. xxi. 10, &c.) 

Three or four years after this, or about 
the year of the world 2947, and before Jesus 
Christ 1057, David sent an offer of his ser- 
vice to Achish, and desired that he might be 
received either into the city, or into some 
other part of his dominions. Achish, who 
knew the valour of David, and the cause of 
the discontent which subsisted between him 
and Saul, received him cheerfully into Gath, 
together with his six hundred men, their 
wives and children. Here they continued 
for some time, after which David said to 
Achish, ' If I have now found grace in thine 
eyes, let them give me a place in some town 
in the country, that I may dwell there : for 
why should thy servant dwell in the royal city 
with thee V Achish, therefore, gave him the 
property of Ziklag, in which David settled, 
and which afterwards pertained to Judah. 
(1 Sam. xxvii. 1, 2, &c.) 

About two years after, the Philistines hav- 
ing taken the field, in order to encounter the 
Israelites, David received the commands of 
Achish to prepax-e for joining him in the war. 
David complying with the orders of the king, 
Achish told him, that he placed such confi- 
dence in him as to trust him at all times with 
the guard of his person. (Id. xxviii. 1, 2.) 
The Philistines, therefore, being come to 
Aphek, David and his people marched in the 
rear with Achish. But the princes of the 
Philistines observing the Hebrews, said to 
Achish, 'What do these Hebrews here?' 
To this he answered, ' Is not this David, 
the servant of Saul, the king of Israel, which 
hath been with me these days, or these years, 
and I have found no fault in him ?' "Rut the 
princes of the Philistines were wroth with 
Achish, and obliged him to dismiss David. 

Soon after the battle of Gilboa, in which 
Saul and his sons were slain, David left 
Achish. and went from Ziklag to Hebron, in 
the tribe of Judah. (2 Sam. ii. 1, 2, Ike.) 
From this time we find no mention of Achish 
in Scripture. 

Whether this was the same Achish, who is 
27 



mentioned in the twenty-first chapter of the 
first book of Samuel, and with whom David 
sought refuge in his first flight from Saul, or 
some successor of the same name, is a mat- 
ter of dispute. His being called Achish, the 
son of Maoch, (1 Sam. xxvii. 2.) seems to im- 
ply that he was a different person ; because 
these words can have no other use than to 
distinguish this Achish from another of the 
same name. Patrick's and Calmet's Com- 
ment. 

A'CHOR, mDy, signifies trouble, and was 
the name of the valley in which Achan, his 
sons, and daughters, were stoned to death. 
It is evident from the circumstances men- 
tioned in the history of Achan, that this val- 
ley was situated not far from Jericho, and in 
the north border of the tribe of Judah. (Josh, 
xv. 7-) Wells's Geography. See Achan. 

ACH'SAH, nuO)/, 'Ola, signifies adorned, 
or, bursting of the veil, and was the name of 
the daughter of Caleb, who promised to give 
her to the man that should take Kirjath- 
sepher, which, on the division, had fallen to 
him by lot. Othniel having taken the place, 
married Achsah. After the wedding, whilst 
they were conducting her to her husband's 
house, she persuaded her husband to allow 
her to ask of her father Caleb a field that 
was well watered. Alighting, therefore, off 
her ass, she threw herself at her father's feet, 
and said, ' Thou hast given me a south land,' 
(or dry land exposed to the south) ' give me 
' also springs of* water,' or land in which are 
springs of water. And he gave her the upper 
springs and the nether springs, or a field 
watered with good springs, as well as with 
dew and rains. (Josh. xv. 16, 17, &c) 

ACH'SHAPH, ejuOK, signifies poison, 
tricks ; or one that breaks ; or the lip or brim 
of any thing. It was the name of a city, 
which belonged to the tribe of Asher, and 
the king of which was conquered by Joshua. 
(Josh. xi. 1 ; xii. 20 ; xix. 25.) Some think 
it probable, that Achshaph and Achzib are 
only different names for the same town of 
Ecdippa, on the coast of Phoenicia. Achzib 
was the same as that at present denominated 
Zib by the Arabs. It was situated near the 
Mediterranean sea, between Tyre and Pto- 
lemais. 

ACCEMETCE, or Acometi, a name 
given to certain monks in the ancient church, 
who flourished in the fifth century, parti- 
cularly in the east, and whom the writers of 
those times called dKoifinroi, watchers, be- 
cause they performed divine service day and 
night without intermission. They divided 
themselves into three classes, each of which 
officiated in turn, and relieved the rest, so 
that they kept up a perpetual course of wor- 
ship. They founded this practice on that 
passage of the apostle — ' Pray without ceas- 
ing.' (1 Thess. v. 17.) 

A kind of accemctce still subsist in the 
Romish church. The religious of the holy 
sacrament keep up a perpetual adoration, 



ACT 



ACT 



some of them praying before the sacrament 
day and night, 

ACOLYTHI, or Acoluthi, 'AkoXovOoi, 
signifies followers, and was a term applied to 
young persons, who, in the primitive times, 
aspired to the ministry, and for that purpose 
continually attended the bishop. 

In the Romish church, the acolythi were 
of longer continuance ; but their offices were 
different from those of their first institutions. 
Their business was to light the tapers, carry 
the candlesticks and the pot of incense, and 
prepare the wine and water. At Rome were 
three kinds of acolythi : 1. Those who waited 
on the pope; 2. Those who served in the 
churches ; and 3. Those who, together with 
the deacons, officiated in other parts of the 
city. 

ACT OF FAITH, Auto da fe, in the 
Romish church, is a solemn day observed by 
the inquisition, for the punishment of here- 
tics, and the absolution of the innocent per- 
sons, who have been accused. It is usually 
contrived that the auto shall fall on some 
grand festival, that the execution may take 
place with the greater awe and regard. At 
least, it is always on a Sunday. The auto da 
fe may be considered as the last act of the 
inquisitorial tragedy; it is a kind of gaol- 
delivery, appointed as often as a sufficient 
number of prisoners in the inquisition are 
convicted of heresy, either by their own vo- 
luntary or extorted confession, or on the 
evidence of witnesses. The process is as 
follows: — In the morning they are brought 
into a great hall, where they are clothed in 
certain habits, which they are to wear in 
the procession, and by which they know 
their doom. The procession is led on by 
dominican friars, who enjoy this privilege, 
because St. Dominic, their founder, insti- 
tuted the inquisition. Before them is carried 
the standard of the holy office, in which the 
image of the founder is wrought in rich em- 
broidery, holding a sword in one hand, and 
an olive branch in the other, with the in- 
scription, Justice and Mercy. These friars 
are followed by the penitents, who have nar- 
rowly escaped burning, and who over their 
black coats have flames painted, with their 
points turned downwards. Next come the 
negative and relapsed, who are intended to 
be burnt, and who have flames on their ha- 
bits pointing upwards. After these follow 
such as profess doctrines contrary to the faith 
of Rome, and who, besides flames pointing 
upwards, bave their picture painted on their 
breasts, and surrounded by dogs, serpents, 
and devils, all open-mouthed. Each prisoner 
is attended by a familiar of the inquisition ; 
and those intended to be burnt, have also on 
each side a Jesuit, who is continually advising 
them to abjure. After the prisoners follow 
a troop of familiars upon horseback; alter 
them, the inquisitors, and other officers, upon 
mules; and lastly, tin 1 inquisitor-general, 
upon a white horse, led by two men with 
28 



black hats and green hat-bands. A scaffold 
is erected sufficiently large for containing 
two or three thousand people ; at one end of 
the scaffold are the prisoners, at the other 
end the inquisitors. After a sermon, con- 
sisting of encomiums on the inquisition, and 
of invectives against heretics, a priest as- 
cends a desk near the scaffold, and having 
received the abjuration of the penitents, re- 
cites the final sentence of those, who are to be 
put to death, and delivers them to the secular 
power, at the same time earnestly beseeching 
that their blood be not touched, nor their lives 
put in danger ! ! ! The prisoners being thus 
in the hands of the civil magistrate, are im- 
mediately loaded with chains, and carried 
first to the secular gaol, and thence, in an 
hour or two, brought before the civil judge. 
After inquiring in what religion they intend 
to die, the civil judge pronounces sentence 
on such as declare they die in the communion 
of the church of Rome, that they shall be first 
strangled, and then burnt to ashes ; on such 
as die in any other faith, that they be burnt 
alive. Both are immediately carried to the 
place of execution, where as many stakes are 
set up as there are prisoners to be burnt, and 
about each stake is laid a quantity of dry 
furze. The stakes of the professed, or of 
such as persist in the heresy, are about four 
yards in height, and towards the top have a 
small board, on which the prisoner is seated. 
The negative and relapsed being first stran- 
gled and burnt, the professed mount their 
stakes by a ladder ; and the Jesuits, after re- 
peatedly exhorting them to be reconciled to 
the church, part with them, and say that they 
leave them to the devil, who is standing at 
their elbow to receive their souls, and to 
carry them with him to the flames of hell. 
On hearing this, a great shout is raised by 
the people, who cry, ' let the dogs' beards be 
made /' This is performed by thrusting flam- 
ing furzes, fastened to long poles, against 
their chins till their faces are burnt to a coal. 
This inhuman act is accompanied with the 
loudest acclamations of joy. At last, fire is 
set to the furze at the bottom of the stake, 
over which the professed are chained so high, 
that the top of the flame seldom reaches 
higher than the seat upon which they sit, 
and they seem rather roasted than burnt. 
There cannot be a more lamentable specta- 
cle : the sufferers continually cry out, while 
they arc able, ' Pity, for the love of God !' 
Yet it is beheld by all ages, and by both 
sexes, with transports of joy and admiration. 
See Inquisition. 

ACTS OF PILATE, a false and supposi- 
titious relation of our Saviour's trial before 
Pilate, composed by the enemies of Chris- 
tianity, and containing the greatest blas- 
phemy. By a solemn edict, the emperor 
Maxhnin commanded it to be sent into all 
the provinces of the empire, and enjoined 
the schoolmasters to teach and explain it to 
their scholars. This work was written with 



ACT 



ACT 



such carelessness or ignorance, that in it our 
Saviour's death is referred to the seventh 
year of the reign of Tiberius, which was eleven 
years before the passion of our Saviour, and 
five years before Pilate was governor of Ju- 
dea. — Euseb, lib. ix. cap. 4. 6. 

The genuine Acts of Pilate were sent by 
him to Tiberius, who reported them to the 
senate ; but they were rejected by that assem- 
bly, because not immediately addressed to 
them. This is testified by Tertullian, in his 
Apol. cap. 5. 20, 21. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, a canoni- 
cal book of the New Testament, which con- 
tains a great part of the lives of St. Peter and 
St. Paul, and which commences with the 
ascension of our Saviour, and is continued to 
St. Paul's arrival at Rome, after his appeal 
to Caesar. This book, therefore, includes the 
history of twenty-eight or thirty years. St. 
Luke has been generally considered as the 
author of the Acts, and his principal design 
in writing it, was to compose a true history 
of the apostles, and of the foundation of the 
Christian church, in opposition to the false 
acts and false histories, which began to be dis- 
persed in the world. The exact time in 
which St. Luke wrote the book of the Acts, 
is not known. It is evident that it was writ- 
ten after his Gospel, and two years after St. 
Paul's abode at Rome, on the first journey 
he made to that city, or about the sixty-second 
or sixty-third year of our sera. St. Luke 
speaks of this journey to Rome, and says that 
St. Paul ' dwelt two whole years in his own 
hired house.' (Actsxxviii. 30.) Perhaps he 
wrote it at Rome, whilst he remained with 
St. Paul during the time of his imprisonment. 
However, Jerome and many others are of 
opinion, that this book was written and pub- 
lished in Greece, whither Luke went after he 
left Paul, in the year of our Lord 63 or 64. 

To the genuineness and authenticity of 
this book, the early Christian fathers bear 
unanimous testimony. Not to mention the 
attestations of the apostolic fathers, in the 
first century, we may remark that Irenseus 
and Tertullian, in the second century, both 
ascribed the Acts of the Apostles to St. Luke ; 
and their evidence is corroborated by that of 
Origen, Jerome, Augustine, Eusebius, and 
all subsequent ecclesiastical writers. Fur- 
ther, Chrysostom and other fathers inform 
us, that this book was annually read in the 
churches every day between the festivals of 
Easter and Pentecost or Whitsuntide. 

St. Luke does not appear to have intended 
to write a complete ecclesiastical history of 
the Christian church, during the first thirty 
years after our Saviour's ascension ; nor even 
of St. Paul's life during that period ; for he 
has almost wholly omitted what passed among 
the Jews after the conversion of that apostle, 
and is totally silent concerning the diffusion 
of Christianity in the east and in Egypt, the 
foundation of the church of Christ at Rome, 
the journey of St. Paul into Arabia, and many 
29 



other subjects, for which the labours and 
sufferings of the apostles would have afforded 
the most interesting materials, if he had in- 
tended to compose an entire history of the 
church. 

If we carefully examine the Acts of the 
Apostles, we shall perceive that St. Luke 
had two objects in view : 1. to relate in what 
manner the gifts of the Holy Spirit were 
communicated on the day of Pentecost, and 
the subsequent miracles performed by the 
apostles, by which the truth of Christianity 
was confirmed; and, 2. to deliver such ac- 
counts as proved the claim of the Gentiles to 
admission into the church of Christ, a claim 
disputed by the Jews, especially at the time 
when St. Luke wrote the Acts of the Apos- 
tles. To these some add, that St. Luke might 
design to record only those facts, which he 
had either seen himself, or had heard from 
eye-witnesses. Others are of opinion, that 
St. Luke designed his book to be only a con- 
cise specimen of the doctrines preached by 
the apostles, and that he was chiefly desirous 
of describing the manner in which the Jews, 
proselytes of the gate, or devout Gentiles, 
and the idolatrous Gentiles, were respectively 
converted. Hence, say they, this book may 
be divided into three parts. The first part 
contains an account of the propagation of the 
Gospel among the Jews only, from A.D. 33 
to A.D. 41, including chapters ii. to x. The 
second comprises an account of the spreading 
of Christianity among the devout Gentiles, 
together with its farther progress among the 
Jews, from A.D. 41 to A.D. 44. (Acts x. to 
xiii.) The third part comprehends the diffu- 
sion of Christianity among the idolatrous 
Gentiles, together with its farther progress 
among the two preceding classes of persons, 
from A.D. 44 to A.D. 63. (Acts xiii. to 
xxviii.) 

The Acts of the Apostles were evidently 
written with a tolerably strict attention to 
chronological order; though St. Luke has not 
affixed a date to any one of the facts recorded 
by him ; but there are several parts of this 
book, in which ecclesiastical history is com- 
bined with political facts, the dates of which 
are known. 

St. Luke wrote this work in Greek, and his 
language is in general purer than that of the 
other writers of the New Testament. Epi- 
phanius tells us, that this book was trans- 
lated out of Greek into Hebrew, or Syriac, 
which was the common language of the Jews 
of Palestine, but that those heretics cor- 
rupted it with many falsities and impieties, 
which were injurious to the memory of the 
apostles. 

St. Jerome assures us, that a certain priest 
of Asia added to the true genuine Acts the 
voyages of St. Paul and St. Thecla, and the 
story of baptizing a lion. Tertullian informs 
us, that St. John the evangelist having con- 
victed this priest of departing from the truth 
in his relation, he excused himself to the 



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evangelist, by saying, that what he had done 
was occasioned purely by a love to St. Paul. 
(Ecumenius calls the Acts the ' Gospel of 
the Holy Ghost;' and St. Chrysostom, the 
' Gospel of our Saviour's resurrection,' or 
the Gospel of Jesus Christ risen from the 
dead. In the history of the lives and preach- 
ing of the apostles, detailed in this book, we 
have the most miraculous instances of the 
power of the Holy Ghost ; and in the account 
of those, who were the first believers, we have 
received the most excellent pattern of the 
Christian life. 

The book of the Acts has been always 
esteemed canonical, though it was rejected 
by the Marcionites, the Manichseans, and 
other heretics, who were sensible that it 
clearly condemned their errors. St. Austin 
says, that the church received this work with 
great edification ; and St. Chrysostom la- 
ments, that in his- time, this book was too 
little known, and the reading of it too much 
neglected. 

There were several spurious Acts of the 
Apostles: I. The Acts of the Apostles, sup- 
posed to have been written by Abdias, the 
pretended bishop of Babylon. He affirmed, 
that he was ordained bishop by the apostles 
themselves, when they were upon their jour- 
ney into Persia. 2. The acts or the voyages 
of St. Peter, which was originally produced 
in the school of the Ebionites. 3. The acts 
of St. Paul, which was intended as a conti- 
nuation of St. Luke's work to the death of 
St. Paul, and which is entirely lost. Euse- 
bius, who had seen this work, pronounces it 
of no authority. 4. The acts of St. John the 
evangelist, a book used by the Encratites, 
Manichseans, and Priscillianites. 5. The 
acts of St. Andrew, received by the Mani- 
chaeans, Encratites, and Apotacticks. 6. The 
acts of St. Thomas the Apostle, used parti- 
cularly by the Manichaeans. 7- The acts of 
St. Philip, which was used by the Gnostics. 
8. The acts of St. Matthias. Some have 
imagined, that the Jews, for a long time, had 
concealed the original acts of the life and 
death of St. Matthias; and that a monk of 
the abbey of St. Matthias, at Treves, having 
obtained them out of their hands, procured 
them to be translated into Latin, and pub- 
lished them. The critics, however, will not 
allow them to be genuine or authentic. — 
Lardnci's History of the Apostles and Evange- 
lists ; Home's Introduction to the Holy Scrip- 
tures; Benson's History of the first Planting of 
Christianity ; Broughton's Dictionary. 
A'DAD-RIM-MON, pavnn, or Ha- 

dad-rimmon, signifies the shoot ofthepome- 
gfan&te, or the height of the pomegranate, the 
invocation of the god Rimmon. It was a city 
in the valley of Mcgiddo, where was fought 
the famous battle, in which Josiah, Icing of 
Jiulali, was slain by the forces of Pharaoh- 
Necho, king of Egypt. (2 Kings xxiii. 29.) 
It was situated seventeen miles from Ca-sarca 
in Palestine, and ten from Jezreel. 
30 



A'DAH, my, signifies an assembly. Adah 
was one of Lamech's two wives, and the mo- 
ther of Jabal and Jubal. (Gen. iv. 19.) It is 
presumed that she had more children, but 
the names of the rest are no where mention- 
ed. It was also the name of a daughter of 
Elon the Hittite, wife to Esau, and the mo- 
ther of Eliphaz. (lb. xxxvi. 4.) 

AD'AM, Din, signifies earthly man, red, of 
the colour of blood. Adam, the first man, and 
father of the human race, was created by 
God, of the dust of the earth. The Almighty 
breathed into him the breath of life, and 
gave him dominion over all the creatures of 
the earth. (Gen. i. 26, 27 ; ii. 7.) He cre- 
ated him in his own image and resemblance ; 
and having blessed him, he placed him in a 
delicious garden in Eden, that he might cul- 
tivate it, and feed upon its fruits, (lb. ii. 8. 
15.) However, at the same time, God gave 
him the following injunction : ' Of every 
tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat ; 
but of the tree of the knowledge of good and 
evil thou shalt not eat of it ; for in the day 
that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely 
die.' (Ibid. 16, 17.) 

The first thing performed by Adam after 
his creation, and introduction into Paradise, 
was to give names to all the beasts and birds, 
which presented themselves before him for 
that purpose, as well to pay their homage to 
him, as to make him sensible that there was 
not among them a fit companion for him. 
(lb. 19, 20.) 

Now all other animals had been created by 
pairs, male and female, and man only was 
without a fellow-creature of his own species. 
Therefore, God said, It is not good for man 
to be alone, I will make an help-mate for 
him. For that purpose, the Lord caused a 
deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and whilst he 
slept, he took one of his ribs, or some sub- 
stance near his side; for the original does 
not strictly signify a rib ; and in the Septua- 
gint it is called ir\tvpa. He closed up the 
flesh instead of it ; and of the substance which 
he took from man, he made a woman, (womb- 
man, Saxon) or man-ess, whom he presented 
to Adam when he awoke. Then Adam said, 
This is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my 
flesh, she shall be called woman, because she 
was taken out of man. Therefore shall a 
man leave his father and mother, and shall 
cleave unto his wife, and they two shall be 
one flesh. And they were both naked, the 
man and his wife, and were not ashamed, 
(lb. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25.) Adam also called 
his wife's name Eve, because she was the 
mother of all living. (lb. iii. 20.) 

Now the serpent being more subtle than 
any beast of the field, came to Eve, and said, 
' Yea, hath God said, Ye shall not eat of 
every tree of the garden?' The woman an- 
swered, that they might eat of all the trees of 
the garden, one only excepted, which they 
were forbidden to touch, lest they should die. 
The serpent replied, that they should not 



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die. For that God knew the virtue of the 
tree ; and that as soon as they had eaten of 
it, their eyes would be opened, and they 
would be as gods, knowing good and evil. 
Therefore, the woman seeing that the tree 
was good for food, and pleasant to the eyes, 
and desirable for wisdom, took of the fruit of 
it, and ate, and gave also to her husband, 
who did likewise eat. Immediately the eyes 
of both were opened, and they knew that 
they were naked ; and having sewed fig-leaves 
together, they made themselves aprons to 
cover their nakedness. After this, as they 
heard the voice of the Lord walking in the 
garden in the cool of the day, they hid them- 
selves from his presence, amidst the thickest 
trees of Paradise. Then the Lord called 
Adam, and said unto him, Where art thou ? 
Adam answered, I heard thy voice in the 
garden, and I was afraid, because I was 
naked, and I hid myself. God said, Who 
told thee that thou wast naked ? Hast thou 
eaten of the tree, of which I commanded thee 
that thou shouldest not eat ? Adam replied, 
The woman, whom thou gavest to be with me, 
she gave me of the tree, and I did eat. And 
the Lord God said unto the woman, What is 
this that thou hast done ? And the woman 
said, the serpent beguiled me, and I did eat. 
Then the Lord God said unto the serpent, 
Because thou hast done this, thou art cursed 
above all cattle, and above every beast of the 
field ; upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust 
shalt thou eat all the days of thy life. And 
I will put enmity between thee and the wo- 
man, and between thy seed and her seed : it 
shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise 
his heel. Unto the woman he said, I will 
greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy concep- 
tion ; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth chil- 
dren, and thy desire shall be to thy husband, 
and he shall rule over thee. To Adam he 
said, Because thou hast hearkened unto the 
voice of thy wife, and hast eaten of the tree 
of which I commanded thee, saying, Thou 
shalt not eat of it, the ground for thy sake 
shall be cursed, and in sorrow shalt thou eat 
of it all the days of thy life. Thorns also, and 
thistles, shall it bring forth to thee, and thou 
shalt eat the herb of the field. In the sweat 
of thy face thou shalt eat bread, till thou re- 
turn unto the ground ; for dust thou art, and 
unto dust shalt thou return. Then the Lord 
made coats of skins for Adam and his wife, 
and clothed them. He also said, Behold the 
man is become as one of us, to know good 
and evil ; and now lest he put forth his hand, 
and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and 
live for ever : therefore the Lord God sent 
him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the 
ground, from whence he was taken. So he 
drove out the man ; and he placed at the east 
of the garden of Eden, cherubim, and a 
flaming sword, which turned every way, to 
keep the way of the tree of life, (Gen. iii. 
1,2, 3, &c.) 

How long Adam and his wife continued in 
31 



a state of innocence is very uncertain. It is 
probable that they did not immediately trans- 
gress the divine command ; but it would seem 
by the narration of Moses, that their fall was 
not long after their creation. The Jews in 
general, and most of the Christian fathers, 
believe that it happened on the very day, on 
which they were created ; but this is almost 
impossible, for a day would be too short for 
the several actions, which, on that supposi- 
tion, it must have comprised. Besides, God 
himself, after the sixth day was past, declared 
(as at the end of the preceding days) that 
every thing was very good. This declaration 
would not have been consistent with truth, 
if sin, the greatest of all evils, had then en- 
tered into the world. Some have therefore 
conjectured, that this calamity happened on 
the eighth day from their creation ; that as 
the first week of the world terminated with 
the formation of man and woman, the second 
was probably concluded with their fall. 
Others think that this event took place on 
the tenth day of the world's age, and that, in 
commemoration of the fall, the great day of 
expiation, which was the tenth day of the 
year, was afterwards instituted. If we can 
subscribe to the opinion of Mr. Whiston, 
who thinks that a day and a year were the 
same before the fall, there will be no diffi- 
culty in supposing it to have happened even 
on the sixth day. 

Some little time after they had been driven 
out of Paradise, Eve conceived, and brought 
forth Cain, saying, I have gotten a man from 
the Lord. (Gen. iv. 1, 2, &c.) It is believed 
that she had a girl at the same time, and that 
she was commonly delivered of twins. The 
Scripture notices only three sons born to 
Adam, Cain, Abel, and Seth, and does not say 
particularly that he had any daughter. But 
Moses will not suffer us to doubt of his hav- 
ing many children, when he tells us, that he 
begat sons and daughters. Adam died at 
the age of nine hundred and thirty years ; 
before Christ 3074. (lb. v. 4, 5.) 

This is all we learn from Moses concern- 
ing our first parent. But interpreters, not 
satisfied with this general relation, have in- 
vented numberless suppositions, and pro- 
posed a variety of questions, to illustrate this 
subject, and to supply the deficiencies of the 
narration of Moses. 

I. In remarking on the history of Adam, 
we may observe, that besides the usual deri- 
vation of this name from nmx, (Admah) 
signifying vegetable earth or mould, other 
derivations have also been given. 1. In San- 
choniatho, protogonus signifies first made, 
and seems to be the translation into Greek 
of the Egyptian title of Adam. 2. Mr. Bry- 
ant says, Ad and Ada signify first, more 
laxly, a prince or ruler ; and therefore Adad 
answers to Most High, or Most Eminent, 
and may probably be referred to Adam. 3. 
Sir William Jones queries whether Adam 
may be derived from Adim, which in Sans- 



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crit means the first, and is a name of the first 
Menu. 4. Mr. Parkhurst supposes the 
name Adam to be derived from mrain, (Bede- 
mut), which signifies likeness, that is, the 
likeness of God. 

1 1. The formation of Adam is introduced 
with circumstances of superior dignity to 
any, with which the creation of the animals 
was attended. God said, ' Let us make man 
(1.) in our image, (2.) according to our like- 
ness, and let him rule,' &c. These appear 
to be two ideas. First, ' in our image,' in 
our similitude, could not refer to his figure. 
1. Because the human figure, though greatly 
superior to those of other animals, is not so 
distinct from them in the principles of its con- 
struction, as to require a special consultation, 
after the other animals had been formed. 2. 
If all the species of monkeys were made be- 
fore man, the difference of some of them 
from the human form is so small, as greatly 
to strengthen the former argument. 3. The 
Scriptures, in other places, represent this 
matter as referring to moral excellencies ; 
* in knowledge, after the image of him who 
created him,' (Col. iii. 10), in 'righteousness 
and true holiness,' (Eph. iv. 24), &c. &c. 
Secondly, ' According to our likeness,' is a 
stronger expression than the former, and 
more determinate in its application. If we 
connect this with the words following, and 
let him rule, perhaps the passage may be thus 
paraphrased : ' Man shall have, according to 
his nature and his capacity, a general like- 
ness to such of our perfections, as fit him for 
the purposes, to which we design him ; but 
he shall still more closely resemble us in the 
rule and government of the creatures ; for 
though he be incapable of any of our attri- 
butes, he is capable of maintaining a purity, 
a rectitude, and a station of dominion, in 
which he may be our vice-gerent.' Thus, 
then, in a lower and less confined sense, man 
was the image of God : he possessed a kind 
of likeness to him, of which the creatures 
were absolutely void; and he had also a 
resemblance to God as his deputy, his repre- 
sentative, among and over the creatures ; 
and for this he was qualified by holiness, 
knowledge, &c. 

The day on which the creation ended was 
immediately succeeded by a sabbath ; and 
on that evening, the first act of man was the 
worship of God. Where then is the wonder, 
that the custom of setting apart a sabbath 
obtained among his posterity, since not in 
Paradise only this custom would be main- 
tained by Adam ? For the reason of its being 
every twenth day, sec Moon. 

III. It would seem that the most proper 
idea to be affixed to the words, ' Adam be- 
came a living soul,' is, that Adam became a 
living person. 1. Because such is the im- 
port of the original, simply taken. 2. It 
having been mentioned that Adam was made 
of the dn.st of the earth, it was necessary also 
to mention his animation ; and if the word 
32 



Adam be derive'd from Admah, earth, it 
might have been simply said, according to 
this idea, ' The earth (Adam) became alive.' 
3. It, however, implies some real distinction 
between the nature of the living principle, 
or soul (not spirit) in Adam, and that of other 
animals. Perhaps we may suppose, that ihis 
principle, thus specially imparted by God, 
was capable of immortality ; that, though the 
beasts might have died by nature, man would 
have survived by nature ; and that he had no 
seeds of dissolution in him, but that his dis- 
solution was the consequence of his sin, and 
the execution of the threat, dying thou shall 
die. In fact, as Adam lived nearly one thou- 
sand years after eating the fruit, which, pro- 
bably, poisoned his blood, we know not how 
long he might have lived, had he never taken 
that poison. Some poisons now exist, whose 
operation is gradual, continuing for many 
years, and producing a lingering mortality, 
an incessant death. 

IV. It has been supposed by some, that 
to Adam, from his very creation, was im- 
parted that knowledge which not only raised 
him above all men his descendants, but also 
rendered him a little, and only a little, lower 
than the angels. This may be admitted in 
some respects, and under certain restrictions. 
Adam could not be acquainted with any dis- 
covery, mode, or thing, which has originated 
since his time. He was created pure and 
holy, and therefore could not feel those bane- 
ful passions of the human mind, anger, jea- 
lousy, grief, &c. He could have no know- 
ledge of disease, pain, &c. ; of the changes of 
seasons, and their effects ; of extreme heat 
or cold; of thunder or lightning; of ice, snow, 
&c. In short, it appears, that the glory of 
Adam's mind consisted in its freedom from 
any false bias ; in its having no easily beset- 
ting sin to warp and injure it. The sensa- 
tions becoming such a mind, were all the 
amiable passions, gratitude, love, and vene- 
ration towards God, affection and attention 
towards his partner, kindness towards the 
creatures, and universal good-will infinitely 
extended. To a mind so capable as Adam's, 
the contemplation of his Maker would occa- 
sionally furnish an increase both of piety and 
knowledge. The Almighty might more fully 
reveal himself, his attributes, &c. to the faith, 
or the conceptions of Adam. As experi- 
ence ripened or prepared the mind of Adam 
for farther acquisitions, those acquisitions 
may have been granted him to degrees of 
knowledge, understanding, and acquaintance 
with subjects both celestial and terrestrial, 
inexpressibly beyond what human attain- 
ments or conceptions have ever known. In 
this sense, Paradise may have been a heaven 
on earth, abundantly receiving ' favour upon 
favour, grace upon grace.' 

It appears that Adam knew so much of 
language, as to understand all that was neces- 
sary for him to know. He must have under- 
stood the prohibition respecting the tree of 



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knowledge, and have been able to distinguish 
that and the tree of life by name. As Adam 
was capable of speech, it is probable he was 
enabled to use that capacity, by affixing to 
certain sounds, which expressed natural 
wants, those determinate ideas, which, ever 
after, when those wants recurred, prompted 
him to utter the same vocal sounds. His 
number of vocal sounds was greatly increased 
by his being appointed to give names to the 
creatures ; and this may, perhaps, be justly 
considered as his first extensive lesson in 
language. The effect would be, that when- 
ever afterwards he meant, for instance, to 
denote a sheep, he might perhaps use the 
name baa, taken from its voice. If he meant 
to denote a cow, he might call it boo. 

V. Though Adam might be a man in ca- 
pacity of understanding, yet he was only a 
child in experience ; and perhaps it may be 
asserted without any risk, that scarcely one 
among the millions of his sons, arrived at 
man's estate, might not have been an over- 
match in craft for his father Adam, in his 
condition of original simplicity. This, how- 
ever, does not excuse the disobedience of 
Adam ; because, as was his situation, so was 
the test proposed to him. It was not an active, 
but a passive obedience ; not something to be 
done, but something to be left undone ; a 
negative trial, which did not regard the mind, 
but the appetite only. Disobedient presump- 
tion, unrestrained desire, liberty extended 
into licentiousness, was the principle of 
Adam's transgression. 

VI. The breaking of a beautiful vase may 
afford some idea of Adam after he had sinned. 
By transgression he lost the integrity of his 
mind. The first compliance with sin opened 
the way for all others. Spotless purity be- 
came defiled ; and perfect uprightness be- 
coming warped, lost that completeness, which 
had been its chief glory. Adam was de- 
prived of that distinction, that character, 
which fitted him for conversing with his 
Maker, for immediate communion with per- 
fect holiness. He was reduced to the neces- 
sity of accepting, of soliciting such commu- 
nion mediately, not immediately ; by another, 
not by himself ; in prospect, not instant ; in 
hope, not in possession ; in time future, not 
in time present; in another world, not in 
this. 

VII. How precisely have the same prin- 
ciples, which governed Adam, actuated all 
his posterity ! Who is not self-convicted of 
pride ? Whenever the sacred hands of Adam, 
stained with the blood of the victim recently 
offered to Jehovah, were extended in bless- 
ing his family, he might speak thus to his 
descendants : ' See in me the sad instance of 
disobedience to restraint. Had I constantly 
honoured that simple prohibition, I had heen 
happy. How many restraints, now neces- 
sary for human welfare, had never been 
known ! Now is man restrained from this, 
because to this he is prone ; and from that, 

33 



because that seems good, but in reality pro- 
duces evil. Such was the character of my 
temptation ! It offered pleasure, but I found 
it anguish ; it allured the sense, but by it the 
very sense was depraved. Before I sinned 
I was serene, delighted, happy. After I 
transgressed, I became gloomy, turbulent, 
miserable ; because I had violated the divine 
restraint ; because in the midst of abundance, 
I had desired more ; because, being a man, 
I had wished to be as gods ; because know- 
ing good only, I had desired to know evil 
also ; and because I had lost the good, but 
obtained the evil.' 

VIII. It is credible, that only, or chiefly 
in the garden of Paradise, were the prime 
fruits and herbage in perfection. The land 
in the vicinity of the garden might be much 
less finished, and forwarded only to a certain 
degree. To promote its fertility, by cultiva- 
tion, was now the immediate object of Adam's 
labour ; and in the sweat of his brow he him- 
self ate bread. But the sentence passed on 
Adam and Eve, seems to consider them as 
the representatives of their posterity, the 
whole human race ; and after noticing them 
personally, it appears to suggest the condi- 
tion of the sexes, in the future ages of the 
world. Under this idea, the sentence is pro- 
phetic, (1.) of the seed of the woman, him, 
who was to bruise the serpent's head ; (2.) of 
the condition of the female sex, its circum- 
stances, and its duties ; (3.) of the condition 
of the male sex, its labours, and necessary 
diligence, in the maintenance of its consort 
and offspring. 

IX. Death closes the sentence, and is also 
prophetic of what should happen to Adam 
and all his descendants. As if it had been 
said, ' The poison in thy blood, though slow, 
is sure ; though latent, yet it will act in time. 
I shall not exert my almighty power in cur- 
ing this malady directly, but remedy its effects 
another way. I leave you in daily suspense 
of the time of your death ; every day brings 
you nearer to that important event. This 
anxious uncertainty shall be the commence- 
ment of your punishment. It is one of the 
bitternesses of death. When your constitu- 
tions, intended for nobler purposes, shall 
sink under the effects of that poison they 
have received, the complete termination of 
life will more fully demonstrate its fatal 
effects, which, though suspended, are not 
annihilated, but which I now leave to their 
natural course.' 

By the favour of God, the effect of this 
sentence is greatly mitigated. It pronounces 
pain to the woman, but that pain was to be 
connected with the dearest comforts, and with 
the great restorer of the human race. It 
pronounces labour to the man, but that la- 
bour was to be for the support of others 
dearer to him than himself, and, indeed, re- 
petitions of himself. It denounces death, 
but that death is shown at a distance-, and is 
the path to life. 



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X. The expression in the day (Beium), is 
used in the threat to man ; it obviously has a 
general signification, and includes a period 
of time long past, or long to come. In that 
very day (Beium Hehua), has a more con- 
fined meaning, and expresses precisely a 
fixed time, an instant day. 

XI. The mercy of God was still farther 
extended to Adam. Perhaps, he was not in- 
stantly expelled the garden, but was allowed 
some delay ; at least so long as his farther 
instructions, as new rites of worship, and 
mediatorial institutions, required. Our first 
parents were now covered with a skin, doubt- 
less of a beast ; one skin served them both, 
for the word is in the singular, not in the 
plural number. They had endeavoured to 
cover themselves with trees ; but the inter- 
twining, the plaiting of a leaf, or leaves, of 
boughs, or branches, presented no image of 
death. It shed no blood, and expressed in 
it nothing that had the idea of atonement. 

On the contrary, the skin of a beast was 
not to be obtained, without taking away the 
life of that beast ; and the taking away of the 
life of that beast, must have reminded Adam 
that this was death. 

How would Adam tremble, when he first 
selected the creature to be slain ; when he 
led it towards the place appointed for its 
death ; when he bound it, wreathed around 
it the confining twigs, and then proceeded to 
slaughter it ! What would be his reflections, 
when its blood streamed, its limbs quivered, 
and at length it ceased to live ! Its last gasp 
would thrill through his soul ; and he would 
now feel what death was. To death he must 
also submit, and to it he had subjected his 
descendants to the very latest posterity. It 
seems evident, therefore, that the import of 
sacrifice was a memorial representation of 
death deserved, but escaped by transference 
to a substitute. See Eve, Language, Re- 
velation, &c. 

It is pretty generally agreed, that the ser- 
pent, which tempted Eve, was the devil, who, 
envying the privileges of man in innocence, 
assumed, for a time, the form of a serpent, 
and, tempting man to disobey the command 
of his Maker, was the cause of his forfeiting 
all those privileges, which he had received 
from God at his creation. This interpreta- 
tion is supported by many passages of Scrip- 
ture, in which the devil is called the serpent, 
and the old serpent. (John viii. 44 ; 2 Cor. 
xi. 3; Rev. xii. 9.) Some believe that the 
serpent then possessed the faculty of speak- 
ing, and conversed familiarly with the wo- 
man, without her conceiving any distrust of 
him ; and that God, to punish the malice, with 
which he had abused Eve, deprived him of 
the power of speech. This is certainly plac- 
ing tin- serpent above the level of the brute 
creation. Some maintain, that a real serpent 
having eaten of the forbidden fruit, Eve 
concluded sbe might also eat of it without 
danger, and by her disobedienee in eating of 
34 



the forbidden fruit, incurred the displeasure 
of God. This, say these last authors, is the 
plain fact, which Moses has related under 
the allegorical representation of the serpent 
conversing with Eve. Bekker thought that 
the natural serpent was not intended, but 
that the devil was the tempter, and was only 
metaphorically a serpent. This opinion, 
however, is no less liable to exception than 
any of the rest. For though the devil is 
frequently called in Scripture the serpent, 
the old serpent, yet why he should be called 
the most subtle beast of the field, we cannot 
conceive. Nor will the punishment inflicted 
on the serpent suffer us to doubt, that, at 
least, the body of a serpent was employed in 
this transaction. 

The nature of the forbidden fruit is ano- 
ther circumstance in this relation, which has 
occasioned no less variety of conjectures. 
The Rabbins believe that it was the vine ; 
some, that it was wheat ; some, from the cir- 
cumstance of Adam and Eve covering them- 
selves with fig-leaves immediately after their 
transgression, tell us, that this fruit must 
have been the fig ; some, think that it was 
the cherry ; and the generality of the Latins, 
the apple. Those, who admire allegorical 
interpretations, suppose the forbidden fruit 
to have been merely the sensual act of gene- 
ration, for which the punishment inflicted on 
the woman was the pain of child-bearing. 
But this opinion has not the least foundation 
in the words of Moses, especially if we con- 
sider, that Adam knew not his wife till after 
their expulsion from Paradise. 

In our translation of the Bible, it is said, 
that our first parents ' sewed fig-leaves toge- 
ther, and made themselves aprons.' But the 
original denotes only that they adapted or 
fitted the flexible branches of the fig-tree 
round their waists, probably in the manner 
of a Roman crown. 

Many have been the suppositions and con- 
jectures on this subject in general ; and some 
have so far indulged their imagination in the 
history of Adam, and the circumstances of 
the fall, as to pervert the whole narration of 
Moses into a fable, full of the most shameful 
extravagances, and productive of the most 
absurd heresies. We are assured that the 
heretics called Ophitae, or Serpentini, believed 
Jesus Christ to be the serpent, which tempted 
the first woman. Others believe that the 
prince of the devils came in person to tempt 
Eve, and that he was mounted upon a ser- 
pent as large as a camel. Many Jewish 
writers have asserted that man and woman 
were created together, and fastened to each 
other by the shoulders. Not less fabulous 
are the stories respecting the stature and 
beauty of Adam, who is said to have been 
the greatest giant, as well as the handsomest 
man, that ever lived. The Rabbins tell us, 
thai bis stature was so prodigious, that he 
reached from one end of the world to the 
other ; but that after his transgression, God 



ADA 



ADA 



pressed his hand heavily upon him, and re- 
duced him to the measure of an hundred 
ells ; others say, that he was reduced to this 
measure at the request of the angels, who 
were frightened at his first stature. In order 
to perfect his beauty, they tell us, that God, 
before he formed him, assumed a human 
body of the most exquisite beauty, after the 
pattern of which he created Adam. In this 
manner it was literally true, they say, that he 
was made after the image or resemblance of 
God. 

Adam has also been the reputed author of 
several books. It has been supposed, that 
he possessed the most profound and exten- 
sive knowledge ; and some have believed that 
he invented the Hebrew language. The Jews 
say, that he is the author of the ninety-first 
psalm, which he composed soon after the 
creation. It is very uncertain where our 
first parents were buried : some of the an- 
cients believed at Hebron ; but others main- 
tained, that Adam was buried upon mount 
Calvary, where is a chapel dedicated to him. 

Some Rabbins and oriental authors inform 
us, that Adam, during the time of his separa- 
tion from his wife after his transgression, or 
as some say, after the death of Abel, begat 
genii, or familiar spirits, who, as the ancients 
affirm, had bodies. To these they apply the 
text of Scripture, that ' the sons of God saw 
the daughters of men that they were fair ; 
and they took them wives of all which they 
chose.' (Gen. vi. 2.) Others maintain, that 
these genii are older than Adam, and that as 
they had frequently rebelled against God, the 
Almighty resolved to confer the government 
of the world on a new species of creatures. 
For this purpose he created Adam, and com- 
manded the genii to obey him. They, who 
refused submission to him, had Eblis, or 
Lucifer, at their head, and are what we call 
the evil angels. The rest, who continued in 
their duty, are the good angels, or sons of 
God. Both are supposed to be corporeal, 
and even subject to death. 

It would be endless to relate the many 
fabulous stories of the Persians, Banians, 
Mahometans, Cabalists, Talmudists, and 
other eastern nations and sects, relative to 
the creation of Adam and Eve, their fall, 
and that of the angels. — Additions to Calmet's 
Diet. ; Universal History ; Patrick's Comment. 

AD'AM, or Adom, din, signifies earth, 
earthy, red, or bloody. It was the name of a 
city, that was probably so called from the 
. colour of the soil in its neighbourhood, which 
is understood to have been a stiff clay. — 
Some, however, suppose that the word Adam 
denotes beauty or symmetry, and therefore, 
that this town was handsome. This city was 
situated in Perea, on the banks of the river 
Jordan, opposite to Jericho. It was towards 
the south of the sea of Cinnereth, or Galilee, 
and was the centre, where the waters sepa- 
rated. (Josh. iii. 16.) Wells's Geography ; 
Sacred Geography. 
35 



AD'AMAH, or Admah, nmx, signifies 
bloody, earthy, or red earth. It was one of 
the four cities, which were destroyed by fire 
from heaven, and buried under the waters of 
the Dead Sea. (Gen. xiv. 2. Deut. xxix. 23. 
Hosea xi. 8.) It was the most easterly of 
those which were swallowed up. It is pro- 
bable that it was not entirely sunk under 
the waters, or that the inhabitants of the 
country built a new city of the same name, 
on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, for 
Isaiah, according to the Septuagint, ' says 
that God will destroy the Moabites, the city 
of Ar, and the remnant of Adamah,' ('Apoi 
to airkpjxa Mwd/3, icai 'ApnijX, Kai to KctTci- 
\ol7tov "A8a[ia, Isaiah xv. ult.) This town 
probably derived its name from the neigh- 
bourhood. 

ADAMITES were a sect that arose in 
the second century of the Christian Church. 
The author of this sect was Prodicus, a dis- 
ciple of Carpocrates. They assumed the 
name of Adamites, and pretended to the 
innocence of Adam, whose nakedness they 
imitated in their churches, which they called 
Paradise. Community of women was one of 
their principal tenets ; they condemned the 
state of matrimony, and lived, or pretended 
to live, in solitude and continency. When 
one of them was guilty of any particular 
crime, they called him Adam, and said that 
he had eaten of the forbidden fruit ; and 
when they expelled him their assembly, they 
called it driving him out of Paradise. This 
obscure and ridicidous sect did not long con- 
tinue. It was, however, revived with addi- 
tional absurdities, in the twelfth century. 
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, 
one Picard, a native of Flanders, spread 
these errors in Bohemia, whither he and his 
followers retired. Their opinions were after- 
wards disseminated through Germany, and 
also found some partisans in Poland, Hol- 
land, and England. The Adamites assem- 
bled in the night ; and one of the fundamental 
maxims of their society was the following : 

Jura, perjura, secretum prodere noli ; 
Swear, forswear, and reveal not the secret. 

A'DAR, TJN, signifies a cloak, or power, 
or grandeur. It is the twelfth month of the 
ecclesiastical year, and the sixth of the civil 
year among the Hebrews. It consists of 
only twenty-nine days, and corresponds with 
our February, but sometimes continues into 
March, according to the course of the moon. 
See Month. 

On the third day of Adar, the building of 
the temple was finished, and it was dedicated 
with great solemnity, in the year of the world 
3489, and before Jesus Christ 515. (Ezra vi. 
15.) On the seventh day the Jews celebrate 
a fast, on occasion of the death of Moses. 
On the thirteenth they celebrate a fast called, 
Esther's, in memory of that observed by 
Mordecai, Esther, and the Jews of Susa. to 
avert the calamities, with which they were 



ADE 



ADO 



threatened by Haman. On the fourteenth, 
they celebrate the festival of Purim, on ac- 
count of their deliverance from the cruelty of 
Haman. (Esth. ix. 17.) The twenty-fifth is 
observed in commemoration of Jehoiachin, 
king of Judah, who was advanced by Evil- 
merodach above other kings that were at his 
court. (Jerem. lii. 31, 32.) The lunar year, 
which the Jews have followed in their calcu- 
lation, is shorter than the solar year by 
eleven days ; and as these days at the end of 
three years make a month, they then insert a 
thirteenth month, which they call Veadar, or 
a second Adar, and which consists of twenty- 
nine days. 

ADESSENARIANS were a branch of the 
Sacramentarians, and derived their name 
from the Latin word adesse, to be present, 
because they believed the presence of Christ's 
body in the eucharist, though in a manner 
different from the Romanists. 

ADIAPHORISTS, is derived from the 
Greek word dSicttpopog, indifferent, and was a 
name given in the sixteenth century to the 
moderate reformers, who adhered to the sen- 
timents of Melancthon, and afterwards to 
those who subscribed the Interim of Charles 
V. Melancthon declared, that in matters of 
an indifferent nature, compliance was due to 
the imperial edicts ; and hence arose the adia- 
phoristic controversy, which divided the 
church during many years, and proved highly 
detrimental to the progress of the Reforma- 
tion. See Interim. 

AD'ONAI, "DtK, signifies my lords in the 
plural, and my lord in the singular number. 
It is one of the names of God. The Jews, 
who, either from respect or superstition, do 
not pronounce the name Jehovah, read Ado- 
nai instead of it, as often as they meet with 
Jehovah in the Hebrew text. But the an- 
cient Jews were not so scrupulous ; and 
there is no law which forbids them to pro- 
nounce the name of God. 

ADONIBE'ZEK, ptn"^K, signifies the 
lightning of the Lord, or the Lord of lightning; 
or the Lord of Bezek. Adonibezek was king 
of the city of Bezek, in the land of Canaan. 
He was a powerful and cruel prince ; and 
having taken seventy kings, he ordered the 
extremities of their hands and feet to be cut 
off, and compelled them to gather their meat 
under his table. (Judg. i. 1, &c.) After the 
death of Joshua, Judah and Simeon marched 
against Adonibezek, who was at the head of 
an army of Canaanites and Perizzites. — They 
defeated him, killed ten thousand of his men, 
and having taken him alive, cut off his 
thumbs and great toes. Adonibezek then 
acknowledged the justice of this punishment, 
and confessed that God had treated him in 
the same manner in which he had treated 
the seventy princes, who had fallen into Ins 
power. Afterwardsthe Hebrews carried him 
to Jerusalem, where he died, in the year of 
the world 2685, and before Jesus Christ 
1419. (Judg. i. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 

36 



ADONl'JAH, rWK, signifies the Lord is 
my master. Adonijah, the fourth son of 
David and Haggith, was born at Hebron, at 
the time when his father was acknowledged 
king by only one part of Israel. (2 Sam. iii. 
4.) When his elder brothers, Amnon and 
Absalom were dead, Adonijah conceived 
that the crown of Judah, by right of birth, 
belonged to him ; and as David, in the latter 
part of his life, had fallen into so weak a 
state, that he could not attend to the affairs 
of the government, he thought that he ought 
to endeavour, before his father's death, to 
be acknowledged king. He therefore set 
up a magnificent equipage, took horsemen 
into his service, and had fifty men to run 
before him. David, his father, never re- 
proved him for this. Adonijah was the 
eldest of the royal family, handsome, be- 
loved by the king, and had a powerful party 
at court. 

In particular, he possessed a great as- 
cendency over Joab, the general of David's 
armies, and over Abiathar the priest; but 
neither Zadok the priest, nor Benaiah, the 
son of Jehoiada, captain of the king's guards, 
nor Nathan the prophet, nor the body of 
David's army, were of his party. Adonijah 
made a great entertainment for his adhe- 
rents, near the fountain of Rogel, east of 
the city, and invited to it all the king's sons 
except Solomon, and the principal persons 
of Judah, except Nathan, Zadok, and Be- 
naiah. At that meeting, he designed to pro- 
cure himself to be proclaimed king, and to 
obtain possession of the government before 
the death of David. Matters, however, hap- 
pened otherwise. 

Nathan, having understood what was trans- 
acting, went directly to Bathsheba, the mo- 
ther of Solomon, and advised her to go and 
inform the king, and to remind him of his 
promise in favour of her son. In compliance 
with this advice, Bathsheba went immedi- 
ately to the king, and while she was talking 
with him, Nathan, as had been before agreed, 
came and gave the king an account of Ado- 
nijah's feast, company, and design, desiring 
to know whether it was with his consent. 
The king, surprised at this report, commanded 
that Solomon should be immediately set upon 
his own mule, and accompanied by his guards, 
and by Zadok, Benaiah, and others of his 
chief officers, carried to Gihon, where he 
should be crowned king, and that he should 
be afterwards seated upon the royal throne, 
and proclaimed his successor by the sound of 
trumpet. 

The king's commands were executed with 
such dispatch, that Adonijah and his com- 
pany did not obtain the least knowledge of 
what had taken place, till they heard the 
shouts of ' Long live King Solomon.' Soon 
after, Jonathan, the son of Ahiathar, came 
and gave them an account of the whole pro- 
ceeding. This unexpected news so amazed 
them, that thev all fled in the utmost haste; and 



ADO 



ADO 



Adonijah seeing himself deserted, sought re- 
fuge at the horns of the altar. Solomon be- 
ing informed that Adonijah had taken sanc- 
tuary, sent him word, that if he conducted 
himself in future as a good subject, he would 
not injure one hair of his head, but that if he 
attempted another disloyal action, he should 
certainly be punished with death. On this, 
Adonijah came and humbled himself before 
the new king, and was afterwards ordered to 
retire to his own house, ( 1 Kings i. 1,2, 3, &c.) 
This happened in the year of the world 2989, 
and before Jesus Christ 1015. 

Sometime after David's death, Adonijah, 
by means of Bathsheba, the mother of Solo- 
mon, solicited that he might marry Abishag, 
the recent wife of king David, his father. — 
Solomon replied, ' Why dost thou ask Abi- 
shag the Shunammite for Adonijah? Ask 
for him the kingdom also ; for he is mine 
elder brother ; even for him, and for Abiathar 
the priest, and for Joab, the son of Zeruiah.' 
Then Solomon swore by the Lord, saying, 
1 God do so to me, and more also, if Adonijah 
has not spoken this word against his own life. 
I swear by the Lord, Adonijah shall be put 
to death this day.' Benaiah, the son of Je- 
hoiada, being sent to kill Adonijah, slew him, 
in the year of the world 2990, and before 
Jesus Christ 1014. (Id. ii. 13, &c.) 

ADO'NIS, non, Thamuz, signifies comple- 
tion, or burning, according to the Syriac ; or 
secret, because Adonis was kept in a coffin. 
The text of the vulgate in Ezekiel (viii. 14.) 
says, that the prophet saw women sitting in 
the temple, and weeping for Adonis ; but 
according to the reading of the Hebrew text, 
they are said to weep for Thamuz, or Tam- 
muz, the hidden one. Among the Egyptians 
Adonis was adored under the name of Osiris, 
the husband of Isis. But he was sometimes 
called by the name of Ammuz, or Tammuz, 
the concealed, probably to denote his death or 
burial. The Hebrews, in derision, sometimes 
call him the dead, (Psalm cvi. 28; Lev. xix. 
28.) because they wept for him, and repre- 
sented him as dead in his coffin ; and at other 
times, they denominate him the image of jea- 
lousy, (Ezek. viii. 3. 5.) because he was the 
object of Mars' jealousy. The Syrians, Phoe- 
nicians, and Cyprians, called him Adonis ; 
and Calmet is of opinion, that the Ammonites 
and Moabites designated him by the name of 
Baal-peor. See Baal-peor. 

The manner in which they celebrated the 
festival of this false deity was as follows: they 
represented him as lying dead in his coffin, 
wept for him, bemoaned themselves, and 
sought for him with great eagerness and in- 
quietude. After this, they pretended that 
they had found him again, and that he was 
still living. At this good news they exhi- 
bited marks of the most extravagant joy, and 
wore guilty of a thousand lewd practices, to 
convince Venus how much they congratu- 
lated her on the return and revival of her 
favourite, as they had before condoled with 
37 



her on his death. The Hebrew women, of 
whom the prophet Ezekiel speaks, celebrated 
the feasts of Tammuz, or Adonis, in Jerusa- 
lem ; and God showed the prophet these wo- 
men weeping for this infamous god, even in 
his temple. See Tammuz. 

Fabulous history gives the following ac- 
count of Adonis : he was a beautiful young 
shepherd, the son of Cinyras, king of Cyprus, 
by his own daughter Myrrha. The god-less 
Venus fell in love with this youth, and fre- 
quently met him on Mount Libanus. Mars, 
who envied this rival, transformed himself 
into a wild boar, and as Adonis was hunting, 
struck him in the groin and killed him. 
Venus lamented the death of Adonis in an 
inconsolable manner. The eastern people, 
in imitation of her mourning, generally esta- 
blished some solemn days for the bewailing 
of Adonis. After his death, Venus went to 
Hell, and obtained from Proserpine, that 
Adonis might be with her six months in the 
year, and continue the other six in the infer- 
nal regions. Upon this were founded those 
public rejoicings, which succeeded the la- 
mentations of his death. Some say, that 
Adonis was a native of Syria ; some, of Cy- 
prus ; and others, of Egypt. 

One of the ceremonies in the festival of 
Adonis, consisted in the women having their 
heads shaven, after the manner of the Egyp- 
tians at the death of Apis. They, who refused 
to be shaven, were obliged to prostitute them- 
selves a whole day to strangers; and the 
money thus obtained was consecrated to Ve- 
nus, in whose temple the ceremonies were 
performed. Calmet thinks, that the fabulous 
relations respecting the birth of Adonis, are 
much the same as those we learn from the 
sacred history concerning Lot's incest with 
his daughter. He also thinks that there is 
some affinity between Chemosh, the deity of 
the Moabites, and Ammuz, or Tammuz, 
which is the same as Adonis. — Macrobius in- 
forms us, that Adonis represented the sun, 
which during six months of the year is with 
Venus, or the earth, and absent the other six. 
Chemosh also represented the sun, and under 
this notion was adored by the Moabites. See 
Lot and Chemosh. 

By Adonis some mythologists understand 
corn, which is hidden six months in the'earth, 
before the time of the harvest. Adonis is said 
to have been killed by a wild boar, that is, by 
winter, which extinguishes the heat of sum- 
mer, and is the enemy of Venus and Adonis, 
or of beauty and procreation. The scene of 
Adonis's history is said to have been at Byb- 
los in Phoenicia, where, once a year, the river 
Adonis changed the colour of its waters, and 
appeared as red as blood. This was the sig- 
nal for celebrating their Adonia, or feast of 
Adonis. The common people were induced 
to believe, that the Egyptians, during these 
feasts, sent by sea a box, which was made o\ 
rushes, or Egyptian paper, and formed in the 
shape of a head, in which was inclosed a letter, 



ADO 



ADO 



informing the inhabitants of Byblos, that 
their god Adonis, whom they considered as 
lost, had been found. The vessel, which car- 
ried this letter, always arrived safe at Byblos, 
at the end of seven days. 

ADONIZE'DEK, p-RMTK, signifies jus- 
tice of the Lord, or the Lord of justice. Ado- 
nizedek was king of Zedek or Jerusalem: 
for this city is supposed to have had four 
names, Salem, Jerusalem, Jebus, and Zedek. 
A proof of this last name we have in Melchi- 
zedek, which signifies the king of Zedek or 
Salem. Adonizedek being informed that the 
inhabitants of Gibeon had submitted to the 
Hebrews, and that the cities of Jericho and 
Ai had been destroyed by them, was very 
much terrified, and considered by what means 
he might put a stop to the conquests of the 
Israelites. For this purpose, he sent to Ho- 
ham king of Hebron, to Piram king of Jar- 
muth, to Japhia" king of Lachish, and to 
Debir king of Eglon, and invited them to 
join him, that they might take Gibeon, and 
chastise the inhabitants, who had submitted 
to Joshua. These five kings, therefore, 
marched against Gibeon, and besieged it, in 
the year of the world 2553, and before Jesus 
Christ 1451. Upon this, the Gibeonites sent 
in haste to demand succours from Joshua, 
who was still at Gilgal. Joshua, without de- 
lay, chose some of the bravest men of his 
army, and marching all night, attacked the 
enemy at break of day. The Lord having 
spread a terror among the troops of these con- 
federate princes, he made a great slaughter, 
and pursuing them towards Beth-horon, conti- 
nued to cut them in pieces, till they reached 
Azekah and Makkedah. In their flight came 
on a dreadful tempest of hail-stones, of such 
an enormous size, that they suffered more 
from the hail-stones, than from the sword of 
Joshua. In so general a dispersion, many 
might have escaped, had not the sun, at the 
prayer of Joshua, stopped his course, that the 
Israelites might see to overtake and destroy 
the scattered multitude. 

The five kings, perceiving only destruction 
before them, hid themselves in a cave near 
the town of Makkedah. This being reported 
to Joshua, he commanded the mouth of the 
cave to be stopped with large stones, and left 
men sufficient to guard it. In the meantime, 
tbe Israelites continued the pursuit till even- 
ing. When they returned to the camp near 
Makkedah, Joshua ordered the mouth of the 
cave to be opened; and producing the five 
kings before the whole army of Israel, he said 
to the principal officers, ' Come near, put 
your feet upon the necks of these kings.' He 
added, ' Fear not, nor be dismayed, for thus 
shall the Lord do to all your enemies, against 
whom ye fight.' Afterwards, Joshua smote 
the five kings, and slew them, and hanged 
them upon five trees, until evening; and at 
the time of the going down of the sun, he 
commanded them to be taken from the trees, 
and cast into the cave, in which thcv had been 

38 



hid, and the mouth of the cave to be covered 
with great stones. (Josh. x. 1, 2, &c.) 

ADOPTION, an act, by which any per- 
son receives another into his own family, 
owns him for his son, and appoints him his 
heir. It does not appear that adoption, pro- 
perly so called, was used by the Hebrews. 
Moses does not mention it in his laws. Ja- 
cob's adoption of his two grandsons, Ephraim 
and Manasseh (Gen. xlviii. 14), was merely 
a kind of substitution, by which he intended 
that the two sons of Joseph should each pos- 
sess their lot in Israel, as if they had been 
his own sons, and the effect of which related 
only to the increase of fortune and inheritance 
between them. A kind of adoption used by 
the Israelites, consisted in the obligation of 
one brother to marry the widow of another, 
who died without children. (Deut. xxv. 5; 
Ruth iv.; Matt. xxii. 24.) The children, 
therefore, that were born of this marriage, 
were considered as belonging to the deceased 
brother, and were called by his name. This 
practice was used before the law, as may be 
seen in the history of Tamar. (Gen. xxxviii. 
6.) Neither of these, however, was the adop- 
tion so well known among the Greeks and 
Romans. Pharaoh's daughter adopted Mo- 
ses; (Exod. ii. 10.) and Mordecai, Esther 
(Esth. ii. 7-) We are not acquainted with 
the ceremonies observed on these occasions, 
nor how far the privileges of adoption ex- 
tended. But it is presumed, that the adop- 
tion was of the same kind as that mentioned 
in the Roman law, by which the adopted chil- 
dren participated in the estate with the natu- 
ral children, assumed the name, and became 
subject to the paternal authority of the per- 
son who adopted them. 

By the propitiation of our Saviour, and the 
communication of the merits of his death, 
penitent sinners become the adopted children 
of God, and heirs of the inheritance in hea- 
ven. This is taught us by St. Paul, in the 
following passages of his epistles : ' Ye have 
not received the spirit of bondage again to 
fear; but ye have received the spirit of 
adoption, whereby we cry, Abba, Father.' 
(Rom. viii. 15.) ' We ourselves groan within 
ourselves, waiting for the adoption, to wit, 
the redemption of our body.' (Id. ibid. 23.) 
— ' When the fulness of the time was come, 
God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, 
made under the law, to redeem them that 
were under the law, that we might receive 
the adoption of sons.' (Gal. iv. 4, 5.) 

Among the Mahometans the ceremony of 
adoption is performed by obliging the person 
adopted to pass through the shirt of the per- 
son, who adopts him. Something like this is 
observable among the Hebrews. Elijah 
adopted the prophet Elisha, and communi- 
cated to him the gift of prophecy, by putting 
his mantle upon him. (1 Kings xix. 19.) 
When Aaron was about to die, Moses dressed 
Klea/.ar in that high priest's vestments, to 
show thai Eleazar succeeded him in the func- 



ADO 



ADR 



tions of the priesthood, and that he was 
adopted to the exercise ofjthis dignity. (Num. 
xx. 26.) St. Paul in several places says, that 
Christians 'put on the Lord Jesus Christ,' 
that they ' put on the new man,' to denote 
their adoption as sons of God, (Rom. xiii. 
14; Gal. iii. 27; Ephes. iv. 24; Coloss. iii. 
10.) 

AD'ORAM, DYnx, signifies their beauty, 
their power, and their cloak ; or, praise, or a 
cry raised. Adoram was the name of the 
chief treasurer to Rehoboam. This prince 
having provoked the ten tribes by his haughty 
and imprudent answers, and induced them to 
separate from the house of David, probably 
thought that he should be able to appease 
them by sending to them Adoram, chief re- 
ceiver of the tribute-money, or principal sur- 
veyor of the works. Many are of opinion, 
that Adoram was the same as Adoniram, who 
had executed this office under Solomon. 
Whether, therefore, Rehoboam intended to 
reduce them by harsh or gentle means, or 
whether he designed to make some conces- 
sions to them, by putting into their hands 
Adoram, who had been the instrument of. 
those vexations, which they had suffered in the 
preceding reign, seems uncertain. However, 
the people, who had been extremely irritated, 
fell upon Adoram, and stoned him to death. 
(1 Kings xii. 18, &c. See also 2 Sam. xx. 24.) 

ADORATION, the act of rendering di- 
vine honours, and includes reverence, esteem, 
and love : this is called supreme or absolute. 
The word is compounded of ad, ' to,' and 
os, oris, ' a mouth,' and literally signifies, the 
applying of the hand to the mouth, ' to kiss 
the hand.' This in the eastern countries was 
a great mark of respect and submission. (See 
Job xxxi. 26, 27. 1 Kings xix. 18.) But we 
find, that the attitude of adoration has not 
been confined to this mode. Standing, kneel- 
ing, uncovering the head, prostration, bow- 
ing, lifting up the eyes to heaven, or fixing 
them on the earth, sitting with the under part 
of the thighs resting on the heels, have all 
been used as expressive of veneration and 
esteem. But whatever be the form, it ought 
to be remembered, that adoration is an act, 
which is properly due to God alone. (Matt. 
iv. 10; Acts x. 25, 26; Rev. xix. 10.) 

It is also used in Scripture for those marks 
of outward respect, which belong to kings, 
great men, and superior persons. (Gen. xviii. 
2; xxiii. 7; Exod. iv. 31.) 

In some churches it consists in the worship 
paid to an object as belonging to, or repre- 
sentative of another. In this sense, the Ro- 
manists profess to adore the cross, not simply, 
or immediately, but in respect of Jesus Christ, 
whom they suppose to be upon the cross. 
This, however, is generally considered by the 
Protestants as idolatry. See Idolatry. 

ADRAM'MELECH, ^o-nx signifies the 

cloak, glory, grandeur, or power of the king, 

and was the name of the son of Sennacherib, 

king of Assyria. This king returning to 

30 



Nineveh, after his unfortunate expedition 
into Judea, against king Hezekiah, was 
killed by his two sons, Adrammelech and 
Sharezer, whilst he was performing his devo- 
tions in the temple of Nisroch, his god. It is 
uncertain what induced these two princes to 
be guilty of parricide. After they had com- 
mitted the murder, they fled for safety to the 
mountains of Armenia, and their brother, 
Esar-haddon, succeeded to the crown. 
(Isaiah xxxvii. 38 ; 2 Kings xix. ult.) 

Adrammelech was one of the gods 
adored by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, 
that settled in the country of Samaria, in 
the place of those Israelites, who were car- 
ried beyond the Euphrates. The Sephar- 
vaites obliged their children to pass through 
the fire in honour of this idol, and of ano- 
ther called Anammelech. (2 Kings xvii. 31.) 
The Rabbins pretend that Adrammelech 
was represented under the form of a mule : 
but there is greater reason to believe, that 
Adrammelech denoted the sun, and Anam- 
melech the moon : the former signifying the 
magnificent king, the latter the gentle king. 
See Anammelech. 

The learned Hyde is of opinion, that 
Adrammelech signifies king of the flocks; 
and he supposes that Adrammelech and 
Anammelech were worshipped as protectors 
of cattle. 

ADRAMYT'TIUM, 'AdpafivTvvrj, signi- 
fies pure solidity ; or rather, the court of death, 
the mansion of death. Adramyttium was a 
maritime town of Mysia, in Asia Minor, 
opposite to the island of Lesbos. We read 
in the Acts of the Apostles, that St. Paul, 
in his first voyage to Italy, embarked in a 
ship belonging to Adramyttium. (Acts 
xxvii. 1, 2.) 

A'DRIA, "A Spia, a city of Italy, on the 
Tartaro, in the state of Venice. It gives 
name to the Adriatic Sea, which is some- 
times called simply Adria. (Acts xxvii. 27.) 
When Paul says that they were tossed 
in Adria, he does not mean (observes Dr. 
Whitby) the Adriatic Gulf, which ends with 
the Illyrian Sea, but the Adriatic Sea, which, 
according to Hesychius, is the same as the 
Ionian Sea. How then could St. Paul's 
ship, which was near to Malta, and so in the 
Lybian or Sicilian Sea, be in the Adriatic ? 
To this it is answered, that not only the 
Ionian, but even the Sicilian Sea, and part 
of that which washes Crete, was called the 
Adriatic. Thus Ptolemy says, that Sicily 
was bounded on the east i»7ro tov 'Adpiov 
by the Adriatic ; and that Crete was com- 
passed on the west vtto tov 'AdpiciTiicov 
TreXdyovQ, by the Adriatic Sea: and Strabo 
says, that the Ionian Gulf jwepoc t<d tov 
vvv 'Adpiov Xsyofisvov, is a part of that, 
which in his time was called the Adriatic 
Sea. See MELITA. Whitby's Paraphrase and 
Commentary on the New Testament, vol. ii. p 
711, tenth edition, 1807- 

A'DRIEL, bunny, 'Efyi>/\, signifies 



ADV 



ADU 



flock of God, or a privation or cutting off of 
God. Adriel, the son of Barzillai, married 
Merab, the daughter of Saul, who had been 
first promised to David. (1 Sam. xviii. 19.) 
She bare to Adriel five sons, who were de- 
livered to the Gibeonites, to be put to death 
before the Lord, in revenge for the cruelty, 
which their grandfather Saul had exer- 
cised towards the Gibeonites. The text 
of the second book of Samuel (xxi. 8.) im- 
ports, that these five were the sons of Mi- 
chal and Adriel ; but it appears extremely 
probable, that the name of Michal is put for 
that of Merab, or that Michal had adopted 
the sons of her sister Merab. 

ADVERSARY, one who sets himself in 
opposition to another, and is a name of 
Satan. 

ADUL'LAM, obiK, ob-ty, signifies their 
testimony, their prey, or their ornament. It 
was the name of a city, which belonged to 
the tribe of Judah, and which was situated 
towards the southern part of this tribe, the 
Dead Sea. (Josh. xv. 35.) This place was 
rebuilt by Rehoboam, who strengthened it 
with good fortifications. (2 Chron. xi. 7-) 
Eusebius says, that in his time it was a very 
great town, ten miles to the east of Eleu- 
theropolis ; and Jerome tells us, that it was 
not a small place in his days. Judas Mac- 
cabeus encamped in the plain of Adullam, 
where he passed the Sabbath-day. (2 Mac. 
xii. 38.) Joshua killed the king of Adul- 
lam. (Josh. xii. 15.) David, when he 
withdrew from Achish, king of Gath, hid 
himself in the cave of Adullam. (1 Sam. 
xxii. 1.) 

ADULTERY. By the law of Moses, 
adultery was punished with the death of 
both the man and the woman who were 
guilty of the crime. (Levit. xx. 10.) When 
any man, prompted by the spirit of jea- 
lousy, suspected that his wife had committed 
adultery, he brought her first before the 
judges, and informed them that having of- 
ten admonished his wife not to be conver- 
sant in private with a certain person, she 
regarded not his admonitions; but as she 
asserted her innocence, and would not ac- 
knowledge the fault, he required that she 
should be sentenced to drink the waters of 
bitterness, that by that means God might 
discover what she wished to conceal. (Numb. 
v. 11, 12, &c.) The man produced his 
witnesses, who were heard. Afterwards, 
both the man and the woman were carried 
to Jerusalem, and brought before the san- 
hedrim, the judges of which endeavoured, by 
threats, to confound the woman, and oblige 
her to confess the crime. If she persisted in 
denying it. they caused her to walk till 
she was tired ; and if she still refused to con- 
she was led tO tbe eastern gate of the 
COUrt of Israel, where she was stripped of the 
clothes she wore, and dressed in black, be- 
fore a multitude of persona of her own sex. 
Tin priest then told her, that if she knew 
40 



herself to be innocent with respect to the 
crime, of which she was accused, she need 
not fear; but that if she was guilty, she 
might expect to suffer the punishment, with 
which the law threatened her. To this she 
answered, ' Amen, Amen.' The priest 
wrote the terms of the law on a piece of 
vellum, with ink made particularly for this 
use without vitriol, that the writing might 
be more easily blotted out. The words 
were as follows : ' If a strange man has not 
come near you, and you are not polluted 
by forsaking the bed of your husband, these 
bitter waters, which I have cursed, will not 
injure you. But if you have gone astray 
from your husband, and have polluted your- 
self by coming near another man, may you 
be accursed of the Lord, and become an 
example to all his people ! May these 
cursed waters enter into your belly, and 
cause it to swell till it burst, and may your 
thighs putrefy !' 

After this, the priest filled a pitcher of 
new earth with water out of the brazen ba- 
sin, which stood near the altar of burnt- 
offerings. Into the water he cast some dust 
taken from the pavement of the temple, 
and mingled it with wormwood, or some 
other bitter drug. Having read to the 
woman the curses above-mentioned, and 
received her answer of Amen, he scraped 
them into the pitcher of water. During 
this time another priest tore her clothes as 
low as her bosom, bared her head, untied 
the tresses of her hair, and fastened toge- 
ther her clothes which had been torn, with 
a girdle bound under her breasts. He then 
presented her with the tenth part of an 
ephah, or about three pints of barley-meal, 
which was in a frying-pan, without oil or 
incense. Then he, who had prepared the 
waters of jealousy or bitterness, gave them 
to the accused person ; and as soon as she 
had drank them, he put the pan containing 
the meal into her hand. This meal was 
stirred before the Lord, and a part of it 
thrown into the fire of the altar. If the 
woman was innocent, she returned with 
her husband, and the waters instead of in- 
juring her, increased her health, and ren- 
dered her more fruitful. If, on the con- 
trary, she was guilty, she immediately grew 
pale, her eyes seemed to start out of their 
sockets ; and lest the temple should be 
polluted by her death, she was instantly 
carried out, and died with all the ignomi- 
nious circumstances related in the curses. 
The Rabbins say, that the curses produced 
effects on the man, with whom the woman 
had transgressed, even though he were ab- 
sent, and at a distance. If the husband of 
the woman had been himself guilty of adul- 
tery the bitter waters did not injure her. 
Leo of Modena. 

The Jews having surprised a woman in 
adultery, brought her to Jesus Christ, and 
asked how they should treat her, Moses 



ADU 



ADU 



having commanded that women guilty of 
this crime should be stoned ? This they said 
to tempt Jesus, that they might find mat- 
ter of accusation against him. Jesus stooped 
down, and and wrote with his finger on the 
ground. After some time, he raised him- 
self, and said, ' He that is without sin among 
you, let him first cast a stone at her.' 
Then stooping down again, he continued 
to write on the ground. The Jews, con- 
victed by their own consciences, departed 
one after another, the oldest retiring first. 
"When Jesus arose, and saw only the wo- 
man, he said to her, ' Where are those, 
thine accusers ? Hath no man condemned 
thee?' She answered, 'No man, Lord?' 
Jesus said, ' neither do T condemn thee : 
go, and sin no more.' (John viii. 11.) 

By the law of Moses, the culprit (male as 
well as female) was to be brought before 
the council, and if condemned, the whole 
audience, council included, were to stone him. 
Hence it appears, 1. that by bringing this 
woman to Jesus, the Jews were guilty of 
partiality, as they ought to have brought the 
adulterer also ; 2. They desired Jesus to 
take on himself the office of the council, 
which would have been assuming political 
power, and would have endangered his life. 
This insidious measure he retorts on them- 
selves, by saying, ' Do you, on your own 
proposals, assume that conduct, which you 
well know the council would pursue in such 
a case ; consider this prisoner as ipso facto 
condemned by the circumstances, in which 
she was apprehended, and do you, therefore, 
cast stones at her, as the council would cast 
stones at a person so condemned.' This 
they declined, being aware of its tendency; 
and they shrunk from that, to which they 
had urged Jesus. To this his words seem 
more particularly to allude : ' Let him who 
is without sin — not moral guilt, but political 
offence — he who can be innocent in assuming 
that power, which is legally lodged elsewhere, 
let him act the judge, and stone her.' And 
so, speaking to the woman, he says, has 
nobody condemned thee — actively shown his 
condemnation of thee — executed the con- 
demnation of the law, on thee, by stoning 
thee ? — Neither do I condemn thee ; I do 
not execute condemnation on thee by stoning 
thee : remember the narrow escape thou 
hast now experienced : ' go, and sin no 
more.' 

This story is not found in many Greek 
copies of the Evangelist St. John. St. 
Jerom observes, that, in his time, no part of 
it was recorded in many books, as well 
Greek as Latin. By the generality of the 
Greek fathers it is never read. Of twenty- 
three commentators in the Gi*eek Catena 
on St. John, not one has explained it ; and 
hence it has been thought, that it was not 
inserted in those books. Maldonat assures 
us, that of all the Greek copies, which lie 
had consulted, he found it only in that 
41 



which contains Leontius's commentary on 
St. John. Leontius does not speak of it in 
his commentary; and in the Greek text 
joined to it, this story is marked with obe- 
lisks, to show that it was added to the text. 
Dr. Mill cites many other Greek manu- 
scripts, in which it is not to be found. It 
was not known to Origen, St. Chrysostom, 
Theophylact, or Nonnus. Nor can Eusebius 
be said to have received it, since he notices 
that it was not contained in the Hebrew copy 
of St. Matthew, used by the Nazareans. The 
manuscripts, in which it is found, vary ex- 
tremely : in some, it is inserted at the end 
of St. John's Gospel ; in some, at the end of 
the twenty-first chapter of St. Luke ; in some, 
in the margin of the eighth chapter of St. 
John ; and in others, it is marked with 
obelisks, to denote that it is of doubtful 
authority. Euthymius mentions it in his 
commentary, but confesses that it is not 
found in the best manuscripts. 

On the other hand, it is urged, that this 
story is contained in all the copies used by 
Robert Stephens, to the number of sixteen ; 
and in those consulted by Theodore Beza, 
which amounted to seventeen, one manu- 
script only excepted. It is also acknow- 
ledged, for the most part, by those to which 
Dr. Mill had recourse. Tatian, who lived 
in the year 160, and Ammonius, who lived 
in 230, considered it as canonical, and in- 
serted it in their harmonies of the Gospel ; 
and several others of equal authority, as 
Athanasius, St. Jerom, St. Austin, Ambrose, 
and the rest of the Latin fathers, did not 
hesitate to receive it. ' The story, therefore, 
of the adulterous woman,' observes Kuinsel, 
* though it is brief and concise, and our Evan- 
gelists seem to have here (as elsewhere) 
omitted some circumstances, which, if 
added, would have thrown greater light on 
it ; yet since it contains nothing improbable 
or incongruous, since the difficulties met 
with in it are not inexplicable, since its 
omission in many MSS. may be accounted 
for on good grounds, and since it is found in 
ancient MSS. of various recensions ; I can by 
no means assent to those, who are of opinion 
that this portion is not genuine. I am in- 
clined to agree with Staudlin, the able 
defender of this passage, who maintains that 
this portion may be defended with arguments 
far stronger and more numerous than those 
by which it can ever be impugned.' ' In- 
deed,' says Mr. Bloomfield, ' I do not hesi- 
tate to maintain, that even if it could be 
proved that the narrative did not come from 
the pen of the Evangelist, still the reality 
of the facts might be supported from the 
high antiquity of the story, and its strong in- 
ternal proofs.' Bloomfield' s Recensio Synopliea 
Annotationis Saerse, vol. iii. pp. 283, •JJi4 ; 
Supplementary Addenda to Cahnet's Diction- 
ary of the Bible. 

Adultery is also used in Scripture for 
idolatry, or departing from the true Clod, 



AEL 



AFF 



and worshipping idols, (Jerem. iii. 9, 10, &c.) 
It is likewise used to signify any species of 
impurity or crime against the virtue of chas- 
tity. (Matt. v. 28.) By ecclesiastical writers, 
it is employed to denote a person's inva- 
ding or intruding into a bishopric, during the 
former bishop's life. 

AE'LI A-C APITOLI'NA, a name given to 
Jerusalem, when the Emperor Adrian, about 
the year of Jesus Christ 134, settled in it a 
Roman colony, and entirely banished the 
Jews, who were forbidden, on pain of death, 
to continue in the city. See Jerusalem. 

It was called JElia from iElius, the name 
of Adrian's family, and Capitolina, from 
Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom the city was 
consecrated. It was known by this name 
till the reign of the emperor Constantine, 
when it resumed that of Jerusalem : but the 
name iElia was not long abolished, for it 
was so denominated after the time of Con- 
stantine. 

JENON, or Enon, pry, alvwv, signifies 
cloud or mass of darkness, or his fountain, or 
his eye. It signifies the place of springs, 
where John baptized. (John iii. 23.) It is 
uncertain where it was situated, whether in 
Galilee, or Judaea, or Samaria, where Lubin 
places it, namely in the half-tribe of Ma- 
nasseh, within Jordan. 

iERA, a series of years commencing from 
a certain fixed point of time called an epoch 
or epocha ; as tbe Christian aera, that is, the 
number of years, which have elapsed since 
the birth of Christ. However, by the gene- 
rality of authors, the terms aera and epocha 
were used as synonymous, that is, for the 
particular time, from which any computation 
commences. See Epoch. 

The ancient Jews used several aeras in 
their computations : sometimes they reckon 
from, the deluge ; sometimes from the divi- 
sion of tongues; sometimes from their de- 
parture out of Egypt ; sometimes from the 
building of the temple ; and, at other times, 
from their restoration after the captivity. 
But their vulgar aera was computed from 
the creation of the world, which agrees with 
the year 953 of the Julian period. Conse- 
quently they supposed, that the world was 
created 249 years sooner than according to 
our computations. After the Jews became 
subject to the Syro- Macedonian kings, tbey 
were obliged to use in all their contracts, 
the aera of the Seleucidae, which was thence 
denominated the sera of contracts. This 
aera commences with the year of the world 
3692, of the Julian period 4403, and before 
Christ 312. The aera generally used among 
Christians is computed from the birth of 
Jesus Christ, respecting the true time of 
which chronologers differ among themselves. 
Some place it two, sonic four, and others 
five years before the vulgar sera, which is 
computed at the year OX the world 4004. 
Archbishop I 'slier, and after him the gene- 
rality of modern chronologers, suppose the 
42 



birth of Christ to have happened in the 
year of the world 4000, and of the Julian 
period 4714. 

The ancient heathens used several aeras : 
1. The aera of the first Olympiad is placed 
in the year of the world 3228, and before 
the vulgar aera of Jesus Christ 776. 2. The 
taking of Troy by the Greeks, in the year of 
the world 2820, and before Jesus Christ 
1184. 3. The voyage undertaken for the 
purpose of bringing away the golden fleece, 
in the year of the world 2760. 4. The 
foundation of Rome in 3251. 5. The aera 
of Nabonassar, in 3257. 6. The aera of 
Alexander the Great, or his last victory 
over Darius, in 3674, and before Jesus 
Christ 330. 

.E'TIANS, the followers of iEtius, a 
presbyter, and monk, and one of the lead- 
ers of the Semi-Arians, in the fourth cen- 
tury. The principal point, on which iEtius 
and his adherents differed from the other 
Semi-Arians, appears to have been their be- 
lief, that no distinction existed in Scripture 
between a presbyter and a bishop. jEtius 
earnestly condemned prayers for the dead, 
stated fasts, the celebration of Easter, and 
other rites ; and he attempted to restore the 
discipline of the church to its primitive sim- 
plicity and excellence. 

AFFECTION maybe defined a settled 
bent of mind towards any particular being 
or thing, and occupies a middle place be- 
tween disposition on the one hand, and pas- 
sion on the other. It is distinguishable 
from disposition, which, forming a part of 
our original nature, must exist before there 
can be an opportunity to exert it upon any 
particular object ; whereas affection can 
never be original, because, having a spe- 
cial relation to a particular object, it can- 
not exist till that object has been at least 
once presented. It is also distinguishable 
from passion, which, depending on the real 
or ideal presence of its object, vanishes 
with its object ; whereas affection is a last- 
ing connection, and, like other connections, 
subsists even when we do not think of the 
object. 

The affections, as they respect religion, 
have been defined the vigorous and sensible 
exercises of the inclination of the soul to- 
wards religious objects. When the great 
truths of religion are not firmly believed, 
and the mind is not fully persuaded of their 
reality, they may be contemplated without 
emotion; but a real belief of the truth of 
religion will naturally excite devout affec- 
tions. The doctrines of religion are so im- 
portant and so interesting, and the objects 
which they present to view are so glorious, 
that the man, who can contemplate them 
without having his affections excited, must 
either be sceptical, or destitute of the feel- 
ings of the human heart. When the devout 
man in his moments of retirement, contem- 
plates the eternity, the immensity, and the 



AFF 



AFF 



omnipotence of the Divine Being, and is 
deeply impressed with sentiments of reve- 
rence and godly fear, his feelings are not to 
be considered as enthusiasm. When he re- 
flects on his own unworthiness, and contem- 
plates the mercy and grace of God towards 
him, he is not to be ridiculed for humbling 
himself before the Most High, and dropping 
a penitential tear in the presence of the Fa- 
ther of mercies, who deals not with him 
according to his sins, but views him with 
tenderness and compassion. When he con- 
templates the bounty of his gracious Crea- 
tor, and considers every comfort and every 
blessing as the gift of God, he is not to be 
ridiculed for giving vent to the emotions of 
pious gratitude. When with humble confi- 
dence, he looks up to God as his father in 
heaven, who made and preserves him, whose 
eye is continually upon him for good, and 
whose care over him is never remitted; 
when with a firm reliance on his wisdom, 
and mercy, and faithfulness, he entertains 
the hope that the Almighty will conduct 
him safely through all the difficulties and 
dangers of this life, and afterwards receive 
him into glory and happiness ; he is not to 
be ridiculed if, in those sacred moments, 
his devout affections be exalted into rap- 
ture. When, impressed with the vanity of 
the things of time, and the shortness of hu- 
man life, he looks forward to the regions of 
immortality, where choice friends are no 
more separated by death, and where he shall 
meet his pious departed relations among an 
innumerable multitude of spirits of just men 
made perfect ; when he indulges the hope of 
being admitted into the heavenly mansions, 
to see his Redeemer, to behold the glory of 
God, and to enjoy the light of his counte- 
nance for ever; it is no wonder that, in 
those sacred moments, his joy should rise 
into rapture. The views, which the Gospel 
affords us, of God, of divine providence, of 
the salvation of mankind by Jesus Christ, 
and of a future state of immortality, are 
calculated to animate all the springs of the 
human heart, and to excite the warmest 
affections. 

That there is such a thing as enthusiasm 
or fanaticism, the production of a heated 
imagination, misled by ignorance, is not to 
be denied. Many baneful effects have re- 
sulted from such enthusiasm. But, because 
there are counterfeits of the devout affec- 
tions, and abuses of religion, we are by no 
means to conclude that all religious affec- 
tions are delusive. There are counterfeits 
of every virtue ; but we are not to suppose 
that no virtue exists among men. Whilst, 
therefore, we guard against enthusiasm, let 
us take heed lest we become insensible to 
the impressions of piety, and extinguish in 
our breasts the flame of devotion. The 
man, who is a stranger to the devout affec- 
tions, is a stranger to the noblest feelings, and 
the sublimest enjoyments, of which the heart 
43 



is susceptible. Genuine devotion, daily 
cherished in the breast, refines the senti- 
ments, purifies the heart, and exalts the 
soul. By the daily exercise of the pious 
affections, the devout man anticipates on 
earth, in some degree, the pleasures of the 
heavenly state, and becomes more and more 
meet to be translated to the society of the 
heavenly inhabitants. Lord Kaimes's Ele- 
ments of Criticism ; Dr. Hood's Sermons. 

AFFINITY. There are several degrees 
of affinity, in which marriage was prohibited 
by the laws of Moses. The son was not al- 
lowed to marry his mother, nor his father's 
wife. The brother was not allowed to marry 
his sister, whether she was so nearly related 
to him by the father only, or by the mother 
only, and much less if she was his sister by 
both the same father and mother. The 
grandfather was not permitted to marry 
her, who was his granddaughter, either by 
his son or his daughter. No person was 
allowed to marry the daughter of his fa- 
ther's wife, or the sister of his father or 
mother. The uncle was not permitted to 
marry his niece ; nor the aunt her nephew ; 
nor the nephew the wife of his uncle by the 
father's side ; nor the father-in-law his 
daughter-in-law. The brother was not 
allowed to marry the wife of his brother 
whilst he was living; nor even after the 
death of his brother, if he left children : but 
if he left no children, the surviving brother 
was to raise up children to his deceased 
brother, by marrying his widow. It was 
forbidden to marry the mother and the 
daughter at one time, or the daughter of the 
mother's son, or the daughter of her daugh- 
ter, or two sisters together. (Levit. xviii. 7> 
&c.) 

It is certain that before the law, the pa- 
triarchs sometimes married their sisters, for 
Abraham married Sarah, who was Ms fa- 
ther's daughter by another mother ; and two 
sisters together, for Jacob married both 
Rachel and Leah ; and even their own sis- 
ters, by both father and mother, for Seth 
and Cain married their own sisters. But 
these marriages are not to be proposed as 
examples ; for in some cases they were au- 
thorized by necessity ; in others by custom ; 
and, at that time, the law was not in exist- 
ence. If some other examples be found 
since the promulgation of the law, they are 
expressly disapproved of by the Scripture : 
as, Reuben's incest with Balah, his father's 
concubine ; the action of Amnon with his 
sister Tamar ; and the conduct of Herod 
Antipas, who married Herodias his sister- 
in-law, the wife of his brother Philip, whilst 
her husband was living. 

AFFLICTION, that which causes a sen- 
sation of pain or sorrow; calamity, or dis- 
tress of any kind.* When we consider the 
nature of this world, and our state of sin 
and imperfection, we have reason to expect 
afflictions. Our passage from the cradle to 



AFF 



AGA 



the grave, is a scene of disquietude, inter- 
spersed with some joy. As daily experi- 
ence renders it evident that afflictions are 
unavoidably incident to human life, that 
calamity will neither be repelled by forti- 
tude, nor escaped by flight, neither awed 
by greatness, nor eluded by obscurity, it is 
our wisdom, and will be our advantage, 
quietly to submit to the dispensations of 
providence. 

Afflictions purify the heart, and teach us 
many useful lessons. They convince us of 
human weakness, and dispose us to flee for 
relief to the Divine Being, and repose our- 
selves under the shadow of his wings. The 
present experience of pain and misfortune 
is never joyous but grievous, never so much 
an object of congratulation as of complaint. 
Yet we perceive the uses of affliction, and 
are willing to acknowledge those uses when 
the present agony is past, when the danger 
has subsided, or the difficulties are over- 
come. We are ready then to exclaim with 
David, ' It is good for me that I have been 
in trouble.' (Psalm cxix. 71-) Prosperity 
may intoxicate, but afflictions bring us to 
ourselves. They correct our pride and our 
prejudices, the insolence of our manners, or 
the loftiness of our looks, and teach us to 
form juster notions and a more sober esti- 
mate of happiness. One of the principal 
arts of happiness seems to consist in know- 
ing how to appreciate rightly, and to use 
wisely the good within our reach ; and this 
art we seldom learn so well as from the ex- 
perience of privations and sufferings. 

Afflictions are often physically, but al- 
ways morally beneficial. In the last mo- 
ments when the mind is calm, and all things 
of the world are viewed with more than 
philosophical serenity, men commonly find 
that they ascribe more good to their pains 
than to their pleasures, and that they had 
more reason to rejoice at those calamitous 
occurrences, in which, at the time, they be- 
held the most fruitful source of sorrow and 
complaint. At that solemn hour, when we 
are about to leave this world, when the 
false appearances of things no longer daz- 
zle or deceive, if our minds be at leisure to 
reflect on the aggregate of the varied events 
of our lives, or the improvement of our con- 
duct, we shall discover that the pain and suf- 
fering, which we experienced, contributed in 
a greater degree to our real happiness than 
what we deemed our more prosperous fortune. 
If, therefore, we be certain that the time is 
coming when we shall be convinced that 
that which we deemed the greatest evil, will 
be found to have been accessary to our 
greatest good, when we shall look on our 
present privations and misfortunes with 
complacency and delight, surely on this con- 
viction we may ground some solid reasons 
for cheerful acquiescence in the lowest con- 
dition, or the most distressing circumstances. 
For why should we so greatly repine at those 
44 



disasters and afflictions, in which, whether 
they be considered as the correctives of vice, 
or the corroborants of virtue, we shall after- 
wards find such abundant arguments to 
prove, and such abundant excitements to 
extol the benevolence of God ? 

Though afflictions bear an unpleasant 
aspect, yet they are of short continuance. 
— The day is at hand when we shall be 
delivered from every temporal evil, and 
our sorrow be turned into joy. We are 
now on a tumultuous sea, where the winds 
roar, and the waves swell ; but let us not 
be discouraged, we are near the harbour 
where all our toils and dangers shall cease, 
and be no more. Though we bear the heat 
and burden of the day, yet the evening is 
fast approaching, when we shall receive an 
ample reward and recompense of our suffer- 
ings. Richardson's Divine and Moral Essays ; 
Fellowes's Body of Theology ; Johnson's 
Rambler. 

AF RICA, Aif3v7], Libue, may signify dust, 
or ashes reduced to dust, and is one of the 
four quarters of the world, and a peninsula 
joined to Asia, by the narrow isthmus of 
Suez. It is situated between 37 degrees of 
north, and 35 degrees of south latitude ; and 
between eighteen degrees of west, and 51 
degrees of east longitude : it is 4300 miles 
in length from north to south, and 3500 
miles in breadth from east to west. Africa 
is bounded on the north by the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, which separates it from Europe ; 
on the east by the Isthmus of Suez, the Red 
Sea, and the Eastern Ocean, which divide it 
from Asia ; on the south, by the Southern 
Ocean ; and on the west, by the Atlantic or 
Western Ocean, which separates it from 
America. Africa was peopled chiefly by 
Ham and his descendants. Mizraim peo- 
pled Egypt. The Pathrusim, the Naph- 
tuhim, the Casluhim, and the Ludim, peo- 
pled other parts of the country, the limits 
of which are at this time not exactly known. 
It is supposed that many of the Canaanites, 
who were expelled their country by Joshua, 
retired into Africa. 

AG'ABUS, "Ayafiog, signifies a locust, or 
the feast of the father. By the Greeks Aga- 
bus is said to have been one of the seventy 
disciples of our Saviour. He was a prophet, 
and foretold that there would be a great 
famine in all parts of the earth ; and we are 
informed that it happened accordingly, in 
the fourth year of the reign of the emperor 
Claudius, and in the forty-fourth of Jesus 
Christ. (Acts xi. 28, 29, 30.) 

Profane authors notice this famine, and 
Suetonius observes, that the emperor him- 
self was insulted on this occasion, being 
attacked by the people in the middle of 
the market-place, and obliged to retreat to 
bis palace. 

Ten years after this, as St. Paul was go- 
ing to Jerusalem, and bad already landed at 
Caesarea in Palestine, the same prophet 



AGA 



AGA 



Agabus arrived at that place ; and coming to 
visit St. Paul and his company, he took the 
apostle's girdle, and binding his hands and 
feet, he said, Thus saith the Holy Ghost, so 
shall the Jews at Jerusalem bind the man 
that owneth this girdle, and shall deliver 
him into the hands of the Gentiles. When 
they heard these things, all those who were 
present besought Paul to go no farther. But 
he answered, that he was ready, not to be 
bound only, but also to die at Jerusalem for 
the name of the Lord Jesus. (Acts xxi. 10, 
&c.) The Scripture furnishes no other par- 
ticulars of the life of Agabus. 

A'GAG, 33K, "Ayayog, signifies roof, floor, 
and was the name of a king of the Amale- 
kites. The Amalekites attacked the Israel- 
ites in the wilderness, after they had come 
out of Egypt, and whilst they were sinking 
under the fatigues, which they had suifered 
in that country. Having massacred all those 
who were unable to keep up with the body 
of the army, the Lord was not satisfied with 
the victory, which Joshua had gained over 
the Amalekites in the same wilderness, in 
the year of the world 2513, and before Jesus 
Christ 1491 : but he protested with an oath 
that he would destroy the memory of Amalek 
from under heaven. (Exod. xvii. 14. 16; 
Deut. xxv. 17.) About four hundred years 
after this, the Lord remembered the cruel 
treatment, which Amalek had formerly shewn 
to his people, and commanded Samuel to 
inform Saul, that he should march against 
the Amalekites, cut them in v pieces, and 
destroy every thing that belonged to them. 
On receiving this command, Saul ordered 
the people to assemble, and on a review of 
them, found that their number amounted to 
two hundred thousand foot, without reckon- 
ing the ten thousand men of the tribe of 
Judah, who formed a separate body. Having 
entered into the country of the Amalekites, 
he cut in pieces all with whom he could 
meet, from Havilah to Shur. He suffered 
Agag and the best of the cattle to remain 
alive. Bat Agag did not long enjoy this 
favour. As soon as Samuel heard that he 
was alive, he sent for him; and notwith- 
standing his insinuating address, and the 
vain hopes, with which he flattered himself, 
that • the bitterness of death was passed,' he 
caused him to be hewn in pieces in Gilgal 
before the Lord. This event happened 
about the year of the world 2930, and be- 
fore Jesus Christ 1074. (1 Sam. xv. I, 2, 
&c.) See Amalek. 

AGAPAE, love feasts, or feasts of charity 
among the ancient Christians, in which libe- 
ral contributions were made by the rich for 
the poor. The word is derived from hya.TTr\, 
friendship. St. Chrysostom gives the follow- 
ing account of this feast, which he derives 
from the practice of the apostles ; ' the first 
Christians had all things in common, as we 
read in the Acts of the Apostles ; but when 
that equality of possessions ceased, as it did 
45 



even in the apostles' time, the agapae, or 
love-feasts were substituted in its room.' On 
certain days, after partaking of the Lord's 
Supper, they met at a common feast, the 
rich bringing provisions, and the poor, who 
possessed nothing, being invited.' It was 
always attended with the receiving of the 
holy sacrament ; but the ancient and modern 
interpreters differ in opinion whether this 
feast was held before or after the com- 
munion. St. Chrysostom, as we have seen, 
supports the latter: Calmet, the learned 
Dr. Cave, and others, are in favour of the 
former opinion. During the first three 
centuries, these love-feasts were held in the 
church without scandal or offence ; but in 
succeeding times the heathens began to tax 
them with impurity. This occasioned a re- 
formation of these agapae. The kiss of charity, 
with which the ceremony used to end, was 
no longer interchanged between those of 
different sexes ; and it was expressly for- 
bidden to have any beds or couches for the 
convenience of those, who were disposed to 
eat more at their ease. Notwithstanding 
these precautions, the abuses committed in 
those feasts became so notorious, that the 
holding of them, especially in churches, was 
solemnly condemned at the council of Car- 
thage, in the year of our Lord 397- 

The Jews had certain devotional enter- 
tainments, relating in some respects to the 
agapae, of which we have been treating. On 
their great festival days, they entertained 
their family, their friends, and relatives, and 
invited to the feasts, the priests, the poor, 
and orphans, to whom they also sent a por- 
tion of their sacrifices. These repasts were 
made in the temple before the Lord ; and 
the law appointed certain sacrifices and first 
fruits, which were to be set apart for this 
purpose. (Deut. xiv. 22. 27- 29 ; xxvi. 10, 
11, 12. Nehem. viii. 12. Esther ix. 19.) 

The Wesleyan Methodists hold their love 
feasts quarterly. To them no persons are 
admitted, who cannot produce a ticket to 
prove that they are members, or a note of 
admittance from the superintendent. How- 
ever, to any serious person who has never 
been present at one of these meetings, a 
note will be given for once, but not oftener, 
unless this person shall become a member. 
The meeting commences with singing and 
praying. Afterwards, small pieces of bread, 
and some water are distributed ; and all 
present, eat and drink together, in token of 
their Christian love for each other. Then, 
if any persons have any thing to say con- 
cerning their past or present Christian expe- 
rience they are permitted to speak. After 
a few have spoken, a collection is made for 
the poor ; and the meeting is concluded by 
singing and praying. The Methodists con- 
sider this institution as having no relation to 
the Lord's Supper. The elements of the 
Lord's Supper are bread and wine; but at 
the love-feasts cake and water only are used. 



AGA 



AGN 



The former is regarded by them as a posi- 
tive institution, which, as Christians, they 
are bound to observe ; the latter, as merely 
prudential, which they observe because they 
think them scriptural and edifying. They 
suppose, that to this St. Jude alludes, in the 
twelfth verse, where, speaking of some evil 
doers that associated with the Christians, he 
says, ' these are spots in your feasts of love,' 
and that of this also, the apostle Peter speaks 
in his second epistle, (ii. 13.) Adams's 
Religious World Displayed ; Nightingale's 
Portraiture of Methodism. 

AGAPETiE, a name given to certain 
virgins and widows, that in the ancient 
church associated themselves with eccle- 
siastics, whom they attended from a motive 
of piety and charity. See Deaconesses. 

AGATE, a semipellucid gem, which is 
mentioned in some places of Scripture, and 
which is variegated with veins and clouds, 
but has no zones. 

The Agate was the second in the third 
row of precious stones in the breast-plate of 
the Jewish high-priest. (Exod. xxviii. 19.) 

AGES of the WORLD. The times 
preceding the birth of Jesus Christ have 
been commonly divided into six ages. The 
first age extends from the beginning of the 
world to the deluge, and comprehends 1G56 
years. The second from the deluge to the 
time of Abraham's coming into the land of 
promise, in 2082, comprehends 426 years. 
The third age of the world, from Abraham's 
entrance into the promised land to the 
deliverance of the Hebrews out of Egypt, 
in the year of the world 2513, includes 430 
years. The fourth age, from the departure 
of the Hebrews out of Egypt to the founda- 
tion of the temple by Solomon, in the year 
of the world 2992 comprehends 479 years. 
The fifth age, from the foundation of the 
temple by Solomon, to the Babylonish cap- 
tivity in the year of the world 3416, contains 
424 years. The sixth age of the world 
comprises the time from the Babylonish 
captivity to the birth of Jesus Christ, which 
happened in the year of the world 4000, 
four years before the vulgar aera, and in- 
cludes 584 years. 

Few persons are ignorant, that a great 
difference exists in the ages of the patri- 
archs, as they arc given in the Septuagint, 
and in the Hebrew text. This difference, 
with respect to the time before the deluge, 
is about 586 years more in the Septuagint, 
than in the Hebrew, or Vulgate Bible. Ac- 
cording to the former, the deluge happened 
in the year of the world 2242 ; but accord- 
ing to the latter, in 1656. After the deluge, 
from the six hundred and first year of Noah, 
which was the year after the deluge, the 
Septuagint version reckons 1172 years to the 
seventieth year ofTerafa ; whilst the Hebrew 
text computea only 292 years. This difference 
of reckoning causes a variation of 880 
years; and by adding the 686 years before 
46 



the deluge, there will be found 1466 years 
more in the Septuagint than in the Hebrews. 

Hitherto no person has been able to dis- 
cover the true motive, which could induce 
the Septuagint thus to lengthen the lives of 
the patriarchs. Some have conjectured, that 
their design in this was to rescue the sacred 
books from the censure of the heathens, who 
unable to credit the relation of the long 
lives of the patriarchs, maintained, that one 
of our years was equivalent to ten or five of 
theirs. One therefore, who had been said 
to live eight hundred years, in reality lived 
only eighty, or, at most, one hundred and 
sixty ; and others in proportion. However 
this may be, no doubt exists, but that the 
Septuagint interpreters have multiplied the 
lives of the patriarchs ; and there is no rea- 
son to consider the diminution of these 
as effected by the Hebrew writers. 

With respect to the length of the year, it 
appears evident from the computation of 
Moses and the old Hebrews, that, from the 
time of Noah, it consisted of twelve months 
of one-and-thirty days. The proof of this 
is seen in the particular account of the days 
of that year, in which the deluge happened ; 
and this account of the days is very accu- 
rately given us by Moses. 

Ludovicus Capellus attempts to reconcile 
the difference in the computation between 
the Septuagint and Hebrew, by saying that 
this addition was not made by the Septuagint 
writers themselves, but by some early tran- 
scriber of their version. This transcriber, 
perhaps, thought that their years were only 
lunar, and computed that thus the patri- 
archs must have been fathers at the early 
age of 5, 6, 7> or 8 years. Perceiving, there- 
fore, the incredibility of such a circumstance, 
he might be induced to add 100 years to 
each, to render them of a more probable age 
at the birth of their respective children. 
But if he thought that the years were solar, 
he might suppose, that infancy and child- 
hood were proportionally longer in men, who 
were to live seven, eight, or nine hundred 
years, than they are in us, and that it was 
too early for them to be fathers at the age 
of sixty, seventy, or ninety years. He might, 
therefore, be induced to add a hundred 
years, to render their advance to manhood 
more proportionable to the duration of their 
lives. That however, which God designed 
we should learn from the sacred history 
contained in the first eleven chapters of 
Genesis, is not affected by this difference in 
the chronology of the Hebrew and Septua- 
gint. See Patriarchs. Dr. Brett's Dis- 
sertation on the Ancient Version of the Bible. 
Consult also Brett's Chronological Essay in 
Defence of the Computation of the Septuagint ; 
Vossius de Mtate Mundi, et dc LXX. Interpre- 
tibus ; Shuckford's Connection, 8(C. 

AGNOF/1VK, a Beet which appeared about 
the year of our Lord 370, and which derived 
its name from dyvotut, to be ignorant. They 



AGO 



AGR 



doubted the omniscience of God, and al- 
leged that he knew things past only by 
memory, and things future only by an un- 
certain prescience. In the sixth century 
arose another sect of the same name, who 
followed Themistius, deacon of Alexandria, 
and who maintained that Christ was igno- 
rant of certain things, and particularly of the 
time of the day of judgment. It is sup- 
posed that they founded their hypothesis on 
the following passage of the New Testament : 
' Of that day and that hour knoweth no man ; 
no, not the angels which are in heaven, 
neither the Son, but the Father.' (Mark 
xiii. 32.) It seems that the meaning of 
this passage is, that this was not known to 
the Messiah himself in his human nature, 
or by virtue of his unction, as any part of 
the mysteries, which he was to reveal ; for 
considering him as God, we cannot suppose 
that he was ignorant of any thing. 

AGNUS DEI, in the church of Rome, a 
cake of wax stamped with the figure of a lamb 
supporting the banner of the cross. The 
name literally signifies the Lamb of God. These 
cakes, being consecrated by the pope with 
great solemnity, and distributed among the 
people, are supposed to possess great virtues. 
They cover them with a piece of stuff cut in 
the form of a heart, and carry them very de- 
voutly in their processions. From selling 
these agni Dei to some, and presenting them 
to others, the Romish clergy and monks 
derive considerable pecuniary advantage. 

The practice of blessing the agnus Dei, 
took its rise about the seventh or eighth cen- 
tury. It was common in those times to con- 
vert thousands and tens of thousands in a day 
by only marking them with the sign of the 
cross after baptism ; and in order to distin - 
guish the converted from heathens, they were 
commanded to wear about their necks pieces 
of white wax, stamped with the figure of a 
lamb. This was done in imitation of the hea- 
thenish practice of hanging amulets around 
the neck, as preservatives against accidents, 
diseases, or any sort of infection. 

Though the efficacy of an agnus Dei has 
not been declared by councils, the belief in 
its virtues has been strongly and universally 
established in the church of Rome. Pope 
Urban V. sent to John Palaeologus, emperor 
of the Greeks, an agnus folded in fine paper, 
on which were written verses explaining all 
its properties. These verses declare, that 
the agnus is formed of balm and wax mixed 
with chrism, and that being consecrated by 
mystical words, it possessed the power of re- 
moving thunder, and dispersing storms, of 
giving to women with child an easy delivery, 
of preventing shipwreck, taking away sin, 
repelling the devil, increasing riches, secur- 
ing against fire, &c. &c. ! ! — Claude's Defence 
of the Reformation. 

AGONISTICI, a name given by Donatus 
to such of his disciples as were sent to fairs, 
markets, and other public places, to propa- 
47 



gate his doctrine. They were called agonis- 
tici, from the Greek word dyu)v, a contest, 
because they seemed to be sent for the purpose 
of fighting and subduing the people to their 
opinions. See Donatists. 

AGONYCLITiE, a sect of Christians in 
the seventh century, who thinking it unlaw- 
ful to kneel, prayed always standing. 

AGRIP'PA, Aypi7T7rac, signifies one who 
causes pain at his birth. 

Agrippa, surnamed Herod, the son of 
Aristobulus and Mariamne, and grandson 
to Herod the Great, was born in the year of 
the world 3997, three years before the birth 
of our Saviour, and seven before the vulgar 
sera. After the death of his father Aristobu- 
lus, Josephus informs us, that Herod, his 
grandfather, undertook his education, and 
sent him to Rome to ingratiate himself with 
Tiberius. The emperor conceived a great 
affection for Agrippa, and placed him near 
his son Drusus. In a very short time Agrippa 
obtained the favour of Drusus, and of the 
empress Antonia; but Drusus dying sud- 
denly, all those who had been intimate with 
him were commanded by Tiberius to depart 
from Rome, lest the sight and presence of 
them should renew his affliction. Agrippa, 
who had lived freely, was obliged to leave 
Rome overwhelmed with debts, and in a 
very poor condition. He did not think pro- 
per to go to Jerusalem, because he could not 
appear in that city in a manner suitable to 
his birth ; but he retired to the castle of Mas- 
sada, in which he lived rather like a private 
person, than a prince. Herod the tetrarch, 
his uncle, who had married his sister Hero- 
dias, assisted him for some time with great 
generosity. Herod constituted him chief 
magistrate of Tiberias, and presented him 
with a large sum of money ; but all this not 
being sufficient to defray the expenses and 
profusion of Agrippa, the tetrarch grew weary 
of supplying him with money, and reproached 
him for his want of economy. Agrippa was 
so affected with the reproaches of his uncle, 
that he determined to leave Judea and return 
to Rome. 

But as Agrippa was in want of money, he 
obtained from one Protus, a freedman in the 
suite of Berenice, the loan of twenty thou- 
sand drachmas ; and he borrowed two hun- 
dred thousand drachmas of Alexander, ala- 
barch, or chief of the Jews at Alexandria. 

Having arrived in Italy, Agrippa sent to 
the emperor Tiberius, who at that time was 
with his court at Caprea, acquainted him 
with his return, and desired leave to attend 
him. Tiberius informed him that he was 
glad to hear of his return, received him with 
great kindness, and, as a mark of distinction, 
gave him an apartment in his palace. The 
next day, the emperor received from He- 
rennius, who superintended his affairs in 
Judea, letters which acquainted him, that 
Agrippa had borrowed three hundred thou- 
sand pieces of silver out of his majesty's ex- 



AGR 



AGR 



chequer, and had fled from Judea, without 
repaying them. This news exasperated the 
emperor so much, that he commanded 
Agrippa to leave the palace, and to pay what 
he owed. However, Agrippa having ob- 
tained a sum of money from the empress 
Antonia, who loved him on account of his 
mother, appeased the anger of Tiberius, and 
was again received into favour. 

On the death of Tiberius, Caius Caligula, 
his successor, placed a royal diadem on the 
head of Agrippa, and gave him the tetrarchy 
of Ratanaea and Trachonitis, which had been 
possessed by Philip, the son of Herod the 
Great. To this he added the government 
held by Lysanias. Soon after, Agrippa re- 
turned into Judea, to take possession of his 
new kingdom. The emperor Caligula, wish- 
ing to be adored as a god, commanded that 
his statue should be set up in the temple of 
Jerusalem. But the Jews opposed this de- 
sign with so much resolution, that Petronius 
was obliged to suspend all proceedings in 
this affair, and to inform the emperor of the 
resistance which he experienced. — Agrippa, 
who was then at Rome, endeavoured to dis- 
suade the emperor from his resolution, and 
his arguments were so cogent that Caligula 
was induced to desist, at least in appearance, 
from his design. 

On the death of Caligula, which happened 
in the beginning of the next year, and the 
forty-first of Jesus Christ, Agrippa, who was 
then at Rome, contributed much by his 
advice to maintain Claudius in the possession 
of the imperial dignity, to which he had been 
advanced by the army. But, in this affair, 
Agrippa showed more cunning and address, 
than sincerity and honesty. Whilst he pre- 
tended to espouse the cause of the senate, he 
secretly advised Claudius to act with resolu- 
tion, and not to abandon his good fortune. 
The emperor, as an acknowledgment for his 
kind offices, bestowed on him all Judea, and 
the kingdom of Chalcis, which had been pos- 
sessed by Herod his brother. Thus Agrippa 
suddenly became one of the greatest princes 
of the East, and was invested with perhaps 
more territories than had been enjoyed by 
bis grandfather, Herod the Great. He re- 
turned to Judea, which he governed to the 
great satisfaction of the Jews. But the desire 
of pleasing them, and a mistaken zeal for 
their religion, induced him to commit an 
action which is mentioned in Scripture. — 
About the feast of the Passover, in the year 
of Jesus Christ 44, St. James the Greater, 
the son of Zebedee, and brother to St. John 
the Evangelist, was seized by the command 
of Agrippa, and put to death. He also 
caused St. Peter to be apprehended and im- 
prisoned, and intended that after the termi- 
nation of the festival he should be executed. 

God, however, miraculously delivered St. 

Peter from the place of his confinement, and 

frustrated the designs of Agrippa (Acts xii. 

I, 2, :*, &c). 
48 



After the passover, this prince went from 
Jerusalem to Caesarea, where he caused 
games to be performed in honour of Clau- 
dius. At this place, the inhabitants of Tyre 
and Sidon, waited on him to sue for peace. 
Agrippa, having come early in the morning 
to the theatre, with a design of giving them 
an audience, seated himself upon his throne, 
dressed in a robe of silver tissue, which was 
wrought in a wonderful manner. The rays 
of the rising sun gave the robe such a lustre 
as dazzled the eyes of the spectators. When 
therefore the king spoke to the Tyrians and 
Sidonians, the parasites who surrounded 
his throne said, it is the voice of a god, and 
not of a man. Instead of rejecting these im- 
pious flatteries, Agrippa received them with 
complacency. At the same time, the angel 
of the Lord smote him, because he did not 
give the glory to God. Being therefore car- 
ried home to his palace, he was racked with 
tormenting pains in his bowels, and devoured 
by worms, and died at the end of five days. 
Such was the death of Herod Agrippa, after 
a reign of seven years, in the year of Christ 
44. He left a son of the same name, and 
three daughters, Berenice, Mariamne, and 
Drusilia. — Josephus's Antiquities, lib. xviii. c. 
7. lib. xix. c. 3. 

Agrippa, son to the former Agrippa, was 
at Rome with the emperor Claudius at the 
time of his father's death. Jesephus says, 
that the emperor was inclined to give him 
all the dominions possessed by his father, but 
was dissuaded from this by his ministers. 
The year following, which was the 45th of 
Jesus Christ, the governor of Syria came to 
Jerusalem, and intended that the high priest's 
ornaments should be put into the hands of 
Cuspius Fadus. For this purpose he wished 
to compel the Jews to deliver them up, that 
they might be kept in the Tower of Antonia, 
in which they had been before lodged, till 
Vitellius committed them to the care of the 
Jews. However, the Jews were permitted to 
send to Rome certain deputies, who, by 
means of the credit and good offices of young 
Agrippa, managed matters so well, that the 
Jews were allowed the possession of their 
privileges and the pontifical ornaments were 
continued in their custody. 

Three years after, Herod, king of Chalcis, 
and uncle to young Agrippa, dying, the em- 
peror gave his dominions to this prince. — 
However, Agrippa did not return into Ju- 
dea till the year of Christ 53, when Clau- 
dius took from him the kingdom of Chalcis, 
and bestowed on him the provinces of Gau- 
lanitis, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Perqsa, and 
Abilene, which had been formerly possessed 
by Lysanias. After the death of Claudius, 
his successor Nero, who felt great affection 
for Agrippa, added to his other dominions 
Julias in Persea, and that part of Galilee to 
which Tarichsea and Tiberias belonged. — 
Festus, governor of Judea, coming to his go- 
vernment in the year of our Lord 60, king 



AGR 



AGU 



Agrippa, and his sister Bernice, went as far 
as Csesarea, to salute him. As they conti- 
nued at that place for some time, Festus 
spoke to the king concerning St. Paul, who, 
about two years before, had been seized in the 
Temple, and a few days previous to this visit 
had appealed to the emperor. Agrippa said 
unto Festus, ' I would also hear the man 
myself.' * To-morrow,' answered Festus, 
1 thou shalt hear him.' The next day, there- 
fore, when Agrippa and Bernice had come 
with great pomp, and were entered into the 
place of audience, Paul was brought forth. 
Festus introduced Paul's case to the king, and 
added, ' I have brought him forth before you, 
and especially before thee, O king Agrippa, 
that, after examination had, I might have 
somewhat to write. For it seemeth to me 
unreasonable, to send a prisoner, and not 
withal to signify the crimes laid against him.' 
(Acts xxv. 13, 14, &c.) 

Then Agrippa said to Paul, ' Thou art 
permitted to speak for thyself.' Paul, there- 
fore, stretched forth his hand, and answered 
for himself. He related the persecutions, 
which he had promoted against the Christ- 
ians, and the miraculous manner, in which 
God had converted him on his way to Da- 
mascus. Whilst he was speaking of the re- 
surrection, and what he had seen in his 
journey to Damascus, Festus said, with a 
loud voice, ' Paul, thou art beside thyself: 
much learning doth make thee mad.' — To this 
Paul answered, ' I am not mad, most noble 
Festus ; but speak forth the words of truth 
and soberness. For the king knoweth of 
these things, before whom also I speak 
freely: for I am persuaded, that none of 
these things are hidden from him ; for this 
thing was not done in a corner. King 
Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? I 
know that thou believest.' Then Agrippa 
said unto Paul, ' Almost thou persuadest 
me to be a Christian.' And Paul said, ' I 
would to God, that not only thou, but also all 
that hear me this day, were both almost, and 
altogether such as I am, except these bonds.' 
Then Agrippa said to Festus, ' This man 
might have been set at liberty, if he had not 
appealed unto Caesar.' (lb. xxvi. 1, 2,3,&c.) 
Agrippa deprived Joseph Cabei of the 
high priesthood, which he bestowed on Ana- 
nus, in the year of Christ 62. This is the 
same A nanus, who put to death James the 
Less, in Jerusalem, near the time of the 
passover, A.D. 62. This action so offended 
the people in general, that Agrippa, after he 
had enjoyed the priesthood only three 
onths, deprived him of the pontifical dig- 
lty, and conferred it on Jesus, the son of 
amna?us. Sometime after, he permitted 
he Levites, who were appointed to sing in 
he temple, to wear the linen robe, which 
ad hitherto been reserved for the use of the 
riests only ; and he allowed the rest of the 
evites, who filled other offices in the tem- 
le, to learn singing, that they might parti- 
49 



cipate in the privilege, which he had granted. 
Whilst every one in Judea appeared disposed 
to rebel, Agrippa attempted to quiet the 
minds of the people, and to incline them to 
peace. His endeavours, however, were un- 
successful. For some time, indeed, he sus- 
pended, but could not suppress, the passions 
of the Jews, who were exasperated, and 
driven to the greatest distress, by the cruel- 
ties and insolence of their governors. In the 
year 66, they declared openly against the 
Romans; and Agrippa was obliged to join 
his troops with those of Rome, and assist in 
reducing his countrymen, and taking Jerusa- 
lem. After the destruction of that city, he 
retired to Rome with his sister Bernice, 
with whom he had always lived in such a 
manner as to excite much blame. He died 
about the age of seventy years, in the year of 
Christ 90. — Josephus's Antiq. lib. xix. c. 9 ; 
lib. xx. c. 1, 3, 5, 7 ; Wars, lib. ii. c. 22—24; 
lib. iii. c. 2; lib. iv. c. 3, 6 ; lib vi. c. 2. 

A'GUR. The thirtieth chapter of Pro- 
verbs begins as follows : ' The words of 
'Agur, the son of Jakeh,' which, according 
to the signification of the original terms, 
may be translated, as the Vulgate reads 
them, verbum congregantis, filii vomentis ; or, 
according to Lewis de Dieu, * The words of 
him, who has recollected himself, the son of 
obedience.' This translation is condemned 
by Le Clerc and many others, who suppose 
these to be proper names, which ought not 
to be translated. The generality of the fa- 
thers and ancient commentators think, that 
Solomon describes himself under the name 
of Agur, the son of Jakeh. Others conjec- 
ture, that Agur, and also Lemuel, mentioned 
in the next chapter, were wise men, who lived 
in the time of Solomon, and who were his in- 
terlocutors in the book of Proverbs ; an opi- 
nion which, as that book is not in the form of 
a dialogue, Calmet thinks is without the least 
show of probability. This last expositor is of 
opinion, that Agur was an inspired author, 
who was different from Solomon, and whose 
sentences it was thought fit to join with those 
of that prince, because of the conformity of 
their matter. For what could have obliged 
Solomon to disguise his name in this place ? 
For what reason could he have changed his 
style and manner of writing in this chapter 
only 1 For it is certain that the thirtieth 
chapter of Proverbs is penned in a way very 
different from the rest of the book. Besides, 
it could not become Solomon to express him- 
self as this author does in the second verse : 
' Surely I am more brutish than any man, and 
have not the understanding of a man.' Nor is 
it probable that he would address himself to 
God in the following manner : ' Give me nei- 
ther poverty nor riches.' Certainly these 
words are not consistent with the dignity of 
king Solomon. Mr. Pool observes, that, from 
the laws of good interpretation, one of 
which is, that all words should be understood 
in their natural and proper sense, when there 



AGY 



AHA 



is neither evidence nor necessity, that they 
should be understood figuratively, these 
words cannot belong to Solomon. Patrick 
thinks it may be conjectured, that this Agur, 
the son of Jakeh, had obtained the name of 
collector, because he had only collected from 
other men's works, and disclaimed his being 
a wise man himself. Le Clerc suspects, from 
the first and third verses of this chapter, that 
Agur was no Hebrew, but a proselyte from 
some of the neighbouring nations. 

AGYNIAN1, a sect who condemned all 
use of flesh, and also marriage, which they 
said was not instituted by God, but intro- 
duced at the instigation of the devil. The 
word is compounded of the privative a, and 
yvvrj, woman. They are sometimes also called 
Agynienses, and Agynii, and are said to have 
appeared about the year 694. 

A'HAB, nxnK,' 'A%ad]3, signifies, the bro- 
ther of the father, uncle, or father of the bro- 
ther. Ahab, king of Israel, the son and suc- 
cessor of Omri, began his reign in the year 
of the world 3086, and reigned twenty- two 
years. This prince did evil in the sight of 
the Lord, and exceeded all that went before 
him in impiety. He married Jezebel, the 
daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Zidonians, 
who introduced the idols of Baal and Astarte 
among the Israelites, and induced Ahab to 
worship these false deities. (1 Kings xvi. 29, 
&c.) God, provoked at the sins of Ahab, 
sent to him the prophet Elijah, who declared 
to the king that there would be a famine of 
three years' continuance. The prophet hav- 
ing delivered his message, retired, lest Ahab 
or Jezebel should procure his death. (Id. xvii. 
1, et seq.) The famine having continued 
three years, Ahab sent Obadiah, who was 
governor of his house, to find some good pas- 
ture in the country, that he might preserve 
part of his cattle. Obadiah, in his journey, 
met Elijah, who commanded him to go and 
tell Ahab, that Elijah was there. Ahab came 
immediately to meet him, and said to the 
prophet, 'Art thou he that troubleth Israel?' 
The prophet answered ; ' I have not troubled 
Israel ; but thou and thy father's house, in 
that ye have forsaken the commandments of 
the Lord, and thou hast followed Baalim.' 
Then the prophet desired Ahab to gather all 
the people to Mount Carmel, and with them 
the prophets of Baal ; and when they were 
assembled, Elijah caused fire to descend 
from heaven on his sacrifice. After that, he 
obtained of God that it should rain, and the 
earth recovered its former fertility. ( Id. xviii.) 

Six years after this, that is, in the year of 
the world 3103, Ben-hadad, king of Syria, 
besieged Samaria, and sent ambassadors to 
Ahab, with insolent messages. 

Aliah replied, ' Let not him that girdeth 
on his harness, boast himself as he that put- 
teth it off.' After this, Ahab numbered the 
young men of the princes of the provinces, 
whom he found to be a choice company of 
two hundred and thirty- two young men ; and 
50 



the people of Samaria, who amounted to about 
seven thousand men. With this small army, 
Ahab attacked the numerous host of the Sy- 
rians at noon-day, whilst Ben-hadad, and the 
thirty- two kings that accompanied him, were 
drinking and making merry. A panic seized 
the Syrian troops, and they began to flee. 
Even Ben-hadad himself mounted his horse, 
and fled with his cavalry. Ahab perceiving 
this discomfiture of the enemy, pursued, 
killed great numbers of them, and took a 
considerable booty. (1 Kings xx. &c.) 

What is rendered the ' young men of the 
princes of the provinces,' (verse 14.) who 
were the instruments in obtaining this vic- 
tory, has some ambiguity in the Hebrew. — 
It may signify either the sons, or the servants 
of the princes of the provinces ; either young 
noblemen themselves, or their fathers' pages, 
who were brought up equally delicate and 
unaccustomed to war. It was by these young 
men, and not by old experienced officers, that 
this battle was to be won ; that it might be 
evident the victory was wholly owing to God's 
gracious and powerful providence, and not to 
the valour or strength of the people. 

After this, the prophet of the Lord came 
to Ahab, to animate him with fresh courage, 
and to caution him against negligence and 
supineness, for he assured the king that Ben- 
hadad would return against him the next 
year. According to this prediction, Ben- 
hadad returned at the end of the year, and 
encamped at Aphek, with a resolution of en- 
gaging the Israelites in battle. Ahab, in- 
formed of this, marched against him with an 
army much inferior in number ; but he was 
assured of victory by a prophet from God. 
Both armies were ranged in order of battle, 
during seven successive days ; and at length, 
on the seventh day, a battle ensued, in which 
one hundred thousand of the Syrians were 
killed. The rest fled to Aphek ; but as they 
endeavoured to enter the city, the walls of 
Aphek fell on them, and crushed twenty- 
seven thousand of them to death. Ben-hadad, 
submitting himself to the mercy of the con- 
queror, was received by Ahab into his own 
chariot. The king of Israel also entered into 
an alliance with him, and permitted him to 
depart , on condition, amongst other things, 
that Ahab should be allowed to make streets 
and market places in Damascus, as the father 
of Ben-hadad had formerly done in Samaria. 
(Id. ibid, ver.22, 23, &c.) 

It is not agreed what we are to understand 
by streets. Some are of opinion, that by 
streets Ben-hadad means market places, in 
which commodities were sold, and the toll of 
which should belong to Ahab. Some think 
that he means courts of judicature, in which 
Aliab was to maintain a jurisdiction over the 
subjects of Ben-hadad. Some suppose that 
they were piazzas, of which Ahab was to re- 
ceive the rents. Some, that he means cita- 
dels or fortifications, which might serve as a 
restraint on the chief city of Syria, and be a 



AHA 



AHA 



means of preventing the Syrians from at- 
tempting any new irruptions into the land of 
Israel. But it seems most probable, that 
some Israelites were allowed to dwell toge- 
ther in certain streets of Damascus, where 
they might exercise their own religion and 
laws. 

The Jews say, that the prophet sent to 
Ahab to inform him of the return of Ben- 
hadad, was Micaiah. 

The clemency, shown so unseasonably to 
the king of Syria, greatly provoked the 
Lord; Ahab was reproved by a prophet. 
However, the king of Israel returned to Sa- 
maria in great indignation, and concerned 
himself little respecting the prophet's pre- 
diction or reproof. (Id. ibid. 35, 36, &c.) 

In the year of the world 3105, and before 
Jesus Christ 899, Ahab wished to make a 
kitchen garden near his palace, and re- 
quested one Naboth, a citizen of Jezreel, to 
sell him his vineyard, which was conveniently 
situated for his purpose, and for which he 
offered to give Naboth a better, or to pay him 
its value in money. Naboth replied, ' The 
Lord forbid, that I should give the inherit- 
ance of my fathers to thee.' On receiving 
this answer, Ahab returned very discontented 
to his house, threw himself on his bed, turned 
towards the wall, and would eat nothing. 
But Jezebel his wife, wrote letters in the 
name of Ahab, sealed them with the king's 
signet, and sent them to the elders of Jezreel, 
directing them, by false witnesses, to procure 
the death of Naboth as a traitor. These 
orders were too punctually executed, and 
when Ahab was informed of Naboth's death, 
he immediately took possession of his vine- 
yard. (Id. xxi. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 

The law of Moses prohibited the alienation 
of lands from one tribe or family to another ; 
but if a man was reduced to poverty he might 
sell his inheritance till the jubilee, when it 
was to revert to its former owner. (Levit. 
xxv. 15. 25. 28.) But as he was not poor, 
Naboth did not expect that it would be re- 
turned to him at the Jubilee : and it is, 
therefore, probable, that Naboth was one of 
the seven thousand, who duly observed the 
law. 

It was always customary, on the approach 
of any great calamity, or the apprehension 
of any national judgment, to proclaim a fast: 
I and Jezebel ordered such a fast to be ob- 
| served in Jezreel, that she might the better 
I conceal her design against Naboth. For by 
| this means she intimated to the Jezreelites, 
that there was among them some accursed 
J thing, which was ready to draw down on their 
city the vengeance of God, and that it was 
I therefore the business of the Jezreelites to 
inquire respecting all those sins, which pro- 
Ivoked God to anger against them, and to 
|purge them out effectually. 

Joseph us is of opinion, that as Naboth was 
lof an illustrious house, it was ordered that 
Ihe should occupy an honourable place among 
51 



the elders, and chief rulers of the city, that it 
might appear they did not condemn him from 
hatred or ill will, but merely from the force 
of evidence. Others, however, suppose, that 
the reason of his being placed upon an emi- 
nence, was only because persons accused and 
arraigned were wont to have a conspicuous 
situation before their judges, that all the 
people might see them, and hear both the 
accusation and defence. 

As Ahab returned from Jezreel to Sama- 
ria, he was met by the prophet Elijah, who 
said to him, ' Hast thou killed, and also 
taken possession? Thus saith the Lord, In 
the place where dogs licked the blood of Na- 
both, shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine.' 
Ahab said to Elijah, ' Hast thou found me, 
O my enemy V And he answered, ' I have 
found thee : because thou hast sold thyself to 
work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold I 
will bring evil upon thee and upon thy fa- 
mily.' Of Jezebel the Lord spake, saying, 
' The dogs shall eat Jezebel by the way of 
Jezreel.' When Ahab heard these words, he 
rent his clothes, put sackcloth upon his 
flesh, and gave other indications of sorrow 
and repentance. 

It is supposed, that at this time Ahab also 
made his son Ahaziah co-partner of his 
crown, or perhaps only his viceroy. At 
least, this is the most likely expedient, by 
which the anachronisms in the books of 
Kings and Chronicles can be reconciled. 

The Lord, therefore, said to the prophet 
Elijah, ' Because Ahab humbleth himself 
before me, I will not bring the evil in his 
days, but in his son's days will I bring the 
evil upon his house.' (Id. ibid. 17, 18, &c.) 
But as Ahab's repentance was neither sincere 
nor lasting, God inflicted upon him some 
part of this punishment. H owever, he did 
not extirpate his family till the reign of his 
son Ahaziah. See Ahaziah. 

It has been observed, that God declared to 
Ahab the cause of the judgment, which was 
to befal him, but does not assign the place. 
For though the words in our translation are, 
' In the place where dogs licked the blood of 
Naboth, shall dogs lick thy blood,' yet we are 
afterwards told, that the dogs licked the blood 
of Ahab in Samaria. (1 Kings xxii. 38.) The 
original should therefore be rendered, ' as 
the dogs licked,' or, ' in like manner as the 
dogs licked Naboth's blood, so shall they lick 
thine, even thine.' Patrick's Comment. 

In the year of the world 3107, and before 
Jesus Christ 897. Jehoshaphat, king of Ju- 
dah, came to visit Ahab in Samaria. This 
was at a time when Ahab was preparing to 
attack Ramoth-gilead, which Ben-hadad, 
king of Syria, unjustly retained. The king 
of Israel invited Jehoshaphat to accompany 
him in this expedition ; and that prince ac- 
cepted the invitation, but desired that some 
prophet of the Lord might first be consulted. 
Ahab therefore assembled all the prophets 
of Baal, who were in number about four 
E 2 



AHA 



AHA 



hundred, and all of whom concurred in say- 
ing, * Go up, for the Lord shall deliver Ra- 
moth-gilead into the hands of the king.' 
But Jehoshaphat said, ' Is there not here a 
prophet of the Lord besides, that we might 
inquire of him?' To this Ahab replied, 
' There is one Micaiah, who never prophe- 
sied any good concerning me.' However, 
Jehoshaphat ordered to send for Micaiah. 
When the prophet came, the two kings were 
dressed in royal apparel, and seated each 
upon a throne, in an open place near the 
gate of Samaria, and around them were all 
the prophets of Baal, who pretended to be 
inspired persons. One of these prophets, 
Zedekiah, the son of Chenaanah, making 
himself horns of iron, said to Ahab, ' Thus 
saith the Lord, with these shalt thou push 
the Syrians, until thou have consumed 
them.' The rest also prophesied in the same 
manner, and exhorted the king to march re- 
solutely against Ramoth-gilead. (1 Kings 
xxii. 2, 3, &c.) 

Some have thought, that the prophets here 
mentioned were prophets of the groves, who 
were not slain with the prophets of Baal, be- 
cause they are the same in number. ( 1 Kings, 
xviii. 19.) But perhaps in Israel, as well 
as in Judah, were schools of the prophets, in 
which those were instructed , who pretended 
to possess this gift. Though it is evident 
that these were false prophets, yet it is not 
probable that Ahab would send for those 
who were professed servants of Baal, and 
from whom he knew Jehoshaphat would re- 
ceive no advice. Besides, Jehoshaphat 
would not have accompanied Ahab, in oppo- 
sition to the opinion of Micaiah, if he had 
believed that only Micaiah belonged to the 
Lord, and his adversaries to Baal. Patrick's 
Comment. 

Ahab asked Micaiah whether he should 
march against Ramoth-gilead ? 'Go,' said 
Micaiah ironically, ' and prosper : for the 
Lord shall deliver it into the hand of the 
king.' Ahab added, ' I adjure thee, that 
thou tell me nothing but that which is true, 
in the name of the Lord.' Then Micaiah, 
with a more serious countenance said, ' I 
saw all Israel scattered upon the hills, as 
sheep that have no shepherd : and the Lord 
said, these have no master ; let them return 
every man to his house in peace.' 

Then Ahab ordered his people to seize 
Micaiah, and to carry him to Amon, the 
governor of the city, and to Joash, the king's 
son, and to say as follows : * Put this fellow 
in the prison, and feed him with bread of 
affliction, and with water of affliction, until 
T come in peace.' But Micaiah said, ' If 
thou return at all in peace, the Lord hath 
not spoken by me.' Afterwards, Ahab and 
Jehoshaphat went up to Ramoth-gilead. — 
The king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, ' I 
will disguise myself, and enter into the bat- 
tle, but put thou on thy robes.' 

God, however, in order to fulfil his word, 
62 



permitted one of the Syrian army to shoot 
a random arrow, which pierced the breast 
of Ahab. The king of Israel therefore said 
to his charioteer, ' Turn thine hand, and 
carry me out of the host, for I am wounded.' 
The battle lasted the whole day, and Ahab 
continued in his chariot that he might en- 
courage his army. In the mean time, the 
blood still issued from his wound, and flowed 
into the midst of his chariot, and towards the 
evening he died. As soon as his death was 
known, it was proclaimed by sound of trum- 
pet, that every man should return to his own 
city and country. The king's corpse was 
carried to Samaria, and buried in the royal 
sepulchre ; and his bloody armour, chariot, 
and harness, were washed in the fish- pool of 
Samaria, and the dogs licked his blood, ac- 
cording to the word of the Lord, in the year 
of the world 3107, and before Jesus Christ 
897- (Id. ibid. 34, 35, he.)— Patrick's Com- 
ment. ; Calmet's Comment. ; Le Clerc's Com- 
ment. ; Pool's Annotat. 

Ahab, the son of Kolaiah, one of the two 
false prophets that seduced the Israelites at 
Babylon. The Lord threatened them by Je- 
remiah, that he would deliver them into the 
hands of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, 
who should put them to death in the pre- 
sence of those whom they had deceived; and 
that all the people, when they wished to 
curse any one, should use their names, and 
say, ' The Lord make thee like Ahab and 
Zedekiah, whom the king of Babylon roasted 
in the fire.' (Jerem. xxix. 21, 22.) 

AHASUE'RUS, uriwnN, signifies, prince, 
chief. This word is probably Persian. Aha- 
suerus was also called Artaxerxes, and was 
the husband of Esther. Chronologers are 
greatly divided who this Ahasuerus was. 
Usher believes, that it was Darius, the son of 
Hystaspes, and that he married Atossa, who 
is the same as Vashti, afterwards divorced by 
him ; and that he took to wife Aristone, the 
daughter of Cyrus, and widow of Cambyses, 
who is the same as Esther. This opinion, how- 
ever, is contradicted by Herodotus, who in- 
forms us that Aristone was the daughter of 
Cyrus, and, consequently, could not be Esther, 
who was too young. The same historian says 
farther, that Atossa had four sons by Darius, 
without reckoning daughters, and that she 
had so great an ascendancy over him, as to 
prevail with him to declare her son Xerxes 
his successor, to the exclusion of his own sons. 
— {Hist. lib. iii. and vii.) 

Scaliger, who has been followed by Jahn, 
thinks that Xerxes is the Ahasuerus of Scrip- 
ture, and his wife Amestris, queen Esther. 
He founds his belief on the resemblance of 
the names ; but the characteristics of Ames- 
tris in history incontestably prove that she is 
not the Esther of Scripture. 

The authors of the Universal History 
think, that Cambyses was the Ahasuerus, and 
Smerdis the Artaxerxes, of Scripture, from 
their obstructing the work of the temple; for 



AHA 



AHA 



in the sacred history they are said to have 
reigned between Cyrus and Darius, by whose 
decree the temple was finished ; and as no 
one except Cambyses and Smerdis, reigned 
between Cyrus and Darius, these authors are 
of opinion, that no one, except Cambyses and 
Smerdis, could be the Ahasuerus and Arta- 
xerxes, who are said to have put a stop to the 
work. (Ezra iv. 5, 6, 7-) 

The most probable opinion seems to be 
that of Dr. Prideaux, who maintains that 
the Ahasuerus of Scripture was Artaxerxes 
Longimanus. The following are the reasons 
on which he founds this opinion : 1 . Jose- 
phus (Antiq. lib. xi. cap. 6.) assures us, that 
Artaxerxes Longimanus was the husband of 
Esther. 2. The Septuagint version, and the 
Greek additions to the book of Esther, call 
Ahasuerus by the name of Artaxerxes. 3. 
Several circumstances in these additions 
cannot be applied to Artaxerxes Mnemon. 
4. The extraordinary favour, with which Ar- 
taxerxes Longimanus honoured the Jews, 
farther strengthens the probability that he 
had married a Jewess. This opinion of Dr. 
Prideauxis maintained by Sulpitius Severus, 
and many others, both ancients and moderns ; 
and it has been adopted by bishop Tomline, 
Dr. Gray, and Dr. Hales, the very accurate 
chronologer. See Artaxerxes Longima- 
nus. Prideauxis Connexion, vol. i. pp. 270, 
et seq. ; Gray's Key, p. 227 ; Tomline' s Ele- 
ments, vol. i. p. 93 ; Hales 1 s Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. ii. book i. pp. 524, et seq. ; 
Home's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 69, note; 
Univ. History, vol. v. 

AHA'VA, nihk, signifies essence, or gene- 
ration. It was the name of a river of Ba- 
bylonia, or rather of Assyria, where Ezra 
assembled those captives, whom he after- 
wards brought into Judea. (Ezra viii. 15.) 
The river Ahava is thought to be that which 
ran along the Adabene, where a river Diava, 
or Adiava, is mentioned, and on which Pto- 
lemy places the city Abane or Aavane. This 
is probably the country called Ava, whence 
the kings of Assyria translated the people 
called Avites into Palestine, and where they 
settled some of the captive Israelites. (2 Kings 
xvii. 24 ; xviii. 34 ; xix. 13 ; xvii. 31.) Ezra, 
intending to collect as many Israelites as he 
could, who might return to Judea, halted in 
the country of Ava, or Ahava, whence he 
sent agents into the Caspian Mountains, to 
invite such Jews as were willing to join him. 
(Ezra viii. 17«) The history of Izates, king 
of the Adiabenians, and of his mother He- 
lena, who became converts to Judaism some 
years after the death of Jesus Christ, suffici- 
ently proves that there were many Jews still 
settled in that country. 

A'HAZ, thn, signifies one that takes and 
possesses, or that sees. Ahaz, king of Judah, 
and son of Jotham, is celebrated for his im- 
pieties. There are great difficulties with 
respect to the age of this prince when he 
began to reign. The text savs expressly that 
53 



he was twenty years of age, (2 Kings xvi. 2.) ; 
and if he reigned only sixteen years, he lived 
only thirty-six years. But we are told that 
his son Hezekiah was twenty-five years of 
age when he ascended the throne, and must 
therefore have been born when his father 
Ahaz was only eleven years of age, (2 Kings 
xviii. 2.) This, indeed, is maintained by 
many good commentators. Such, however, 
as cannot be reconciled to this opinion, have 
attempted by various ways to solve the diffi- 
culty. See Hezekiah. 

Ahaz ascended the throne of Judah in the 
year of the world 3262, and before Jesus 
Christ 742. He imitated the kings of Israel 
and Samaria, and gave himself up to idola- 
try and all manner of disorders. He conse- 
crated one of his sons, whom he made to 
pass through the fire in honour of the false 
god, Moloch ; and he offered sacrifices upon 
the hills and high places, and in groves. — 
About the end of the reign of his father Jo- 
tham, the Lord sent Rezin, king of Syria, 
and Pekah, king of Israel, against Judah ; 
and these two kings invaded the kingdom, 
in the beginning of the reign of Ahaz, whose 
troops they defeated, and afterwards besieged 
Jerusalem. When they found that they could 
not take that city, they divided their army, 
plundered the country, and made the in- 
habitants prisoners. Rezin, and his part 
of the confederated army, marched with all 
their spoil to Damascus; but Pekah at- 
tacked Ahaz, and after killing one hundred 
and twenty thousand of his army, took cap- 
tive two hundred thousand persons, men, 
women, and children. As these were 
being carried prisoners to Samaria, the pro- 
phet Oded, with the principal inhabitants 
of the city, came out to meet the captors, 
and by remonstrances prevailed with them 
to liberate their prisoners. Besides their 
liberty they also gave them food, and re- 
stored the booty which they had taken. 
Those who were unable to perform their 
journey homeward on foot, were conveyed 
in carriages to Jericho. At the same 
time, the Philistines and Edomites invaded 
other parts of the dominions of Ahaz, com- 
mitted great disorders, killed many people, 
and carried off much booty. (2 Kings xvi. 
2 Chron. xxviii.) 

In these deplorable circumstances, and 
just before the siege of Jerusalem, the pro- 
phet Isaiah, with his son Shear-jashub, went 
to Ahaz, and foretold the deliverance of his 
country, and the destruction of his enemies. 
To prove the truth of his prediction, the 
prophet offered him the choice of what pro- 
digy he pleased ; but Ahaz, under the pre- 
tence of declining to tempt the Lord, refused 
to select any sign. ' Hear, then,' saith 
Isaiah, ' O house of David, is it a small 
thing for you to weary men, but will ye 
weary my God also? Behold the sign, which 
the Lord shall give you ; a virgin shall con- 
ceive and bear a son, and shall call his name 



AHA 



AHA 



Jmmanuel. Butter and honey shall he eat, 
that he may know to refuse the evil, and 
chouse the good.' Then Isaiah, as a demon- 
stration of the approaching ruin of Itezin and 
Pekah, pointed to his own son, and assured 
Ahaz, that before this child should be able 
to distinguish between good and evil, the 
two kings confederated against Judah should 
be slain. (Isaiah vii, 3. 16'.) 

But as Ahaz did not change his life, God 
permitted Ids enemies to return the year 
following, and to lay waste the kingdom of 
Judah. In this distressed condition, Ahaz 
sent ambassadors to Tiglath-pileser, king of 
Assyria, saying, ' I am thy servant, and thy 
son, come up and save me out of the hand of 
the king of Syria, and out of the hand of the 
king of Israel, which rise up against me.' 
To induce the king of Assyria to espouse his 
interest,he collected the gold and silver,which 
were in the temple and the palace, and sent 
them to the king of Assyria. Soon after, 
Tiglath-pileser marched to the assistance of 
Ahaz, attacked Kezin, and killed him. He 
also took Damascus, and destroyed it, and 
removed the inhabitants to Cyrene, or to that 
part of Iberia, in which the river Cyrus runs. 
(2 Kings xvi. "]. 9.) 

The book of Kings says, Tiglath-pileser 
came to the assistance of Ahaz ; whilst that 
of Chronicles, (2 Chron. xxviii. 20, 21.) that 
he did not assist, but rather straitened the 
king of Judah. To reconcile this difference, 
it seems probable, that Tiglath-pileser, in- 
stead of assisting Ahaz against the confede- 
rated sovereigns, attacked the king of Syria 
with his whole army, under pretence of caus- 
ing a diversion. 

Ahaz went to Damascus to meet the king 
of Assyria, and having seen in that city a 
profane altar, which he admired, he sent a 
model of it to the high-priest Urijah, and 
commanded him to construct one like it, to 
be placed in the temple of Jerusalem. Ac- 
cordingly, Ahaz caused the altar, which was 
in the temple, to be removed, and this to be 
fixed in its room. Upon this altar he offered 
sacrifices, and ordered the high-priest Urijah 
to use no other in future. He also commanded 
to take away the borders of the bases, and 
the laver from off them. He removed the 
brazen sea, which was supported by oxen 
ofthe same metal, and ordered it to be placed 
below, "li the pavement of the temple. (2 
Kings xvi. 10, 11, &C.) 

The misfortunes, to which Ahaz was ex- 
posed , produced no amendment in his con- 
duet. In his greatest affliction he showed 
the highest contempt of God, by sacrificing 

to the Syrian deities, and endeavouring to 
render them propitious to his wishes. lie 

lu-oke in pieces the vessels of the house of 
God, shut up the gates of the temple, and 

erected altars in all parts of Jerusalem, and 
in all the Cities Of Judah, to burn incense on 
them to false gods. He died, and was buried 

in the (if. ol J< rusalt in, but not in the se- 
54 



pulchres of the kings of Judah, on account of 
his iniquitous course of life, in like manner as 
his predecessors, Jehoram and Joash, had 
been, and two of his successors, Manasseh and 
Amnion, afterwards w r ere treated for the 
same reason. He was succeeded by his son 
Hezekiah, in the year ofthe w r orld 3278, and 
before Jesus Christ 726. (2 Chron. xxviii. 22, 
23, &c.) Universal History. 

AHAZFAH, h-tpk, signifies seizure, 
possession, or vision ofthe Lord, and was the 
name of the son and successor of Ahab, king 
of Israel. He reigned two years, partly alone, 
and partly with his father Ahab, who asso- 
ciated him in the kingdom a year hefore his 
death. He imitated his father's impieties, 
and worshipped Baal and Astarte, whose 
rites had been introduced into Israel by his 
mother Jezebel. Jehoshaphat, king of Ju- 
dah, having equipped a fleet at Ezion-geher, 
Ahaziah requested that his servants might 
accompany those of Jehoshaphat to Ophir. 
The fleet of these two princes sailed for 
Tarshish ; but God, provoked at the alliance 
of Jehoshaphat with this impious king, shat- 
tered the ships by tempestuous winds, and 
disabled them from performing the voyage. 
(2 Chron. xx. 37.) 

The Moabites, who had been subject to the 
kings of Israel since its separation from 
Judah, revolted after the death of Ahab, and 
refused to pay the ordinary tribute. Ahaziah 
was unable to reduce them to obedience ; for 
about this time he fell from the terrace of his 
house, and hurt himself considerably. He 
therefore sent messengers to Ekron, to con- 
sult Baal-zebub, the god of that place, whe- 
ther he should recover of the indisposition 
occasioned by this accident. The prophet 
Elijah, by divine appointment, met these 
messengers, and said, ' Is it because there is 
not a God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of 
Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron ? Therefore, 
thus saith the Lord, Thou shalt not come 
down from that bed, on which thou art gone 
up, but shalt surely die.' Ahaziah having 
received this information, immediately sent 
a captain, with fifty soldiers under his com- 
mand, to seize Elijah, and to bring him to 
the palace ; but the captain speaking to the 
man of God in an imperious manner, Elijah 
called fire from heaven, which consumed him 
and his fifty soldiers. Ahaziah hearing of 
this, sent another captain, who with his fifty 
men was in like manner consumed. A third 
being sent to the prophet, fell on his knees 
before him, and entreated Elijah to spare his 
life, and wait on the king. Elijah therefore, 
by the advice of the angel of the Lord, went 
to Ahaziah, and told him that he should not 
recover. According to the prophet's predic- 
tion, Ahaziah died, in the year of the world 
3108, and before Jesus Christ 896, and Jeho- 
ram, his brother, succeeded to the throne. 
(2 Kings i. I, 2, &c.) 

A.HAZIAH, king of Judah, son of Jehoram 
and Athaliah, succeeded his father in the 



AHA 



AHI 



year of the world 3119, and before Jesus 
Christ 885. He was twenty- two years old 
when he began to reign, and he reigned only 
one year at Jerusalem. He did evil in the 
sight of the Lord, and walked in the ways of 
Ahab's house, to which he was allied by his 
mother, (2 Kings viii. 26, 27 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 
2, 3, &c.) This prince was also called Je- 
hoahaz. The text of the Chronicles imports, 
that he was forty- two years of age when he 
began to reign, and in this differs from that 
of the Kings. Some suppose that the forty- 
two years in the book of Chronicles are not 
to be understood as pertaining to the age of 
Ahaziah, but to the time elapsed from 
Omri's coming to the throne to the reign of 
Ahaziah. Others think, that as the Septua- 
gint in this place reads only twenty-two 
years, the passage has been corrupted. 

Joram, king of Israel, attacked Ramoth- 
gilead, and was there dangerously wounded. 
At his own request he was carried to Jezreel 
to be healed of his wounds. Ahaziah, his 
friend and relation, came to visit him at 
Jezreel. (2 Kings viii. 28, 29.) In the mean 
time, Jehu, the son of Nimshi, whom Joram 
had left besieging Ramoth, rebelled against 
his master, designing to extirpate the house 
of Ahab, according to the commandment of 
the Lord. Joram and Ahaziah, who were 
ignorant of his intentions, went to meet him. 
Jehu shot Joram dead on the spot. Aha- 
ziah fled; but Jehu's people overtook him at 
the ascent of Gur, and wounded him so des- 
perately, that he died by the time he reached 
the city of Megiddo. His servants carried 
him to Jerusalem, where he was buried 
with his fathers in the city of David. In this 
manner is this incident related in the second 
book of the Kings, (ix. 21, 22, &c.) 

In the Chronicles, the story is told rather 
differently, and as follows : ' When Jehu was 
executing judgment on the house of Ahab, 
and found the princes of Judah, and the sons 
of the brethren of Ahaziah, that ministered 
to Ahaziah, he slew them. And he sought 
Ahaziah, and they caught him, (for he was 
hid in Samaria,) and brought him to Jehu; 
and when they had slain him, they buried 
him, because, said they, he is the son of Je- 
hoshaphat ' (2 Chron. xxii. 8, 9.) Calmet 
observes, that to reconcile these two rela- 
tions, it may be said, that in this passage 
Samaria is put, not for the city, but for the 
kingdom of that name. — Jehu being in- 
formed that Ahaziah was still in the territo- 
ries of Israel, and continued dangerously ill 
at Megiddo, ordered him to be brought into 
his presence, and put to death 

We must also observe, that one great end 
of writing the book of the Chronicles was to 
supply what had been omitted in that of the 
Kings. In the latter, therefore, the account 
of the death of Ahaziah is very short, and 
includes the story of Jehoram, that the 
reader may at once perceive in what manner 
both these princes fell. In the former, the nar- 
55 



rative of this event is given more in detail. 
From comparing both, it would appear that 
Ahaziah, perceiving Jehoram mortally wound- 
ed, turned his chariot, and hastened to Sa- 
maria, that he might escape into his own 
kingdom : but finding the passes narrowly 
guai'ded, he concealed himself in the town. 
Jehu coming to Samaria, and receiving intel- 
ligence that Ahaziah was in the city, com- 
manded diligent search to be made for him, 
and that, when found, he should be carried 
to Gur, and there killed in his chariot. But 
as Jehu's orders to the officers were only to 
smite him, they probably thought it sufficient 
to wound him mortally. The servants of 
Ahaziah, therefore, carried their master from 
Gur to Megiddo, the next town in the tribe 
of Issachar, where he died. — Stackhouse's 
History of the Bible. 

AHI'AH, rvriN, signifies brother of the 
Lord. Ahiah was the son of Ahitub the 
high-priest, and his successor in the sove- 
reign pontificate. He left this dignity to his 
son Abimelech, who was put to death by the 
order of Saul. (1 Sam. xiv. 3.) 

AHI'JAH, rrnx ; see Ahiah. Ahijah was 
a prophet of the Lord, who dwelt at Shiloh. 
It is thought that he was the person, who 
spoke twice to Solomon from God: once 
whilst he was building the temple, when he 
promised him divine protection, (1 Kings vi. 
11.); another time, after his irregularities, 
when God expressed his indignation with 
great threatenings and reproaches, (Id. xi. 6.) 
Ahijah wrote the history of this prince's life. 
(2 Chron. ix. 29.) The same prophet met 
Jeroboam, and taking from off Jeroboam's 
(or rather perhaps his own) shoulders a 
mantle, which he then wore, he tore it in 
twelve pieces, and said, ' Take ten pieces 
for thyself; for thus saith the Lord God of 
Israel, I will rend the kingdom out of the 
hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to 
thee.' He added, ' Howbeit, I will not take 
the whole kingdom out of his hands, and I 
will suffer him to govern for the remainder of 
his life ; but I will take the kingdom out of 
his son's hands, and will give it unto thee, 
even ten tribes.' (1 Kings xi. 29, &c.) This 
happened in the year of the world 3020, and 
before Jesus Christ 984. See Jeroboam. 

About the end of Jeroboam's reign, and 
towards the year of the world 3046, Ahijah, 
the son of Jeroboam, fell sick. Jeroboam 
therefore said to his wife, • Arise, I pray 
thee, and disguise thyself, that thou be not 
known to be the wife of Jeroboam, and get 
thee to Shiloh ; behold there is Ahijah the 
prophet, which told me that I should be king 
over this people. And take with thee ten 
loaves and cracknels, and a cruse of honey, 
and go to him : he shall tell thee what shall 
become of the child.' Accordingly, the 
queen went to Ahijah's house in Shiloh. 
Now the prophet could not see, his eves be- 
ing darkened with age ; but the Lord said to 
him, ' Behold the wife of Jeroboam cometh to 



AHI 



AHI 



consult thee concerning the indisposition of 
her son ; thus and thus shalt thou say to her.' 
As Jeroboam's wife, disguised, and conceal- 
ing her dignity, entered the house, Ahijah 
heard the sound of her feet, and said, ' Come 
in, thou wife of Jeroboam; why feignestthou 
thyself to be another ? for I am sent to thee 
with heavy tidings.' The prophet then com- 
manded her to go and tell Jeroboam all the 
evil, which the Lord had declared he would 
bring upon his house, for his impieties. He 
also informed her, that as soon as she en- 
tered the city, her son Ahijah would die, and 
that he only, of Jeroboam's house, should 
come to the grave, or receive the honours of 
burial. (I Kings xiv. 2, &c.) See Ahijah 
and Jeroboam. 

In all probability Ahijah did not long sur- 
vive these predictions ; but with the time 
and manner of his death, we are not ac- 
quainted. 

Ahijah, son of Baasha, king of Israel. 
Baasha killed Nadab, the son of Jeroboam (of 
whom we have been speaking), and usurped 
his kingdom; thereby executing the ven- 
geance, which God had denounced by Ahijah 
the Shilonite. (1 Kings xv. 27.) 

AHIM'AAZ, YinrrtK, signifies brother of 
the council, or my brother is counsellor, or the 
beauty of my brother. It was the name of 
the son of Zadok, the high-priest. He suc- 
ceeded his father under the reign of Solo- 
mon, in the year of the world 3000. He 
rendered David very important services 
during the war with Absalom ; for whilst his 
father Zadok was in Jerusalem with Hushai, 
the friend of David, Ahimaaz and Jonathan 
remained without the city near En-rogel, or 
the fountain of Rogel, whither a maid-ser- 
vant came to tell them the resolutions of Absa- 
lom's council. They immediately departed to 
give intelligence to the king ; but being disco- 
vered by a young lad, who informed Absalom, 
they were pursued. Ahimaaz and Jonathan, 
fearing to be taken, retired to the house of a 
man of Bahurim, in whose court- yard was a 
well, in which they concealed themselves. 
Upon the mouth of this well the woman 
spread a covering, and on the covering corn 
ground, or rather parched. When Absalom's 
people came and inquired after Ahimaaz and 
Jonathan, the woman answered, ' They are 
over the little water, being in great haste.' — 
Deceived by this equivocation, the pursuers 
passed over a brook at no great distance, 
but not finding them, returned to Jerusalem.' 
— Afterwards Ahimaaz and Jonathan conti- 
nued their journey to David. (2 Sam. xv.27, 
&c. ; xvii. 17, &c) 

After the battle of Joab and Abishai, in 
which Absalom was slain, Ahimaaz desired 
leave of Joab to carry the news to David ; 
but Joab first sent Cushi, and afterwards, at 
his repeated entreaty, Ahimaaz, who went by 
the way of the plain, and out- ran Cushi. The 
sentinel, who kept watch upon the roof over 
the gate, seeing him, gave notice to the king, 
56 



and said, ' The running of the foremost 
messenger is like the running of Ahimaaz, 
the son of Zadok.' The king said, ' He is 
a good man, and bringeth good tidings.' 
Ahimaaz coming near, called, and said, ' All 
is well,' and he fell down to the earth on his 
face before the king, and spoke as follows : 
' Blessed be the Lord thy God, who hath de- 
livered up the men that lift up their hand 
against my lord the king.' The king said, 
' Is the young man Absalom safe?' Ahimaaz, 
from prudence, or real ignorance, or unwil- 
lingness to declare the truth, replied only, 
' When Joab sent the king's servant, and 
me thy servant, I saw a great tumult, but I 
knew not what it was.' The king said, 
' Turn aside, and stand here.' (2 Sam. xviii. 
19, 20, &c.) This is all we learn concern- 
ing Ahimaaz. He was succeeded in the 
high-priesthood by his son Azariah. (1 Chron. 
vi. 9.) 

AH'IMAN, )D"rtK, 'kx^av, signifies a 
brother prepared, or brother of the right hand. 
— Ahiman was a giant of the race of Anak, 
and dwelt at Hebron, when the spies visited 
the land of Canaan. (Numb. xiii. 22.) He 
was driven from Hebron with his brethren 
Sheshai and Talmai, when Caleb took that 
city, in the year of the world 2559, and be- 
fore Jesus Christ 1445. (Josh. xv. 14.) 

AHIM'ELECH, ^qtik, signifies my 
brother is a king, or the brother of my king. 
Ahimelech,in some versions is called Abime- 
lech, and was the son of Ahitub, and brother 
of Ahijah, whom he succeeded in the high- 
priesthood. At that time, the tabernacle 
was at Nob, where Ahimelech, with other 
priests, dwelt. David finding it necessary to 
retire from Saul, went to Nob, to the high- 
priest Ahimelech, who was very much sur- 
prised to see him, and said, ' Why art thou 
alone, and no man with thee ?' David pre- 
tended urgent business, which belonged to the 
king, and persuaded the priest to give him 
the shew- bread recently brought from the 
sacred table in the holy place, Ahimelech 
having no other in his house. David also 
took the sword, which he had won from Go- 
liath, and of which he said, ' There is none 
like that, give it me.' Afterwards David 
fled to Achish, king of Gath. It happened 
that Doeg the Edomite was at Nob, when 
David went thither. (1 Sam. xxi, 1, &c.) 
Some time after, when Saul was complain- 
ing to his officers, that no one was affected 
with his misfortunes, or informed him of 
what was carrying on against him, Doeg 
related what had happened when David 
came to Ahimelech the high-priest. Imme- 
diately Saul sent for Ahimelech, and the 
other priests, and said to Ahimelech, ' Why 
have ye conspired against me, thou and the 
son of Jesse, in that thou hast given him 
bread, and a sword, and hast inquired of God 
for him?' Ahimelech, in vindication, an- 
swered the king, ' Who is so faithful among 
all thy servants as David, which is the king's 



AHI 



Al 



son-in-law, and goeth at thy bidding, and is 
honourable in thine house ? Did I then be- 
gin to inquire of God for him V By this last 
interrogation Ahimelech meant, that he had 
often before inquired of God for David. Saul 
commanded his guards that were about him 
to slay the priests ; but they refused to com- 
mit so barbarous an action, as to kill the 
priests of the Lord. However, Doeg, who 
had been their accuser, by the king's com- 
mand became their executioner, and with his 
sacrilegious hand slew eighty-five of them, 
though the Septuagint and the Syriac version 
read three hundred and fifty. He after- 
wards went to Nob, and put to the sword, 
men, women, children, and cattle ; but one 
of Ahimelech's sons, by name Abiathar, es- 
caped the slaughter, and retired to David. 
(1 Sam. xxii. 9, &c.) This happened in the 
year of the world 2944, and before Jesus 
Christ 1060. 

AHIT'OPHEL, ^urnx, signifies brother 
of ruin or folly, and was the name of a na- 
tive of Gillo. He was a great statesman, 
and for some time the counsellor of king 
David, whom he at length deserted, by 
participating in the rebellion of Absalom. 
The Jews describe him as grandfather to 
Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, and afterwards 
of David, by his son Ammiel, the father of 
Bathsheba. If so, Ahitophel must have been 
very old at the time of Absalom's rebellion, 
since his grand- daughter Bathsheba had been 
some time married to Uriah, before she be- 
came the wife of David. Some conjecture, 
that the cause of Ahitophel's embracing the 
interest of Absalom with so much warmth, 
was revenge for the dishonour which David 
had brought on his grand- daughter. For the 
same reason also they imagine, he advised 
Absalom to lie with his father's concubines ; 
but the Scripture says, this was done to ren- 
der Absalom and David irreconcileable. 
However this might be, Absalom was no 
sooner acknowledged king by the greater 
part of Israel, than he sent for Ahitophel to 
assist him with his advice ; for at that time, 
Ahitophel's counsels were received as ora- 
cles. — Nothing gave David more uneasiness, 
than the information that this great states- 
man was of Absalom's party ; when his friend 
Hushai came to accompany him in his flight 
he entreated him rather to return to Jerusa- 
lem, offer his services to Absalom, and en- 
deavour to frustrate the prudent measures, 
which might be proposed by Ahitophel. 

When Absalom had entered Jerusalem, 
Ahitophel advised him, in the first place, 
publicly to abuse his father's concubines, 
that all Israel might know he had rendered 
the breach with his father absolute and ir- 
revocable. Soon after, Ahitophel said to 
Absalom, ' Let me now choose out twelve 
thousand men, and I will arise and pursue 
after David this night And I will come 
upon him while he is weary and weak- 
handed, and will make him afraid ; and 
57 



all the people that are with him will flee ; 
and I will smite the king only. And I 
will bring back all the people unto thee ; 
the man, whom thou seekest, is as if all re- 
turned : so all the people shall be in peace.' 
This advice was very agreeable to Absa- 
lom, and to all the elders of Israel. How- 
ever, Absalom desired that Hushai might 
be called, and give his opinion. 

Hushai being informed of the advice of 
Ahitophel, said, The counsel that Ahito- 
phel has given is not good at this time.' 
He then proposed some other measure ; 
and the Lord permitted the advice of Ahi- 
tophel to be rejected, that the ruin of Ab- 
salom might be hastened. When Ahito- 
phel saw that his counsel was neglected, 
he went to his house at Gillo, and hanged 
himself, and was buried in the sepulchre of 
his fathers. (2 Sam. xvi. 15; xvii. 1.) With- 
out doubt, he foresaw what would be the 
event, and was determined to avoid that 
ignominious death, which he deserved, and 
which David would certainly have inflicted 
on him, when resettled on the throne. 
This happened in the year of the world 
2981, and before Jesus Christ 1023. 

AHO'LIBAH, or Aelibeh, nn^nx, sig- 
nifies my tent and my tabernacle. 

Aholibah and Aholah are two feigned or 
symbolical names used by Ezekiel in his 
prophecy to denote the two kingdoms of 
Judah and Samaria, (xxiii. 4.) They are 
represented as sisters, and of Egyptian ex- 
traction. Ahola denotes Samaria, and 
Aholibah, Jerusalem. The first signifies a 
tent; the second my lent is in her. They 
both prostituted themselves to the Egyp- 
tians and Assyrians, whose abominations 
and idolatries they imitated. Therefore 
the Lord abandoned them to the power of 
those very people, for whom they had 
shown so excessive and so impure an affec- 
tion. They were carried into captivity 
and reduced to the severest servitude. 

AHUZ'ZATH, nmK, Ahuzath or Acho- 
zath, signifies possession, occupation, vision, or 
brother of the olive. Ahuzzath was the friend 
of Abimelech, king of Gerar, and came 
with that prince and Philcol the general of 
his army, to make an alliance with Isaac. 
(Genesis xxvi. 26.) Several interpreters, 
following the Chaldee and St Jerom, take 
Ahuzzath in an appellative sense to signify 
a company of friends, who attended Abime- 
lech. The Septuagint call him Ahuzzath, 
the brideman. He lived in the year of the 
world 2200, and before Jesus Christ 1804. 

A'l, a city to the westward of Bethel. 
(Gen. xii. 8. Josh. vii. 2, 3, &c.) The Sep- 
tuagint call it Agai, Josepbus denominates 
it Aina; and others call it Aiath. Joshua 
having sent a detachment of three thousand 
men against Ai, God permitted them to be 
repulsed on account of the sin of Achan. who 
had violated the anathema, pronounced 
against the city of Jericho, by appropriat- 



AI 



ALA 



ing to his own profit some of the spoil, in 
the ye?r of the world 2553, and before Je- 
sus Christ 1451. After the expiation of 
this offence, the Lord commanded Joshua 
to march the whole army against Ai, and 
treat this city and its king as he had treated 
Jericho, with the difference, that the plunder 
should be given to the army. (Josh. viii. 1.) 

Joshua sent by night thirty thousand 
men, to lie in ambush behind Ai. The next 
day, early in the morning, he marched 
against the city witb the remainder of his 
army. The king of Ai sallied hastily out 
of the town, with all his people, and at- 
tacked the Israelites, who, on the first on- 
set, fled, as if under some great terror ; but 
this flight was only a feint, to draw the 
enemy into the open plain. When Joshua 
perceived that all of them were out of the 
gates, he elevated his shield upon the top 
of a spike, as a signal to the ambuscade, 
which immediately entered the town, now 
without defence, and set it on fire. The 
people of Ai, perceiving the rising smoke, 
endeavoured to return, but were attacked 
in the rear by those, who had set fire to the 
city, whilst Joshua and his army advancing 
in front, destroyed them all. The king was 
taken alive, and brought to Joshua. The 
Israelites entered the place, and killed, in 
this day's action, twelve thousand men, 
women, and children. The king of Ai was 
hung upon a gibbet, where he continued 
till sun- set ; and when taken down, he was 
thrown before the entrance of the city, and 
over him was raised a great heap of stones. 
Afterwards, the Israelites divided among 
themselves the spoil of the place, as had 
been permitted them by the Lord. 

The author of the book of Joshua says, 
' Joshua arose and all the people of war, to 
go up against Ai, and Joshua chose out 
thirty thousand men of valour, and sent 
them away by night.' (viii. 3.) 

There is a manifest contradiction be- 
tween this verse and the twelfth, in which it 
is said, that ' Joshua chose five thousand 
men, whom he sent to lie in ambush be- 
tween Bethel and Ai.' Calmet observes, 
that Masius allows only five thousand for 
the ambuscade, and twenty- five thousand for 
the attack of the city, being persuaded, that 
an army of six hundred thousand men would 
occasion only confusion. Masius seems to 
argue rightly, and to think like a soldier ; 
but the generality of interpreters, continues 
Calmet, acknowledge two bodies to be placed 
in ambuscade, both between Bethel and Ai, 
one of twenty-five thousand, the other of 
five thousand men. It is probable, that 
.Joshua sent at first thirty thousand men, 
who marched by night, and, to prevent 
discovery, went behind the eminences of 

Bethel, and posted themselves ;it the place 
appointed for the ambuscade. The officer 

,-ii the head of these troops, detached five 
thousand men, who lay as close to the town 
68 



as possible, that they might throw them- 
selves into it on the first opportunity. 

With respect to the nature of the signal 
used by Joshua, several embrace the opi- 
nion of the Rabbins, who believe it was a 
staff belonging to some of their colours. 
Some think it very probable, that it was 
one of the fire-pots, which are used as en- 
signs by the eastern caravans, and the 
smoke of which would rise to a considera- 
ble height, and denote the fate intended for 
the city. However, Bochart and others are of 
opinion, that the signal was only a spear or 
lance, to which was fastened a flag to render 
it more visible. Patrick's Comment. ; Addi- 
tions to Calmefs Diet. 

A'JALON, pb-x, Ailon, signifies a chain, 
or strength, or a stag. It was the name of 
a city of the tribe of Dan, and was assigned 
to the Levites of Koath's family. It was 
situated between Timnath and Bethshe- 
mesh, and is probably the city alluded to 
by Joshua, (x. 12.) There were three other 
cities of this name, one was in the tribe of 
Benjamin, east of Bethel, (2 Chron. xi. 10.); 
another in the tribe of Ephraim , not far 
from Shechem ; and the third in the tribe 
of Zebulun, but its situation is not known. 
(2 Chron. xxviii. 18.) 

AICHMALOTARCH, AixfiaXordpxvc, 
signifies the prince of the captivity, or chief of 
the captives. The Jews pretend, that this 
was the title of him, who had the govern- 
ment of the people during the captivity of 
Babylon, and they believe these princes or 
governors to have been constantly of the 
tribe of Judah, and family of David. But 
they would be very much at a loss to prove 
the real existence of these Aichmalotarchs. 
There was no prince of the captivity be- 
fore the end of the second century. The 
office continued till the eleventh century. 
The princes of the captivity resided at 
Babylon, where they were installed with great 
ceremony, held courts of justice, &c. They 
were set over the eastern Jews, or those settled 
in Babylon, Chaldaaa, Assyria, and Persia. 

AKIBA, a famous rabbin, who lived 
about the year of our Lord 130, and was, 
as it were, the forerunner of the cele- 
brated impostor Barchochebas. Respecting 
this man, the Jews relate many ridiculous 
fables. He was in the height of his repu- 
tation, and prince of the Sanhedrim, when 
Barchochebas appeared, to whom he was 
attached, and whom he served in almost 
the same quality as John the Baptist served 
our Saviour. But these two men were 
governed by a very different spirit from 
that of our Saviour and his forerunner. 
They kindled a war in Judea, prompted 
the Jews to rebellion, committed infinite 
disorders in Judea and Syria, killed thou- 
sands of Christians and Romans* and caused 
the entire destruction of the country. See 

Barchochebas. 

ALABAKC'Ji/AAa/Sanx'/c, a term used to 



ALA 



ALB 



signify the chief of the Jews in Alexandria. 
Some believe that this name was given to 
the principal magistrate, or head of the Jews 
at Alexandria, by the Gentiles, who hated 
and despised the Jews. Some derive the 
word from alaba, ink used in writing. Others 
suppose it to denote the person who had the 
custom of salt, and that it was given in deri- 
sion to the head, or governor of the Jews at 
Alexandria. 

ALABASTER, the name of a genus of 
fossils, nearly allied to the marbles. We 
read in the Gospel of St. Matthew, that Je- 
sus Christ being at table in Bethany, in the 
house of Simon the leper, Mary, the sister 
of Lazarus, poured an alabaster box of pre- 
cious ointment upon his head, (xxvi. 6, 7-) 
It is observed that all vessels for the pur- 
pose of keeping liquors or unguents, were 
denominated alabaster, and hence it is sup- 
posed by some, that the box here mentioned 
was made of glass. This conjecture, they 
think, is supported by what St. Mark says, 
that the woman, who poured the perfume on 
our Saviour, broke the box of alabaster, (xiv. 
3.) To this it is replied by others, that the 
expression, breaking the box, merely implies, 
that the seal which closed the box, and kept 
the perfume from evaporating, had never 
been removed, but on this occasion was 
broken, or first opened. 

Alabaster was also used by the ancients as 
a liquid measure, containing ten ounces of 
wine, or nine of oil. Hence some have sup- 
posed, that the box mentioned in the Gos- 
pels was made of glass, and denominated 
alabaster, from its holding the measure 
known by that name. Addenda to CalmeVs 
Dictionary. 

ALASCANI, a sect of Anti- Lutherans in 
the sixteenth century, whose distinguishing 
tenet, besides their denying baptism, was, 
that the words, 'This is my body,' in the 
institution of the eucharist, are not to be 
understood of the bread, but of the whole 
action or celebration of the supper. They 
derived their name from Johannes Lisco, a 
Polish baron, who was superintendent of the 
Polish church in England. 

ALBANENSES, a sect which arose about 
the year of our Lord 796. They held, with 
the Gnostics, and Manicheans, two princi- 
ples, the one good, and the other evil. They 
believed with Pythagoras in a transmigration 
of souls. They denied the divinity, and even 
the humanity, of Jesus Christ, asserting that 
he was not truly man, did not suffer upon the 
cross, die, rise again, nor really ascend into 
heaven. They rejected the doctrine of the 
resurrection, and affirmed that the general 
judgment was past, and that hell torments 
were no other than the evils we feel and 
suffer in this life. They denied free will, did 
not admit original sin, and never adminis- 
tered baptism to infants. — They disallowed 
marriage;, maintained the eternity of the 
world ; and held that a man can give the Holy 
59 



Spirit of himself, and that it is unlawful for a 
Christian to take an oath. They derived 
their name from the place in which their 
spiritual ruler resided. Gregory's Hist, of 
the Christian Church, vol. i. pp. 447, 448. 
See Manicheans and Catharists. 

ALBANOIS, a denomination, which arose 
in the eighth century, and renewed the great- 
est part of the Manichean principles. They 
also maintained the eternity of the world. 
See the article Manicheans. 

ALBIGENSES, a party of reformers in 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, who 
derived their name from Albi, a considerable 
town of Guienne, where they first settled. 
They were a branch from the parent stock of 
the Waldenses, in common with whom they 
opposed the errors and superstitions of the 
Romish Church. Such an enormity could 
not pass unpunished ; and Peter de Bruys, 
one of their first teachers, was condemned to 
be burned. By their adversaries they were 
charged with the errors of Manicheism ; but 
certainly no errors of that nature appear to 
have been proved against them, though some 
of the later adherents to this sect seem to 
have imbibed the reveries of the Gnostics. 

The Waldenses, Albigenses, and other 
sects, daily increased, spread imperceptibly 
throughout all Europe, assembled numerous 
congregations in Italy, France, Spain, and 
Germany, and formed by degrees, so power- 
ful a party, as rendered them formidable to 
the Romish pontiffs, and menaced the papal 
jurisdiction with a fatal revolution. To the 
ancient sects, new factions were added, which 
differed indeed in various instances, yet were 
all unanimous in one opinion, " That the 
public established religion, was a motley sys- 
tem of errors and superstition ; and that the 
dominion, which the Popes had usurped over 
Christians, and the authority they exercised 
in religious matters, were unlawful and ty- 
rannical." These reformers refuted the su- 
perstitions and impostures of the times by 
arguments deduced from Scripture, and de- 
claimed against the power, the opulence, and 
the vices of the popes and clergy, under 
whose usurpations many princes and civil 
magistrates felt uneasy. The pontiffs, there- 
fore, considered themselves as obliged to 
have recourse to new and extraordinary me- 
thods of defeating enemies, who, by their 
number and their rank, were every way cal- 
culated to alarm their fears. In 1198, Pope 
Innocent III. prohibited all communion with 
the Waldenses and Albigenses ; he confis- 
cated their goods, disinherited their children, 
denied them the rites of burial, and gave to 
their accusers one-third of their effects. The 
same pontiff sent into the southern provinces 
of France legates extraordinary to extirpate 
heresy, in all its forms and modifications, 
without being at all scrupulous in using 
such methods, as might be necessary to effect 
their salutary purpose. From those spiri- 
tual champions, the formidable and odious 



ALB 



ALC 



tribunal, called the inquisition, derived its 
origin. 

But as Innocent III. perceived that the 
labours of the first inquisition were not im- 
mediately attended with the effects he had 
fondly expected, he addressed himself, in 
1207. to Philip Augustus, king of France, 
and to the leading men of that nation, and 
solicited them by the alluring promises of 
the most ample indulgences, to extirpate the 
heretics by fire and sword. This address 
was repeated the year following. In 1209, 
a formidable army of Crusaders appeared 
against the heretics, who were comprehended 
under the general denomination of Albi- 
genses, and commenced an open war, which 
they carried on with the utmost exertions of 
cruelty, though with various success, for se- 
veral years. The principal director of this 
ecclesiastical war was Arnold, abbot of the 
Cistertians, and legate of the pope ; and the 
commander-in-chief of the expedition was 
Simon, earl of Montfort. Raymond VI., 
earl of Toulouse, who had been solemnly ex- 
communicated, to deliver himself from the 
ecclesiastical malediction, forsook the Albi- 
genses, and joined the crusaders ; but as fear 
had occasioned the apostasy of the earl of 
Toulouse, a similar motive produced his re- 
turn to the friends he had deserted. The 
earl of Montfort had embarked in this war, 
not so much from a principle of zeal for re- 
ligion, or of aversion to the heretics, as from 
a desire of augmenting his fortune, which he 
hoped to improve by obtaining the territories 
of Raymond. The selfish views of Montfoi't 
were seconded and accomplished by the 
court of Rome. After many battles, sieges, 
and a multitude of other exploits, conducted 
with the most intrepid courage, and the most 
abominable barbarity, he received from the 
hands of Innocent III. at the council of the 
Lateran, in 1215, the county of Toulouse, 
and the other lands belonging to that earl, 
as a reward for his zeal in supporting the 
cause of God and of the Church. About 
three years after this he lost his life at the 
siege of Toulouse ; and Raymond, his valiant 
adversary, died in the year 1222. 

The death of the two chiefs of this deplor- 
able war, was far from extinguishing the 
flame of persecution on the side of the pon- 
tiffs, or calming the restless spirit of faction 
on that of the pretended heretics. Raymond 
\ 1 1, earl of Toulouse, and Amalric, earl of 
Montfort, succeeded their fathers at the head 
of the contending parties, and prosecuted 
the war with the utmost vehemence, and 
with such various success, that the issue for 
some time seemed doubtful. — Raymond 
commenced bis career with advantages su- 
perior to those of bis antagonist ; and pope 
llonorious I I I. alarmed at bis vigorous op- 
position to the orthodox legions, engaged 
Lewis VIII. bin^ of France, by the most 

pompoUS promises, to march in person with 

s formidable army againsl the enemies of 
CO 



the Church. The obsequious monarch at- 
tended to the solicitations of the pontiff, and 
embarked with a considerable military force, 
but did not live to reap the fruits of his zeal. 
However, his engagements with the court of 
Rome, and his furious designs against the 
heretics, were executed with the greatest 
alacrity and vigour, by his son and successor, 
commoidy called St. Lewis. Raymond, 
pressed on all sides, was obliged, in the year 
1229, to conclude a peace on the most disad- 
vantageous terms, even by ceding the greater 
part of his territories to the French monarch, 
after having sacrificed a portion of them, as 
a peace-offering, to the Church of Rome. 
This treaty of peace gave a mortal blow to 
heresy, and dispersed the champions, who 
had appeared in its defence. The inquisition 
was established at Toulouse, and the heretics 
were not only exposed to the pious cruelties 
of Lewis, but Raymond himself, who had 
formerly been their patron, became their 
persecutor, and treated them, on all occa- 
sions, with the most inhuman severity. Af- 
terwards, Raymond broke the engagements, 
into which he had entered by the treaty, and 
renewed the war against Lewis and the in- 
quisitors, who abused their victory, and the 
power they had acquired in the most odious 
manner. However, this new effort in favour 
of the heretics, was attended with little or 
no effect ; and the unfortunate earl of Tou- 
louse, the last representative of that noble 
and powerful family, dejected and exhausted 
by the losses he had sustained, and the per- 
plexities in which he was involved, died in 
the year 1249, without male issue. Thus 
ended a civil war, of which religion had been 
partly the cause, and for which it was partly 
the pretext. — The war, however, in its con- 
sequences, was highly profitable both to the 
kings of France and the Roman pontiffs. 

It is impossible to contemplate the vast 
effusion of human blood on this occasion, 
without emotions of horror. In the course 
of these wars, not less than a million of men 
are supposed to have been sacrificed ; and in 
this number are included three hundred 
thousand of the crusaders themselves. — 
What aggravates the horror to the utmost 
extreme, is, that the name of Christ should 
have been profaned to sanction such destruc- 
tion. Gregory's History of the Christian 
Church, vol. ii. pp. 127. 174. 

AL'CIMUS, AX/ctjUoc, signifies strong, 
vigorous. Alcimus, or, as he is called by 
Josephus, Jacimus, or Joachim, was high- 
priest of the Jews, and succeeded to this 
office in the year of the world 3842, and 
before Jesus Christ 162. He was of the 
race of the priests, but not of a family of 
the first rank, nor whose ancestors had en- 
joyed the high-priesthood. Besides, he had 
been polluted with idolatry during the per- 
secution of Antiochus Epiphanes, (2 Mace, 
xiv. 8.) and obtained this dignity by very 
irregular methods. After the death of 



ALC 



ALE 



Menelaus, he was confirmed in his office by 
king Antiochus Eupator. Alcimus did not 
perform the functions of it, till after the 
death of Judas Maccabaeus. Seeing, there- 
fore, that he could not exercise his dignity 
of high-priest, he no sooner heard that De- 
metrius, the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
had privately left Rome, and was arrived 
in Syria, than he waited on the new monarch 
at the head of the apostate Jews, who were 
then at Antioch. He besought Demetrius 
to defend them from the violence of Judas 
Maccabaeus, whom he accused as an oppres- 
sor of such as supported the king's party, 
and who had expelled them their country. 
He also entreated him to send some person 
into Judea to examine into the mischiefs and 
disorders committed by Judas Maccabaeus, 
and to chastise his insolence. (1 Mace, vii.) 

Demetrius immediately sent Bacchides 
with an army into Judea, and confirming 
Alcimus in his office of high-priest, charged 
them jointly with the conduct of the war. 
They endeavoured to surprise Judas and his 
brethren, who, suspecting the snare laid for 
them, happily escaped. However, Alcimus 
swearing that no injury should be offered to 
any, about sixty Assideans, with many scribes 
and doctors of the law, put themselves in his 
power, and were all murdered. After this 
perfidious action, no one would trust him. 

Bacchides having established Alcimus by 
force in Judea, marched into Syria, and left 
to Alcimus the whole government of the pro- 
vince, with troops sufficient for his support. 
Alcimus for some time defended himself with 
success ; but Judas obtaining a superiority, 
he found himself unable to resist him, and 
returned to the king with a present of a gold 
crown, a palm-tree, and golden branches, 
which he had probably taken out of the tem- 
ple. (2 Mace. xiv. 3, 4.) Seizing a favourable 
opportunity, he represented to the king, that 
so long as Judas lived, his authority would 
never be settled in Judea. The same was sug- 
gested by others, who had much influence 
with the king. Demetrius, therefore, was at 
length persuaded to send a new army into 
Judea, under the command of Nicanor. This 
general was killed, and his army routed, in 
a battle, which he fought with Judas Macca- 
baeus. Demetrius, being informed of this, 
again sent Bacchides and Alcimus, with a 
powerful reinforcement, consisting of the 
choice of all his troops. Judas Maccabaeus 
having ventured to attack this army with a 
body of only eight hundred men, was killed 
in the engagement. (1 Mace. ix. 1, 2, &c.) 

By the death of Judas, Alcimus and his 
party were delivered from a formidable ene- 
my, and obtained superiority in the country. 
Alcimus began to exercise the offices of the 
priesthood, which he had purchased with 
money ; but attempting to pull down the 
wall of the inner court, which had been built 
by the prophets, and which probably sepa- 
rated the altar of burnt-offerings from the 
61 



priests' court, God punished him by a stroke 
of the palsy, of which he died in the year of 
the world 3844. (1 Mace. vii. 9 ; ix. 54.) 

ALEPH, (x), the name of the first letter 
of the Hebrew alphabet, from which the alpha 
of the Syrians and Greeks was formed. This 
word signifies prince, chief, or thousand. Cer- 
tain Psalms, and other parts of Scripture, 
begin with aleph ; and other verses with the 
rest of the Hebrew letters. These pieces 
are called acrostics, because all the verses, 
which compose them, begin with a letter in 
alphabetical order. 

ALEXAN'DER, 'AXQavSpog, signifies 
one that assists men ; helps stoutly ; or turns 
away evil. 

Alexander the Great, son and successor 
of Philip, king of Macedon, is denoted in the 
prophecies of Daniel by a leopard with four 
wings, signifying his great strength, and the 
unusual rapidity of his conquests. (Dan. vii. 
6.) and by a one-horned he-goat running over 
the earth so swiftly as not to touch it, attack- 
ing a ram with two horns, overthrowing him, 
and trampling him under foot, without any 
being able to rescue him. (Id. viii. 4, 5, 6, 7«) 
The he-goat prefigured Alexander ; the ram, 
Darius Codomannus, the last of the Persian 
kings. In the statue beheld by Nebuchad- 
nezzar in his dream, (Id. ii. 39.) the belly of 
brass was the emblem of Alexander, and the 
legs of iron denoted his successors. He was 
appointed by God to destroy the Persian 
empire, and to substitute in its room the 
Grecian monarchy. 

Alexander succeeded his father Philip in 
the year of the world 3668, and before Jesus 
Christ 336. He was chosen by the Greeks 
general of their troops against the Persians, 
and entered Asia at the head of thirty-four 
thousand men, in the year of the world 3670. 
In one campaign, he subdued almost all Asia 
Minor, and afterwards defeated, in the narrow 
passes, which lead from Syria to Cilicia, the 
army of Darius, which consisted of four hun- 
dred thousand foot, and one hundred thou- 
sand horse. Darius fled, and left in the 
hands of the conqueror, his camp, baggage, 
children, wife, and mother. 

After subduing Syria, Alexander came to 
Tyre ; and the Tyrians refusing him en- 
trance into their city, he besieged it. At the 
same time, he wrote to Jaddus, high-priest 
of the Jews, that he expected to be acknow- 
ledged by him, and to receive from him the 
same submission, which had been hitherto 
paid to the king of Persia. Jaddus refusing 
to comply, under pretence of having sworn 
fidelity to Darius, Alexander resolved to 
march against Jerusalem, when he had re- 
duced Tyre. After a long siege, this city 
was taken and sacked ; and Alexander en- 
tered Palestine, in the year of the world 
3672, and subjected it to his obedience. As 
he was marching against Jerusalem, the Jews 
became greatly alarmed, and had recourse 
to prayers and sacrifices. The Lord, in a 



ALE 



ALE 



dream, commanded Jaddus to open the gates 
to the conqueror, and at the head of his peo- 
ple, dressed in his pontifical ornaments, and 
attended by the priests in their robes, to ad- 
vance and meet the Macedonian king. Jaddus 
obeyed ; and Alexander perceiving this com- 
pany approaching, hastened towards the 
high-priest, whom he saluted. He then 
adored God, whose name was engraven on a 
thin plate of gold, worn by the high-priest 
upon his forehead. The kings of Syria, who 
accompanied him, and the great officers 
about Alexander, could not comprehend the 
meaning of his conduct. Parmenio alone 
ventured to ask him, why he adored the 
Jewish high-priest ? Alexander replied, that 
he paid this respect to God and not to the 
high-priest. ' For,' added he, ' whilst I was 
yet in Macedonia, I saw the God of the Jews, 
who appeared to me in the same form and 
dress as the high-priest at present, and who 
encouraged me, and commanded me to march 
boldly into Asia, promising that he would be 
my guide, and give me the empire of the 
Persians. As soon therefore as I perceived 
this habit, I recollected the vision, and un- 
derstood that my undertaking was favoured 
by God, and that under his protection I 
might expect all kind of prosperity.' 

Having said thus, Alexander accompanied 
Jaddus to Jerusalem, where he offered sa- 
crifices in the temple according to the direc- 
tions of the high-priest. Jaddus showed 
him the prophecies of Daniel, in which the 
destruction of the Persian empire by Alex- 
ander is declared. The king was therefore 
confirmed in his opinion, that God had cho- 
sen him to execute this great work. At his 
departure, Alexander bade the Jews ask of 
him what they would. The high-priest de- 
sired only the liberty of living under his go- 
vernment according to their own laws, and an 
exemption from tribute every seventh year, 
because in that year, the Jews neither tilled 
their grounds nor reaped their fruits. With 
this request, Alexander readily complied. 

Having left Jerusalem, Alexander visited 
other cities of Palestine, and was every where 
received with great testimonies of friendship 
and submission. The Samaritans, who dwelt 
at Sichem, and were apostates from the Jew- 
ish religion, observing how kindly Alexan- 
der had treated the Jews, resolved to say, 
that they also were by religion Jews. For 
it was their practice, when they saw the 
affairs of the Jews in a prosperous state, to 
boast that they were descended from Manas- 
seh and Kphraim ; hut when they thought it 
(heir intereil to say the contrary, they failed 
not to affirm, and even to swear, that they 

unv not related to the .lews. They came 

therefore with many demonstrations of joy, 

to in. ct Alexander, as far almost as the ter- 
ritories of Jerusalem. Alexander com- 
mended their zeal ; and the S'h heinites en- 
treated him to visit their temple and city. 
Alexander promised that lie would at his re- 
02 



turn ; and as they petitioned him for the 
same privileges as the Jews, he asked them 
if they were Jews ? They replied they were 
Hebrews, and were called by the Phoenicians 
Sichemites. Alexander said that he had 
granted this exemption only to the Jews, 
but that at his return he would inquire into 
the affair, and do them justice. 

This prince having conquered Egypt, and 
regulated it, gave orders for the building of 
the city of Alexandria, and departed thence, 
about spring, in pursuit of Darius. Pass- 
ing through Palestine, he was informed that 
the Samaritans in a general insurrection 
had killed Andromachus, governor of Syria 
and Palestine, who had come to Samaria to 
regulate some affairs. This action greatly 
incensed Alexander, who loved Androma- 
chus. He therefore commanded all those, 
who were concerned in his murder, to be put 
to death, and the rest be banished from Sa- 
maria, and settled a colony of Macedonians 
in their room. What remained of their lands 
he gave to the Jews, and exempted them 
from the payment of tribute. The Samari- 
tans who escaped this calamity, retired to 
Sichem at the foot of Mount Gerizim, which 
afterwards became their capital. Lest the 
eight thousand men of this nation, who were 
in the service of Alexander, and had accom- 
panied him since the siege of Tyre, if per- 
mitted to return into their own country, 
should renew the spirit of rebellion, he sent 
them into Thebais, the most remote southern 
province of Egypt, where he assigned them 
lands. 

A detail of Alexander's history is foreign 
to our subject. After defeating Darius in a 
pitched battle, and subduing all Asia and 
the Indies, with incredible rapidity, he gave 
himself up to intemperance. Having drunk 
to excess, he fell sick and died, after he had 
obliged ' all the world to be quiet before him.' 
(1 Mace. i. 3.) Being sensible that his end 
was near, he sent for the grandees of his 
court and declared, that ' he gave the empire 
to the most deserving.' Some affirm that he re- 
gulated the succession by a will. The author 
of the first book of Maccabees says, that he 
divided his kingdom among his generals 
while he was living. (1 Mac. i. 7-) This he 
might do ; or he might express his foresight 
of what actually took place after his death. 
It is certain, that a partition was made of 
Alexander's dominions among the four prin- 
cipal officers of his army, and that the em- 
pire, which he founded in Asia, subsisted for 
many ages. Alexander died in the year of 
the world 3681, and before Jesus Christ 323, 
in the thirty-third of his age, and the twelfth 
of his reign. He was buried at Alexandria. 
See Alexandria. 

Alexander Ba'las, so called from Bala 
his mother, was the natural son of Antio- 
ehus Epiphanes, and upon medals is sur- 
named Theopator Kuergetes. Some histo- 
rians will not allow him to be even the na- 



ALE 



ALE 



tural son of Antiochus Epiphanes. Florus 
calls him an unknown person, and of uncer- 
tain extraction. Justin says, that the ene- 
mies of Demetrius, king of Syria, suborned 
a young man from among the meanest of 
the people, to declare himself son and heir 
of Antiochus ; and that he, warring with 
success against the king of Syria, obtained 
his kingdom. Appian plainly affirms, that 
Alexander Balas pretended to be of the fa- 
mily of the Seleucidae without any title to 
that pretension ; and Athenaeus says, that 
he was the supposed son of Antiochus Epi- 
phanes. However, the Roman senate, the 
Jews, the Egyptians, and the Syrians, ac- 
knowledged him as son and heir of that 
prince. Heraclides of Byzantium was the 
person, who undertook to seat Alexander 
Balas on the throne of Syria, and to displace 
Demetrius, his particular enemy. He car- 
ried Alexander to Rome, and by presents 
and intrigue prevailed on the senate not 
only to acknowledge Alexander as the son 
of Antiochus, but also to issue a decree per- 
mitting him to recover the kingdom of Syria 
from Demetrius, and promising him the as- 
sistance of the Roman people. By virtue of 
this decree, Alexander Balas raised forces ; 
and sailing to Ptolemai's in Palestine, he 
possessed himself of that city, and assumed 
the title of king of Syria, in the year of the 
world 3851, and before Jesus Christ 153. 
He then wrote to Jonathan Maccabaeus, and 
sent him a purple robe, and a crown of gold. 
(1 Mac. x. 18, &c.) Jonathan therefore 
embraced the party of Alexander, notwith- 
standing the offers and solicitations of De- 
metrius. The two contending kings com- 
mitted the determination of their cause to a 
decisive battle, in which Demetrius, after 
performing prodigies of valour, was defeated 
and slain. 

Alexander Balas having thus obtained 
full possession of the kingdom of Syria, sent 
to demand the daughter of the king of 
Egypt in marriage. Ptolemy complied with 
the demand ; and the marriage was perform- 
ed at Ptolemai's, where the two kings met 
But Alexander did not long enjoy prospe- 
rity. He had not filled the throne above 
two years, when Demetrius Nicator, eldest 
son of the former Demetrius Soter, resolving 
to revenge the death of his father, procured 
from Crete an army of mercenaries, and 
passed into Cilicia. Alexander was then in 
Phoenicia; and as soon as he received the 
news, he returned with all speed to Antioch, 
that he might order affairs before the arrival 
of Demetrius. 

In the mean time, Demetrius having 
given the command of his troops to Apol- 
lonius, that general was defeated by Jona- 
than Maccabaeus, whom Alexander, for his 
services, advanced to new honours, and 
made an addition to his territories. (1 Mac. 
x. 69, &c.) Whilst these things were trans- 
acting, Ptolemy Philometor, father-in-law of 
63 



Alexander Balas, devised how he might 
unite the kingdom of Syria with that of 
Egypt, and took private measures to destroy 
both Demetrius Nicator, and Alexander 
Balas. Under the pretence of assisting his 
son-in-law, he entered Syria ; and after pos- 
sessing himself of many cities, which re- 
ceived him as a friend, he said that Balas 
had prepared for him several ambuscades in 
Ptolemai's. (1 Mac. xi. 1, 2, &c.) He ad- 
vanced to Antioch, without encountering 
any resistance, and seating himself on the 
throne of Syria, put upon his head the two 
diadems of Egypt and Syria. (Id. ib. 13.) 

Balas, who had retreated into Cilicia, col- 
lected a numerous army, with which he 
marched against Ptolemy and Demetrius 
Nicator, who were now confederated against 
him. He gave them battle, but his army 
was routed, and himself obliged to flee into 
Arabia; and Zabdiel, a prince of the Ara- 
bians, cut off his head, and sent it to Pto- 
lemy. (1 Mac. xi. 17.) This is the account 
given by the author of the first book of Mac- 
cabees. Other historians relate, that Alex- 
ander's generals, considering their own in- 
terests and security, treated privately with 
Demetrius, treacherously killed their mas- 
ter, and sent his head to Ptolemy at Antioch. 
This happened in the year of the world 3859, 
and before Jesus Christ 145. Alexander 
Balas left a son very young, who was called 
Antiochus Theus, and whom Tryphon raised 
to the throne. See Antiochus. 

Alexander Lysimachus, alabarch of 
Alexandria, and brother to Philo the Jew. 
Some think that this was the Alexander, 
who was in company with the priests when 
the apostles were carried before the senate, 
to give an account of their doctrine and con- 
duct. (Acts iv. 6.) This happened in the 
year of our Lord 34. Josephus says, that 
this Alexander was the wealthiest Jew of 
his time. He presented rich gifts to the 
temple, and was the father of Tiberius Alex- 
ander, who renounced the religion of the 
Jews, and turned Pagan. Alexander Lysi- 
machus managed the affairs of the empress 
Antonia. He was imprisoned by the em- 
peror Caligula, and was not liberated till the 
reign of Claudius, his successor. 

Alexander of Ephesus, who addressed 
the rabble that clamoured against St. Paul, 
and endeavoured to appease them. When, 
however, he appeared in the assembly, and 
was known to be a Jew, the Ephesians cried 
more vehemently, ' Great is Diana of the 
Ephesians !' It is not known whether this 
Alexander was friendly or inimical to St. 
Paul ; whether he was a Jew, or a convert 
to Christianity. (Acts xix. 33.) This took 
place in the year of our Lord 56. 

Alexander, an artificer in copper, men- 
tioned by St. Paul in his first Epistle to Ti- 
mothy, (i. 19, 20.) The generality of com- 
mentators are of opinion, that the apostle 
excommunicated him and Hymeneus, be- 



ALE 



ALL 



cause they had blasphemed against the truth. 
Some, however, think, that they were not 
excommunicated, but instructed by suffer- 
ing to reform their conduct Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary. 

ALEXAN'DRIA, a celebrated city in 
Egypt, built by Alexander the Great, in the 
year of the world 36'73, and situated between 
the lake Mceris and the Mediterranean Sea. 
Alexandria is pretty often mentioned in the 
Latin version of those books of the Old Tes- 
tament, which were written before the reign 
of Alexander. But this name does not oc- 
cur in the original Hebrew ; and instead of 
it we read No, or Ammon-no, which is 
thought by some to be the city of Diospolis, 
in the Delta, between Busiris and Mendesa. 
Some are of opinion that the old city No 
having fallen into decay, Alexander the 
Great approved so much of the situation of 
the place, that he built there the noble city, 
from him called Alexandria. 

The Arabians inform us, that Alexandria 
was called Caissoun, before it was rebuilt or 
enlarged by Alexander the Great. Dino- 
crates, who prepared the plan of this city, 
was the same architect that rebuilt the tem- 
ple of Diana at Ephesus. Aridseus, the bro- 
ther of Alexander, was charged with the care 
of carrying the corpse of that prince from 
Babylon, where he died, to Alexandria. He 
employed two years in preparations for the 
funereal pomp, which is described by Diodo- 
rus Siculus. A prophecy had prevailed, that 
the place in which Alexander should be bu- 
ried would rise to great prosperity. The 
governors, therefore, of several towns and 
provinces disputed the honour and advan- 
tage of possessing his body. It was proposed 
to carry it to Aigui, in Macedonia, where 
the kings of that country were generally 
buried ; but, at length, Egypt prevailed. 
His body was deposited first at Memphis, 
and afterwards in Alexandria, and is said to 
have been enclosed in a coffin of gold, and 
embalmed in honey. Some years ago, a 
sarcophagus was brought to this country 
from Alexandria, and deposited in the Bri- 
tish Museum. This sarcophagus was sup- 
posed by some to be the actual tomb of 
Alexander the Great This opinion, how- 
ever, has been ably controverted, and little 
doubt remains that the sarcophagus in ques- 
tion contained the remains of some other 
mighty conqueror, whose 'path of glory led 
but to the grave.' 

The hippy situation of Alexandria, be- 
tween the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, 
attracted the commerce of the East and West, 
.iiid soon rendered it one of the most flou- 
rishing cities in the world. But this city, 
formerly so rich and powerful, has now little 
remarkable beddee its ruins, the remains of 
its past grandeur. 

The commerce of Alexandria was formerly 

considerable, especially in com, that the 
centurion might readily find a ship of Alrxan- 



dria, laden with corn, sailing into Italy. (Acts 
xxvii. 6.) Apollos was a native of this city. 
(Id. xviii. 24.) Wells' s Geography ; Monthly 
Magazine, 1 804 ; Addenda to Calmet's Diet. 

ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT, a 
famous copy of the Scriptures, in four vo- 
lumes folio. It contains the whole Bible in 
Greek, including the Old and New Testa- 
ment, with the Apocrypha, and some smaller 
pieces, but not quite complete. It is pre- 
served in the British Museum. It was sent 
as a present to King Charles I. from Cyril - 
lus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, by 
Sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from Eng- 
land to the Grand Seignior, about the year 
1628. Cyrillus brought it with him from 
Alexandria, where it was probably written. 
In a schedule annexed to it, he gives the 
following account : — that it was written, as 
tradition informed them, by Thecla, a noble 
Egyptian lady, about thirteen hundred years 
ago, and not long after the council of Nice. 
But this high antiquity, and the authority of 
the tradition, to which the patriarch refers, 
have been disputed ; and the most accurate bi- 
blical writers are not agreed respecting its age. 
Grabe thinks, that it might have been written 
before the end of the fourth century ; others 
are of opinion, that it was not written till near 
the end of the fifth century, or rather later. 

This manuscript received the name of 
the Alexandrian MS., because Cyrillus 
brought it immediately, though perhaps 
not originally, from Alexandria. It ap- 
pears, however, to have been really writ- 
ten in Egypt. After a great display of 
learning, in which Dr. Woide examines 
the evidence for the antiquity of this 
manuscript, he concludes by saying, Codi- 
cem Alexandrinum intra medium et finem 
saeculi quarti scriptum esse. This is sup- 
posed to be the very greatest antiquity 
that can be allowed to this manuscript But 
the question relative to the antiquity of a 
manuscript, is of much less importance, than 
that which relates to the antiquity of its text. 
Dr. Woide published the Alexandrian MS. 
in 1786, with types cast for that purpose, 
line for line, without intervals between the 
words, as in the manuscript itself: its title 
is Novum Testamentum Gra?cum 6 Codice 
MS. Alexandrino, qui Londini in biblio- 
theca Musei Britannici asservatur descrip- 
tum. It consists, as has been already men- 
tioned, of four folio volumes, the first three 
of which contain the Old Testament, and the 
fourth the New Testament, together with 
the first epistle of Clement to the Corin- 
thians, and a fragment of the second. Mi- 
chaclis's Introduction to the New Testament, 
with notes by Dr. Herbert Marsh, vol. ii. pp. 
186, 187, &c. ; vol. iii. pp. 655, &c. 

ALLEGORY, a figurative discourse,' 
which employs terms appropriate to one 
thing, to signify another. It is a metaphor 
prolonged and pursued. The prophets re- 
present the Jews under the allegory of a 



ALL 



ALM 



vine, which is planted, cultivated, and wa- 
tered, by the hand of God, but which, in- 
stead of producing good fruit, brings forth 
sour grapes. In like manner, the apostle 
compares the two covenants of Sinai and 
the Gospel, or Jerusalem that ' now is,' and 
the heavenly Jerusalem, and says that these 
things may be allegorized. 

Allegories, as well as metaphors, para- 
bles, similitudes, and comparisons, are fre- 
quent in Scripture. It is therefore one 
principal business of a commentator to 
distinguish between the literal and allego- 
rical meaning of passages, and to reduce 
the allegorical to the literal sense. The 
ancient Jews, as the Therapeutae, the Book 
of Wisdom, Josephus, and Philo, and, in 
imitation of them, many of the fathers, 
turned even historical passages of the Scrip- 
ture into allegories, and such places as had 
already a literal sense. But such allegorical 
explanations are of little or no use. 

ALLELU'I AH,or Hallelu- Jah, n-nbbn, 
signifies praise the Lord; or, praise to the 
Lord. This word occurs at the beginning 
or end of many psalms. Halleluiah was 
sung on solemn days of rejoicing. (Tobit xiii. 
18.) St. John says, that he heard a great 
voice of much people in heaven, who cried, 
Alleluiah ; and the four and twenty elders, 
and the four beasts, fell down and worship- 
ped God that sat on the throne, saying 
Alleluiah. (Rev. xix. 1. 3. 4. 6.) This is the 
song of the saints at the fall of Antichrist. 
This expression of joy and praise was trans- 
ferred from the synagogue to the church, and is 
still occasionally used in devotional psalmody. 

An expression very similar in sound to 
this, seems to have been used by many na- 
tions, who can scarcely be supposed to have 
borrowed it from the Jews. Could this be 
one of the most ancient expressions of de- 
votion 1 As the Greeks used iXeXsv lov, in a 
solemn beginning and ending of their hymns 
to Apollo, it would seem that they knew it ; 
and it is said also to have been heard among 
the Indians in America ; and Alia, alia, as 
the name of God, and likewise in composi- 
tion, is used in a great part of the East. Ad- 
denda to Cab-net's Dictionary. 

A'LLUSH, Alush, or Ollush, vrhy, 
AlXovg, signifies/)aste or dough. The Israelites 
being in the wilderness of Shur, departed 
from Dophkah to Allush, and thence to 
Rephidim. (Numb, xxxiii. 13.) Eusebius 
and S. Jerom fix Allush in Idumea, about 
Gabala or Petra, the capital of Arabia Pe- 
traea. In the accounts of the empire, it is 
situated in the third Palestine, and is reck- 
oned by Ptolemy among the cities of Idu- 
maea. 

Some suppose that this word may signify 
a tongue, and in that case it would indicate a 
tongue of land, or a cape, as it imports a 
tongue of sea, or a bay. (Josh. xv. 2. 5.) 
Hence, probably, it implies, that the Israel- 
ites traversed the peninsula of Arabia to 
65 



its most southern cape or point, now Ras 
Mohammed, before they turned directly 
towards Mount Sinai. Taylor's Sacred Geo- 
graphy.. 

AL'MAH, 7\tty Halma, a Hebrew word 
signifying properly a virgin, a young woman 
unacquainted with man. In this sense it oc- 
curs in the famous passage of Isaiah, (vii. 14.) 
' Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a 
son.' The Hebrew has no term that more 
properly signifies a virgin, than almah, though 
it must be confessed, without lessening the 
certainty or application of Isaiah's prophecy, 
that sometimes by mistake, a young woman, 
whether truly a virgin or not, is called al- 
mah. In like manner, the Latin word 
virgo is sometimes applied to one that has 
not her virginity. St. Jerom, in his Com- 
mentary on this passage, observes, that the 
prophet declined using the word bethaul, 
which signifies any young woman, or young 
person, but employed the term almah, which 
denotes a virgin never seen by man. This 
is the import of the word almah, which is 
derived from a root that signifies to conceal. 
It is very well known, that young women 
in the East do not appear in public, but are 
shut up in their houses, and their mothers' 
apartments, like nuns. The Chaldee Para- 
phrast and the Septuagint translate almah, a 
virgin, rj 7rap6svog; and Akiba, the famous 
Rabbin, who was a great enemy to Christ 
and Christians, and lived in the second cen- 
tury, understands it in the same manner. 
The apostles and evangelists, and the Jews 
of our Saviour's time, explained it in the 
same sense, and expected a Messiah born of 
a virgin. 

The Jews, that they may obscure this plain 
text, and weaken this proof of the truth of 
the Christian religion, pretend, that this He- 
brew word signifies a young woman, and not 
a virgin. But this corrupt translation is 
easily confuted. 1. Because this word con- 
stantly denotes a virgin in all other passages 
of Scripture, in which it is used. 2. From the 
intent of the passage, which was to confirm 
their faith by a strange and wonderful sign. 
It surely could be no wonder, that a young 
woman should conceive a child, but it was a 
very extraordinary circumstance, that a vir- 
gin should conceive and bear a son. Poole's 
Annotat. 

ALMARICIANS, a sect so denominated 
from their leader Almaric, who broached his 
tenets in France, in the year 12($. He 
affirmed that every Christian was actually 
a member of Christ, and without this belief 
no one could be saved. His followers went 
farther, and asserted, that the power of the 
Father continued only during the Mosaic dis- 
pensation ; that the coming of Christ intro- 
duced a new law ; that at the end of the 
twelfth, or the beginning of the thirteenth 
century, commenced the reign of the Holy 
Ghost, in which the sacraments and all ex- 
ternal worship were to be abolished ; and 



ALM 



ALP 



that every one was to be saved by the inter- 
nal operations of the Holy Spirit alone, 
without any external act of religion. —Their 
morals were as infamous as their doctrine 
was absurd. Afosheim's Eccles. Hist vol. iii. 
pp. 129—133. 

AL'MON, rio^y, signifies the same as Ala- 
meth. Almon was a city belonging to the 
tribe of Benjamin, (Josh. xxi. 18.) and is 
thought by Calmet to be the same as Ale- 
meth, which was given to Aaron's family. 
(1 Chron. vi. 60.) 

ALMOND-TREE, a tree often mentioned 
in Scripture. The Hebrews call itipw shaked, 
from a root which signifies to watch ; and, 
indeed, the almond-tree is one of the first 
trees that blossom in the spring. The Lord 
intending to display to Jeremiah the vigilance 
of his wrath against his people, showed him 
the branch of an almond-tree, and said unto 
him, ' What seest thou?' He answered, 
' I see the rod of an almond-tree,' (Jer. 11.) ; 
a watcher ; which signified that God would 
watch over his word to fulfil it. In Judea, 
the almond-tree blossoms in January, and 
bears fruit in March. 

Aaron's rod, which bore blossoms and 
fruit in the wilderness, was of the almond- 
tree. (Numb. xvii. 8.) Ecclesiastes, ex- 
pressing in an enigmatical manner, that an 
old man's hair will grow white, says, ' the 
almond-tree shall flourish,' (xii. 5). This 
tree blows white. 

ALMUGIM, or Almug-tree, a certain 
kind of wood, which is mentioned in the first 
book of Kings, (x. 11.) and which the Vulgate 
translates ligna thyina ; and the Septuagint 
wrought wood. The Rabbins generally ren- 
der it coral ; and others ebony, brazil, or 
pine. But it has been observed that the 
almug-tree cannot be coral ; for coral is not 
proper to make musical instruments, nor to 
be used in rails, nor in a stair-case, for which 
purposes the Scripture tells us this wood was 
employed. The wood thyinum is that of 
the citron-tree, which was known to the 
ancients, and much esteemed for its colour 
and beauty. It came from Mauritania. By 
the best commentators, therefore, the al- 
mugim, or algumim, or simply gummim, tak- 
ing at for a kind of article, is understood to 
be an oily and gummy wood, particularly 
the tree, which produces gum Arabic. It 
is said, that gum Ammoniac proceeds from 
a tree resembling that which bears myrrh; 
and gum Arabic conies from the black aca- 
cia, which is supposed to be the same as 
the sl)itiiiii--.\()o(l, frequently mentioned by 
Moses, If so, Solomon's almug-tree, and 
Moses's shittim-wood, will be the same. 
See Sun i lie, 

ALOES, or ALOE, in the Linmran sys- 
tem of botany, is ;i genua of the hcxand'ria 
monogynia class of plants. 

Of this genus, botanical writers enume- 
rate ten species; of which the most con- 
rable are the Aloe of America, and that 



of Asia, the former being valued on account 
of its beautiful flowers, and the latter for 
the drug prepared from it. This drug, 
which is also called Aloe or Aloes, is pro- 
cured from the inspissated juice of the 
Asiatic plant in the following manner. From 
the leaves fresh culled is pressed a juice, the 
thinner and poorer sort of which is poured 
off, and being afterwards placed in the 
sun, becomes a hard yellowish substance, 
called socotorine aloe. The thicker part 
being put into another vessel, hardens into 
a substance of a liver-colour, and is thence 
called aloe hepatica. The thickest part, or 
sediment, hardens into a coarse substance, 
which is called aloe caballina, or horse aloe, 
from its being given to horses. This juice 
is famous for its purgative virtues, and is 
usually given in wine, in the form of a tinc- 
ture. 

This drug was used by the ancient Jews 
in embalming, to prevent the putrefaction 
of the dead body. Nicodemus bought 
about a hundred pounds of myrrh and aloes, 
to embalm the body of Jesus Christ. (John 
xix. 39.) In Proverbs, the debauched 
woman says, that she had perfumed her 
bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon, (vii. 
17 ;) and the spouse in the Canticles, that 
myrrh, aloes, and all kind of perfumes, are 
to be found in the garden of her beloved, 
(iv. 14.) The Hebrew text in these pas- 
sages, and in Numbers, (xxiv. 6.) reads 
ahulim, which some interpret sandal-wood ; 
but the generality of commentators under- 
stand by it the aloe. Linncei Gen. Plant. ; 
Hill's Hist, of the Mat. Med. %e. 

ALO'GIANS, a sect of heretics that 
sprang up in the church soon after the death 
of John the Evangelist. They were called 
Alogians from their denying the Divine Lo- 
gos, the Word, or Son of God. They rejected 
the Gospel of St. John as a spurious work, 
only because it opposed their tenets. Their 
founder was one Theodore of Byzantium, a 
currier by trade. This man, having apos- 
tatized from the catholic faith, during the 
heat of persecution, offered to return to the 
church ; but his offer being rejected, he 
broached the preceding opinions, which 
were afterwards improved by the Arians. 
Hard on Religions. 

ALPHA, (A) the first letter of the Greek 
alphabet, which is derived from aleph (k) 
the fh-st of the Hebrew alphabet. In the 
Greek alphabet, alpha stands for one, or 
the first. A and Q, or Alpha and Omega, 
the first and last letters of the Greek alpha- 
bet, are appellations, by which Jesus Christ 
denominates himself in three different 
places of the Revelation, (i. 8 ; xxi. 6 ; 
xxii. 13.) By this expression he denotes, 
that he is the beginning and the end, the 
power that produces every thing, and to 
whom all things shall be referred. 

ALPHE'US, 'AX^tttoe, signifies a thou- 
sand, and was the name of the father of St. 



ALT 



ALT 



James the Less, the first Bishop of Jeru- 
salem. (Matt. x. 3. Luke vi. 15.) Al- 
pheus was the hushand of Mary, who is 
supposed to have been sister to the mother 
of our Saviour, and therefore, James is 
called the Lord's brother; but, though 
the fact is probable, the term brother is 
too general in its application, to fix their 
relation. Many are of opinion that Cleo- 
phas, mentioned by St. Luke, is the same as 
Alpheus. (Luke xxiv. 18. John xix. 25.) 
It is therefore supposed, that Alpheus was 
his Greek, and Cleophas his Hebrew or Syriac 
name according to the custom of this pro- 
vince, or of the time ; men being often known 
to their friends and countrymen by one 
name, and to the Romans or strangers 
by another. 

ALTAR, a kind of table or raised place, 
upon which ancient sacrifices were offered 
to God. Calmet thinks, that as sacrifices 
are nearly as ancient as the world, altars 
are of equal antiquity ; but we do not read 
of altars in the Jewish history till after the 
flood, when Noah built an altar to God, 
and offered upon it burnt-offerings. The 
Scriptures speak of altars erected by the 
patriarchs, without describing their form 
or their matter. The altar, which Jacob 
set up at Bethel, was the stone, which had 
served him for a pillow. Gideon sacrificed 
upon a rock, which was before his house. 
In the patriarchal times, altars were com- 
monly built near some grove of trees. The 
Jews were forbidden to plant groves, or 
even a single tree, near the altar of God. 
(Deut. xvi. 21.) The first altars, that 
God commanded Moses to raise, were 
made of earth, or rough stones, (Exod. xx. 
24, 25.) ; and the Lord declared, that if iron 
tools were used in constructing them, they 
would become impure. (Ibid. 25.) The altar, 
which Moses enjoined Joshua to build upon 
mount Ebal, was to be made of unpolished 
stones, (Deut. xxvii. 5. Josh. viii. 31.) ; and 
it is very probable, that such were those 
built by Samuel, Saul, and David. The 
altar, which Solomon erected in the temple, 
was of brass, but filled, it is believed, with 
rough-stones. It was twenty cubits long, 
twenty wide, and ten high. (2 Chron. iv. 
1.) That built at Jerusalem by Zerub- 
babel, after his return from Babylon, was 
of rough stones, as was also that of the 
Maccabees. Josephus says, that the altar, 
which in his time was in the temple, consist- 
ed of rough stones, and was fifteen cubits 
high, forty long, and forty wide. 

The principal altars of the Jews were the 
altar of burnt-offerings, the altar of incense, 
and the table of shew-bread, which is impro- 
perly called an altar. 

Altar of burnt-offerings was a kind of 
coffer of shittim-wood, covered with brass. 
It was five cubits, or two yards and a half, 
square, and three cubits, or one yard and a 
half, high. Moses placed it to the east, 
67 



before the entrance of the tabernacle, in 
the open air, that the smoke of the fire, 
which was kept perpetually upon it, might 
not defile the inside of the tabernacle. At 
each of the four corners of this altar was a 
spire in the form of a horn, which was made 
of the same piece of wood as the altar itself, 
and covered with brass. Within the altar 
was a grate of brass, upon which the fire 
was kept, and through which the ashes fell 
as they increased upon the altar, and were 
received into a pan placed below. At the 
four corners of the grate were four rings 
and four chains, by which it was fixed to 
the four horns of the altar. This altar was 
portable, and was carried upon the shoulders 
of the priests by means of staves of shittim- 
wood, overlaid with brass, and fastened 
with rings to the sides of the altar. (Exod. 
xxvii. 1, 2, 3.) 

Such was the altar of burnt-offerings 
belonging to the tabernacle, which Moses 
erected in the wilderness. The altar of 
burnt- offerings in the temple of Solomon 
was much larger, being twenty cubits 
square and ten high. It was covered with 
thick plates of brass, and filled with rough 
stones ; and on the east side was an easy 
ascent to the altar. After the return of the 
Jews from the Babylonish captivity, and 
the building of the second temple by 
Zerubbabel, the altars of the Jews were 
different in some respects from those, which 
had been before used. Though the altar of 
burnt- offerings was built in the same place, 
in which it had stood before the captivity, 
after the return of the Jews from Babylon, 
it was a large pile of unhewn stones, thirty- 
two cubits square at the bottom, and twenty- 
four at the top. The ascent to this altar 
was by a gentle rising on the south side, 
called the Kibbish, which was thirty-two 
cubits in length, and sixteen in breadth. For 
to ascend the altar by steps was forbidden by 
the law. (Exod. xx. 26.) Prideaux. 

Altar of incense, was a small table of 
shittim-wood, covered with plates of gold, 
one cubit in length, another in width, 
and two in height. At the four corners 
were four kinds of horns ; and all round it 
was a little border, or crown. Every morn- 
ing and evening, the officiating priest offered 
upon it incense of a particular composition ; 
and for this purpose, he entered with 
the smoking censer, filled with fire from the 
altar of burnt-offerings, into the sanctuary 
or holy place, where this altar was fixed 
opposite to the table of shew-bread. The 
priest having placed the censer upon it, re- 
tired from the sanctuary. (Exod. xxx. 1, 2, 3.) 
This was the altar hidden by Jeremiah before 
the captivity. (2 Maccab. ii. 5, G.) 

Altar, or table for the shav-hrcarf, was a 
small table of shittim-wood, covered with 
plates of gold, having round it a little border 
adorned with sculpture. It was placed in the 
sanctuary, and was two cubits in length, one 
f 2 



ALT 



ALT 



in breadth, and one and a-half in height. 
Upon this table were placed, every Sabbath 
day, twelve loaves, with salt and incense. 
(Exod. xxv. 23, 24. Mai. i. 7.) 

Altar at Athens inscribed dyvuxrroj Btip, 
to the Unknown God. St. Paul being come 
from Thessalonica to Athens, he disputed 
every day either in the synagogue with the 
Jews, or in the market-place with the philo- 
sophers. As he discoursed on the resurrec- 
tion of the dead, some of the philosophers 
brought him before the judges of the Areopa- 
gus, to whom he spoke in the following man- 
ner: ' Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in 
all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I 
passed by, and beheld your devotions, I 
found an altar with this inscription, To the 
Unknown God; whom therefore ye igno- 
rantly worship, him declare I unto you.' 

It has been disputed what this altar was, 
which was thus consecrated to an Unknown 
God. Jerom says, that it was inscribed 
' to the gods of Asia, Europe, and Africa ; to 
the unknown, and strange gods;' and that 
the apostle uses the singular form, because 
his design was only to demonstrate to the 
Athenians, that they adored an unknown 
God. But as Dr. Doddridge observes on 
this passage, the express testimony of Lucian 
sufficiently proves, that there was such an 
inscription at Athens, and shows the unne- 
cessary, as well as unwarrantable supposi- 
tion of Jerom. 

Some believe, that St. Paul speaks of 
altars, extant in several places of Attica, 
without any inscription, and erected after a 
solemn expiation for the country, by the 
philosopher Epimenides. Some affirm, that 
this altar is the same as that mentioned by 
Pausanias and Philostratus, who tell us, that 
there were altars at Athens consecrated 
to the unknown gods. The occasion of this 
altar is differently related by Peter Comes- 
tor, author of the Historia Scholastica, Theo- 
phylact, and CEcumenius ; but it has been 
observed, that their several accounts have no 
authority from the ancients. St. Chrysostom 
thinks, that each of these opinions is liable to 
objections. The altar inscribed ' to the gods 
of Asia, Europe, and Africa, to the unknown 
and strange gods,' he observes, is not, in all 
probability, that mentioned by St. Paul ; 
for the Areopagiteswould never have under- 
stood it by the bare name of the Unknown 
God. He also thinks that one of the altars 
set up by Epimenides, and not inscribed to 
any deity, cannot be that, which is mentioned 
by the apostle. 

Some have thought that the God of the 
Jews was the object of this altar, he being 
a powerful God, but not fully known, as the 
Jews, instead of using his name in speech, 
substituted ' the Lord,' for 'Jehovah.' 
But it would seem, that this was a public 
altar, and probably stood in n public place, and 
therefore alluded to some public incident of 
former ages. 
68 



Eichhorn conjectures that there were many 
altars at Athens originally with no inscrip- 
tions, from the art of writing having been, 
at the period of their erection, unknown, or 
not generally received ; and that these, in a 
later age, the Athenians did not destroy, but, 
since they knew not to whom they were de- 
dicated, inscribed on them dyvdjar^Qt^, to 
an (some) unknown god; and that of several 
altars so inscribed St. Paul saw only one : 
and since he knew that more were so in- 
scribed, made mention of this, in order to 
show that he proposed nothing unusual or 
unheard of, but that his one God was found in 
the number of the gods already worshipped by 
them. To this opinion Niemeyer accedes. 
For my own part, says Kuinoel, I think that 
there were at Athens several altars on which 
this incription was written in the plural num- 
ber, as in the passages of Pausanias and Jerom 
above cited. And Pausanias, (v. 14.) tells us, 
that in Elis, where the Olympic games were 
celebrated, there were placed near the altar 
of Jupiter Olympus fiwjAbg dyvuGTOiv SreoJv. 
But I am of opinion, that at Athens there 
was also one altar with the inscription dyvoxrroj 
6e(p ; although it does not appear that any 
other writer has recorded it. For no argu- 
ment can be deduced from their silence, to the 
discredit ofany writer, like St. Paul, of un- 
impeached integrity. The altar in question 
had probably been dedicated dyvwarq) Oeoj 
on account of some remarkable benefit re- 
ceived, which seemed attributable to some 
God, though it was uncertain to whom. 

The opinion of Kuinoel, observes Mr. 
Bloomfield, seems, upon the whole, best 
founded ; and in this Bishop Pearce (who 
wrote most judiciously upon the passage) ap- 
pears to have finally acquiesced. For, in con- 
clusion, he says, ' Therefore we may rea- 
sonably suppose that each of the altars, (viz. 
those mentioned by Pausanias, Philostratus, 
and others,) or at least one of them, may have 
had the inscription dyvworuj Oey.' He very 
properly rejects the interpretation of Jerom, 
and judiciously remarks, that ' the case be- 
tween Paul and Jerom is this : Paul, who 
was on the spot, says that he saw at Athens 
an altar with this inscription, To the Unknown 
God ; and Jerom, who never was there, and 
who lived some hundreds of years after Paul, 
says, that the inscription which Paul saw, was 
not To the Unknown God, but To the Unknown 
Gods' Now, utri creditis, Quirites ? Bloom- 
field' s Recensio Synoptica Annotationis Sacra, 
vol. iv. pp. 573, 574 ; Dr. Doddridge in loc. 

Altar, is also used among Christians 
for the table where the Lord's Supper is 
administered. In the primitive church, 
altars were made only of wood, as being 
frequently to be removed from one place 
to another; but the council of Paris, in 
50.9, decreed, that every altar should be 
built of stone. At first there was only one 
altar in each church; but the number soon 
increased ; and from the writings of Gregory 



AMA 



AMA 



the Great, who lived in the sixth century, 
we learn that twelve or thirteen were in 
the same church. Not less than 49 altars 
are in the cathedral of Magdeburg. The 
altar is sometimes sustained on a single 
column, and sometimes by four columns ; 
but the customary form is a massive stone- 
work, sustaining the altar-table. 

At the beginning of the reformation a 
dispute arose, whether those tables in the 
form of altars, which had been used in 
the times of popery, and upon which the 
mass had been celebrated, should be conti- 
nued ? This was followed by another con- 
troversy, whether the table placed in the 
room of the altar, should retain the same 
situation? In consequence of the former 
dispute, it was ordered that the altars should 
be destroyed ; but this order was afterwards 
countermanded by queen Elizabeth, who 
observed, that it was not a matter of im- 
portance whether there were altars or tables, 
but that if the altar should be destroyed, 
a table should be set in the same place, in 
which the altar had before stood. Bing- 
ham's Antiq. ; Wheatly on the Common Prayer. 

AM'ALEK, or Omelek, pboy, signifies 
a people that licks up, or that takes away all ; 
or a people that strikes, or that uses ill ; or 
the people of the sovereign, or ruler. 

AM ALE K was the son of Eliphaz and 
Timna his concubine, and grandson to Esau. 
He succeeded Gatam in the government of 
Edom, south of Judah. (Gen. xxxvi. 12. 16. 
1 Chron. i. 36.) Amalek was father of the 
Amalekites, a powerful people, who dwelt in 
Arabia Petraea, between the Dead Sea and 
the Rad Sea, or between Havilah and Shur, 
perhaps in moving troops. (1 Sam. xv. 7-) 
We cannot assign the particular place of 
their habitation, nor does it appear they 
had any cities, though one is mentioned. 
(1 Sam. xv. 5.) They lived generally in 
parties, in caves, or tents. The Israelites had 
scarcely passed the Red Sea, when the 
Amalekites attacked them in the deserts of 
Rephidim, and slew those who, through fa- 
tigue or weakness, were obliged to lag be- 
hind. Moses, by God's command, directed 
Joshua to attack this people, to record this 
act of inhumanity in a book, that it might be 
remembered, and to revenge it in the most 
remarkable manner. Joshua, therefore, fell 
on the Amalekites, and defeated them, while 
Moses was upon the mountain, and in com- 
pany with Aaron and Hur. During the en- 
gagement, Moses lifted up his hands to 
heaven ; and to this his success was owing, 
for as oft as he did not extend them, Amalek 
prevailed. But the hands of Moses being 
tired, Aaron and Hur supported his arms, 
and held them extended, during the remain- 
der of the battle, which continued from 
morning till the approach of night. (Rxod. 
xvii. 8, &c.) This happened in the year of 
the world 2513, and before Jesus Christ 
1401. 
69 



The ground of the enmity of the Amale- 
kites against the people of Israel, is gene- 
rally supposed to have been an innate hatred 
from the remembrance of Jacob's depriving 
their progenitor of his birthright and his 
blessing. However, their attacking the 
Israelites without any provocation, when 
they perceived them weak through great 
fatigue, and excessive drought, was an in- 
human action, and justly deserved the de- 
feat which they experienced. The reason of 
God's denouncing against them perpetual 
war, may be explained as follows : the Amale- 
kites, knowing that God intended to give the 
Israelites possession of the land of Canaan, 
attacked them with an armed force, in hopes 
of frustrating the designs of providence con- 
cerning them. 

Under the judges, we see the Amalekites 
united with the Midianites and Moabites, to 
oppress Israel, (Judg. vi. 3.); but Ehud de- 
livered Israel from Eglon, and Gideon de- 
livered them from Midian and Amalek. 
(Judg. iii. 13 ; vii. 1.) In the year of the 
world 2930, and before Jesus Christ 1074, 
the Lord said to Samuel, ' Go to Saul, and 
say, Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, I remem- 
ber that which Amalek did to Israel, how 
he laid wait for him in the way when he 
came up from Egypt. Now go and smite 
Amalek, and utterly destroy all that they 
have, and spare them not, but slay both man 
and woman, infant and suckling, ox and 
sheep, camel and ass.' Saul, therefore, 
marched against the Amalekites, advanced 
to their capital, and defeating them, drove 
them from Havilah, which is towards the 
lower part of the Euphrates to Shur, to 
wards the Red Sea. He destroyed the 
people, but spared the best of the cattle and 
moveables, and thereby violated the com- 
mand of God (1 Sam. xv. 1, &c.) See 
Agag and Saul. 

However, some fugitives escaped this' 
slaughter. Though the Amalekites scarcely 
appear again in history, yet about the year 
of the world 2949, and before Jesus Chris. 
1055, a troop of them pillaged Ziklag, which 
belonged to David, and in which he had left 
his two wives, Ahinoam and Abigail. But 
David, returning from an expedition, pur- 
sued, overtook, and dispersed them, and re- 
covered all the booty, which they had carried 
off. (1 Sam. xxx. 1, 2, &c.) 

The Arabians maintain, that Amalek was 
the son of Ham, and grandson of Noah ; and 
that he was the father of Ad, and grand- 
father of Schcdad. Calmet thinks, that this 
opinion is not to be rejected : it is not easy 
to conceive how Amalek, if only the poste- 
rity of the son of Eliphaz, and grandson of 
Esau, could be a people so powerful and 
numerous as the Amalekites were when tin- 
Israelites departed out of Egypt. Besides, 
Moses relates that in Abraham's time, long 
before the birth of Amalek, the son of Eli- 
phaz, the live confederate kings invaded the 



AMA 



AMA 



country of Amalek, about Kadesh; and also 
that of the Amorites, at Hazezon-tamar. 
(Gen. xiv. 7-) 

In another place, Moses relates, that Ba- 
laam, observing at a distance the land of 
Amalek, said in his prophetic style, ' Ama- 
lek is the first (the head or original) of the 
nations, but his latter end shall be that he 
perish for ever.' (Numb. xxiv. 20, &c.) 
Calmet observes, that the epithet of the first 
of the nations cannot agree with the Ama- 
lekites, if they were so modern, for the ge- 
neration then living was only the third from 
Moses. Moses never reproaches the Ama- 
lekites with attacking the Israelites their 
brethren; an aggravating circumstance, 
which he would not have omitted, if they 
had been descended from Esau, and, in this 
sense, brethren to the Israelites. Lastly, 
we see the Amalekites almost always joined 
in Scripture with the Canaanites and Phi- 
listines, and never with the Edomites ; and 
when Saul destroyed Amalek, the Edomites 
neither assisted nor avenged them. It is 
therefore probable, that the Amalekites, so 
often mentioned in Scripture, were a people 
descended from Canaan, and very different 
from the descendants of Amalek the grand- 
son of Esau, who, perhaps, were only a 
small tribe, and not permanently conspicu- 
ous. It may be observed, that by the ex- 
pression, ' Amalek is the first of the nations,' 
Bochart understands the most noble of the 
nations ; and Le Clerc, in his commentary, 
thinks, that the Amalekites were the most 
ancient and powerful nation of those, which 
proceeded from the loins of Abraham and 
Lot. In the margin of our present version 
of the Bible, the Amalekites are called ' The 
first of the nations, that warred against Is- 
rael.' 

The Arabians give us the following account 
of die Amalek destroyed by Saul. He was 
the father of an ancient tribe in Arabia, 
which contained only the Arabians called 
pure, the remains of whom were mingled 
with the posterity of Jocktan and Adrian, 
and so became Mosarabes or Mostaarabes, 
or Arabians blended with foreign nations. 
They believe that Goliath, who was over- 
come by David, was king of the Amalekites ; 
that the giants, who inhabited Palestine, in 
Joshua's rime, were of the same race; and 
that part of them retired into Africa while 
Joshua was living, and settled on the coasts 
Dl Darbary. The son of Amalek was Ad, a 
celebrated prince among trie Arabians. Some 
make, him the son of'.Uz, and grandson of 
Aram, the son of Shem. The Mahometans 
say, that Ad was the father of an, Arabian 
tribe called Adiics, who were exterminated 
for not hearkening to the patriarch Eber, 
who preached to them the unity of God. 

Ad had two sons, Sehadad and Schcdid. 
This is what the Arabians relate concerning 
the Amalekites. 

These accounts, indeed, are very imper- 
70 



feet ; but it seems fairly warrantable to sug- 
gest, (1.) that there were more kinds of Ama- 
lekites than one ; (2.) that the tribe, which 
Saul destroyed, might not be at that time a 
very numerous people, and that the tract of 
country mentioned as relating to them, was 
that of their flight, not of their possession ; 
(3.) that they were turbulent and violent 
towards their neighbours, as formerly towards 
the stragglers of Israel ; (4.) that such being 
their character, they might have given recent 
cause of offence to Israel, which produced a 
war, though the Scripture mentions only the 
fulfilment of an ancient prophecy; and (5.) 
that Agag, who was slain by Samuel, appears 
from the expression, ' As thy sword has 
made mothers childless,' to have been an 
extremely cruel prince, and therefore re- 
ceived a merited punishment. See Samuel. 
It is probable, that the different tribes of 
the Amalekites may in a geographical view, 
be thus arranged : 1. Amalek the ancient. 
(Gen. xiv. 70 who may be placed near the 
Jordan, (Numb. xxiv. 20.) ; 2. a tribe in the 
regions east of Egypt, between Egypt and 
Canaan, (Exod. xvii. 8. 1 Sam. xiv. 48.) ; 
3. the descendants of Eliphaz. It was 
against the second of these that Moses and 
Joshua fought ; and against this tribe per- 
petual hostility was to be maintained. It 
was probably to the ancient Amalekites, that 
Balaam alluded as having been ' head of the 
nations.' (Numb. xxiv. 20.) Taylor's Sa- 
cred Geography ; Universal History ; Patrick 
Comment. 

AMA'NA, rOEK, signifies integrity and 
truth. Amana is a mountain mentioned in 
the song of Solomon. (Cant. iv. 8.) Some 
are of opinion that this is Mount Amanus, 
in Cilicia. St. Jerom and the Rabbins make 
the land of Israel to extend northward to 
this mountain ; and Solomon's dominion did 
extend so far. Mount Amanus, with its 
connections, separates Syria from Cilicia, 
and reaches from the Mediterranean to the 
Euphrates. There is another mountain of 
this name, which is situated beyond Jordan, 
and which some think to be the Amana 
mentioned in the Canticles. 

A MA'S A, or Omesha, Nwoy, signifies a 
forgiving people ; or the burden of the people. 
Amasa was the son of Jether and Abigail, 
David's sister. Absalom, during his rebellion 
against David, placed his cousin Amasa at the 
head of his troops. (2 Sam. xvii. 25.) Amasa 
engaged Joab, the general of David's army, 
but was defeated, in the year of the world 
2981, and before Jesus Christ 1023. After 
the defeat of Absalom's party, David from ha- 
tred to Joab, who bad killed Absalom, and 
whose insolence rendered him insupportable, 
offered Amasa his pardon, and promised him 
the command of the army in the room of 
Joab. (2 Sam. xix. 13, &c.) On the revolt 
of Sheba, the son ofBichri, David ordered 
Amasa to assemble all Judah against Sheba; 
but Amasa not forming his army at the time 



AMA 



AMA 



prescribed, David directed Abishai to pur- 
sue Sheba with the soldiers he had then 
about his own person. Joab, with his peo- 
ple, accompanied him ; and these troops had 
scarcely got so far as the great stone, which 
is in Gibeon, before Amasa came and joined 
them with his forces. Then said Joab to 
Amasa, ' Art thou in health, my brother V 
At the same time, he took him by the beard 
with the right hand to kiss him. But 
Amasa not observing the sword which was 
in Joab's hand, the latter smote him with it 
under the fifth rib, and shed out his bowels 
to the ground, and he died. (2 Sam. xx.) 

AMAS'AI, or Omeshi, "woy, signifies the 
present of the people ; or with a present. Ama- 
sai, the son of Elkanah. (1 Chron. vi. 25.) 
It is supposed that he was the Amasai, who 
was chief of the captains of the tribes of 
Benjamin and Judah, that came to David 
whilst in the wilderness fleeing from Saul. 
David went to meet them, and said, ' If 
ye be come peaceably to help me, mine heart 
shall be knit unto you ; but if ye be come 
to betray me to mine enemies, seeing there 
is no wrong in mine hands, the God of our 
fathers look thereon, and rebuke it.' Then 
said Amasai, ' Thine are we David, and on 
thy side, thou son of Jesse ; peace be unto 
thee, and peace be to thine helpers.' David 
therefore received them and gave them a 
command. (1 Chron. xii. 17, 18.) 

AMA'SIS, a king of Egypt, who though 
not mentioned in the text of Scripture, is 
yet celebrated in sacred history. The Scrip- 
ture speaks of Necho, who killed Josiah, 
king of Judah, in the battle of Megiddo, (2 
Kings xxiii. 29 ; Jerem. xlvi. 2.) Necho was 
succeeded by Psammis ; Psammis, by Apries, 
who is called in Jeremiah, Hophra; and 
Hophra by Amasis, who lived in Egypt at 
the same time Cyrus reigned in Babylon. 
Amasis reigned forty-four years, from the 
year of the world 3438 to 3482, and was 
loved and respected by his subjects. He 
died in the time of Cambyses, before Jesus 
Christ 522. 

AMAZ'IAH, rvvBN, signifies the strength 
of the Lord. Amaziah, the eighth king of 
Judah, was the son of Joash, whom he suc- 
ceeded in the year of the world 3165, and 
before Jesus Christ 839. (2 Chron. xxiv. 27.) 
He was twenty-five years of age when he 
began to reign ; and he reigned twenty-nine 
years at Jerusalem. (Ibid. xxv. 1, 2, 3, &c. ; 
2 Kings xiv.) He did that which was right 
in the sight of the Lord, but not with a per- 
fect heart When settled in his kingdom, 
he put to death the murderers of his father, 
but not their children ; because it is written 
in the law, ' The fathers shall not be put to 
death for the children, neither shall the chil- 
dren be put to death for the fathers ; every 
man shall be put to death for his own sin.' 
(Deut. xxiv. 10.) It may, therefore, be 
reasonably supposed, that all his predeces- 
sors had not observed this law. but had 

71 



caused the children to be put to death, lest 
they should form factions, and seek to re- 
venge the punishment of their father. 

In the muster, which Amaziah made of 
his people, he found three hundred thousand 
men capable of bearing arms. Besides these 
forces, he hired of the King of Israel one 
hundred thousand men, for whom he paid 
that prince a hundred talents, or about 
34,218/. 15s. English money. His design 
was to employ these troops against the 
Edomites, who had revolted from Judah in 
the reign of Joram, about fifty-four years 
before his accession. (2 Kings viii. 20.) 
While Amaziah was occupied with these 
preparations, a prophet of the Lord came to 
him, and said, ' O king, let not the army of 
Israel go with thee ; for the Lord is not with 
Israel. But if thou wilt go, do it, be strong 
for the battle : God shall make thee fall be- 
fore the enemy, for God hath power to help 
and to cast down.' Amaziah, therefore, se- 
parated the troops that came from Ephraim, 
and sent them back into their own country. 
But the Israelites who had been thus dis- 
charged, were strongly irritated against 
Amaziah ; and dispersing themselves over 
the cities of Judah, from Bethoron to Sama- 
ria, they killed three thousand men, and 
carried off a great booty, to recompense 
themselves for what they had expected from 
Edom. (2 Chron. xxv. 7, &c.) 

Amaziah, with his own forces, gave bat- 
tle to the Edomites, killed ten thousand of 
them on the spot, and took ten thousand 
more, who, says Calmet, had saved them- 
selves, in all probability, upon a rock, where 
they were assaulted, and whence they were 
thrown headlong, so as to be dashed to 
pieces (Ibid. 2 Kings xiv. 7-) It is said 
that Amaziah took Selah, and gave it the 
name of Joktheel. It has been observed, 
that the Hebrew word Selah, which our 
translators retain, signifies a rock, and ex- 
actly answers to the Greek word petra. It 
is, therefore, agreed by most commentators, 
that this Selah is the same with Petra, the 
metropolis of Arabia Petraea. 

Hence expositors in general think, that 
Amaziah having slain ten thousand Edom- 
ites, and taken ten thousand more in the 
valley of Salt, marched thence to Selah, the 
metropolis of Arabia Petraea, of which he 
soon rendered himself master. From the 
top of the rock, upon which the town was 
situated, he threw down the ten thousand he 
had taken prisoners, so that they were all 
dashed to pieces. Patrick, &c. 

Calmet observes, that this punishment 
was not commonly practised by the Jews, 
though it was in use among the Romans. It 
also prevailed in other nations, as Seidell 
(de Synedriis) has remarked. It is not in 
the catalogue of punishments mentioned by 
Moses, nor was it ever inflicted by any regu- 
lar court of judicature. Le (Merc, therefbfe, 
thinks that it was a cruel punishment, or 



AMA 



AMB 



that the Edomites, by their conduct to the 
people of Judah, had provoked Amaziah to 
a retaliation. 

Amaziah having thus punished the Edom- 
ites, in the year of the world 3175, and be- 
fore Jesus Christ 829, carried away their 
gods, and adored them as his own deities. 
This provoked the Lord, who, by a prophet, 
said unto him, ' Why hast thou sought after 
the gods of the people, which could not de- 
liver their own people out of thine hand?' 
Amaziah answered him, ' Art thou made of 
the king's counsel ? forbear ; why shouldest 
thou be smitten V Then the prophet for- 
bore, and said, ' I know that God hath de- 
termined to destroy thee, because thou hast 
done this, and hast not hearkened unto my 
counsel, (2 Chron. xxv. 14, &c.) 

God, therefore, permitted Amaziah to be 
so blinded, as to believe himself invincible. 
He sent to defy the king of Israel, saying, 
' Come, let us look one another in the face.' 
The motive of this war was, probably, to 
oblige Joash, king of Israel to repair the 
ravages, which his troops had committed in 
their return to Samaria. Joash answered 
him by the fable of the cedar and the thistle. 
Amaziah, deaf to these reasons, advanced to 
Bethshemesh with his army, and Joash, king 
of Israel, gave him battle. Amaziah was 
defeated, and being taken prisoner was car- 
ried to Jerusalem. Joash ordered four hun- 
dred cubits of the walls of that city to be 
destroyed ; and he carried to Samaria all the 
gold and silver, the rich vessels of the house 
of God, the treasures of the royal palace, 
and the sons of those among his own people, 
who had been sent as hostages to Jerusalem. 
(Ibid. 17, 18, &c.) 

After this, Amaziah reigned fifteen or 
sixteen years at Jerusalem, but returned not 
to the Lord with all his heart. God, there- 
fore, to punish him, permitted a conspiracy 
to be formed against him at Jerusalem. He 
endeavoured to escape to Lachish ; but the 
conspirators sent after him to that place, 
and caused him to be assassinated. He was 
brought back upon horses, and buried in the 
city of David. He died in the year of the 
world, 3104, and before Jesus Christ 810. 
Hi was succeeded by his son Uzziah, or 
Azariah, who was only sixteen years of age 
(Ih. 25, &c. ; xxvi. 1.) Universal History; 
I., Clerc'a Comment.} J Fells' s Geography. 

Amaziah, priest to the golden calves 
thai were at bethel. The prophet Amos 
had said that the high places, consecrated to 
idols, should he destroyed, and that, how 
holy socv.r liny tnighl be thought by Israel, 

they should be overthrown, and the house of 
Jeroboam extirpated by the sword. Ama- 
ziah, priest of Bethel, therefore, sew to Je- 
roboam, complaining of Amos, and at length 
proonn d i \ ii. u, io, 

&c.) See Attos. 

\ DOR, a )>■ nt by a 

i 



transact affairs of great moment. (2 Chron. 
xxxii. 31.) Eliakim, Shebna, and Joah the 
servants of king Hezekiah, are called am- 
bassadors of peace. (Isaiah xxxiii. 7- xxxvi. 
3.) The apostles style themselves ambas- 
sadors of Christ, and were sent to carry his 
name among the nations. (2 Cor. v. 20.) 

AMBER occurs thrice in the sacred writ- 
ings. (Ezek. i. 4. 27 ; viii. 2.) The Hebrew 
word is differently interpreted. Amber is 
natural, and loses its brightness in the fire ; 
or it is artificial, and formed of gold and fine 
brass or copper. Bochart, Le Clerc, and 
others, suppose this artificial amber to be the 
chasmal mentioned in Ezekiel. It brightens 
in the fire, and is of equal value with gold. 
It resembles the Corinthian brass, now 
known only by its name, and is exceedingly 
splendid, and very hard. By its splendour, 
it denotes the glorious majesty of God, and 
by its hardness, his invincible power ; and 
both signify that it is necessary this people 
and we should repent, and amend, and return 
to him. Poole's Annotat. ; Scripture illus- 
trated. 

AMBROSE, bishop- of Milan, in the fourth 
century. The life of this prelate has an ap- 
pearance of romance. He was the prefect 
of Liguria and Emilia, and on entering the 
Church of Milan in a civil capacity, to quell 
a riot between the Arian and orthodox par- 
ties, concerning the choice of a bishop, found 
himself called upon to assume the vacant 
office, by the unanimous voice of the assem- 
bly, and was compelled to advance at once 
from the humble station of a catechumen to 
the government of the Church. In this high 
situation, he firmly sustained the cause of 
orthodoxy against the Arians of his diocese, 
against the entreaties and threats of the em- 
press Justina, the mother of Valentiuian, and 
even of the emperor Theodosius, whom he 
prevented from establishing a Jewish syna- 
gogue at Milan, and from erecting an altar 
to Victory. He also rebuked the emperor 
for his slaughter at Thessalonica, and com- 
pelled him to atone for his guilt, by the per- 
formance of public penance. Ambrose was 
loud in the praises of a monastic life, and 
uncharitable in his conduct towards those, 
who differed from him in religious opinion. 
With a credulity that bordered on folly, or 
with a design to impose on the credulity of 
mankind, a practice not very uncommon in 
those times, he pretended to the Arians to 
produce men, who were possessed with devils, 
and who, on the approach of certain relics, 
had been compelled to acknowledge the pu- 
rity of the Nicene faith, and the impiety of 
that of Arius. Ambrose composed several 
treatises in praise of celibacy ; a discourse on 
mysteries and penance ; several books con- 
cerning Faith, and the Holy Ghost; a dis- 
course on the Incarnation ; and several other 
works, lie was not destitute of a certain 
degree of elegance, both of genius and style, 
and his sentiments were by no means absurd ; 



AMB 



AMM 



but he wanted solidity, accuracy, and order, 
the prevailing defects of that age. Gregory's 
Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. i. p. 222, 
&c. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 294, &c. 

AMBUSH, or Ambushment, the post in 
which soldiers or assassins are placed, in 
order to attack an enemy unexpectedly ; the 
act of surprising any one, by lying in wait ; 
or the persons stationed for that purpose. 
(Josh. viii. 2. Jerem. li. 12. 2 Chron. xiii. 
13; xx. 22.) 

AMEDIANS, a congregation of monks 
in Italy, who derived their name from their 
professing themselves amantes Deum, ' lovers 
of God,' or rather amati Deo, 'beloved of 
God.' They wore a grey habit and wooden 
shoes, had no breeches, and girt themselves 
with a cord. They had twenty-eight con- 
vents, and were united by Pope Pius V. 
partly with the Cistercian order, and partly 
with that of the Soccolanti, or wearers of 
wooden shoes. 

A'MEN', fox, in Hebrew, signifies true, 
faithful, certain. It is employed also in af- 
firmation, and was often thus used by our 
Saviour ; amen, amen, verily, verily. Lastly, 
it is understood as expressing a wish, as 
amen, so be it, (Numb. v. 22.) ; or amen, yes : 
I believe it. ' How shall he that occupieth 
the place of the unlearned, say amen at thy 
giving of thanks ? seeing he understandeth 
not what thou sayest?' (1 Cor. xiv. 16.) 
The Hebrews end the five books of Psalms, 
according to their way of distributing them, 
with the words amen, amen, which the Sep- 
tuagint translate genoito, genoito, and the 
Latins fiat, fiat. The Greek, Latin, and other 
Churches, have preserved this word in their 
prayers, as well as alleluiah and hosannah. 
At the conclusion of the public prayers, the 
people anciently answered with a loud voice, 
Amen. Jerom says, that at Rome, when the 
people answered Amen, the sound was like 
a clap of thunder. The Jews assert, that the 
gates of heaven are opened to him, who an- 
swers Amen with all his might. 

Amen is applied as a title to our Lord ; 
' the Amen, the true and faithful witness.' 
(Rev. iii. 14.) 

AMETHYST, a gem of a purple colour, 
which appears to be composed of a strong 
blue and deep red ; and according as either of 
these colours prevails,it affords different tinges 
of purple, sometimes approaching to violet, 
and sometimes fading even to a pale rose. 
Though the amethyst is generally of a purple 
colour, yet it is sometimes found naturally 
colourless ; and it may, at any time, be easily 
so made, by putting it into the fire. In this 
pellucid and colourless state, it so much re- 
sembles a diamond, that the amethyst can 
be distinguished only by want of hardness. 

This stone was the ninth in order on the 
high-priest's breast-plate ; and upon it was 
engraven the name of Issachar. (Exod. 
xxviii. 19.; x-xxix. 12.) Hill's Hist, of Fossils. 

AM'MI,»DN, signifies mother ; or fear; or 
73 



a cubit ; or a nation. The imposing of this 
name on the ten tribes after their rejection, 
imports that in the latter days, God will re- 
deem them from their misery and bondage, 
and include them in a special covenant with 
himself. (Hos. ii. 1.) 

AMMIN'ADAB, uttdk, signifies my 
people is liberal ; or, prince of the people ; or, 
a people that vows. It is the name of several 
men among the Hebrews: — 1. Amminadab, 
of the tribe of Judah, the son of Aram, and 
father of Naashon and Elisheba, the wife of 
Aaron the high-priest, (Exod. vi. 23.) 2. 
Amminadab, the son of Koath, and brother 
of Korah, (1 Chron. vi. 22.) 3. Amminadab, 
or Abinadab, the son of king Saul, who was 
killed with him in the battle of Gilboa, in 
the year of the world 2949, and before Jesus 
Christ 1055 (1 Sam. xxxi. 2. 1 Chron. viii. 
33. ; x. 2.) 4. Amminadab, or Abinadab, a 
Levite, and an inhabitant of Kirjath-jearim, 
with whom the sacred ark was deposited, 
after it was brought back from the Philis- 
tines. (1 Sam. vii. 1.) He dwelt at Gibeah, 
or in the highest part of the city of Kirjath- 
jearim. Eleazar his son was consecrated, or 
appointed peculiarly, to the office of keeping 
the ark. It is not certain, whether Amina- 
dab was at that time living. 5. The cha- 
riots of Amminadab are mentioned as being 
extremely light : ' Or ever I was aware, my 
soul made me like the chariots of Ammin- 
adab.' (Cant. vi. 12.) He is thought to 
have been some celebrated charioteer, whose 
horses were remarkably swift. 

AM'MON, nay, signifies his people. — 
Ammon, No-ammon, or No. See No. 

Ammon, or Hammon, or Jupiter Ammon, 
the celebrated god of the Egyptians, proba- 
bly, a deification of Ham, whose posterity 
peopled Africa, and who was the father of 
Mizraim, the founder of the Egyptian polity 
and power. See Ham and Mizraim. 

Ammon had a famous temple in Africa, 
where he was adored under the symbolical 
figure of a ram; for the Egyptians repre- 
sented their gods under the form of certain 
animals. The famous temple of Ammon 
was situated in a delicious spot, in the midst 
of a frightful desert. Here was an oracle of 
great fame, which Alexander the Great con- 
sulted at the hazard of his life. This oracle, 
however, as well as others, fell insensibly into 
contempt. In the time of Strabo, it did not 
enjoy its ancient repute ; in that of Plutarch, 
it was scarcely regarded ; and in the reign of 
Theodosius, according to Prudentius, it was 
no longer mentioned. At Thebes, the ca- 
pital of Upper Egypt, Amnion had a most 
magnificent temple, which is mentioned by 
Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and the 
ruins of which are still visible, and justify the 
accounts of its extent and grandeur. From 
Diodorus we learn, that the same city, which 
was called Thebes, and which probably de- 
rived its name from some remembrance of 
thebah, the ark, was also denominated Dios- 



AMM 



AMM 



polis, the city of Jupiter or Ham. The pro- 
phet Nahum calls it by its Egyptian name, 
No-Ammon, the habitation of Ammon, or, 
according to the copies collated by Dr. Ken- 
nicott, Nueh, and Nau. It may be therefore 
remarked, that No, Nueh, and Nau, all of 
which are met with in the name of this town, 
have certainly some reference to the patri- 
arch Noah ; that Thebes equally refers to the 
ark; that Ammon also refers to Ham, the 
progenitor of the nations addicted to his wor- 
ship ; and that Ammon was certainly the 
Jupiter of the Greeks. Hence we see in 
what sense Jupiter is said to be the ' father 
of gods and men ;' and what was the origin 
and nature of that idolatry, which overspread 
these countries. It has been disputed, whe- 
ther Ammon is not an Egyptian compound 
of Ham and On, i.e. Ham the sun ; on being 
the Egyptian name for that luminary, after- 
wards idolatrously referred to Ham. On the 
other hand, it may be disputed, whether On 
(]in) is not a transposition for no N"0, so that 
originally Ham-on was equivalent to Ham 
of No, or Ham the son of Noah. 

The Scripture says nothing of this false 
deity in particular, but speaks of Ham, and 
of the city of Ammon, or No-Ammon, which 
was principally devoted to it, and which 
was very distant from the oracle just men- 
tioned. Though Hammon, the god of the 
Egyptians, was the same as the Jupiter of the 
Greeks, yet in succeeding ages the Egyptian 
and Greek names were united, and this deity 
was called Jupiter- Hammon. 

Ammon, or Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot, 
was born of that patriarch and his youngest 
daughter, in the year of the world 2107, and 
before Jesus Christ 1897- (Gen. xix. 34. 
38.) Of him we know nothing more, than 
that he was the father of the Ammonites, a 
famous people, always at enmity with Israel, 
and that his abode was east of the Dead Sea 
and Jordan, in the mountains of Gilead. 

AMMONIAS. See Platonics. 

AM'MONITES, dow, or Meonites, 
D"Diyo, signifies afflicted, or who fail ; or, who 
ansiver. They were sometimes called Am- 
nianites, and were a people descended from 
Amnion, the son of Lot. The Ammonites 
destroyed the giants called Zamzummim, and 
seized their eonntry. (Deut. ii. 19, 20, 21.) 
God forbade Moses and Israel to attack the 
Ammonites, became he did not intend to 
give their I.iikI to ilie Hebrews. (Ibid. 19.) 
Befote the Israelites entered Canaan, the 
Anionics had eon<|iiere<l »reat part of the 
countries belonging to the Ammonites and 
Moahites. This Moses retook from the 
\niorites, and divided it between the tribes 

of Gad and Rettben. In the time of Jeph- 

thah, the Ammonites declared war a .mist 
■ I. under pretence that Israel detained 
•at part of the eonntry, which had been 
their s, before it was possessed by the Aino- 
rites. .lephthah replied, that as this was ac- 
quired by Israel in a just war from the Amo- 

71 



rites, who had long enjoyed it by right of con- 
quest, he was under no obligation to restore 
it. The Ammonites were not satisfied with 
this answer ; and, therefore, Jephthah gave 
them battle, and defeated them. (Judg. xi.) 

The Ammonites and Moahites generally 
united in attacking Israel. After the death 
of Othniel, the Ammonites and Amalekites 
joined with Eglon, king of Moab, to oppress 
the Hebrews, whom they governed for the 
space of eighteen years, till Israel was deli- 
vered by Ehud, the son of Gera. (Id. iii.) 
Some time after, or in the year of the world 
2799, the Ammonites greatly oppressed the 
Israelites beyond Jordan ; but in 2817, God 
delivered the Israelites by means of Jephthah, 
who attacked the Ammonites, and, as above 
mentioned, overthrew them with great slaugh- 
ter. In the beginning of Saul's reign, Na- 
hash, king of the Ammonites, having at- 
tacked Jabesh-gilead, reduced the inhabit- 
ants to a capitulation. Nahash would accept 
of their surrender on no other conditions 
than their submitting to have every one his 
right eye plucked out, as a reproach to Israel. 
But Saul coming seasonably to the relief of 
Jabesh, delivered the city and people from 
the cruelty of Nahash. (1 Sam. xi. 1, &c.) 

David had been a friend of the king of 
Ammon, and after his death sent compli- 
ments of condolence to Hanun his son and 
successor, who, thinking that these ambas- 
sadors were spies to observe his strength and 
the condition of his kingdom, treated them 
in a very injurious manner. David revenged 
this indignity, and subdued the Ammonites, 
the Moabites, and the Syrians, their allies. 
(2 Sam. x. 4, &c.) Ammon and Moab con- 
tinued under the government of David and 
Solomon, and after the separation of the ten 
tribes, were subject to the kings of Israel 
till the death of Ahab, in the year of the 
world 3107, and before Jesus Christ 897- 
(2 Kings i. 1.) 

Two years after the death of Ahab, Je- 
horam, his son, and successor of Ahaziah, 
defeated the Moabites, (2 Kings iii. 4, 5, 6, 
&c.) ; but it does not appear that this victory 
was so complete as to reduce them to his 
obedience. At the same time, the Ammo- 
nites, Moabites, and other people, made an 
irruption on Judah, but were forced back, 
and routed by Jehoshaphat. (2 Chron. xx. 
1, 2, &c.) Isaiah threatens the Moabites 
with a misfortune, which was to happen three 
years after his prediction, and which probably 
referred to the war of Shahnaneser against 
them, about the year of the world 3277, and 
before Jesus Christ 727- (Isaiah xv. xvi.) 

After the tribes of Heuben, Gad, and the 
half tribe of Manasseh, were carried into 
captivity by Tiglath-pileser, in the year of 
the world 3264, and before Jesus Christ 740, 
the Ammonites and Moabites took posses- 
sion of the cities belonging to these tribes. 
For this they arc reproached by Jeremiah. 
Uer. xlix. 1.) The ambassadors of the 



AMN 



AMO 



Ammonites were some of those, to whom 
this prophet presented the cup of the Lord's 
fury, and whom he directed to make bonds 
and yokes for themselves, exhorting- them 
to submit to Nebuchadnezzar, and threaten- 
ing them, if they did not, with captivity and 
slavery. (Jer. xxvii. 2, 3, 4.) 

Ezekiel denounces their entire destruc- 
tion, and tells them that God would give 
them up to the people of the East, who 
should build palaces in their country, so that 
the Ammonites should be no more men- 
tioned among nations ; and this as a punish- 
ment for insulting the Israelites, on their 
calamities, and the destruction of the temple 
by the Chaldeans. (Ezek. xxv. 4—10.) It 
is thought, that these misfortunes happened 
to the Ammonites in the fifth year after the 
taking of J erusalem, when Nebuchadnezzar 
waged war against all the people around 
Judea, in the year of the world 3420 or 
3421, and before Jesus Christ 583. 

It is probable, that Cyrus gave to the 
Ammonites and Moabites the liberty of re- 
turning into their own country, whence they 
had been removed by Nebuchadnezzar ; for 
we see them in the place of their former 
settlement, exposed to those revolutions, 
which were common to the people of Syria 
and Palestine, and subject sometimes to the 
kings of Egypt, and sometimes to the kings 
of Syria. Antiochus the Great took Rab- 
both, or Philadelphia, their capital, demo- 
lished the walls, and garrisoned it, in the 
year of the world 3806. During the perse- 
cutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Ammo- 
nites showed their hatred to the Jews, and 
exercised great cruelties against such of 
them as lived near their country. (1 Mace. 
v. 6 — 45.) Justin Martyr says, that in his 
time there were still many Ammonites re- 
maining ; but Origen assures us that when 
he was living, they were known only under 
the general name of Arabians. Thus was 
accomplished the prediction of Ezekiel. 

AM'NON, rooN, or prray Aminon, signi- 
fies faithful and true ; or, foster father, or tu- 
tor ; or, son of the mother. Amnon was the eld- 
est son of David by Ahinoam his second wife. 
It is commonly said, that this prince conceived 
a violent and an unlawful incestuous passion 
for his sister Tamar ; but it ought to be re- 
membered, that Tamar, though uterine sister 
to Absalom, is mentioned as the concubine 
children's sister, (1 Chron. iii. 9.) having 
been born before her mother was connected 
with David. Though Tamar, therefore, was 
honoured as the king's daughter by cour- 
tesy, yet she was not in reality akin to Am- 
non, and might have been married to him, 
according to her expression : f Speak unto 
the king, for he will not withhold me from 
thee.' Some, however, are of opinion that 
the law did not allow of such a marriage. 

Amnon, having conceived a violent pas- 
sion tor Tamar, the daughter of Absalom's 
mother, became ill. This being observed by 



Jonadab, the son of Shimeah, David's 
brother, he inquired the cause. Amnon 
discovered to him his passion, and the 
difficulty that opposed his satisfying it 
Jonadab advised him to counterfeit sickness, 
and when the king his father came to see 
him, to say to him, ' I pray thee let my 
sister Tamar come and give me meat, and 
dress the meat in my sight, that I may see 
it, and eat it at her hand.' Amnon followed 
this advice, and the king easily granted his re- 
quest. Tamar came to the apartment where 
Amnon lay, made cakes in his sight, baked 
them, and poured them out before him. 

Amnon refused to eat; but calling his 
sister into the most private part of the 
chamber, and hearkening only to the dic- 
tates of his passion, he, by force, abused 
her. After committing this crime, his aver- 
sion to her became more excessive than had 
been his love. He wished her instantly to 
leave the room ; but she remonstrating, he 
called in one of his servants, and ordered 
him to turn her out. Her brother Absa- 
lom meeting her in tears lamenting, and with 
her head covered with ashes, soothed her, 
and advised her to be silent. When David 
was informed of what had passed, he was 
extremely afflicted : but as he tenderly loved 
Amnon, who was his eldest son, he was un- 
willing to punish him. 

Absalom kept his resentment close with- 
in his own heart for two years ; but at 
length he contrived an opportunity of re- 
venging the treatment his sister had re- 
ceived. He invited the king his father, and 
all his brothers, to an entertainment, which 
he had provided at Baal-hazor, on account, 
of the shearing of his sheep. The king de- 
clined the invitation, but permitted him to 
take with him the princes his sons, and par- 
ticularly Amnon. Absalom ordered his ser- 
vants, that when they saw Amnon disor- 
dered with wine, on a signal being given, 
they should kill him, in revenge for the cri- 
minal and violent treatment, of which he had 
been guilty to Tamar. The servants, in 
compliance with the orders of their master, 
killed Amnon at his brother's house, in the 
midst of his carousing, in the year of the 
world 2974, and before Jesus Christ 1030. 
(2 Sam. xiii. 1, 2, &c.) See Absalom. — 
Patrick's Comment. 

A'MON, p»K, signifies faithful, true, §c. 
See Amnon. Amon was the fourteenth king 
of Judah, and son of Manasseh and Me- 
shullemeth, the daughter of Haruz of Jotbah. 
He began to reign at the age of twenty-two, 
in the year of the world 3303, and before 
Jesus Christ 041, and reigned only two years 
at Jerusalem. He did evil in the sight of 
the Lord, as his father Manasseh had done. 
He forsook Jehovah, and worshipped idols. 
His servants conspired against him, and 
slew him in his own house; but the people 
killed all the conspirators, and established 
his son Josiah on the throne. Anion was 



AMO 



AMO 



buried in the garden of Uzza. (2 Kings xxi. 
19, 20, &c.) 

AM'ORITES, a people descended from 
Amorrite, or Amorrhaeus, "ION, 'Ajuwppaloc, 
which signifies bitter ; or a rebel ; or a babbler, 
or prater. Amorrhaeus, according to the 
Septuagint and Vulgate ; Emoraeus accord- 
ing to some expositors ; Haemorri, accord- 
ing to the Hebrew ; and Emorite, accord- 
ing to our version of the Bible ; was the 
fourth son of Canaan. (Gen. x. 16*.) 

The Amorites first peopled the mountains 
lying west of the Dead Sea. They had 
also establishments east of the same sea, 
between the brooks Jabbok and Arnon, 
whence they forced the Ammonites and Mo- 
abites. (Numb. xiii. 29 ; xxi. 13. 24 ; Josh. v. 
1. Judg. xi.) Moses wrested this country 
from their kings Sihon and Og, in the year of 
the world 2553, and before Jesus Christ 1451. 

The prophet Amos, speaking of the gi- 
gantic stature and valour of the Amorites, 
compares their height to the cedar, and 
their strength to the oak. (Amos ii. 9.) The 
name Amorite is frequently used in Scripture 
to denote the Canaanites in general, (Gen. 
xvi.). The lands, which the Amorites pos- 
sessed on this side Jordan, were given to the 
tribe of Judah ; and those, which they had 
enjoyed beyond the Jordan, to the tribes 
of Reuben and Gad. 

The Amorites are said to have consisted 
of three nations : 1. a people in Mount Le- 
banon, east of Phoenicia ; 2. another peo- 
ple in mount Gilead, between the rivers 
Jabbok and Arnon ; 3. another people in- 
habiting the mountain Paran, between Sinai 
and Kadesh-Barnea. Taylor's Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

A'MOS, yiDK, by (n) aleph, signifies strong, 
robust; D1DJ/, by (]/) am, omoos, loading, 
weighty. 

Amos, the third of the minor prophets, 
is said to have been of the little town of 
Tekoa, in Judah, four leagues south of Je- 
rusalem. There is however, no proof that 
he was a native of this place, except his re- 
tiring to it when driven from Bethel. It 
seems very probable, that he was born in 
the territories of Israel, to which his mis- 
sion was principally directed. He prophe- 
sied in Bethel} where were the golden calves 
under Jeroboam II., about the year of the 
world 3215, and before Jesus Christ 789. 
Ama/.iah, the hif-di-priest of Bethel, accused 
him to king Jeroboam in the following man- 
ner : ' Amos hath conspired against thee in 
the midst of the house of Israel: the land 
is not aide to bear all his words. For thus 
Amos saith, Jeroboam shall die by the 
sword, and Israel shall surely he led away 
captive out of their own land.' Ama/.iah 
said therefQN to Amos, ' () fhou seer, go, 
flee thee away into the land of Judah, anil 
there eat bread, ami prophesy there. Hut 

prophesy not again any more at Bethel: 

tot it is (lie king's chapel, and it is the 
76 



king's court.' Amos answered Amaziah, 
' I was no prophet, neither was I a prophet's 
son ; but I was a herdsman, and a gatherer 
of syecomore fruit ; and the Lord took me 
as I followed the flock, and the Lord said 
unto me, Go, prophesy unto my people 
Israel. Now, therefore, hear thou the word 
of the Lord. Thou sayest, Prophesy not 
against Israel, and drop not thy word against 
the house of Isaac. Therefore, thus saith 
the Lord, Thy wife shall be an harlot in 
the city, and thy sons and thy daughters 
shall fall by the sword, and thy land shall 
be divided by line ; and thou shalt die in 
a polluted land: and Israel shall surely 
go into captivity forth of his land.' (Amos 
vii. 10, 11, &c.) The prophet then fled 
into the kingdom of Judah, and dwelt in 
Tekoa, where he continued to prophesy. 
In many places he complains of the vio- 
lence offered him to compel him to silence, 
and bitterly exclaims against the disorders 
of Israel. 

Amos began to prophesy the second year 
before the earthquake, in the reign of king 
Uzziah. (Amos i. 1.) Josephus and most 
commentators refer this to that prince's 
usurpation of the priest's office when he 
attempted to offer incense. Consequent- 
ly Amos was contemporary with Hosea, 
(though he is supposed not to have lived 
so long as the last-mentioned prophet,) 
with Jonah, and probably also with Joel. 
The first prophecies of Amos in order of 
time, are those of the seventh chapter. The 
rest were pronounced in Tekoa, whither he 
retired. His first two chapters are spoken 
against Damascus, the Philistines, Tyrians, 
Edomites, Ammonites, Moabites, Judah, 
and Israel. The evils he threatens, refer 
to the invasions of Shalmaneser, Tiglath- 
pileser, Sennacherib, and Nebuchadnezzar. 

He predicted the misfortunes of the king- 
dom of Israel after the death of Jeroboam 
II., who was* then living; the death of king 
Zechariah ; the invasion of Israel by Phul 
and Tiglath-pileser, kings of Assyria; and 
the captivity of the ten tribes, and their re- 
turn. He uses sharp invectives against the 
sins of Israel, their effeminacy, avarice, and 
harshness to the poor; the splendour of their 
buildings, and the delicacy of their tables. 
He reproves Israel for going to Bethel, Dan, 
Gilgal, and Beersheba, the most famous pil- 
grimages of the country, and for swearing by 
the gods of these places. 

The time and manner of the death of this 
prophet are not known. Some old authors 
relate that Amaziah, priest of Bethel, pro- 
voked by the discourses of Amos, caused his 
teeth to be broken, in order to silence him. 
Others say, that Hosea, or Uzziah, the son 
of Amaziah, struck him with a stake on the 
temples, and almost killed him ; and that in 
this condition he was carried to Tekoa, 
where he died, and was buried with his fa- 
thers. But it is generally thought that he 



AMO 



AMY 



prophesied long at Tekoa, after his expul- 
sion by Amaziah ; and as the prophet does 
not complain of any ill treatment received 
from Uzziah, his silence is probable evi- 
dence that he did not suffer in the manner 
related. 

Jerom applies to him the words of Paul, 
' rude in speech, though not in knowledge,' 
(2 Cor. xi. 6.) ; and he further observes, that 
he selects his comparisons from the country 
life, in which he had been brought up. 

Calmet and many others have followed 
the authority of Jerom, in speaking of this 
prophet, as if indeed he were quite rude, in- 
eloquent, and destitute of all the embel- 
lishments of composition. The matter, how- 
ever, as Bishop Lowth has remarked, is far 
otherwise : " Let any person, who has can- 
dour, and perspicuity enough to judge, not 
from the man, but from his writings, open 
the volume of his predictions, and he will, I 
think, agree that our shepherd ' is not a whit 
behind the very chief of the prophets.' 
(2 Cor. xi. 5.) He will agree, that as, in 
sublimity and magnificence, he is almost 
equal to the greatest, so, in splendour of 
diction, and elegance of expression, he is 
scarcely inferior to any. The same celestial 
Spirit, indeed, actuated Isaiah and Daniel in 
the court, and Amos in the sheep-folds: 
constantly selecting such interpreters of the 
Divine will as were best adapted to the occa- 
sion, and sometimes ' from the mouths of 
babes and sucklings perfecting praise ;' 
constantly employing the natural eloquence 
of some, and occasionally making others elo- 
quent." — Bishop Lowth' s Lectures, vol. ii. 
lect. xxi. p. 98. Home's Introduction to the 
Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy 
Scriptures, vol. iv. pp. 140, 150. 

Amos, the father of the prophet Isaiah, 
was, it is said, son of king Joash, and bro- 
ther to Amaziah. The rabbins pretend, that 
Amos, Isaiah's father, was a prophet as well 
as his son, according to a rule among them, 
that when the father of a prophet is called 
in Scripture by his name, it indicates that 
he had the gift of prophecy. St. Austin 
thinks that the prophet Amos, the third 
among the minor prophets, was the father 
of Isaiah ; but the names of these two per- 
sons are written differently, jnray being the 
father of Isaiah, and DDK the prophet Amos. 
Besides, Amos, Isaiah's father, was as well 
as himself, of Jerusalem, and of much su- 
perior quality to the prophet Amos. 

Amos, the son of Nahum, and father of 
Mattathias, is in the genealogy of our Savi- 
our according to the flesh. (Luke iii. 25.) 

AMPHIP'OLIS, 'Afi<piiro\iQ, signifies a 
city encompassed. It was the name of a city 
between Macedon and Thrace, but depen- 
dent on Macedon. St. Paul and Silas being 
delivered out of prison, left Philippi, went to 
Thessalonica, and passed through Amphi- 
polis. (Acts xvii. 1.) It was also called 
Clirvsopolis, or Christopolis. In the divi- 
"77 



sion of Macedonia, by Paulus YEmilius, it 
became the chief city of the first region of 
Macedonia. 

AM'PLIAS, 'AfnrXiag, signifies large, 
extensive. Amplias, of whom St. Paul speaks, 
was particularly beloved by the apostle. 
(Rom. xvi. 8.) It is not certainly known 
who he was, nor what he did ; but the Greeks 
say, that he was ordained bishop of Odys- 
sopolis, in Mcesia, by St. Andrew ; that he 
was an apostolical person, at least one of the 
seventy-two disciples, and suffered martyr- 
dom. 

AM'RAM, nnray, 'A/*|8pd/x, signifies ex- 
alted people ; or, their sheaves ; or, handfuls 
of corn ; or, ivith the most high. Amram, son 
of Kohath, of the tribe of Levi, married Jo- 
chebed, by whom he had Aaron, Miriam, 
and Moses. He died in Egypt at the age 
of 137 years. (Exod. vi. 20.) 

AM'RAPHEL, bDlOK, signifies one that 
speaks of hidden things ; or, one that speaks of 
judgment ; or, of ruin. Amraphel, king of 
Shinar, confederated with Chedorlaomer, 
king of Elam, and two other kings, to wage 
war against the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, 
and the three neighbouring cities. The 
kings, who were in league with Amraphel, 
plundered those cities, and carried ofT abund- 
ance of captives, among whom was Lot, 
Abraham's nephew ; but Abraham pursued 
them, retook Lot, and recovered the spoil, 
in the year of the world 2092, and before 
Jesus Christ 1912, (Gen. xiv.) 

AMSDORFIANS, a sect of Protestants, 
in the sixteenth century, who took their 
name from Amsdorf, their leader. They 
maintained that good works were not only 
unprofitable, but were obstacles in the way 
of salvation. The extravagant assertions of 
Amsdorf were opposed by George Major, an 
eminent teacher of theology at Wittemberg, 
who maintained the necessity of good works. 
This debate was at length terminated by the 
form of concord. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. iv. p. 39. 

AMULET, a charm or preservative 
against mischief, witchcraft, or diseases. 
Amulets were an ancient kind of supersti- 
tion, and consisted of certain characters, 
ligaments, stones, or metals, engraved or 
adorned with stars. Some are of opinion, 
that Laban's teraphim carried away by Ra- 
chel, (Gen. xxxi. 19.) and the ear-rings 
which Jacob hid under an oak, (Id. xxxv. 4.) 
were preservatives or amulets. See Tera- 
phim. 

AMYRALDISM, a name given by some 
writers to the doctrine of universal grace, 
as explained and asserted by Amyraldus, or 
Moses Amyrault, and others, his followers, 
among the reformed in France towards the 
middle of the seventeenth century. This 
doctrine principally consisted of the follow- 
ing particulars, viz. that. God desires the 
happiness of all men, and none are excluded 
by a divine decree ; that none can obtain 



ANA 



ANA 



salvation, without faith in Christ ; that God 
refuses to none the power of believing, 
though he does not grant to all his assist- 
ance, that they may improve this power to 
saving purposes ; and that many perish 
through their own fault. Those, who em- 
braced this doctrine were called Universal- 
ists, though it is evident they rendered grace 
universal in words, but partial in reality. 
For this doctrine represents God as desiring 
salvation for all, which, in order to its attain- 
ment, requires a degree of his assistance, 
which he refuses to many. See Camero- 
nians. 

Moses Amyrault was an eminent French 
Protestant divine, and studied at Saumur, 
where he was chosen professor of theology. 
His work on the mystery of predestination and 
grace occasioned a controversy between him 
and some other divines. He died in 1664. 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iv. pp. 503, 504. 
ANABAPTISTS. At a very early pe- 
riod of the Reformation, certain of the dis- 
ciples of Luther, and particularly one of the 
name of Muncer, adopted opinions in some 
instances apparently replete with enthu- 
siasm, and on some occasions proceeded to 
the disturbance of the public tranquillity. 
From these violent reformers arose the for- 
midable sect of the Anabaptists. They first 
appeared in the provinces of Upper Ger- 
many, where they were controlled by the 
severity of the magistrates ; but in the Ne- 
therlands and Westphalia, where the ten- 
dency of their opinions was more unknown, 
and less guarded against, they obtained ad- 
mittance into several towns, and spread the 
contagion of their principles. The most re- 
markable of their religious tenets related to 
the sacrament of baptism, which, they con- 
tended, ought to be administered only to 
persons grown up to years of understanding, 
and should be performed, not by sprinkling 
them, but by dipping them in water. For 
this reason, they condemned the baptism of 
infants ; and as they re-baptized all, whom 
they admitted into their society, the sect ob- 
tained the name of anabaptists. To this 
peculiar notion concerning baptism, which 
appears to be founded on the practice of the 
church in the apostolic age, and contains no- 
thing inconsistent with the peace and order 
of human society, they added other princi- 
ples of a most enthusiastic and dangerous 
nature. They maintained that, among 
Christians, who had the precepts of the Gos- 
pel to direct, and the Spirit of God to guide 
them, the office Of magistracy was not only 
unnecessary, but an unlawful encroachment 
on their spiritual liberty ; that the distinc- 
tions occasioned by birth, rank, or wealth, 
were contrary to the spirit of the Gospel, 

which considers all men as equal, and should 
therefore he entirely abolished; that all 
Christians, placing their possessions in one 
common stock, should live together in that 
state of equality, which becomes members 6f 

78 



the same family ; and that as neither the 
laws of nature, nor the precepts of the New 
Testament, had imposed any restraint on 
men, with regard to the number of wives 
they might marry, they should use that li- 
berty, which God himself had granted to the 
patriarchs. 

In the year 1532, two Anabaptist pro- 
phets, John Matthias, a baker of Haerlem, 
and John Boccold, or Beiikels, a journeyman 
tailor, of Leyden, possessed with the rage of 
making proselytes, fixed their residence at 
Munster, an imperial city of Westphalia, of 
the first rank, under the sovereignty of its 
bishop, but governed by its own senate and 
consuls. As neither of these fanatics wanted 
the talents requisite in desperate enterprises, 
great resolution, the appeai-ance of sanctity, 
bold pretensions to inspiration, and a confi- 
dent and plausible manner of discoursing, 
they soon gained many converts, some of 
whom were persons of eminence. Embold- 
ened by the countenance of such disciples, 
they openly taught their opinions ; and not 
satisfied with that liberty, they attempted to 
render themselves masters of the town, in 
order to establish their tenets by public au- 
thority. In this design they at length suc- 
ceeded ; and Matthias, in the style, and with 
the authority of a prophet, uttered his com- 
mands, which it was instant death to disobey. 
He deposed the magistrates, confiscated the 
estates of those who had escaped, and de- 
posited the wealth in a public treasury for 
the common use of all. He commanded the 
members of this commonwealth to eat at 
tables prepared in public, and even pre- 
scribed the dishes to be served up each day. 
His next care was to provide for the defence 
of the city. He invited the Anabaptists in 
the low countries to assemble at Munster, 
which he dignified with the title of Mount 
Sion, that they might set out to reduce all 
the nations of the earth under their domi- 
nion. 

Matthias was soon cut off" by the army of 
the bishop of Munster ; but Boccold, by the 
same gifts and pretensions, which had gained 
Matthias credit, soon revived the spirits and 
hopes of the Anabaptists to such a degree, 
that he succeeded the deceased prophet in 
the same absolute direction of all their affairs. 
Though less daring in action than Matthias, 
Boccold was a wilder enthusiast, and of more 
unbounded ambition. Not satisfied with 
power or titles less than supreme, a prophet, 
whom he had instructed for that purpose, 
assembled the multitude, and declared it to 
be the will of God, that John Boccold should 
be king of Sion, and sit on the throne of 
David. John was immediately acknow- 
ledged as monarch by the deluded multi- 
tude, and assumed all the state and pomp of 
royalty. 

Having now attained the height of power, 
Boccold instructed the prophets and teachers 
to harangue the people on the lawful- 



ANA 



ANA 



ness and even necessity of marrying more 
wives than one, and to assert that this was 
one of the privileges granted by God to the 
saints. Boccold set the people an exam- 
ple, and married at once three wives. As 
he was allured by beauty or the love of 
variety, he gradually added to the number 
of his wives till they amounted to fourteen, 
though only one of them, the widow of Mat- 
thias, w T as dignified with the title of queen. 
After the example of their prophet, the 
multitude yielded to the most licentious and 
uncontrolled gratification of their desires. 
No man remained satisfied with a single 
wife ; and together with polygamy, freedom 
of divorce, its inseparable attendant, was 
introduced, and became a new scene of 
corruption. Every excess was committed, 
of which the passions are capable, when not 
restrained by the authority of laws or the 
sense of decency ; and by a monstrous and 
almost incredible conjunction, voluptuous- 
ness was engrafted on religion, and disso- 
lute riot accompanied the austerities of fana- 
tical devotion. 

The German princes were highly offend- 
ed by Boccold's usurpation of royal ho- 
nours; and the profligate manners of his 
followers filled men of all professions with 
horror. The princes of the empire, assem- 
bled by the king of the Romans, voted a 
supply of men and money to the Bishop of 
Minister ; and, in the year 1535, the city 
of Munster, which had been in the pos- 
session of the Anabaptists more than fifteen 
months, was more closely pressed. At 
length, after the besieged had endured the 
utmost rigour of famine, and suffered hard- 
ships, the recital of which is shocking to 
humanity, the city was entered by surprise. 
Most of the Anabaptists were slain, and 
the rest taken prisoners. Boccold, loaded 
with chains, was carried from city to city 
as a spectacle to gratify the curiosity of the 
people, and was exposed to all their in- 
sults. After this, he was brought back to 
Munster, where he was put to death with 
the most exquisite and lingering tortures, 
all of which he bore with astonishing forti- 
tude. This extraordinary man, who had 
acquired such amazing dominion over the 
minds of his followers, and had excited 
commotions so dangerous to society, was 
only twenty-six years of age. 

"With its monarch, the kingdom of the 
Anabaptists terminated. Their principles 
having taken deep root in the Low Countries, 
the party still subsists there under the name 
of Mennonites. However, by a very singular 
revolution, this sect, so mutinous and san- 
guinary at its origin, has become altogether 
innocent and pacific. Holding it unlaw- 
ful to wage war, or to accept of civil 
offices, they devote themselves entirely to 
the duties of private citizens, and by their 
industry and charity endeavour to repair 
to human society for violence committed 
79 



by their founders. Those of this sect set- 
tled in England, retain its peculiar tenets 
concerning baptism, but without any dan- 
gerous mixture of enthusiasm. Indeed, 
the Baptists in England and Holland, dis- 
avow the practice, which the appellation of 
Anabaptists implies ; they profess an equal 
aversion to all principles of rebellion on the 
one hand, and to all suggestions of fanati- 
cism on the other. See Baptists and Men- 
nonites. Robertson's History of Charles V. 
vol. iii. pp. 65 — 77- Encycl. Britan. 

ANACHORETS, or Anchorites, a sort 
of monks in the primitive church, who re- 
tired from the society of mankind into some 
desert, that they might avoid the temptations 
of the world, and be more at leisure for me- 
ditation and prayer. Such were Paul, An- 
thony, and Hilarion, the founders of monas- 
tic life in Egypt and Palestine. 

Anachorets, among the Greeks, consist 
principally of monks, who retire to caves 
or cells, with the leave of the abbot, and 
an allowance from the monastery ; or who, 
weary of the fatigues of the monastery, pur- 
chase a spot of ground, to which they retreat, 
and never appear again in the monastery, ex- 
cept on solemn occasions. 

ANAGOGICAL, signifies mysterious, 
transporting, and is used to express what- 
ever elevates the mind, not only to the 
knowledge of divine things, but of divine 
things in the next life. This word is seldom 
employed, except as one of the four senses 
in which the Scripture may be interpreted, 
viz. the literal, allegorical, anagogical, and 
tropological. The anagogical sense is 
when the text is explained with regard 
to eternal life, the point which Christians 
should have in view : for example, the rest of 
the Sabbath, in the anagogical sense, signi- 
fies the repose of everlasting happiness. 

AN'AH, n3y, 'Evdv, signifies one, who 
answers, or, who sings responsively ; or, poor 
or afflicted. Anah was the son of Zibeon, 
the Hivite, and father of Aholibamah, Esau's 
wife. Whilst feeding the asses of his father 
Zibeon in the wilderness, he discovered the 
mules. (Gen. xxxvi. 24.) Thus our Eng- 
lish version, and also several other versions 
of the Bible, translate the Hebrew matsa 
eth hajjemim. The Septuagint, Theodotion, 
Aquila, and Symmachus, retain the original 
word Jameim, or Jamim, as a proper name. 
Others suppose, that Anah discovered the 
manner of producing mules, by the union of 
a horse and an ass; but the Scripture never 
calls mules jamim, nor are such creatures 
mentioned in Scripture till the time of David. 
St Jeromhas rendered the passage springs of 
warm water, or medicinal springs. But the 
Chaldee reads giants, and the Samaritan 
version ' the Eniim," a people mentioned by 
Moses as a sort of giants. (Gen. xiv. 5. Dt nit. 
ii. 10.) These Emim dwelt in the neighbour- 
hood of Seir, where Anah fed his asses. It 
is therefore thought that Anah found, i. <\ 



ANA 



ANA 



attacked, or surprised, a people called Jemim, 
or Emim, in the wilderness, where he was 
feeding asses ; for Jamim, or Jemim, is put 
for Emim, either hy cutting off the first let- 
ter, or by changing jod into aleph, both of 
which are common among the Hebrews. It 
is also observable, that the Hebrew word 
Ki'O, matsa, which signifies to find, is often 
used for the sudden attacking or surprising 
of an enemy. That the Emim are here meant, 
and that A nab attacked or surprised this 
people in the wilderness, where he was feed- 
ing asses, is the opinion of the learned 
Bochart, Le Clerc, Calmet, Poole, and most 
of the modern commentators. Indeed, this 
seems to be the only probable explanation of 
the passage. 

Some have thought, but without any 
proof, that A nab was exalted to divine ho- 
nours, and that he is mentioned in the se- 
cond book of the Kings, where it is said the 
Sepharvaim adored Henah, or Anah, and 
Ivah. (2 Kings xviii. 34. Isaiah xxxvii. 13.) 
It has been lately conjectured, that from 
Henah are derived the Heneti, who were fa- 
mous for breeding mules, and whose pos- 
terity were afterwards called Veneti (quasi 
Ve Heneti ;) and hence the Venetians, whose 
doge still retains the Phrygian bonnet, as his 
crown of state. 

A'N AK, or Onok, pty, signifies a collar or 
ornament. From it some derive the Greek 
word aval;, a king. Anak, the father of the 
Anakim, was the son of Arba, who gave his 
name to Kirjath-arba, or Hebron. (Josh, xi v. 
lf>.) Anak had three sons, Sheshai, Ahiman, 
and Talmai, who were giants as well as their 
father, and who, with their posterity, all ter- 
rible for their fierceness and extraordinary 
stature, were called the Anakim. (Id. xv. 14. 
Numb. xiii. 22.) In comparison of the 
Anakim, the Hebrews, who were sent to 
view the land of Canaan, reported that they 
were only as grass-hoppers. (Numb. xiii. 
ult.) Caleb, assisted by the tribe of Ju- 
dah, took Kirjath-arba, and destroyed the 
Anakim, in the year of the world 2559, and 
before Jesus Christ 1445. (Josh. xv. 14. 
Judges i. 20.) 

AN'AMIM, tr?23y, 'AvEia/xsia, signifies a 
fountain, or eye; or answer, song, affliction. 
He was the second son of Mizraim. (Gen. x. 
13.) If we may credit the paraphrast Jona- 
than, the son of Uzziel, Anamim peopled the 
Mareotis, or, rather tbe Pentapolis of Cy- 
rene, according to the paraphrast of Jeru- 
salem. Bothart is of opinion, that these 
Anamim dwelt in the parts adjacent to 
the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and in the 
tmonitis. Calmet thinks, that the 
Amanians and Garamantes were descended 
from Ainmim. 

AN \M'Mi:i.i:CIl, Y57MK, signifies an- 
swet, <>r son j of the Icing and council} or 
the Mhg. It is said that the inhabitants 
of Sepharvaiin. sent from beyond the Eu- 
phrates into Syria, burned their children in 



honour of Anammelech and Adrammelech, 
their gods. (2 Kings xvii. 31.) It is thought 
that Adrammelech signified the sun, and 
Anammelech the moon. Some of the rab- 
bins represent Anammelech under the figure 
of a mule ; others, under that of a quail, or 
pheasant See Adrammelech. 

ANANI'AS, moy, signifies the cloud of 
the Lord, and was the name of the son of 
Nebedaeus, high-priest of the Jews. Ac- 
cording to Josephus, he succeeded Joseph, 
the son of Camith, in the forty-seventh 
year of the Christian era. Quadratus, go- 
vernor of Syria, coming into Judaea, on 
the rumours, which prevailed among the 
Samaritans and Jews, sent the high-priest 
Ananias to Rome, to vindicate his conduct 
to the emperor. The high-priest justified 
himself, was acquitted, and returned. St. 
Paul being apprehended at Jerusalem, by 
the tribune of the Roman troops that 
guarded the temple, declared to him that 
he was a citizen of Rome. This obliged the 
officer to treat him with some regard. As 
he was ignorant of what the Jews accused 
him, the next day he convened the priests, 
and placed St. Paul in the midst of them, 
that he might justify himself. St. Paul be- 
gan as follows: ' Men and brethren, I have 
lived in all good conscience before God, un- 
til this day.' He had scarcely spoken this, 
when the high-priest, Ananias, commanded 
those, who were near him, to smite him on 
the face. The apostle immediately replied, 
' God shall judge thee, thou whited wall ; 
for, sittest thou to judge me after the law, 
and commandest me to be smitten contrary 
to the law ? They that stood by said, Re- 
vilest thou God's high-priest ? Paul an- 
swered, I wist not, brethren, that he was the 
high-priest ; for it is written, Thou shalt not 
speak evil of the ruler of thy people.' (Acts 
xxii. 23, 24 ; xxiii.^ 1, 2, 3, &c.) 

On this passage it has been asked, how it 
happened that St. Paul said, ' I wist not, 
brethren, that he was the high-priest,' since 
the external marks of office must have de- 
termined whether he were so or not ? To 
this it has been answered, that soon after 
the holding of the first council, as it is called, 
at Jerusalem, Ananias, as it has been already 
observed, was dispossessed of his office, in 
consequence of certain acts of violence be- 
tween the Samaritans and the Jews, and sent 
prisoner to Rome, whence he was afterwards 
released, and returned to Jerusalem. Now 
from that period he could not be called high- 
priest in the proper sense of the word, 
though Josephus has sometimes given him 
the title of apxuptvg, taken in the more 
extensive meaning of a priest, who had a 
seat and voice in the Sanhedrim ; and Jona- 
than, though we are not acquainted with the 
circumstances of his elevation, had been 
raised in the meantime to the supreme dig- 
nity in the Jewish church. Between the 
death of Jonathan, who was murdered by 



ANA 



ANA 



order of Felix, and the high-priesthood of 
Ismael, who was invested with that office by 
Agrippa, elapsed an interval, in which this 
dignity continued vacant. Now it happened 
precisely at this interval, that St Paul was 
apprehended in Jerusalem; and the Sanhe- 
drim being destitute of a president, Ananias 
undertook of his own authority the discharge 
of that office, which he executed with the 
greatest tyranny. It is possible, therefore, 
that St. Paul, who had been only a few days 
in Jerusalem, might be ignorant that Ana- 
nias, who had been dispossessed of the high- 
priesthood, had taken upon himself a trust 
to which he was not entitled ; he might 
therefore very naturally exclaim, ' I wist 
not, brethren, that he was the high-priest !' 
Admitting him, on the other hand, to have 
been acquainted with the fact, the expres- 
sion must be considered as an indirect re- 
proof, and a tacit refusal to recognise usurped 
authority. 

After this, the assembly being divided in 
opinion, St. Paul was sent by the tribune 
to Caesarea, that Felix, governor of the pro- 
vince, might take cognizance of the affair. 
When it was known that the apostle had 
arrived at Caesarea, Ananias the high-priest, 
and other Jews, went thither to accuse him, 
but the affair was adjourned, and St. Paul 
continued two years in prison in that city. 
(Acts xxiv.) See Paul. 

The apostle's prediction to Ananias, that 
God would smite him, was thus accom- 
plished : Albinus, governor of Judaea, being 
come into that country, Ananias found 
means to gain him by presents. Ananias, 
therefore, was considered as the first man 
of his nation by reason of his great riches, 
friends, and fortune. However, in his party 
were some violent persons, who plundered 
the country, and seized the tithes of the 
priests ; and this they did with impunity, 
on account of the great credit of their mas- 
ter, and of his wealth at Jerusalem. At 
the same time, several companies of assas- 
sins infested Judaea, and committed great 
ravages. When any of their companions 
fell into the hands of the governors of the 
province, and were about to be executed, 
they failed not to seize some domestic or re- 
lation of the high-priest Ananias, that he 
might procure the liberty of their associates, 
in exchange for those, whom they detained. 
Having taken Eleazer, one of Ananias's 
sons, they did not release him till ten of 
their companions were liberated. By this 
means their number considerably increased, 
and the country was exposed to their ra- 
vages. 

At length, Eleazer, the son of Ananias, 
heading a party of mutineers, seized the 
temple, and forbade any sacrifices for the 
emperor. Being joined by the assassins, 
he pulled down the house of his father. 
Ananias, with his brother, hid himself in 
the aqueducts belonging to the roval palace, 
81 



but was soon discovered, and both of them 
were killed ; the mutineers taking no notice, 
that Ananias was the father of their leader. 
Thus God smote this whited wall, in the 
very beginning of the Jewish wars. Jose- 
phus, lib. ii. de Bello, cap. 38 : Michaelis's In- 
troduction to the New Testament, vol. i. pp. 
51—54. 

Ananias, one of the first Christians of 
Jerusalem, who, with his wife Sapphira, 
sold an estate, and secreted part of the pur- 
chase-money. He then carried the re- 
mainder to St Peter, and said that this was 
the whole price of his inheritance. The 
apostle, to whom the Holy Ghost revealed 
the falsehood, reproved him sharply, telling 
him that he had ' not lied unto men, but 
unto God.' Immediately, Ananias fell dead 
at the apostle's feet. About two or three 
hours after, his wife Sapphira, ignorant of 
what had happened, came in ; and St. Peter 
having put the same question to her, as 
before to her husband, she was also guilty 
of the like falsehood, and was suddenly 
struck dead in the same manner. (Acts v. 
1, 2, 3, &c.) This happened in the year 
of our Lord 33 or 34, a little time after the 
ascension. Some have been so curious, as 
to inquire in what the sin of Ananias and 
Sapphira consisted. Many of the ancients 
thought, that when the first Christians re- 
solved to sell their estates, this resolution 
included a kind of vow to reserve nothing ; 
and that Ananias and Sapphira having 
violated this vow, were guilty of perjury 
and sacrilege, and committed a mortal sin. 
If to this be added their lying to the Holy 
Ghost, and the affront in tempting him, 
their crime will appear considerably ag- 
gravated. 

The Holy Spirit might be induced to 
punish the falsehood of Ananias and Sap- 
phira, to give, in the infancy of the church, 
a solemn notoriety and self-evident sanction 
to the doctrines taught, not merely by 
miracles of advantage (as healing), but by 
miracles of punishment ; to deter those, 
who through worldly motives of gain, or 
with a view to share in the profits of the 
goods sold, might join the Christian church ; 
and to deter spies and false brethren, who 
after this event, must have been aware of 
the danger of detection. If Ananias alone 
had died, the collusion would have been 
less evident, and it might have been thought 
that it was a merely sudden, though natural 
death. By this punishment, the Gospel, in 
some degree, was assimilated to the law, 
which, immediately after the promulgation 
of the sabbath, ordered the sabbath- breaker 
to be stoned. (Numb. xv. 35.) After the 
consecration of the holy altar, the sons of 
Aaron, who offered profane fire in their 
censers, were destroyed. (Levit x. 3.) The 
same is observable in the case of Achan. 
(Josh, vii.) 

It is evident, that in this and similar 
G 



ANA 



ANA 



events, the spectators and civil magistrates 
must have been convinced, that some ex- 
traordinary power was exerted ; for if Peter 
had himself slain Ananias, he would have 
been amenable to tbe laws as a murderer. 
But, if by declaration only he slew him, or, 
if by forewarning him he should die, and 
the prediction came to pass, it is evident 
that the power, which attended this word 
of Peter, was not from Peter, but from 
God. In like manner, the power, which 
opened the earth to swallow Korah, was 
not from Moses personally, but from him, 
in whose name he spake, though the peo- 
ple afterwards stupidly accused him of hav- 
ing killed the people of the Lord. (Numb, 
xvi. 32, 41.) 

Ananias, a disciple of Jesus Christ, at 
Damascus, whom the Lord directed to visit 
Paul, then lately .converted, and come to 
Damascus. Ananias answered, ' Lord, I 
have heard by many of this man, how 
much evil he hath done to thy saints at 
Jerusalem ; and how he hath authority from 
the chief priests to bind all that call upon 
thy name.' But the Lord said unto him, 
1 Go thy way, for he is a chosen vessel unto 
me.' Ananias, therefore, went to the house, 
in which God had revealed unto him that 
Paul was, and putting his hands on him, 
said, 'Brother Saul, the Lord Jesus, who 
appeared unto thee in the way, hath sent me 
that thou mightest receive thy sight, and be 
filled with the Holy Ghost.' (Acts ix. 10, 
11, 12, &c.) 

We are not acquainted with any other 
circumstance of the life of Ananias. The 
Apostolical Constitutions suppose him to 
have been a layman ; QEcumenius, and 
some moderns, think that he was a deacon. 
St. Austin is of opinion, that he was a 
priest, but his arguments on this subject are 
so weak as to merit no attention. The mo- 
dern Greeks maintain that Ananias was one 
of the seventy disciples, bishop of Damas- 
cus, a martyr, and buried in that city. 

ANATH'EMA, 'AvdBefia, signifies some- 
thing set apart, separated, devoted. It is 
understood principally to denote the abso- 
lute, irrevocable, and entire separation of 
one from the communion of the faithful, 
from the number of the living, or from the 
privileges of society ; or, the devoting of 
any man, animal, city, or thing, to be ex- 
tirpated, destroyed, consumed, and, as it 
were, annihilated. The Hebrew word Din, 
cherem, signifies, property to destroy, ex- 
terminate, devote. Moses requires that the 
Israelites should devote, and utterly extir- 
pate, those who sacrifice to false gods. 
(Exod. xxii. 20.) In like manner, God 
commands that the cities belonging to the 
Canaanites, which did not surrender, should 
be devoted. (Dent. vii. 2. 24.; xx. 17.) 
Achan having appropriated to his own use 

part of the spoil 01 Jericho, which had hecn 
devoted by God, was stoned, and what he 
82 



had thus taken was destroyed by fire. 
(Josh. vi. 17, 21. ; vii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) See 
Achan. 

The word anathema is also taken for that 
which is irrevocably consecrated, vowed, 
or offered to the Lord, so that it may never 
be again employed in common uses. Hence 
things devoted to destruction could not be 
redeemed at any price. (Levit xxvii. 28, 
29.) Some assert that persons thus devoted 
were put to death, and quote Jephthah's 
daughter as an example. Sometimes par- 
ticular persons or cities were devoted : as 
the Israelites devoted king Arad's country, 
(Numb. xxi. 2, 3.) ; the people at Mizpeh 
devoted all, who should not march against 
the tribe of Benjamin, (Judg. xxi. 5 ;) and 
Saul devoted those, who should eat before 
sun- set, whilst they were pursuing the 
Philistines. (1 Sam. xiv. 24.) It appears 
by the execution of these execrations, that 
they, who were so devoted, were put to 
death. 

Sometimes particular persons devoted 
themselves, if they did not accomplish some 
certain purpose. More than forty persons 
bound themselves by an oath, that they 
would neither eat nor drink till they had 
killed Paul. (Acts xxiii. 12, 13.) Josephus 
says, that the Essenians were engaged by 
oaths to observe the statutes of their sect. 
Hence, such of them as incurred the guilt 
of excommunication, were driven from their 
assemblies, and generally starved to death, 
being obliged to feed on grass like beasts, 
and not daring to receive any food, which 
might be offered them, on account of their 
vows not to eat. 

Moses and St. Paul in some sort anathe- 
matized themselves. Moses conjured God to 
forgive Israel ; if not, to blot him out of the 
book, which he had written. (Exod. xxxii. 
32.) St. Paul says, that he could wish to 
be accursed (anathematized, separated from 
life, devoted, and made over to death) for 
his brethren the Israelites, rather than see 
them excluded from the benefit of Christ's 
covenant, by their malice and obduracy. 
(Rom. ix. 3.) This is as much as if the 
apostle had said, he would, as it were, change 
places with them. They were now excluded 
from being the peculiar people of God ; so 
he would be. They were devoted to wrath 
in the destruction of their state, Jerusalem, 
&c. ; so he would be. They were excluded 
from the benefit of Christian society ; so he 
would be, if it would benefit them. I could 
wish myself anathematized from the body of 
Christ, if that might advantage Israel. 

Excommunication, and anathema, and ex- 
cision, are said by some to be the greatest 
penalties that can be inflicted on any man in 
this world : whether by these terms we un- 
derstand a violent and an ignominious death, 
or a separation from the society of saints, 
and communion in things sacred. Inter- 
preters are much divided respecting these 



ANA 



AND 



texts ; but they agree, that Moses and Paul 
gave, in these instances, the most powerful 
proofs of a perfect charity, and in the 
strongest manner expressed their ardent 
desire to procure the happiness of their 
brethren. 

Another kind of anathema, very pecu- 
liarly expressed, seems to have quite a dif- 
ferent meaning from what has been above 
explained : ' if any man,' says St. Paul, 
1 love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him 
be Anathema Maranatha.' (1 Cor. xvi. 22.) 
This is as much as if the apostle had said, 
He who does not love the Lord Jesus Christ 
will be accursed at his coming. The form is 
borrowed from the Jews, who, when unable 
to inflict so great a punishment as the crime 
deserved, devoted the offender to the im- 
mediate vindictive retribution of divine ven- 
geance, both in this life, and in that which 
is to come. It is impossible to suppose that 
either Moses or St. Paul, could, in any de- 
gree, wish for such an imprecation to attach 
on himself. They better knew their duty 
and God's sovereignty. See Moses and 
Paul. Grot, on Rom. ix. 3 ; Isaiah xiv. 20 ; 
Bishop Patrick, on Deut.-xxxn. 15.; Dr. Dod- 
dridge on 1 Cor. xvi. 22. 

Excommunication was a kind of anathema 
among the Hebrews, as it is among Christ- 
ians. Anathema was the greatest degree of 
excommunication; and by it the criminal 
was deprived not only of communicating by 
prayers and other holy offices, but of admit- 
tance to the church, and of conversation with 
believers. 

Among the Hebrews, they who were ex- 
communicated, could not perform any pub- 
lic duty of their employments; could be 
neither judges nor witnesses ; neither be pre- 
sent at funerals, nor circumcise their own 
sons, nor sit down in the company of other 
men, nearer than at the distance of four 
cubits. Also if they died under excommu- 
nication, they were denied the rites of 
burial ; and a large stone was left on their 
graves, or a heap of stones was thrown over 
them, as over Achan, (Josh. vii. 26.) and 
Absalom, (2 Sam. xviii. 17-) See Excom- 
munication. 

AN'ATHOTH, rnroy, denotes the same 
as Anath. Anathoth, a city of the tribe of 
Benjamin, (Josh. xxi. 18.) was about three 
miles north of Jerusalem, according to Eu- 
sebius and St. Jerom; or twenty furlongs 
according to Josephus. It was the birth- 
place of the prophet Jeremiah. (Jer. i. 1.) 
It was given to the Levites of Kohath's fa- 
mily for their habitation, and as a city of 
refuge. This city has been destroyed ; but 
its ruins are shown in a valley, in the middle 
of mountains. 

AN'DREW, 'Avdpkag, signifies a stout 
and strong man. Andrew, an apostle of Je- 
sus Christ, was a native of Bethsaida, and 
the brother of Peter. He was first a disciple 
of John the Baptist, whom he left to follow 
83 



our Saviour, after the testimony of John, 
' Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh 
away the sin of the world.' (John i. 29.) He 
continued with Jesus from about four o'clock 
in the afternoon till it was night, and was the 
first disciple received by our Saviour. An- 
drew introduced his brother Simon, and they 
passed a day with Christ. They also went 
with him to the marriage in Cana, and after- 
wards returned to their ordinary occupation, 
not expecting, perhaps, to be farther em- 
ployed in his service. However, some 
months after, Jesus meeting them, while 
fishing together, called them to a regular 
attendance on him, and promised to make 
them fishers of men. (Matt. iv. 19.) A few 
days before the passion of our Saviour, cer- 
tain Gentiles, desirous to see Jesus Christ, 
addressed themselves to Philip, who men- 
tioned it to Andrew ; and both together told 
our Lord. (John xii. 22.) Two or three 
days after, St. Andrew and some other apos- 
tles, asked Jesus Christ when the destruc- 
tion of the temple should happen. This is 
what the Gospel informs us concerning this 



After our Saviour's ascension, the apostles 
having determined by lots what parts of the 
world they should take, Scythia and the 
neighbouring countries fell to St. Andrew. 
According to Eusebius, after this apostle had 
planted the Gospel in several places he 
came to Patrse, in Achaia, where, endea- 
vouring to convert the pro- consul iEgeus, he 
was by that governor's orders first scourged, 
and then crucified. The time of his suffer- 
ing martyrdom is not known ; but all the 
ancient and modern martyrologies of the 
Greeks and Latins, agree in celebrating his 
festival on the 30th of November. His body 
was embalmed, and decently interred at 
Patrae, by Maximilla, a lady of great quality 
and estate. It was afterwards removed to 
Constantinople, by Constantine the Great, 
who buried it in the great church, which he 
had built to the honour of the apostles. It 
is not known for what reason painters re- 
present St. Andrew's cross like an X. Peter 
Chrysologus says, that he was crucified upon 
a tree ; and the spurious Hippolytus assures 
us, that it was an olive-tree. Nevertheless, 
the tradition, which describes him to have 
been nailed to a cross, is very ancient. Cave's 
Lives. 

ANDRONA, a term used for that part in 
churches, which was destined for the men. 
Anciently, it was the custom for men and 
women to have separate apartments in places 
of worship, where they performed their de- 
votions asunder. This method is still reli- 
giously observed in the Greek church. The 
androna was on the southern, and the wo- 
men's apartment on the northern side of the 
church. 

ANDRON'ICUS, 'AvSpibvucog, signifies 
a man excelling others, a victorious man. An- 
dronicus, one of the great men belonging 
G 2 



ANE 



ANG 



to the court of Epiphanes, was left by that 
prince to govern the city of Antioch, whilst 
he went intoCilicia, to reduce certain places 
which had revolted. Menelaus, the pre- 
tended high -priest, thought this circum- 
stance might favour his design of getting 
rid of Onias, whose dignity he unjustly pos- 
sessed, and who had come to Antioch to ac- 
cuse him. For this purpose, he addressed 
himself to Andronicus with large presents. 
Onias, informed of this, reproached him with 
great sharpness, and, lest he should suffer 
from violence, kept himself close in the 
sanctuary of Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, 
in which was a famous temple, where Julian 
the apostate afterwards sacrificed. 

Menelaus solicited Andronicus so power- 
fully to dispatch Onias, that he went him- 
self to Daphne, and promised with solemn 
oaths not to injure Onias. By this means, 
Andronicus persuaded Onias to leave his 
place of refuge, and killed him. When the 
king returned from his expedition, and was 
acquainted with the fate of Onias, he shed 
tears, commanded Andronicus to be di- 
vested of the purple, to be led about the 
city in an ignominious manner, and put to 
death in the very place, in which he had 
killed Onias. (2 Maccab. iv. 31. 38.) This 
event happened in the year of the world, 
3834, and before Jesus Christ, 170. 

A'NER, "Oy, signifies answer, song, afflic- 
tion of light. Aner and Eshcol were two 
Canaanites that joined their forces with 
Abraham, in pursuit of the kings Chedor- 
laomer, Amraphel, and their allies, who had 
pillaged Sodom, and carried off Lot, Abra- 
ham's nephew. They did not imitate the 
disinterestedness of that patriarch, but re- 
tained their share of the spoil taken from 
the conquered kings. (Gen. xiv. 24.) 

ANGEL, "Ayye\o£, in Greek, nxbo, Ma- 
leac in Hebrew, signifies a messenger. In 
Scripture, we frequently read of missions 
and appearances of angels sent to declare 
the will of God, to correct, teach, reprove, 
or comfort. God gave the law to Moses and 
appeared to the patriarchs by the mediation 
of angels. (Acts vii. 30. 53. ; Gal. iii. 19. ; 
Heb. xiii. 2.) Angel, however, is properly 
a name of office, not referring to the nature 
of the person employed, but to his agency 
as a messenger ; and it may be said without 
risk, that if the word messenger, envoy, or 
delegate, be mentally substituted by the 
reader tor angel, where it occurs, the pas- 
sage will lose nothing by the change. 

Before the captivity of Babylon, we find 
no angel mentioned by name. The Talmu- 
dists say, they brought their names from 
Babylon. "We find, indeed, many angels 
called by their names in the book of 'Enoch, 
but that is of DO authority. Tobit is the 
first, who has called an aie'vl by name. He 
mentions Raphael, who eomlueled Tobias 
into Media. ( I'ol.it iii. 1>. ; \i. 2.) It is 
thought that Tobit lived at Nineveh, some 
84 



time before the captivity of Judah. Daniel, 
who lived at Babylon, some time after Tobit, 
mentions the names of Michael and Gabriel. 
(Dan. x. 21. ; viii. 1G. ; ix. 21.) The second 
book of Esdras speaks of Uriel ; (2 Esdras 
iv. 36.;) but it is comparatively modern, and 
the author probably lived since Christ. 

It has been already observed, that the 
word angel in Scripture is understood as a 
name of office, rather than of nature, and 
may denote an agent, an envoy, a deputy. 
If it be taken personally, it may signify him 
who performs the will of a superior ; and if 
impersonally, that which performs what it is 
appointed to act. It seems, indeed, certain 
that personally taken, the sense of a mes- 
senger, or one deputed by another to act 
for him, is a genuine idea of the word angel 
in both the Old and New Testament. Hence 
Christ Jesus may well be called, ' the 
angel of God;' for he is eminently the de- 
puty from God to man, the great angel 
of the covenant, (Malachi iii. 1.) the agent 
for God. The word angel, impersonally taken, 
implies, that agent, which executes the will 
of another. 

As the great natural agents of the world 
around us are wholly beyond the direction 
of man, and are, therefore, considered as ex- 
clusively obedient to God, the word angel 
imports that which is empowered or com- 
missioned by God to do his will. ' The angel, 
which redeemed me from all evil, bless the 
lads,' (Gen. xlviii. 16.) i. e. the protecting, 
preserving, guiding providence of God, which 
I have experienced during my life. ' The 
angel of the Lord encampeth round about 
them that fear him,' (Psalm xxxiv. 70 ; i- e. 
his providence watching over them, secures 
them from evil. ' He cast upon them, (the 
Egyptians) the fierceness of his anger, &c. 
by sending evil angels among them.' (Psalm 
lxxviii. 49.) What those evil angels were, 
we learn sufficiently from the history of the 
plagues in Exodus. It is, therefore, in- 
disputable, that extraordinary operations of 
Providence, though accomplished by natural 
means, are considered in Scripture as angels 
(agents) of God. The Almighty, if he chooses, 
' can make winds (spirits) his angels,' to con- 
duct his dispensations ; and flames of fire his 
' ministers,' or servants, to perform his plea- 
sure. (Psalm civ. 4.) The same meaning 
seems to be attached to the word angel in the 
Apocrypha ; and if we take the angel Ra- 
phael in Tobit, in the sense of ' Providential 
protection,' we shall probably be pretty near 
the intention of the author. 

Besides agencies of natural powers, or 
providential angels, we have reason to be- 
lieve, that there exists in the scale of beings, 
a series of created, intelligent powers, who 
are angels, inasmuch as they are occasionally 
agents of God towards mankind. These in 
capacities and abilities are greatly our supe- 
riors. Indeed they are so much superior to 
us, that in order to render them in any de- 



ANG 



ANG 



gree comprehensible to our ideas, their na- 
ture, offices, &c. are illustrated by a compa- 
rison between them, and what occurs among 
mankind. Thus, if a human prince have 
his attendants, his servants, his guards, this 
circumstance is employed to illustrate the 
nature of celestial angels, who are repre- 
sented as attendants and servants of God. 
This principle is evidently the foundation 
of the apologue, which prefaces the poetical 
part of the book of Job : ' There was a day, 
when the sons of God came to present them- 
selves (as it were at court) before the Lord,' 
&c. (Job i. 6.) The same maybe observed 
of that delivered by the prophet Micaiah : 
' I saw the Lord sitting on his throne, and 
all the host of heaven standing by him, on 
his right hand, and on his left' (1 Kings 
xxii. 19.) The vision of Isaiah, (chap, vi.) 
is to the same purpose; and our Lord 
continues this idea, especially when speak- 
ing of his glorious return : ' When 
the Son of man shall come in his glory, 
and all the holy angels with him, 
then shall he sit upon the throne of his 
glory.' (Matt. xxv. 31.) In reference to 
the services rendered by angels to man- 
kind, the Scripture warrants us to adopt 
the idea, that they are servants of the great 
King, sent from before his throne, to exe- 
cute his commissions. In such services, it 
is probable that some of them are always 
engaged, though invisible to us ; and we 
may receive from them much good or evil, 
without being sensible of any angelic inter- 
ference. Thus in Job, the activity of Sa- 
tan, an evil agent, is represented as pro- 
ducing great effects by storms, &c. Job, 
however, knew not that it was Satan, but 
referred all his calamities to the good plea- 
sure of God, acting by natural causes. In 
like manner, the angel might long have 
watched Abraham invisibly, before he for- 
bade him to slay Isaac. In this sense, there- 
fore, angels are ministering spirits, sent 
forth to perform a variety of services to the 
heirs of salvation. 

If angels are engaged invisibly in the ser- 
vice of mankind, we may easily suppose 
that, on particular occasions, they have 
been commanded to make themselves 
known, as celestial intelligences. When 
they discovered themselves, it has commonly 
been after they had delivered their message, 
and always for the purpose of a sign to 
confirm the faith of those they had ad- 
dressed. It is evident that the angel who 
appeared to Manoah, was considered both 
by him and his wife only as a prophet, till 
after he had delivered his message, he took 
his leave in a wonderful manner, to con- 
vince them of his extraordinary nature. 
See Joshua, Gideon, &c. 

In like manner, the angel that wrestled 
with Jacob, at length put the hollow of his 
thigh out of joint, as a proof that he was no 
mere man. 
Co 



Sometimes, however, angels did not re- 
veal themselves fully, but gave, as it were, 
obscure and very indistinct, though power- 
ful, intimations of their presence. When 
angels were appointed to appear to certain 
persons only, others, who were in the com- 
pany of those persons, had sensations, which 
indicated an extraordinary occurrence ; 
and though the appearance was not to them, 
yet they seem to have felt its effects. ' I, 
Daniel, alone saw the vision : for the men 
that were with me saw not the vision ; but 
a great quaking fell upon them, so that 
they fled to hide themselves.' (Dan. x. 70 
In like manner, ' The men, which journeyed 
with Saul, stood speechless, hearing a 
voice, but seeing no man.' (Acts ix. 7-) 
' They that were with me, saw indeed the 
light, and were afraid ; but they heard not 
the voice,' the distinct words, ' of him that 
spake to me.' (Id. xxii. 9.) From these 
and other instances we infer, that angels 
discovered themselves with different de- 
grees of clearness, as best suited their er- 
rand. Sometimes they effected their pur- 
pose without being known, or, suspected 
to be angels. Sometimes they were con- 
jectured to be angels, but did not advance 
those conjectures into certainty ; and some- 
times they left no doubt who and what they 
were, and together with their errand, de- 
clared their nature. 

A certain splendour, or brightness, which 
accompanied their persons, seems to have 
been the general token of angelic presence ; 
but this appears to have had either a dis- 
tinction in degree, or a peculiarity, perhaps 
an identity, of appropriation. A dazzling 
splendour, as of lightning, might probably 
sometimes accompany angels ; but whether 
the mild effulgence, the radiance of the 
benignant divine majesty, ever accompanied 
a created angel, or rather was not exclu- 
sively worn by a person, not only more 
than human, but also more than angelic, 
deserves much consideration. Such a one 
might be eminently ' the angel of the Lord,' 
the personator of the great Jehovah; and 
he might be thought, and be called Jeho- 
vah, and be really so connected with him, 
as to accept that sacred name without in- 
fringing on propriety. 

It would seem that sometimes a person 
only, not a splendour, was seen ; sometimes 
a splendour only, not a person ; and some- 
times both a person and his splendour. Of 
the person only, we have already given in- 
stances; of the splendour only, the burning 
bush is one instance, and the splendour in 
the sanctuary, &c. another. This splen- 
dour seems to have been worn by Jesus at 
his transtl guration, (Matt. xvii. 2. Mark 
ix. 2.) ; at his appearance to Saul, (Acts ix. ; 
xxvi. 13.) ;and when seen by John, (Rev. i.) 
It is probable, that this splendour, when 
worn by a person, was indicative of the 
presence of the great angel of the covenant. 



ANG 



ANG 



We may, therefore, trace a gradation in 
the use of the word angel. 1. Human 
messengers, or agents for others ; 2. Divine 
messengers, yet human persons, or agents 
for God, as prophets, (Haggai i. 13.); priests, 
(Mai. ii. 1. Eccles. v. 6.); 3. Officers for 
the churches, or agents for the churches; 
4. Providence in a general sense, or 
the agency of divine dispensations, con- 
ducting natural causes; 5. Special provi- 
dences, or the agency of divine dispensa- 
tions apparent on remarkable occasions; 
6. Created intelligences, or agents of a na- 
ture superior to men, performing the di- 
vine commands, in relation to the sons of 
men ; and 7- The great angel between God 
and man, or the eminently deputed agent 
of God. 

Some think, that angels, or created intel- 
ligences, were produced at the same time 
as the heavens, and that Moses included 
them under this name, saying, ' In the be- 
ginning God created the heaven.' Some 
are of opinion, that he intended them un- 
der the name ' light,' which God created 
on the first day. Others assert, that they 
were created before the world ; and Job 
seems to favour this opinion : ' Where 
wast thou, when I laid the foundations of 
the earth 1 — When the morning stars sang 
together, and all the sons of God shouted 
for joy.' (Job xxxviii. 4. 7-) The Hebrews 
think that God created them on the second 
day of the world, and that he consulted 
with the angels, saying, ' Let us make man 
in our image, after our likeness.' (Gen. i. 
26.) Others are of opinion, that the an- 
gels were created on the fifth day. Origen 
and other Greek and Latin fathers, thought 
they were created before the world ; and Dr. 
Hyde is of opinion, that they must have ex- 
isted a very long time before the world. 

Many of the old fathers were led into a 
mistake respecting angels by the authority 
of the book of Enoch, and by a passage of 
Genesis, ill understood, in which it is said, 
* The sons of God saw the daughters of 
men, that they were fair ; and they took 
them wives of all which they chose.' (Gen. 
vi. 2.) From this passage they imagined 
that angels were corporeal, capable of sen- 
sual pleasures, and sensible of their allure- 
ments. Other fathers, indeed, and those 
in great number, have asserted angels to be 
purely spiritual; and this, at present, is the 
common opinion. On the same rank as to 
nature, though very different as to happi- 
ness, the Scripture places the angels, ' who 
kept not their first estate;' but their num- 
ber, their economy, their powers, &c. are 
nowhere: expressed. By sin they hecame 

the most vile and miserable of all God's 
creatures. They were expelled the regions 
of light, and with heaven, lost their hea- 
venly disposition, ;md fell into a settled ran- 
cour against God, and malice against men. 
What their offence was, it is difficult to 
86 



determine, as it is not mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. Some think that it was envy, some 
unbelief, but most are of opinion, it 
was pride. As to the time of their sin- 
ning, some think that it was not before 
the sixth day of the creation, because on 
that day it is said, ' God saw every thing 
that he had made, and behold it was very 
good; but that it was not long after, as 
it must have preceded the fall of our first 
parents. It is certain from Scripture, that 
these fallen angels are in great numbers, and 
that among them are various orders, (Matt, 
xii. 24. Ephes. ii. 2.; vi. 12. Col. ii. 15. Rev. 
xii. 7-) One is considered as their prince, 
and called by the names of Beelzebub, Sa- 
tan, or Sammael by the Jews, Aharimam by 
the Persians, and Eblis by the Mahometans. 
Their constant employment is not only 
doing evil themselves, but endeavouring by 
all arts to seduce and pervert mankind, by 
tempting them to sin, and reducing them to 
the same desperate state with themselves. 
(1 Pet. v. 8. Job i. 6.) It is supposed they 
will be restrained during the millennium, 
(Rev. xx. 2.); but afterwards again, for a 
short time, deceive the nations, (Ibid. 7-) and 
then be finally punished, (Matt. xxv. 41.) 

Good angels are called angels of light, 
their habitation being in heaven, the region 
of light ; they are clothed with light and 
glory; they stand before the throne of the 
Most High, and inspire men with good ac- 
tions, actions of light and righteousness. — 
On the contrary, angels of darkness are the 
ministers of the devil, whose abode is in 
hell, the region of darkness. St. Paul says, 
that Satan sometimes transforms himself 
into an angel of light, (2 Cor. xi. 14.) in the 
same manner as our Saviour in the Gospel 
says, that wolves sometimes put on sheep's 
clothing, to seduce the simple. (Matt. vii. 
15.) By their works, however, they are 
discovered ; and sooner or later they betray 
themselves by deeds of darkness, in which 
they and their followers engage. Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary. 

Angel is also a title given to bishops of 
several churches. In this sense, some un- 
derstand the words of St Paul, when he 
says, women ought to be covered in the 
church, because of the angels, (1 Cor. xi. 10.) 
Dr. Prideaux observes, that the minister of 
the synagogue, who officiated in offering up 
the public prayers, being the mouth of the 
congregation, delegated from them, as their 
representative, messenger, or angel, to ad- 
dress God in favour of them, was therefore 
called, in the Hebrew language, the angel 
of the church. Hence the bishops of the 
seven churches of Asia, are designated, by a 
name borrowed from the synagogue, the an- 
gels of those churches. Prideaux' s Connect. 
P. i. B. vi. 

ANGELICS, an ancient sect of here- 
tics, supposed by some to have obtained 
this appellation from their excessive vene- 



ANG 



ANG 



ration of angels ; and by others, from main- 
taining that the world was created by an- 
gels. — It is also the name of a congregation 
of nuns, founded at Milan in 1534. Ency- 
clop. Britan. 

ANGELITES, a sect of Christian here- 
tics, about the year 494, in the reign of 
the emperor Anastasius, and the pontificate 
of Symmachus. They received their denomi- 
nation of Angelites from Angelium, a place 
in the city of Alexandria, where they held 
their first meetings. They were also called 
Severites from Severus, who was at the 
head of their sect, and Theodosians from 
Theodosius, whom they made Pope at Alex- 
andria. They believed that the Father, the 
Son, and the Holy Ghost, are the same ; 
that none of them exists of himself, and of 
his own nature ; but that there is a common 
God or Deity existing in them all ; and that 
each is God by relation to, or a participa- 
tion of this Deity. Broughton's Hist. Lib. 
vol. i. p. 49. 

ANGER, is a violent passion of the mind, 
arising on the receipt, or supposed receipt, 
of an injury, with a present purpose of 
revenge. 

Anger has been considered as the great 
disturber of human life, and the chief enemy 
both of public happiness and private tran- 
quillity. From this passion, in its full im- 
port, protracted into malevolence, and ex- 
erted in revenge, arise many of the evils, 
to which the life of man is exposed. By 
anger operating upon power are produced 
the subversion of cities, the desolation of 
countries, the massacre of nations, and all 
those dreadful and astonishing calamities, 
which fill the histories of the world, and 
which could not be read at any distant 
point of time, when the passions stand neu- 
tral, and every motive and principle is 
left to its natural force, without some doubt 
of the truth of the relation, did we not see 
the same causes still tending to the same 
effects, and acting only with less vigour for 
want of the same concurrent opportu- 
nities. 

Pride is undoubtedly the origin of anger ; 
but pride, like every other passion, if it 
once breaks loose from reason, counteracts 
its own purposes. A passionate man, on 
the review of his conduct, will have very 
few gratifications to offer to his pride, when 
he has considered how his outrages were 
caused, why they were borne, and in what 
they are likely to terminate. 

Sudden bursts of rage generally break 
out on small occasions; for life, unhappy 
as it is, cannot supply great evils as fre- 
quently as the passionate man thinks it tit 
to be enraged. The first reflection on his 
own violence, therefore, must shew him 
that he is mean enough to be driven from 
his post by every petty incident, that he is 
the mere slave of casualty, and that his 
reason and virtue are in the power of 
87 



chance. By frequently indulging his an- 
ger, a man will teach this passion, in a 
short time, to intrude before the summons, 
to rush upon him with resistless violence, 
and without any previous notice of its ap- 
proach. He will find himself liable to be 
inflamed at the first touch of provocation, 
and unable to restrain his resentment, till 
he has a full conviction of the offence, to 
proportion his anger to the cause, or to 
regulate it by prudence or duty. When a 
man has once suffered his mind to be thus 
vitiated, he becomes one of the most hate- 
ful and unhappy of beings. He can give 
no security to himself that he shall not, at 
the next interview, alienate by some sudden 
transport his dearest friend ; or break out, 
on some slight contradiction, into such 
terms of rudeness as can never be perfectly 
forgotten. 

To suppress this passion, " we should 
consider," says Dr. Paley, " the possibi- 
lity of mistaking the motives, from which 
the conduct that offends us proceeded; 
how often our offences have been the 
effect of inadvertency, when they were 
construed into indications of malice ; the 
inducement, which prompted our adver- 
sary to act as he did, and how powerfully 
the same inducement has, at one time or 
other, operated upon ourselves ; that he 
is suffering perhaps under a contrition, 
which he is ashamed, or wants opportu- 
nity, to confess; and how ungenerous it 
is to triumph by coldness, or insult over a 
spirit already humbled in secret; that the 
returns of kindness are sweet, and that 
there is neither honour, nor virtue, nor 
use, in resisting them ; for some persons 
think themselves bound to cherish and 
keep alive their indignation, when they 
find it dying away of itself. We may re- 
member that others have their passions, 
their prejudices, their favourite aims, their 
fears, their cautions, their interests, their 
sudden impulses, their varieties of appre- 
hension, as well as we: we may recollect 
what hath sometimes passed in our own 
minds, when we have got on the wrong 
side of a quarrel, and imagine the same 
to be passing in our adversary's mind 
now: when we became sensible of our 
misbehaviour, what palliations we per- 
ceived in it, and expected others to per- 
ceive ; how we were affected by the kind- 
ness, and felt the superiority of a generous 
reception and ready forgiveness ; how 
persecution revived our spirits with our 
enmity, and seemed to justify the conduct 
in ourselves, which we before blamed. 
Add to this the indecency of extravagant 
anger; how it renders us, whilst it lasts, 
the scorn and sport of all about us, of 
which it leaves us, when it ceases, sensible 
and ashamed; the inconveniences and 
irretrievable misconduct, into which our 
irascibility has sometimes betrayed us; 



ANI 



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the friendships it has lost us ; the distresses 
and embarrassments, in which we have 
been involved by it ; and the repentance, 
which, on one account or other, it always 
costs us. 

" But the reflection, calculated above all 
others to allay that haughtiness of temper, 
which is ever finding out provocations, 
and which renders anger so impetuous, is 
that, which the Gospel proposes; namely, 
that we ourselves are, or shortly shall 
be, suppliants for mercy and pardon at 
the judgment-seat of God. Imagine our 
secret sins all disclosed and brought to 
light; imagine us thus humbled and ex- 
posed ; trembling under the hand of God ; 
casting ourselves on his compassion ; cry- 
ing out for mercy ; imagine such a creature 
to talk of satisfaction and revenge ; re- 
fusing to be entreated, disdaining to for- 
give; extreme to mark and to resent 
what is done amiss ; imagine, I say, this, 
and 'you can hardly feign to yourself an 
instance of more impious and unnatural 
arrogance." 

Anger or wrath is frequently attributed 
to God in Scripture : not that he is capable 
of those irregular emotions, which this pas- 
sion produces ; but figuratively speaking 
after the manner of men, and because he 
punishes the wicked with the severity of a 
superior provoked to anger. 

Anger is often used for punishment or 
chastisement. The magistrate, says St. 
Paul, is ' a revenger to execute wrath,' 
that is, 'vengeance or punishment.' (Rom. 
xiii. 4.) ' There is wrath gone out from 
the Lord, and the plague is begun.' (Numb, 
xvi. 46.) 

Anger is often joined with fury, even 
when God is spoken of ; but this is to ex- 
press more forcibly the effects of his anger, 
or what may be expected from the just 
occasions of his indignation. ' Now it is 
in mine heart,' says Hezekiah, ' to make 
a covenant with the Lord God of Israel, 
that his fierce wrath may turn away from 
us.' (2 Chron. xxix. 10.) The Hebrews 
place anger in the nose. • Let not thy nose 
be disturbed, be inflamed.' Hence, a cho- 
leric man is called short-nosed ; a patient 
man, long-nosed. This seems to be con- 
firmed by several passages of Scripture. 
' There went up a smoke out of his nos- 
trils.' (2 Sam. xxii. 9.) See also Psalm 
xviii. 8. Job iv. 9. Deut. xxix. 20, &c. 
Paleys Moral and Political Philosophy; 
Johnson's Rambler. 

ANIMAL, is an organized and living 
body, which is endowed with sensation. 
Minerals arc said to ^row or increase, plants 
to grow and live, and animals alone to have 
sensation. 

The Hebrews distinguished animals into 

purr and impure, or clean and unclean; or 

those, which might be eaten and offered, 

and those, whose use was prohibited. The 

88 



sacrifices, which they offered, were, (I.) of 
the beeve kind ; a cow, bull, or calf. The 
ox could not be offered, because it was 
mutilated ; and when it is said oxen were 
sacrificed, we are to understand bulls. (Levit. 
xxii. 18, 19.) Calmet thinks, that the 
mutilation of animals was neither permitted, 
nor used, among the Israelites. (2.) Cf the 
goat kind ; a he-goat, a she-goat, or kid. 
(Id. ibid. 24.) (3.) Of the sheep kind; a 
ewe, ram, or lamb. When it is said sheep 
are offered, rams are chiefly meant, espe- 
cially in burnt- offerings and sacrifices for 
sin ; for as to peace-offerings, or sacrifices 
of pure devotion, a female might be some- 
times offered, provided it was pure, and 
without blemish. (lb. iii. 1.) 

Besides these three sorts of animals used 
in sacrifices, many others might be eaten, 
wild or tame ; as the stag, the roe-buck, 
and in general all that have cloven feet, 
or that chew the cud. (Levit. xi. 2, 3, 
&c.) All that have not cloven hoofs, and 
do not chew the cud, were esteemed im- 
pure, and could neither be offered nor 
eaten. The fat of all sorts of animals sa- 
crificed was forbidden to be eaten. The 
blood of all kinds of animals generally, and 
in all cases, was prohibited on pain of death, 
(lb. iii. 17- ; vii. 23—27.) Neither did the 
Israelites eat animals, which had been taken 
and touched by a devouring or impure 
beast, as a dog, a wolf, a boar, &c. (Exod. 
xxii. 31.) Nor of any animal that died 
of itself. Whoever touched its carcase was 
impure until the evening, and till that 
time, and before he had washed his clothes, 
he did not return to the conversation of 
other Jews. (Levit. xi. 39, 40. ; xvii. 15. ; 
xxii. 8.) 

Fish that had neither fins nor scales were 
unclean. (Levit. xi. 10.) 

Birds, which walk on the ground with 
four feet, as bats ; and flies that have many 
feet, were impure. The law, however, ex- 
cepts locusts, which have their hind feet 
higher than those before, and rather leap 
than walk. These were clean, and might 
be eaten, (Id. ibid. 21, 22.) as they still 
are in Palestine. 

Interpreters are much divided respecting 
the legal purity or impurity of animals. It 
is believed, that this distinction obtained 
before the flood, since God commanded 
Noah to carry into the ark seven couple 
of clean animals, and only two of unclean. 
(Gen. vii. 2.) Some are of opinion, that 
this distinction is altogether symbolical, 
and that it denotes the moral purity after 
which the Hebrews were to endeavour, or 
that impurity, which they were to avoid, 
according to the nature of these animals. 
For example, if a hog signified gluttony, 
a hare lasciviousness, a sheep gentleness, 
a dove simplicity, &c. the principal design 
of Moses in prohibiting the use of swines' 
flesh, was to condemn gluttony, and excess 



ANN 



ANN 



in eating and drinking ; or in allowing sheep 
or doves, was to recommend gentleness, &c. 

Others believe, that God intended to 
preserve the Hebrews from the temptation 
of adoring animals, by permitting them to 
eat the generality of those, which were re- 
garded as gods in Egypt ; and by obliging 
them to look with horror on others, to 
which also divine honours were paid. They 
had no idea of worshipping the animals 
they ate ; and still less of adoring those, 
which they could not persuade themselves 
to use even for nourishment. Tertullian 
thought, that God, by enjoining the Hebrews 
to deprive themselves of certain sorts of 
food, proposed to accustom them to tem- 
perance. 

Many commentators allow nothing un- 
clean in the animals that are forbidden, 
beyond some natural qualities, which are 
really hurtful, or which at least are thought 
hurtful by some persons. Moses forbade 
the use of those beasts, birds, and fishes, 
which are wild, dangerous, or venomous, 
and the flesh of which is supposed injuri- 
ous to health. God also, who designed 
to separate the Hebrews from other peo- 
ple, as a nation consecrated to his service, 
seems to have interdicted them the use of 
certain animals, which were considered as 
unclean, that by this figurative purity, they 
might be inclined to another purity real 
and perfect. This he himself intimates in 
the book of Leviticus, (xx. 24, 25, 26. ) 

It appears probable, that we ought to 
combine all these ideas, as reasons for the 
legal purity or impurity of animals, since 
those, which were naturally hurtful, might also 
be regarded as typically hurtful. As pro- 
vidence has thus varied the natures of ani- 
mals, the domesticity of some might render 
them clean, while the savage and danger- 
ous disposition of others forbade them from 
the table and the altar. Addenda to Calmet's 
Dictionary. 

ANISE, in the Linnsean system of bo- 
tany, is a genus of the pentandria digynia 
class of plants. It has a fine aromatic smell, 
and is used by confectioners and perfumers. 
From it are distilled an oil, which answers 
all the purposes of the seed itself, and a 
water, which is a celebrated cordial and 
carminative. 

Our Lord reproaches the Pharisees with 
their scrupulous exactness in paying tithe 
of anise, mint, and cummin, while they 
neglected justice, mercy, and faith, which 
were the more essential principles and 
practices of religion. (Matt, xxiii. 23.) 
Anise, mint, and cummin, are perhaps, 
strictly speaking, not garden herbs in the 
East, but wild and uncultivated. Scripture 
Illustrated. 

AN'NA, or Hannah, ron, signifies gra- 
cious, merciful; or, one that gives. Anna, 
the wife of Tobit, of the tribe of Naphthali, 
was carried captive to Nineveh, by Shalma- 
89 



neser, king of Assyria. (Tobit i. 9.) After 
Tobit had lost his sight, and was become 
poor, Anna was obliged to procure a liveli- 
hood for herself and family by spinning. 
One day having received a kid as a pre- 
sent, she brought it home. Tobit hearing 
it, said, take care that this kid be not stolen, 
send it back to those who own it. To this, 
Anna, with great warmth, replied, where 
are thine alms, and thy righteous deeds ? 
behold thou, and all thy works are known. 
(Id. ii. 11, 12, &c.) Thus was the pa- 
tience of Tobit tried amid his other afflic- 
tions. 

Some time after this, Tobit, believing 
himself near his end, called his son Tobias, 
and charged him to maintain a great respect 
for his mother, and to remember all she 
had done and suffered for him. He added, 
when her life is finished, bury her near me. 
However, Tobit lived long after this, and 
Anna, his wife, survived him. (Id. xiv. 12.) 
Some few moments before his death, he 
repeated his request that his wife should 
be placed near him in his grave. Tobit 
died about the year of the world 3363, and 
before Jesus Christ 641 ; and Anna in all 
probability, before the year 3378. 

Anna, the daughter of Phanuel, a pro- 
phetess and widow, of the tribe of Asher. 
(Luke ii. 36, 37.) She was married early, 
and lived only seven years with her husband. 
Being disengaged, she thought only of 
pleasing the Lord, and continued, without 
ceasing, in the temple, serving God day 
and night, with fasting and prayers. How- 
ever, Dr. Prideaux observes, that her serv- 
ing God in the temple, day and night, is to 
be understood no otherwise than that she 
constantly attended the morning and even- 
ing sacrifice at the temple, and then with 
great devotion offered up brer prayers to 
God ; for the time of morning and evening 
sacrifice was the most solemn time of prayer 
among the Jews, and the temple the most 
solemn place. 

She was fourscore years of age, when 
Mary came to present Jesus in the temple ; 
and entering while Simeon was pronoun- 
cing his thanksgiving, Anna also began to 
praise God, and to speak of the Messiah to 
all, who waited for the redemption of Israel. 
We know nothing more of this holy pro- 
phetess. 

AN'NAS,"Awac, signifies one that an- 
swers, that afflicts, and humbles. Annas, or 
Ananus, as Josephus calls him, was the son 
of Seth, and high-priest of the Jews. He 
succeeded Joazar the son of Simon, enjoyed 
the high-priesthood eleven years, and was 
succeeded by Ishmael, the son of Phabi. 
After he was deposed, he still preserved 
the title of high-priest, and had a groat share 
in the management of public affairs. He 
is called high-priest in conjunction with 
Caiaphas, when John the Baptist entered 
upon the exercise of his mission, though 



ANN 



ANN 



Calmet thinks, that at that time he did not, 
strictly speaking, possess or officiate in 
that character. (Luke iii. 2.) On the con- 
trary, Macknight and some others are of 
opinion, that at this time Caiaphas was only 
the deputy of Annas. He was father-in- 
law to Caiaphas; and Jesus Christ was 
carried before him, directly after his seizure 
in the garden of Olives. (John xviii. 13.) 
Josephus remarks, that Annas was con- 
sidered as one of the happiest men of his 
nation: for five of his sons were high- 
priests ; and he himself possessed that great 
dignity many years. This was an instance 
of good fortune, which till that time had 
happened to no person. See Caiaphas. 
Joseph. Antiq. lib. xx. cap. 8. 

ANNIHILATION, the act of reducing 
any created being into nothing. How 
widely have the sentiments of mankind 
differed as to the possibility or impossibi- 
lity of annihilation! According to some, 
nothing is so difficult ; it requires the infi- 
nite power of the Creator to effect it. Ac- 
cording to others, nothing is so easy. Ex- 
istence, say the last, is a state of violence ; 
all things are continually endeavouring to 
return to their primitive nothing ; it requires 
no power to effect it ; it will accomplish it 
of itself ; nay more — it requires an infinite 
power to prevent it. 

That the soul of man is immortal, and 
not liable to annihilation, is a truth founded 
on reason, and confirmed by revelation. 
If all die with the body, who has been 
able to persuade men of every age, and 
every country, that- their souls are immor- 
tal? The persuasion of a future life 
sprang not from the refinements of science, 
or the speculations of philosophy, but 
from the natural sentiments of the human 
heart. Hence it is common to the philoso- 
pher and the savage, and may be found in 
the most barbarous, as well as in the most 
civilized regions. This universal consent 
proves that this great truth is congenial to 
man, and plainly indicates an original de- 
termination given to the soul by its Creator. 
Our own breasts afford us various anticipa- 
tions, and presages of future existence. 
The ambitious and the humble, the high 
and the low, the good and the wicked, all 
interest themselves in what is to happen 
after they shall have left the earth. The 
passion for fame, which inspires so much 
the activity of man, is plainly animated by 
the persuasion, that consciousness is to sur- 
vive the dissolution of the body. The vir- 
tuous are supported by the hope, and the 
wicked tormented with the dread of a fu- 
ture state of existence. As death ap- 
proaches, the hopes of the one, and the 
fears of the other, redouble; and the soul, 
when issuing hence, seems more clearly to 
discern its future abode. All tbe opera- 
tions of conscience proceed on the belief 
of immortality. To suppose this universal 
DO 



and powerful belief to be void of founda- 
tion in truth, is to suppose, that a principle 
of delusion was interwoven with the nature 
of man ; is to suppose, that his Creator was 
reduced to the necessity of impressing his 
heart with a falsehood, to make him an- 
swer the purposes of his being. 

Man, fallen from his primaeval felicity, is 
now undergoing probation and discipline 
for his final state. If we suppose that an- 
nihilation will succeed the present life, 
the whole state of man becomes not only 
inexplicable, but contradictory and incon- 
sistent. Endowed with capacities, which 
extend far beyond his present sphere, and 
fitted by his rational nature for immortality, 
he is stopped at his very entrance. He is 
active in pursuits, which he perceives to be 
vain. He languishes for knowledge, which 
is placed beyond his reach. He thirsts 
after a happiness, which he is doomed not 
to enjoy. The Almighty would never have 
called into existence this magnificent struc- 
ture, which he has adornd with so much 
beauty and splendour, and surrounded with 
such glorious luminaries, only that some 
generations of mortal men might arise to 
behold these wonders, and then for ever 
disappear. In such a case, how unsuitable 
would be the habitation to the wretched in- 
habitant ! How contradictory were every 
thing, which concerns the state of man, to 
the wisdom and perfection of his Maker ! 

To the arguments afforded by reason 
against annihilation, the Gospel adds the 
most irrefragable proofs. By it life and 
immortality are brought to light. The re- 
surrection of Christ from the grave is a sen- 
sible evidence, that death infers not a final 
extinction of the living principle. He rose, 
in order to show, that, in our name, he had 
conquered death, and was ' become the first 
fruits of them that sleep.' By ascending 
to heaven in a visible form, before many 
witnesses, he afforded an ocular demonstra- 
tion of the transition from this world into 
the region of the blessed. • In my Fa- 
ther's house,' says he, ' are many mansions. 
I go to prepare a place for you ; I will 
come again, and receive you to myself, 
that where I am, there ye may be also.' 
The circumstances of his coming again, are 
distinctly foretold. The sounding of the 
last trumpet, the resurrection of the dead, 
the appearance of the judge, and the solem- 
nity, with which he shall discriminate the 
good from the bad, are all described. The 
very words, in which he shall pronounce 
the final sentence, are recited. The holy 
and the good shall be ' caught up in the 
clouds to meet the Lord in the air.' They 
shall enter with him into the ' city of the 
living God,' and shall possess the ' new 
earth and new heavens, wherein dwelleth 
righteousness,' By recording such a 
train o\' striking circumstances and facts, 
the Gospel not only completely destroys 



ANN 



ANO 



every idea of our annihilation, but even fa- 
miliarizes us with a future state. Massillon's 
Sermons, vol. i. p. 213 ; Blair's Sermons, 
vol. i. p. 461, &c. 

ANNUNCIATION, the tidings brought 
by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary, 
of the incarnation of Christ. The angel 
Gabriel first announced the approach of 
this event to Zacharias, telling him that his 
son should be the forerunner and prophet of 
the Messiah. Six months after, Gabriel 
was sent to Nazareth, to the Virgin Mary, of 
the tribe of Judah, and family of David. 
The angel said to her ' Hail, thou that art 
highly favoured, the Lord is with thee : 
blessed art thou among women. When 
Mary saw him, she was troubled at his say- 
ing, and considered with herself what this 
salutation could mean. The angel said 
unto her, Fear not, Mary; for thou hast 
found favour with God. And behold, 
thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring 
forth a son, and shalt call his name Jesus. 
He shall be great, and shall be called the 
Son of the Highest. Mary said to the 
angel, How shall this be, seeing I know 
not a man V The angel answered, The 
Holy Ghost shall come upon thee : and 
the power of the Highest shall overshadow 
thee : therefore also, that holy thing, which 
shall be born of thee, shall be called the 
Son of God. And behold, thy cousin Eli- 
zabeth, she hath also conceived a son in 
her old age ; and this is the sixth month 
with her, who was called barren. For with 
God nothing shall be impossible. And 
Mary said, Behold the handmaid of the 
Lord, be it unto me according to thy word.' 
(Luke i. 5. 26, 27, &c.) Then the angel 
departed, and by the operation of the Holy 
Ghost, Mary conceived the only Son of the 
Father, who had been expected four thou- 
sand years, and was to be the happiness, the 
light, the salvation of men. The Church 
celebrates this festival on the twenty-fifth of 
March. 

As the history of the annunciation, as a 
part of the miraculous conception, has 
been lately impugned, it may be necessary 
to say something in its support. Mahomet, 
previously to his narrating the history of 
the annunciation, says, ' Remember what 
is written' These words prove, that Ma- 
homet had found it in some ancient writ- 
ings. He could scarcely have adopted 
the history, had it not been the general be- 
lief prior to his time ; as its primary aspect 
is so favourable to Christianity. It is 
therefore evident, that it was extant in other 
authorities, besides our present Gospels. 
The story has considerable resemblance to 
that of the annunciation of the birth of 
Samson, in which the angel was taken for a 
mere man, a prophet, and was not disco- 
vered till after his message had produced its 
effect. In like manner, an angel announced 
to Sarah the birth of Isaac, but was not 
91 



then known to be an angel. It does not 
appear that Mary knew Gabriel to be an 
angel, for she did not at first credit what he 
said ; but after he had, as a sign, given her 
information, that her cousin Elizabeth was 
pregnant, he departed. Now, if there ap- 
pears no reason against the predictions of 
the birth of Samson, of Isaac, and of 
John the Baptist, why should the prediction 
of the birth of Jesus, the Messiah, be 
thought unlikely to employ a heavenly mes- 
senger ? Gabriel was so human in appear- 
ance, that, like his fellows in ancient time, 
he was not discovered, perhaps not sus- 
pected, till after he had delivered his mes- 
sage. It ought also to be observed, that in 
the cases of the wives of Abraham, of 
Manoah, and of Zacharias, they were 
all married women, and advanced in years; 
but in the case of Mary, her youth, her 
consequent inexperience, and the absence 
of the ordinary intercourse with her hus- 
band, rendered it necessary for her to re- 
ceive some kind of information. Without 
such notice she could not have accounted 
for the circumstances that followed. Ad- 
denda to Cali/net's Dictionary. 

ANOINTERS, a religious sect, who were 
so called from the ceremony they used of 
anointing all persons before they admitted 
them into their church. They founded their 
opinion of anointing, on the following pas- 
sage of James : ' Let them pray over him, 
anointing him with oil in the name of the 
Lord.' (James v. 14.) 

ANOINTING, signifies to pour on oil. 
(Dan. x. 3. Gen. xxviii. 18.) It was a 
ceremony generally used among the Jews, 
in consecrating or setting apart to an office, 
and denoted that the person was endued 
with the gifts and graces of the Spirit. (Exod. 
xxviii. 41.) It also denoted the spiritual 
means of saving knowledge. (Rev. iii. 18.) 
Hence the Holy Ghost is called an unction 
or anointing. Thus, anointing denoted one 
particularly designed and chosen by God to 
be the king, priest, and prophet of his 
church ; namely, Jesus Christ, who was filled 
with the Holy Ghost in an extraordinary 
manner, and thereby consecrated to his 
office of Messiah. (Psalm ii. 2. Acts iv. 
27.) ' Touch not mine anointed,' (Psalm 
cv. 15.) signifies, hurt not the people con- 
secrated to myself by the gifts and graces 
of my Spirit, and especially those, to whom I 
familiarly reveal my mind and will, that they 
may teach others. 

The holy anointing oil, made by Moses, 
(Exod. xxx. 22, 23.) for the consecrating of 
the high-priest, and of all the sacred vessels 
used in the house of God, was one of those 
things, which the second temple wanted. The 
oil made and consecrated for this purpose. 
was ordered to be kept by the children of 
Israel throughout their generations, ami 
was, therefore, preserved in the holy place* 
Prideaux's Connect, p. i. b. 3. 



ANO 



ANT 



ANOMCEANS, the name, by which the 
pure Arians were called in the fourth cen- 
tury, in contradistinction to the Semi- Ari- 
ans. The word is formed from the Greek 
dvofiowg, different. For the pure Arians 
asserted, that the Son was of a nature dif- 
ferent from, and in nothing like that of the 
Father : whereas the Semi- Arians acknow- 
ledged a likeness of nature in the Son ; at 
the same time that they denied, with the 
pure Arians, the consubstantiality of the 
Word. The Semi- Arians condemned the 
Anomceans in the council of Seleucia ; and 
the Anomceans, in their turn, condemned 
the Semi- Arians in the councils of Constan- 
tinople and Antioch, erasing the word like, 
out of the formula of Rimim and Constanti- 
nople. Encyclop. Britann. 

ANT, a well known insect much celebra- 
ted for its industry and economy. The ant 
hath afforded Solomon a symbolical ex- 
pression, representing a diligent and labo- 
rious life. (Prov. vi. 6, 7> 8.) In another 
passage of the book of Proverbs, the same 
character of foresight is given to the ant, 
apparently by a different writer from So- 
lomon, (xxx. 25.) In these places the 
prudence of this little animal is commended 
for collecting in summer what is necessary 
for its subsistence in winter. From these 
testimonies, and from many others among 
the ancients, we may conclude, that, in 
warmer climates, ants do not sleep during 
winter, but continue more or less in acti- 
vity, and during this season enjoy the ad- 
vantages arising from their summer stores. 
This does not invalidate the remark of our 
naturalists, that in this colder climate, ants 
are torpid during winter. We know, that 
in our hot-houses, they are not torpid. 
Scripture Illustrated. 

ANTEDILUVIANS, a general name 
for all mankind who lived before the flood, 
including the whole human race from Adam 
to Noah and his family. See Deluge. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES, a sect of 
ancient heretics, who were so denominated 
from two Greek words dvOpuiiroq, man, and 
fioptyri, shape. They understood every 
thing spoken of God in Scripture in a lite- 
ral sense, and particularly that passage of 
Genesis, in which it is said, ' God made 
man after his own image.' Hence they 
maintained, that God had a human shape. 
Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 227 ; liroughlon's Hist. 
Lib. vol. i. p. 56. 

ANTIBURGHERS, a numerous body 
of dissenters from the church of Scotland, 
who differ from the established church 
chiefly in matters of church government. 
They also dill'er from the JJurglu r Kcccdcrs, 
with whom they were originally united, 
principally, if not solely, respecting the ta- 
king of the burgees oath. On certain oc- 
casions, the Antiburghers have betrayed 
an intolerant spirit towards those who dif- 
fer from them in opinion. They cxconmiu- 
92 



nicated the Burghers in a most solemn man- 
ner. The form of excommunication used 
by this people is as follows : A day is ap- 
pointed for a fast, and a tent erected in the 
fields, where several inflammatory sermons 
are preached to crowds of poor persons, 
who have left their employments to witness 
the solemn scene. After the sermon fol- 
lows a long prayer. Then the preacher, 
who is to repeat the excommunication, 
ascends the pulpit, and orders the hundred 
and ninth psalm to be sung, in which so 
many dreadful curses are imprecated on the 
enemies of God. Every passage, in which 
they find the enemies of God mentioned, 
they apply to the enemies of the church, 
under the Gospel, though it relates only to 
those heathen nations, who fought against 
the Jews. After the psalm is ended, the 
minister prays for a blessing on the curse he 
is about to pronounce. Then all the peo- 
ple standing up, he reads the crime of which 
the offender is guilty, and says, ' For these, 
and for all other acts of disobedience to 
the church, I, being a minister of Jesus 
Christ, and having power and authority 
from him, do, in his name, and by his au- 
thority, excommunicate and cast out of 
the true church of God, A. B., and de- 
liver him up to Satan to be tormented in 
the flesh, that his soul may be saved in the 
day of the Lord.' He concludes, by 
praying that God would ratify, seal, and 
confirm the sentence he has pronounced. 
See Seceders. Nurd on Religious Customs 
and Ceremonies. 

ANTICHRIST, the man of sin, who is 
to precede the second coming of our Savi- 
our, and who is represented in Scripture as 
the epitome of every thing impious, cruel, 
and abominable. St. Paul says, ' That 
day shall not come, except there come a 
falling away first, and that man of sin be 
revealed, the son of perdition: who op- 
poseth and exalteth himself above all that 
is called God, or that is worshipped ; so 
that he as God sitteth in the temple of 
God, showing himself that he is God. 
Remember ye not, that, when I was yet 
with you, 1 told you these things? And 
now ye know what withhoideth, that he 
might be revealed in his time. For the 
mystery of iniquity doth already work : 
only he, who now letteth, will let, until he 
be taken out of the way. And then shall 
that Wicked be revealed, whom the Lord 
shall consume with the spirit of his mouth, 
and shall destroy with the brightness of his 
coming: even him whose coming is after the 
working of Satan with all power and signs, 
and lying wonders, and with all deceiv- 
ableness of unrighteousness in them that 
perish; because they received not the love 
of the truth, that they might be saved. 
And lor this cause God shall send them 
strong delusion, that they should believe a 
lie.' (2 Thess. ii. 3, 4, 5, ivc.) 






ANT 



ANT 



This terrible picture of Antichrist appear- 
ed to Grotius to pourtray Caius Caligula, the 
Roman emperor, whom he supposed to be 
* the man of sin ;' but, according to the 
best chronologers, this epistle was not writ- 
ten till about twelve years after the death 
of that emperor, and therefore could not 
foretell the folly and wickedness of Cali- 
gula. 

Dr. Hammond supposes Simon Magus 
and the Gnostics to be here intended ; but 
Simon Magus had already shown himself an 
enemy to Christianity, and was not there- 
fore yet ' to be revealed.' The interpreta- 
tion respecting the Gnostics has been suffi- 
ciently confuted by Baxter, Whitby, Le 
Clerc, and others. 

Those, who apply this prophecy to the 
unbelieving Jews before the destruction of 
Jerusalem ; to the unbelieving Jews, who re- 
volted from the Romans, and to the Jewish 
converts, who apostatized from Christianity ; 
to Mahomet, who lays no claim to miracles ; 
to heathen Rome, which hath been already 
revealed ; or to the Protestants, who are not 
united under one common visible head on 
earth ; seem to have little or no foundation 
for their opinion. St. John informs us that 
in his time were many antichrists, (1 John 
ii. 18.) ; but he meant only heretics and per- 
secutors. In the book of Revelation, he 
describes Antichrist under the name of the 
beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless 
pit, killeth the two witnesses, and maketh 
war with the saints. (Rev. xi. 7, &c.) He 
afterwards represents him as a beast rising 
up out of the sea, having seven heads with 
ten horns, and ten crowns upon his horns, 
and upon his heads the name of blasphemy. 
The dragon, or the devil, is said to have 
given him his strength and power. (lb. xiii. 
1, &c.) In another place he speaks of the 
number of the beast, and says that it is six 
hundred threescore and six. (lb. xiii. 18.) 
Some believe the number 666, to be that 
of the letters in the name of Antichrist, ac- 
cording to their numerical valuation. 

That the Pope of Rome, or Rome Christ- 
ian, is St. Paul's ' man of sin,' appears pretty 
evident Hath not the Church of Rome 
fallen away from the simplicity of the true 
Christian faith, and, instead of worshipping 
God, through Jesus Christ the only Media- 
tor, substituted the doctrine of demons, and 
invoked the Virgin Mary and their other 
saints ? Is the worship of the Romish Church 
at this day, a worship in spirit and in truth ? 
When this apostasy should begin, then 
should appear the ' man of sin ;' not one in- 
dividual, but a regular succession of men, 
whose uniformity of character should perpe- 
tuate to them this title. This apostate power, 
the adversary, exalteth himself above every 
one that is called god, above the majesty of 
Caesar, the Roman emperor, the highest of 
earthly gods ; so that he, as God, sitteth in 
the temple of God, that is, in the church ot 



Christ, assuming at least the profession of a 
Christian. When it is announced, that the 
man, who fills the papal chair, is above all 
kings and emperors ; that he can command 
the elements by the consecration of images, 
which are empowered by him to restrain 
the voice of thunder, or to dim the glare of 
lightning ; and that he is the proprietor and 
disposer of the kingdoms of the earth, so 
that foreign princes wait on him as domes- 
tic servants, and permit him to tread upon 
their necks ; we acknowledge, in all these 
circumstances, ' the mouth of a man speak- 
ing great things, the look of a man more 
stout than his fellows.' To prevent the 
Thessalonians from being deceived in this 
matter, St. Paul mentions an obstacle to the 
appearance of this man of sin, which the 
best interpreters explain by the dominion 
of the Roman empire ; for if he had openly 
foretold the fall of the imperial sceptre, such 
a prediction would have subjected him to 
the charge of high-treason against Rome. 
The removal of this empire, as the apostle 
foretold, prepared the way for the promotion 
of the Roman pontiff, who is here emphati- 
cally called ' the man of sin,' — f the wicked 
or lawless one,' — ' the son of perdition.' 
Have not the Roman pontiffs been literally 
' men of sin ?' History represents many of 
them as infamous for their flagitious lives 
and corrupt morals ; whilst, by exerting 
their pretended privilege of granting par- 
dons and indulgences, they in reality encou- 
raged wickedness in others. Is he not 
justly styled 'the lawless one,' who claims 
the power of dispensing with all laws, and 
acts according to his own will I Is he not 
called (by an Hebrew idiom signifying one 
who deserves to perish, a person who justly 
incurs the punishment of death) the son of 
perdition, whose destruction is inevitable, 
who is to die 'without hand,' the object of 
Divine vengeance ? His coming was after 
the working of Satan, almost invisible and 
imperceptible, yet powerful and effectual 
' among them that were doomed to destruc- 
tion ;' because ' they received not the love 
of the truth,' — did not love and cherish a 
sincere regard for the Gospel truth, and 
' had pleasure in unrighteousness,' or ac- 
quiesced in many measures of injustice, as 
objects of their choice. 

The ostentation of miracles appertains to 
this man of sin, ' with all power, and signs, 
and lying wonders.' The Romanists as- 
sert, that churches have been carried 
through the air into distant countries ; that 
images have occasionally nodded, smiled, 
frowned, or spoken; that pictures of Ma- 
donas have opened and shut their eyes ; that 
crucifixes have moved their eye-lids; that 
St. Anthony of Padua collected a vast num- 
ber of fishes, which devoutly listened to the 
word of God; and that St. Francis preached 
with great success to birds and beasts. 
These and similar subjects embellish the 



ANT 



ANT 



history of papal Rome. The legends, in 
which they are registered, are richly fraught 
with vain and idle visions ; with apparitions 
of souls from purgatory; pretended ecsta- 
sies ; and conferences with angels, the Vir- 
gin Mary, and Jesus Christ himself! ! 

The apostle concludes by remarking, that 
God, for wise and gracious purposes, would 
permit this strong delusion to operate on the 
minds of those, who have rejected the truth, 
so that they should believe a lie, or the lie. 
Dr. Macknight thinks, that the lie here in- 
tended by the Spirit of God, is the mon- 
strous lie of transubstantiation, or the con- 
version of the bread and wine in the Lord's 
Supper, into the real and identical body and 
blood of Christ, through the will of the priest 
accompanying the pronunciation of the 
words of the institution, though no change 
whatever is produced in the accidents or 
sensible qualities of these substances. The 
final destruction of this anti-christian power 
is described in strong language: 'Whom 
the Lord shall consume with the spirit of 
his mouth, and shall destroy with the 
brightness of his coming.' This signifies, 
that the Lord shall consume him by the 
power of his evangelical word, and, by the 
brightness of his Divine appearance, the 
clear and glorious manifestation of the sa- 
cred truths of his religion, reduce him to a 
state of weakness, so that his interest, his 
influence, and his impostures, shall be to- 
tally annihilated. 

This gradual decline is happily expressed 
by a Greek word, which denotes a lingering 
consumption, similar to the waste of time, 
the dissipation of an estate, and the slow 
death of being eaten up by worms. 

The beast described in the Revelations as 
rising out of the sea, denotes a tyrannical 
and usurping power arising in times of great 
trouble and distress. Such was the papal 
government, which arose immediately on 
the dissolution of the Roman empire into 
several lesser kingdoms, and consequently 
in a season of great tumult and confusion. 
This beast is said to have 'seven heads and 
ten horns, and upon his horns ten crowns, 
and upon his heads the name of blasphemy.' 
The seven heads are the seven mountains, 
upon which Rome was built, or the seven 
forma of government, to which at different 
times it was subject; — namely, kings, con- 
suls, dictators, decemvirs, military tribunes, 
emperors, and popes. The ten horns are 
the ten kingdoms, i&to which the Roman 
empire was dismembered. The name of 
blasphemy affixed to the heads of the beast, 
implies the exercise of its authority, estab- 
lishing the blasphemy of idolatry in all the 
places of its jurisdiction. All these symbols 

designate papal Rome, the empire of which 

was to appear at a future time. The dragon 
is said to give the beast his power, his seat, 
and great authority. Satan, the inveterate 
cnemv of mankind, represented under the 
94 



figure of a serpent or dragon, promoted the 
interest of this new power, gave him his 
imperial throne, and invested him with his 
own great authority. We may presume that 
the dragon seemed to the prophet, by some 
solemn act of investiture, to delegate to the 
beast his dominion and pow r er. The coming 
of the wicked one was to be after the work- 
ing of Satan wdth all power, and signs, and 
lying wonders. The devil exercised his 
idolatrous tyranny over pagan Rome, and 
resigned his authority and jurisdiction to 
the power that presides over Rome Chris- 
tian. 

In the book of Daniel it is foretold, that 
this power should exercise dominion until a 
time and times and the dividing of time. 
(Dan. vii. 25.) This expression is generally 
admitted to denote 1260 years. The papal 
power was completely established in the 
year 755, when it obtained the exarchate of 
Ravenna. Some, however, date the rise of 
Antichrist in the year of Christ 606 ; and 
Mede places it in 456. If the rise of Anti- 
christ be not reckoned till he was possessed 
of secular authority, his fall will happen 
when this power shall be taken away. If his 
rise began, according to Mede in 456, he 
must have fallen in 1716; if in 606, it must 
be in 1866 ; if in 755, in 2015. If, however, 
we use prophetical years, consisting of 360 
days, and date the rise of Antichrist in the 
year 755, his fall will happen in the year of 
Christ 2000, and of the world about 6000 ; 
a period which remarkably coincides with a 
tradition among the Jews, that the Messiah 
shall then come, and the reign of the saints 
on earth commence. The power of the 
Pope has been greatly shaken: his domi- 
nion is, in a great measure, taken from him ; 
and every thing seems gradually proceeding 
towards a termination of his authority. It 
seems, indeed, extremely probable, that, at 
or before the completion of the year of Christ 
2000, Antichrist shall be finally destroyed. 
Dr. Zoucli's Attempt to illustrate some of the 
Prophecies of the Old and New Testament ; 
Benson's Essay on the Man of Sin ; Bishop 
Newton on the Prophecies. 

ANTIDORON, a name given by the 
Greeks to the consecrated bread, out of 
which the middle part marked with the 
cross, in which the consecration resides, 
being taken away by the priest, the re- 
mainder is distributed after mass to the 
poor. The word is formed from owpov, ' a 
gift,' as being given in charity. Some sup- 
pose that the antidoron is distributed in- 
stead of the sacrament, to such as are 
prevented from attending at the celebra- 
tion. 

ANTINOMIANS. The Antinomians 
derive their name from civri, against, and 
vofioc, a law ; their favourite tenet being 
that the law is not a rule of life to believers 
under the Gospel ; but it is not easy to de- 
termine what is meant by this position, and, 



ANT 



ANT 



indeed their very name is ambiguous. They 
are also sometimes called Solifidians, from 
solus, alone, and fides, faith, because they 
seem to carry the doctrine of faith without 
works so far as to separate practical holi- 
ness from Christian faith, and to injure, if 
not wholly destroy, every obligation to mo- 
ral obedience. 

The Antinomian or Solifidian heresy, 
which asserts that faith in Christ is the only 
thing required in man's salvation, and which 
originated from a perversion and misunder- 
standing of some passages in St. Paul's 
Epistle to the Romans, was one of the first 
that disturbed the Christian church ; and 
hence St. Austin says, that not only the 
Epistle of St. James, but also those of St. 
Peter, St. John, and St. Jude, were written to 
guard the faithful against its pernicious influ- 
ences. Since the apostolic age, so many have 
been the heresies, in the composition of which 
this opinion has been a principal ingredient, 
that there has never perhaps been a time, in 
which the state of the Christian church has 
not required its ministers to urge the doc- 
trine of St James, that faith without works 
is dead, or to warn the people against turn- 
ing the grace of God into lasciviousness. 

Modern Antinomianism may be traced to 
the period of the Reformation. Its founder 
was John Agricola, who was a native of 
Aiseleben, a contemporary, and originally 
a disciple of Luther, and who, being of a 
restless temper, wrote against Melancthon, 
and, about the year 1535, first taught An- 
tinomianism at Wittemberg. 

The supporters of the popish doctrines de- 
duced a considerable portion of the argu- 
ments, on which they rested their defence, 
from the doctrines of the old law. The too 
zealous reformer was encouraged by the suc- 
cess of his master to attack the very founda- 
tion of their arguments, and to deny that any 
part of the Old Testament was intended as a 
rule of faith, or of practice, to the disciples 
of Christ. Thus he not only rejected the 
moral authority of the ten commandments ; 
but he and his followers understood some 
expressions in the writings of the apostles in 
too literal a sense, and produced a system, 
which appears in many respects scarcely con- 
sistent with the moral attributes of the Deity. 

The principal doctrines, which at present 
are termed antinomian, are said to be as 
follows: 1. The law ought not to be pro- 
posed to the people as a rule of manners, 
nor used in the church as a means of in- 
struction ; and the Gospel alone ought to 
be inculcated and explained, both in the 
churches and in the schools of learning. 2. 
The justification of sinners is an immanent 
and eternal act of God, not only preceding 
all acts of sin, but the existence of the 
sinner himself. Some, however, suppose 
that the elect were justified at the time of 
Christ's death. 3. Justification by faith is 
only a manifestation to us of what was done 
95 



before we existed. 4. Men ought not to 
doubt of their faith, nor question whether 
they believe in Christ. 5. God sees no sin 
in believers, and they are not bound to con- 
fess sin, mourn for it, or pray that it may 
be forgiven. 6. God is not angry with the 
elect, nor does he punish them for their sins. 
7. By God's laying our iniquities upon 
Christ, he became as completely sinful as 
we, and we as completely righteous as 
Christ. 8. Believers need not fear either 
their own sins or the sins of others, since 
neither can injure them. 9. The new cove- 
nant is not properly made with us, but 
with Christ ; and this covenant is all of it a 
promise, and has no conditions for us to 
perform : for faith, repentance, and obe- 
dience, are not conditions on our part, but 
Christ's ; and for us he repented, believed, 
and obeyed. 

It does not appear that there were any 
Antinomians in England till after the re- 
formation, and few of them till the time of 
the civil wars. They were opposed by the 
Scotch Presbyterians, and by Rutherford 
in particular. Rutherford was learnedly 
answered by several clergymen, among 
whom were Dr. Crisp, and Mr. Saltmarsh, 
of Magdalen College. In the sermons pub- 
lished by Dr. Crisp's executors, it is asserted 
that Christ was even sin itself. It is true 
the apostle observes, He hath made him 
to be sin for us ; but in another place he 
explains this by saying, ' He suffered the 
just for the unjust.' Had Christ been sin 
itself, how could he have atoned for sin? 
The words mean only a vicarious sacrifice, 
by which Christ was substituted in the room 
of sinners. 

From the time of the civil wars till the 
rise of Methodism, the Antinomians were 
not much heard of in England. At that 
time they believed that the whole work of 
man's salvation was accomplished by Jesus 
Christ upon the cross ; that faith alone is re- 
quired in order to justification and salvation ; 
that there is only one duty, which is that of 
believing; that we are justified by sub- 
mitting our judgments to the truth of 
God's grace in Christ Jesus ; that God for- 
bids us to work for justification, and when 
the apostle Paul pressed men to believe, it 
was as much as if he had bid them not to 
work ; that the moral law is nothing to 
man, and that he is not bound to obey it ; 
that a spiritual man beholdeth justifying 
grace in believing, without his obedience 
to commands for external worship and good 
works ; that outward things avail nothing 
to salvation : that if love to God, and love 
to our neighbour, and relieving the poor, 
be altogether unprofitable either to justifi- 
cation or salvation, then these outward 
works, in submitting to outward ordinances, 
viz. the ordinances of Christ, arc much less 
available; that a believer has no inherent 
righteousness, and that our righteousness 



ANT 



ANT 



is only the imputation of Christ's righteous- 
ness ; that the trials of the spirit, commonly 
called sanctification, such as love, gentle- 
ness, long-suffering, goodness, meekness, 
temperance, do not render us holy before 
God, or in our own consciences, that is, we 
are not made good or holy by any in- 
ward qualities or dispositions, but being 
made pure and holy in our consciences by 
believing in Christ, we bear forth inwardly 
and outwardly the fruits of holiness ; that 
entire justification, and entire sanctifica- 
tion, are in the same instant, and, there- 
fore, neither of them is capable of increase 
or decrease ; that the very moment a be- 
liever is justified, he is wholly sanctified, 
and is neither more nor less holy from that 
hour to the day of his death ; and that a 
new born babe is as pure in heart as a 
father in Christ. 

It would seem at present, that the Anti- 
nomians are decreasing. God has implanted 
something in human nature, which teaches 
even the Heathens to shudder at the 
thoughts of a religion, which does not in- 
culcate morality. Christ taught his fol- 
lowers to do good, and pointed out to them 
the necessity of holiness ; and all the apos- 
tolical epistles abound with injunctions of a 
similar nature. Religion has been defined 
by a learned divine to be a dedication of 
the whole man to the will of God. The 
sanctions of all religions are obligations to 
duty ; and duty implies three things, namely, 
our duty to God, our neighbour, and our- 
selves. Our duty to God implies our attend- 
ance on such divine ordinances as are pre- 
scribed in his word, and to keep ourselves 
pure from all manner of pollution ; and our 
duty to our neighbour requires us to render 
him all the good we can, consistently with 
our consciences. These things, however, 
are despised by the Antinomians, who teach 
that men may sin as much as they please ; 
because, though God may hate sin, yet he 
takes pleasure in forgiving it. 

It appears, that whilst the Unitarians 
place the whole of religion in morality, to 
the disregard of Christian faith, the Antino- 
mians rely so much on faith as to undervalue 
morality. At least, their doctrines have had 
that appearance ; and it has been said, that 
their teachers have been thought to discharge 
the whole of their duty, if they inculcated 
the necessity of faith, and displayed the be- 
nefits of the new covenant. 

Both the Mystics and the Antinomians 
conceive themselves free from sin. The 
Mystics become free from sin by the in- 
timate union of their souls with God and 
Jesus Christ; and the Antinomians, by hav- 
ing all their sins laid on Jesus Christ. The 
Mystic docs not purposely do any thing, 
which wc should call wrong; — the Antino- 
niian performs things, which 8X6 wrong in 
themselves, but which, as they are done by 
him, who is a true Christian, are right i inso- 
0(1 



much that if he should steal, the act of theft 
would in him lose its criminal nature. 

It does not appear that any set of Christ- 
ians ever called themselves Antinomians, 
which is a term of opprobrium or reproach. 
Some of the chief of those, who have been 
charged with favouring Antinomianism, since 
the time of Agricola, or whose works at least 
have had that tendency, are Dr. Crisp, Messrs. 
Richardson, Saltmarsh, Hussey, Eaton, Town, 
Huntington, &c. 

It is, indeed, more than probable, that 
some, who have been charged with Antino- 
mian principles, should not be ranked among 
the Antinomians. When, however, they 
have asserted justification to be eternal, 
without distinguishing between the secret 
determination of God in eternity, and the 
execution of it in time ; when they have 
spoken lightly of good works, or asserted 
that believers have nothing to do with the 
law of God, without fully explaining what 
they mean ; when they assert that God is not 
angry with his people for their sins, nor in 
any sense punishes them for them, without 
distinguishing between fatherly corrections, 
and vindictive punishment; these expres- 
sions, whatever be the private sentiments of 
those, who advance them, have a tendency 
to injure the minds, if not the morals, of 
others. 

There was a time when faith and a good 
life were synonymous terms, or when no one 
was accounted a believer, who was not a prac- 
tical Christian ; and though the opinions of 
men may change, and heresies be found to 
make their periodical revolutions in the 
* Church,' like comets in the heavens, ' ne- 
vertheless the foundation of God standeth 
sure/ — with the faith of the Gospel, as with 
the Father of lights, there is no ' variableness, 
neither shadow of turning,' and that only is 
true and saving faith, ' which makes us to love 
God, to do his will, to suffer his impositions, 
to trust his promises, to see through a cloud, 
to overcome the world, to resist the devil, to 
stand in the day of trial, and to be comfort- 
ed in all our sorrows. This is that precious 
faith so mainly necessary to be insisted on, 
that by it we may be sons of the free woman. 
— There are but three things that make the 
integrity of Christian faith ; believing the 
word of God, confiding in his goodness, and 
keeping his commandments.' Bishop Tay- 
lor's Sermons, fol. p. 43 ; Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. ii. pp. 2C1, 262, &c ; 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. 
ii. p. 442 ; Hurd's Religious Customs and Ce- 
remonies, p. 778> &c. 

AN'TIOCH. According to Dr. Wells, 
there were no fewer than sixteen cities of 
this name in Syria and other countries. How- 
ever, the Scripture mentions only that Anti- 
och, which was the capital of Syria, and ano- 
ther Antioch in Pisidia. Antioch of Syria, if 
we may believe St. Jerom, was formerly call- 
ed liiblath or Kiblatha. Antioch is mention- 



ANT 



ANT 



ed only in the books of the Maccabees, and 
in the New Testament; but Riblath, or 
Riblatha, is found in the book of Num- 
bers, (xxxi v. 11.); in the books of Kings, 
(2 Kings xxiii. 33. ; xxv. 6, 20, 21.) and 
in Jeremiah, (xxxix. 5. ; lii. 9, 10. 26, 27.) 
Theodoret says, that in his time was a city 
called Riblah, near Emesa, in Syria; this 
is very contrary to St. Jerom's opinion. 
However this may be, it is certain that 
Antioch was not known under this name, 
till after the reign of Seleucus Nicanor, who 
built it, and called it Antioch, in memory 
of his father Antiochus, before Jesus Christ 
301. The kings of Syria, successors to 
Alexander the Great, generally resided at 
Antioch. Here the disciples of Jesus 
Christ were first called Christians. (Acts xi. 
26.) 

This city was by some called Antiochia 
Epidaphne, from its neighbourhood to 
Daphne, a village so denominated from its 
containing a temple of Daphne. In the 
flourishing times of the Roman empire, 
Antioch was the ordinary residence of the 
prefect or governor of the eastern pro- 
vinces, and was also honoured with the re- 
sidence of several of the Roman emperors, 
especially of Verus and Valens, who spent 
here the greatest part of their time. This 
city was situated on both sides of the river 
Orontes, about twelve miles distant from 
the Mediterranean Sea. It was almost 
square ; and part of it on the north side 
stood upon a high mountain. It was ad- 
mirably fortified by nature and art : and 
it was adorned in former times with gal- 
leries and fine fountains, sumptuous pa- 
laces, and magnificent temples. Ammia- 
nus Marcellinus says, that it was celebrated 
throughout the world, and that no city ex- 
ceeded it either in fertility of soil, or rich- 
ness of trade. The emperors Vespasian, 
Titus, and others, granted to it important 
privileges ; but it has been exposed to very 
great revolutions. It was almost demolished 
by earthquakes in the fourth, fifth, and 
sixth centuries. In 548, it was taken and 
burnt by the Persians, and the inhabitants 
were massacred; four years after, Justi- 
nian rebuilt it in a more beautiful and 
regular manner than before. However, 
the Persians took it a second time in 
574, and destroyed its walls. In 588, it 
suffered by another dreadful earthquake, 
in which 60,000 persons perished. It was 
again rebuilt, and again exposed to cala- 
mities. In 637, it was taken by the Sara- 
cens. In 966, Nicephorus Phocas, retook 
it from the Saracens. The Saracens after- 
wards again subdued it, and rendered it 
almost impregnable. However the Christ- 
ians, in the crusade, captured this place in 
1098 : but it was afterwards retaken and de- 
molished by the Saracens, in 1268. It has 
ever since lost its reputation and magnifi- 
cence, and has groaned under the dominion 
97 



of the Turks. The present state of Antioch 
is thus described : " This city, anciently re- 
nowned for the luxury of its inhabitants, is 
now no more than a ruinous town, whose 
houses, built with mud and straw, and narrow 
and miry streets, exhibit every appearance 
of misery and wretchedness." 

Antioch abounded with great men, and 
the church in this city was long governed 
by illustrious prelates. It was the birth- 
place of St. Luke the Evangelist, and of 
Theophilus, hence surnamed Antiochenus, 
and had St. Ignatius the martyr for its 
bishop. It, however, suffered much on seve- 
ral occasions, being sometimes exposed to 
the violence of heretics, and at other times 
rent by deplorable schisms. fVells's Geo- 
graphy, vol. ii. p. 239 ; Volney's Travels. 

Antioch of Pisidia, a city whither Paul 
and Barnabas came from Perga. It was 
also one of the cities built by Seleucus 
in honour of his father Antiochus. Here 
was a synagogue of the Jews, in which 
St. Paul preached an excellent sermon ; 
but the Jews, who were angry to see that 
some of the Gentiles received the Gospel, 
raised a sedition against Paul and Barna- 
bas, and compelled them to leave the city. 
(Acts xiii. 14. 16, &c.) 

ANTFOCHUS, 'Avrioxog, one who is 
equal in speed with a chariot. 

Antiochus Sote'r, was the son of 
Seleucus Nicanor, and obtained the sur- 
name of Soter, or Saviour, from having 
hindered the invasion of Asia by the Gauls. 
Some think that it was on the following 
occasion ; the Galatians having marched 
to attack the Jews in Babylon, whose 
army consisted only of eight thousand men, 
reinforced with four thousand Macedo- 
nians, the Jews defended themselves with 
so much bravery, that they killed one hun- 
dred and twenty thousand men. (2 Maccab. 
viii. 20.) It was perhaps, too, on this 
occasion, that Antiochus Soter made the 
Jews of Asia free of the cities belonging 
to the Gentiles, and permitted them to 
live according to their own laws. Joseph. 
Antiq. lib. xii. cap. 3. 

Antiochus Theos, or the Divine, was 
the son and successor of Antiochus Soter. 
He married Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, king of Egypt. Laodice, his 
first wife, seeing herself despised, poisoned 
Antiochus, Berenice, and their son, who 
was intended to succeed in the kingdom. 
After this, Laodioe procured Seleucus 
Callinicus, her son by Antiochus, to be 
acknowledged king of Syria. These events 
were foretold by Daniel : ' And in the 
end of years, the king of Egypt, or of the 
South, and the king of Syria, or of the 
North, shall join themselves together ; for 
the king's daughter of the South shall come 
to the king of the North to make an agree- 
ment -. but she shall not retain the power 
of the arm, neither shall he stand, nor his 

H 



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arm; but she shall be given up, and they 
that brought her, and he that begat her, 
and he that strengthened her in these 
times. (Dan. xi. 6.) 

Antiochus the Great, was the son 
of Seleucus Callinicus, and brother to Se- 
leucus Ceraunus, whom he succeeded, in 
the year of the world 3781, and before 
Jesus Christ 223. He made war against 
Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, but 
was defeated near Raphia. (3 Maccab. i.) 
Thirteen years after, Ptolemy Philopator 
being dead, Antiocbus resolved to become 
master of Egypt. He immediately seized 
Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judaea; but 
Scopas, general of the Egyptian army, 
entered Judaea while Antiochus was occu- 
pied by the war against Attalus, and re- 
took those places. However, he soon lost 
them again to Antiochus. 

On this occasion happened what Jose- 
phus relates of this prince's journey to 
Jerusalem. After a victory, which he had 
obtained over Scopas, near the springs of 
Jordan, he became master of the strong 
places in Ccele-Syria and Samaria; and the 
Jews submitted freely to him, received him 
into their city, and furnished his army 
plentifully with provisions. In reward for 
their affections, Antiochus granted them, 
according to Josephus, 20,000 pieces of 
silver, to purchase beasts for sacrifice, 
1460 measures of meal, and 375 measures 
of salt, to be offered with the sacrifices ; 
and timber to rebuild the porches of the 
Lord's house. He exempted the senators, 
scribes, and singing men of the temple, 
from the capitation- tax ; and he permitted 
the Jews to live according to their own 
laws, in every part of his dominions. He 
also remitted the third part of their tribute, 
to indemnify them for their losses in the 
war ; he forbade the heathens to enter the 
temple without being purified, and to bring 
into the city the flesh of mules, asses, and 
horses to sell, under a severe penalty. 

In the year of the world 3815, Antiochus 
was overcome by the Romans, and obliged 
to cede all his possessions beyond Mount 
Taurus, to give twenty hostages, among 
whom was his own son Antiochus, after- 
wards surnamed Epiphanes, and to pay a 
tribute of twelve thousand Eubceic talents, 
each fourteen Roman pounds in weight. 
To defray these charges, he resolved to 
seize the treasures of the temple of Belus, 
at Elyinais ; but the people of that country, 
informed of bis design, surprised and de- 
stroyed him, with all his army, in the year 
of the world 3817, Mid before Jesus Christ 
187- He left two sous, Seleucus Philopator, 
and Antioehus Epiphanes, who succeeded 
him. Joseph. Antiq. lib. xi i. cap. 3.; Polyb. 
lib. iii. x\i. ; Til. Lir. lib. xxxiii. 

Antiochus Efiph wi.s, the son of An- 
tiochus the Great, having continued an hos- 
tage at Home fourteen ve;us, his brother 
98 



Seleucus resolved to procure his return to Sy- 
ria, and sent his own son Demetrius to Rome, 
in the place of Antiochus. Whilst An- 
tiochus was on his journey to Syria, Se- 
leucus died, in the year of the world 3829. 
When, therefore, Antiochus landed, the 
people received him as some propitious 
deity come to assume the government, 
and to oppose the enterprises of Ptolemy 
king of Egypt, who threatened to invade 
Syria. For this reason, Antiochus ob- 
tained the surname of Epiphanes, the 
Illustrious, or of one appearing like a 
god. 

Antiochus quickly turned his attention 
to the possession of Egypt, which was then 
enjoyed by Ptolemy Philometor, his ne- 
phew, son to his sister Cleopatra, whom 
Antiochus the Great had married to Pto- 
lemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt. He sent 
Apollonius, one of his officers, into Egypt, 
apparently to honour Ptolemy's coronation, 
but in reality to obtain intelligence whether 
the great men of the kingdom were inclined 
to place the government of Egypt in his 
hands, during the minority of the king his 
nephew. (2 Maccab. iv. 21, &c.) Apollo- 
nius, however, found them not disposed to 
favour his master ; and this obliged Antio- 
chus to make war against Philometor. He 
came to Jerusalem in 3831, and was re- 
ceived there by Jason, to whom he had 
sold the high-priesthood. He designed to 
attack Egypt, but returned without effect- 
ing any thing. 

The ambition of those Jews, who sought 
the high-priesthood, and bought it of Anti- 
ochus, was the beginning of those cala- 
mities, which overwhelmed their nation 
under this prince. Jason procured himself 
to be constituted in this dignity in the stead 
of Onias III. ; but Menelaus offering a 
greater price, Jason was deprived, and Me- 
nelaus appointed in his place. These 
usurpers of the high-priesthood, to gratify 
the Syrians, assumed the manners of the 
Greeks, their games, and exercises, and 
neglected the worship of the Lord, and the 
temple-service. 

War soon broke out between Antiochus 
Epiphanes and Ptolemy Philometor. An- 
tiochus entered Egypt in the year of the 
world 3833, and reduced almost the whole 
of it to his obedience. (2 Maccab. v. 3, 4, 
5.) The next year he returned, and whilst 
he was engaged in the siege of Alexandria, 
a false report was spread of his death. The 
inhabitants of Jerusalem testifying their 
joy at this news, Antiocbus, when returning 
from Egypt, entered this city by force, 
treated the Jews as rebels, and commanded 
his troops to slay all they met Eighty 
thousand were killed, made captives, or 
sold on this occasion. Antiochus, con- 
ducted by die corrupt high-priest Mene- 
laus, entered into the holy of holies, whence 
he took, and carried off, the most precious 



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vessels of that holy place, to the value of 
1800 talents. 

In the year 3835, Antiochus made a 
third expedition against Egypt, which he 
entirely subdued. The year following, he 
sent Apollonius into Judaea, with an army of 
22,000 men, and commanded him to kill 
all the Jews who were of full age, and to 
sell the women and young men. (2 Mace. v. 
24, 25.) These orders were too punctually 
executed. It was on this occasion, that 
Judas Maccabaeus retired into the wilder- 
ness, with his father and brethren. (2 
Mace. v. 29.) These misfortunes were 
only preludes of what they were to suffer. 
Antiochus apprehended, that the Jews would 
never be constant in their obedience to him, 
unless he obliged them to change their 
religion, and to embrace that of the Greeks. 
He, therefore, issued an edict, enjoining 
them to conform to the laws of other na- 
tions, and forbidding their usual sacrifices 
in the temple, their festivals, and their 
sabbath. The statue of Jupiter Olympus 
was placed upon the altar of the temple ; 
and the abomination of desolation was 
seen in the temple of God. Many corrupt 
Jews complied with these orders, but others 
opposed them. Mattathias and his sons 
retired to the mountains. Old Eleazar, 
and the seven brethren, with their mother, 
suffered death with great courage at Anti- 
och. (2 Mace, vii.) 

Mattathias being dead, Judas Macca- 
baeus headed those Jews, who continued 
faithful, and opposed with success the ge- 
nerals, whom king Antiochus sent into 
Judaea. The king, informed of the valour 
and resistance of Judas, sent new forces ; 
and finding his treasures exhausted, he 
resolved to go into Persia, to levy tributes, 
and to collect large sums which he had 
agreed to pay to the Romans. (1 Mace. iii. 
5—31. ; 2 Mace. ix. 1, &c. ; 1 Mace. vi. 1, 
&c.) Knowing that very great riches 
were lodged in the temple of Elymais, he 
determined to carry them off; but the inha- 
bitants of the country made so vigorous a re- 
sistance, that he was forced to retreat to- 
wards Babylonia. When he was come to 
Ecbatane, he was informed of the defeat 
of Nicanor and Timotheus, and that Judas 
Maccabaeus had retaken the temple of Je- 
rusalem, and restored the worship of the 
Lord, and the usual sacrifices. 

On receiving this intelligence, the king 
was transported with indignation, and 
threatening to make Jerusalem a grave for 
the Jews, commanded the driver of his 
chariot to urge the horses forward, and to 
hasten his journey. However, Divine ven- 
geance soon overtook him ; he fell from his 
chariot, and bruised all his limbs. He was 
also tormented with such pains in his bowels, 
as allowed him no rest ; and his disease 
was accompanied by grief and vexation. 
In this condition he wrote to the Jews 
99 



very submissively, promised them many 
things, and engaged even to turn Jew, 
if God would restore him to health. He 
earnestly recommended to them his son 
Antiochus, who was to succeed him, and 
entreated them to favour the young prince, 
and to continue faithful to him. He died, 
overwhelmed with pain and grief, in the 
mountains of Paratacene, in the little town 
of Tabes, in the year of the world 3840, 
and before Jesus Christ 164. 

Antiochus Eupator, son of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, was only nine years old when 
his father died, and left him the kingdom 
of Syria. Lysias, who governed the king- 
dom in the name of the young prince, led 
against Judaea an army of one hundred 
thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and 
thirty elephants. (1 Mace. vi. ; 2 Mace, 
xiii.) He besieged and took the fortress 
of Bethsura, and thence marched against Je- 
rusalem. The city was ready to fall into his 
hands, when Lysias received the news that 
Philip, whom Antiochus Epiphanes had 
entrusted with the regency of the kingdom, 
had come to Antioch, to take the govern- 
ment, according to the disposition of the 
late king. He therefore proposed an ac- 
commodation with the Jews, that he might 
return speedily to Antioch, and oppose 
Philip. After concluding a peace, he im- 
mediately returned into Syria, with the 
young king and his army. 

In the meantime, Demetrius Soter, son 
of Seleucus Philopator, and nephew to An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, to whom by right the 
kingdom belonged, having escaped from 
Rome, came into Syria. Finding the peo- 
ple disposed for revolt, Demetrius headed 
an army, and marched directly to Antioch, 
against Antiochus and Lysias. However, 
the inhabitants did not wait till he be- 
sieged the city, but opened the gates, and 
delivered to him Lysias and the young king 
Antiochus Eupator, whom Demetrius caused 
to be put to deatb, without suffering them 
to appear in his presence. Antiochus Eu- 
pator reigned only two years, and died in 
the year of the world 3842, and before 
Jesus Christ 162. 

Antiochus Theos, or the Divine, the 
son of Alexander Balas, king of Syria, was 
brought up by the Arabian prince Elma- 
chuel, or, as he is called in the Greek, Si- 
malcue. (I Mace. xi. 39, 40, &c.) De- 
metrius Nicanor, king of Syria, having ren- 
dered himself odious to his troops, one Dio- 
dotus, otherwise called Tryphon, came to 
Zabdiel, a king in Arabia, and desired him 
to entrust him with young Antiochus, 
whom he promised to place on the throne 
of Syria, which was then possessed by De- 
metrius Nicanor. After some hesitation, 
Zabdiel complied with the request ; and 
Tryphon carried Antiochus into Syria, and 
put the crown on his head. The troops 
dismissed by Demetrius, came and joined 
)i 2 



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Tryphon, who, having formed a powerful 
army, defeated Demetrius, and forced him 
to retreat to Seleucia. Tryphon seized his 
elephants, and rendered himself master of 
Antioch, in the year of the world 3859, and 
before Jesus Christ 145. 

Antiochus Theos, to strengthen himself in 
his new acquisition, sent letters to Jonathan 
Maccabaeus, high-priest and prince of the 
Jews, confirming him in the high-priest- 
hood, and granting him four toparchies, or 
four considerable places in Judaea. He 
also received Jonathan into the number of 
his friends, sent him vessels of gold, per- 
mitted him to use a gold cup, to wear pur- 
ple, and a golden buckle ; and he gave his 
brother, Simon Maccabaeus, the command 
of all his troops on the coast of the Medi- 
terranean, from Tyre to Egypt. Jonathan, 
engaged by so many favours, declared re- 
solutely for Antiochus, or rather for Try- 
phon, who reigned under the name of this 
young prince ; and on several occasions, he 
attacked the generals of Demetrius, who 
still possessed many places beyond Jordan, 
and in Galilee. (1 Mace. xi. 63, &c. ; xii. 
24. 34.) 

Tryphon seeing young Antiochus in 
peaceable possession of the kingdom of 
Syria, resolved to usurp his crown. He 
thought it necessary, in the first place, to 
secure Jonathan Maccabaeus, who was one of 
the most powerful supporters of Antiochus's 
throne. He came, therefore, with troops 
into Judaea, invited Jonathan to Ptolemais, 
and there, on frivolous pretences, made him 
prisoner. However, Simon, Jonathan's 
brother, headed the troops of Judaea, and 
opposed Tryphon, who intended to take Je- 
rusalem. Tryphon, being disappointed, put 
Jonathan to death at Bassa or Bascama, and 
returned into Syria where, without delay, he 
executed his design of killing Antiochus. 
He corrupted the royal physicians, who, 
having published that Antiochus was tor- 
mented with the stone, murdered him, by 
cutting him without any necessity. Thus 
Tryphon was left master of Syria, in the 
year of the world 3861, and before Jesus 
Christ 143. 

Antiochus Sidetes, or Soter the Saviour, 
or Eusebes the Pious, was the son of Deme- 
trius Soter, and brother to Demetrius Ni- 
canor. Tryphon, the usurper of the king- 
dom of Syria, having rendered himself odi- 
ous to his troops, they deserted him, and 
offered their services to Cleopatra, the wife 
of Demetrius Nicanor. She lived in the 
city of Seleucia, shut up with her children, 
while her husband Demetrius was a pri- 
soner in Persia, where he had married Ro- 
deguna, the daughter of Arsaces, king of 
Persia. Cleopatra, therefore, sent to An- 
tiochus Sidetes, her brother-in-law, and 
offered him the crown of Syria, if he would 
marry her; to which Antiochus consented. 
This prince was then at Cnidus, where his 
100 



father, Demetrius Soter, had placed him 
with one of his friends. He came into Sy- 
ria, and wrote to Simon Maccabaeus, to en- 
gage him against Tryphon. (1 Mace. xv. 
1, 2, 3, &c.) He confirmed the privileges, 
which the kings of Syria had granted to 
Simon, permitted him to coin money with 
his own stamp, declared Jerusalem and the 
temple exempt from royal jurisdiction, and 
promised other favours as soon as he should 
obtain peaceable possession of the kingdom, 
which had belonged to his ancestors. Joseph. 
Antiq. lib. xiii. cap. xii. 

Antiochus Sidetes having married his 
sister-in-law, Cleopatra, in the year of the 
world 3865, the troops of Tryphon resorted 
to him in crowds. Tryphon, thus abandoned, 
retired to Dora, in Phoenicia, whither 
Antiochus pursued him with an army of 
120,000 foot, 8000 horse, and a powerful 
fleet. Simon Maccabaeus sent Antiochus 
two thousand chosen men, but the latter 
refused them, and revoked all his promises. 
He also sent Athenobius to Jerusalem, to 
oblige Simon to restore to him Gazara and 
Joppa, with the citadel of Jerusalem ; and 
to demand of him five hundred talents more, 
as reparation for injuries the king had suf- 
fered, and as tribute for his own cities. At 
the same time he threatened to make war 
upon him if he did not comply. Simon 
showed Athenobius all the lustre of his 
wealth and power, told him he had in his 
possession no place, which belonged to An- 
tiochus, and said that although the cities of 
Gazara and Joppa had greatly injured his 
people, yet he would give the king for the 
property of them one hundred talents. 

Athenobius returned with great indigna- 
tion to Antiochus, who was extremely of- 
fended at Simon's answer. In the mean 
time, Tryphon having escaped privately 
from Dora, embarked in a vessel and fled. 
Antiochus pursued him, and sent Cende- 
beus with troops into the maritime parts of 
Palestine, and commanded him to rebuild 
Cedron, and fight the Jews. John Hyrca- 
nus, son of Simon Maccabaeus, was then at 
Gaza, and gave notice to his father of the 
coming of Cendebeus. Simon furnished his 
sons, John Hyrcanus, and Judas, with troops, 
and sent them against Cendebeus, whom 
they routed in the plain, and pursued to 
Azotus. 

Antiochus followed Tryphon till he forced 
him to kill himself, in the year of the world 
3869. After this, Antiochus thought only 
of deducing to his obedience, those cities, 
which, in the beginning of his father's reign, 
had shaken oft' their subjection. Simon 
Maccabaeus, prince and high-priest of the 
Jews, being treacherously murdered by 
Ptolemy, his son-in-law, in the castle of 
Docus, near Jericho, the murderer imme- 
diately sent to Antiochus Sidetes to demand 
troops, that he might recover for him the 
country and cities of the Jews. Antiochus 



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came in person with an army, and besieged 
Jerusalem, which was bravely defended by 
John Hyrcanus. The siege was long pro- 
tracted ; and the king divided his army into 
seven parts, and guarded all the avenues of 
the city. It being the time for celebrating 
the Feast of Tabernacles, the Jews desired 
of Antiochus a truce for seven days. The 
king not only granted this request, but sent 
them bulls with gilded horns, and vessels of 
gold and silver filled with incense, to be 
offered in the temple. He also ordered 
such provisions as they wanted, to be given 
to the Jewish soldiers. This courtesy of 
the king so won the hearts of the Jews, that 
they sent ambassadors to treat of peace, and 
to desire that they might live according to 
their own laws. Antiochus required that 
they should surrender their arms, demolish 
the city walls, pay tribute for Joppa and the 
other cities they possessed out of Judaea, and 
receive a garrison into Jerusalem. To these 
conditions, except the last, the Jews con- 
sented ; for they could not be induced to see 
an army of strangers in their capital, and 
chose rather to give hostages and five hun- 
dred talents of silver. The king entered 
the city, beat down the breast-work above 
the walls, and returned to Syria, in the year 
of the world 3870, and before Jesus Christ 
134. 

Three years after, Antiochus marched 
against the Persians, or Parthians, and de- 
manded the liberty of his brother Demetrius 
Nicanor, who had been made prisoner long 
before by Arsaces, and was detained for the 
purpose of being employed in exciting a 
war against Antiochus. This war, there- 
fore, Antiochus thought proper to prevent. 
With an army of eighty thousand, or, as 
Orosius says, of one hundred thousand men, 
he marched towards Persia, and no sooner 
appeared on the frontiers of that country, 
than several eastern princes, detesting the 
pride and avarice of the Persians, came 
and surrendered. Antiochus defeated his 
enemies in three engagements, and took 
Babylon. He was accompanied in these 
expeditions by John Hyrcanus, high-priest 
of the Jews, who, it is supposed, obtained 
the surname of Hyrcanus, from some gallant 
action, which he performed. 

As the army of Antiochus was too nu- 
merous to continue assembled in any one 
place, he was obliged to divide it, to put it 
into winter quarters. These troops behaved 
with so much insolence, that they alienated 
the minds of all men. The cities, in which 
they were, privately surrendered to the Per- 
sians ; and all resolved to attack, in one day, 
the garrisons they contained, that the troops 
being separated might not assist each other. 
Antiochus at Babylon, obtained intelligence 
of this design, and with the few soldiers 
about him, endeavoured to succour his peo- 
ple. He was attacked in the way by 
Phraates, king of Persia, whom he fought 
101 



with great bravery ; but being at length 
deserted by his own forces, according to 
the generality of historians, he was over- 
powered and killed by the Persians or Par- 
thians. Appian, however, says, that he 
killed himself, and iElian, that he threw 
himself headlong from a precipice. The 
event took place in the year of the world 
3874, and before Jesus Christ 130. After 
the death of Sidetes, Demetrius Nicanor, 
or Nicetor, re-ascended the throne of 
Syria. Justin, lib. xxxviii. xxxix. ; Joseph. 
lib. xiii. cap. 16 ; Euseb. in Chronic. Oros. 
lib. v. cap. 10 ; JElian. de Animal, lib. x. 
cap. 34. 

After the princes already mentioned, two 
brothers, of the name of Antiochus, as- 
cended the throne of Syria. One of them 
was Antiochus Gryphus, or Philometor, the 
son of Demetrius Nicanor and Cleopatra ; 
the other, Antiochus of Cyzicus, the son of 
Cleopatra and Antiochus Sidetes. But as 
these princes are not mentioned in the 
Scriptures or apochryphal writings, to give 
any account of them would be foreign to our 
plan. 

ANTIP.EDOBAPTISTS, a distinguish- 
ing denomination given to those, who object 
to the baptism of infants. The word is de- 
rived from avr'i, ' against,' 7raTc, iraiSbg, ' a 
child,' and /3a7rri'£o>, ' I baptize.' 

AN'TIPAS "Avrnrae., signifies/or all, and 
against all. Antipas-Herod, or Herod- An- 
tipas, was the son of Herod the Great, and 
Cleopatra of Jerusalem. Herod the Great, 
in his first will, declared him his successor 
in the kingdom ; but he afterwards named 
his son Archelaus king of Judaea, and gave 
to Antipas only the title of tetrarch of 
Galilee and Peraea. Archelaus going to 
Rome, to persuade the emperor to confirm 
his father's will, Antipas also went thither. 
The emperor bestowed on Archelaus one 
moiety of what had been assigned him by 
Herod, with the quality of ethnarch, and 
promised to grant him the title of king, 
when he had shown himself deserving of it 
by his virtues. To Antipas Augustus 
gave Galilee and Peraea ; and to Philip, 
Herod's other son, Batanaea, Trachonitis, 
and Auranitis, with some other places. Jo- 
seph. Antiq. lib. xvii. cap. 13. 

Antipas returning to Judaea, took great 
pains in adorning and fortifying the princi- 
pal places of his dominion. He married 
the daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia, 
whom he divorced about the year of our 
Lord 33, that he might marry his sister-in- 
law Herodias, the wife of his brother Phi- 
lip, who was still living. John the Baptist, 
exclaiming against this incest, was seized by 
order of Antipas, and imprisoned in the 
castle of Machaerus. Josephus says, that 
Antipas caused John to be taken, because 
he drew too great a concourse after him ; 
and Antipas was afraid he should use his in- 
fluence over the people to induce them to 



ANT 



ANT 



revolt. But Josephus has reported the 
pretence for the true cause. The evange- 
lists, who were better informed than Jose- 
phus, as being eye-witnesses of what passed, 
and particularly acquainted with John and 
his disciples, assure us, that the true reason 
of imprisoning John, was the aversion of 
Herod and Herodias against him, on ac- 
count of his liberty in censuring their scan- 
dalous marriage, (Matt. xiv. 3, 4 ; Mark 
vi. 14. 17, 18; Luke iii. 19, 20.) Joseph. 
Antiq. lib. xviii. cap. 2. 

Even Herod feared and respected the 
virtue and holiness of John. He also did 
many things from regard to the Baptist ; but 
the passion of Herod for Herodias had cer- 
tainly much sooner prevailed against his 
life, had he not been restrained by his fear 
of the people, who universally esteemed 
John as a prophet. When the king was 
celebrating his birth-day, with the principal 
persons of his court, the daughter of Hero- 
dias danced before them, and pleased him 
so well, that he swore to give her whatever 
she should ask. She consulted her mother, 
who advised her to ask the head of John 
the Baptist. Returning, therefore, to the 
hall, she addressed herself to the king, and 
said, ' Give me here John Baptist's head in 
a charger.' The king was afflicted at this 
request ; but in consideration of his oath, 
and of the persons at table with him, he 
sent one of his guards, who beheaded John 
in prison. The head was brought in a large 
basin, and given to the young woman, who 
delivered it to her mother. (Matt. xiv. 5, 
6, &c.) 

Aretas, king of Arabia, to revenge the 
affront, which Herod had offered to his 
daughter, declared war against him, and 
vanquished him in a very obstinate contest. 
Josephus tells us, that the Jews attributed 
the defeat of Antipas to the death of John 
the Baptist. In the year of the Christian 
aera 39, Herodias being jealous of the pros- 
perity of her brother Agrippa, who from a 
private person had become king of Judaea, 
persuaded her husband Herod-Antipas to 
visit Rome, and desire the same dignity 
of the emperor Caius. She resolved to ac- 
company him, and hoped that her presents 
and appearance would contribute to pro- 
cure the emperor's favour. However, A- 
grippa obtaining intelligence of this design, 
wrote to the emperor, and accused Antipas. 
The messenger of Agrippa arrived at Baiae, 
where the emperor was, at the very time 
when Herod received his first audience. 
Cams, on the delivery of Agrippa's letters, 
read them with ureal earnestness. In these 
letters. Agrippa accused Antipas of having 
been a party in Sejanns's conspiracy against 
Tiberius, and said that lie still carried on a 

correspondence with Artabanus, king of 
Parthfa, against the Romans. As a proof 
of this, he. affirmed that Antipas had in his 

arsenals arms for Seventy thousand men, 

102 



Caius being angry, demanded hastily of An- 
tipas, if it were true that he had such a 
quantity of arms ? The latter not daring to 
deny it, was instantly banished to Lyons in 
Gaul. The emperor offered to forgive He- 
rodias, in consideration of her brother 
Agrippa ; but she chose rather to follow her 
husband, and to share his fortune in banish- 
ment. Joseph. Antiq. lib. xviii. cap. 9. 

This is that Antipas, who, being at Jeru- 
salem at the time of our Saviour's pas- 
sion, ridiculed Jesus, whom Pilate had sent 
to him, dressed him in worn-out royalty, and 
sent him back to Pilate as a mock king, 
whose ambition gave him no umbrage. 
(Luke xxiii. 7- 11.) The year of the death 
of Antipas is unknown ; but it is certain 
that he, as well as Herodias, died in exile. 
Josephus says, that he died in Spain, whi- 
ther Caius, on his coming into Gaul the 
first year of his banishment, might order him 
to be sent. 

Antipas, the faithful martyr or witness 
mentioned in the book of Revelation, (ii. 
13.) He is said to have been one of our 
Saviour's first disciples, and to have suffered 
martyrdom at Pergamus, of which he was 
bishop. His Acts relate that he was burnt 
in a brazen bull. 

Though ancient ecclesiastical history 
furnishes no account of this Antipas, yet it 
is certain that, according to all the rules of 
language, what is said concerning him by 
St. John, must be understood literally, and 
not mystically, as some interpreters have 
done. Bishop Tomline's Elements of Theo- 
logy, vol. i. p. 509 ; Lowman's Paraphrase on 
the Revelation, p. 16. 

ANTI'PATRIS must denote on behalf 
of the father. It was a town of Palestine, 
(Acts xxiii. 31.) and, according to Jose- 
phus, was anciently called Caphar Saba, 
but was named Antipatris, by Herod the 
Great, in honour of his father Antipater. 
It was situated in a pleasant valley near 
the mountains, in the way from Jerusalem to 
Caesarea. Josephus says, it was about one 
hundred and fifty furlongs, or seventeen 
miles from Joppa. Dr. Wells calls its an- 
cient name Capharsalma. Wells's Geog. 
vol. ii. p. 289 ( Sac. Geog. 

ANTISABBATARIANS, a modern re- 
ligious sect, who deny the necessity of ob- 
serving the sabbath-day. Their principal 
arguments are, that the Jewish sabbath 
was only of ceremonial, not of moral ob- 
ligation, and, consequently, is abolished by 
the coming of Christ ; that no other sab- 
bath was appointed to be observed by 
Christ or his apostles ; that the New Tes- 
tament does not contain a word respecting 
the breaking of the sabbath ; that no 
command was given to Adam or Noah to 
keep any sabbath ; and that, therefore, al- 
though Christians are commanded ' not to 
forsake the assembling of themselves toge- 
ther,' they ought not to consider one day 



ANT 



API 



more holy than another. See Sabbatarians 
and Sabbath. 

ANTITACTyE, a branch of the Gnostics, 
who held that God was good and just, but 
that a creature had created evil, and that we 
are therefore to oppose this author of evil, in 
order to avenge God of his adversary. 

ANTITRINITARIANS, those who 
deny the Trinity, and teach that there are 
not Three Persons in the Godhead. The 
Samosatenians, who do not believe the dis- 
tinction of persons in God ; the Arians 
who deny the divinity of the Word; and 
the Macedonians, who deny that of the Holy 
Spirit; are all properly Antitrinitarians. 
Among the moderns, by Antitrinitarians 
are principally understood Socinians, called 
also Unitarians. See Trinitarians and 
Trinity. 

ANTITYPE, a Greek word, properly 
signifying a type or figure corresponding to 
some other type. The original word oc- 
curs twice in the New Testament; viz. in 
the epistle to the Hebrews, (ix. 24.) and in 
the first epistle of St. Peter, (iii. 21.) 
where its genuine import has been much 
controverted. The former says, that 
' Christ is not entered into the holy places 
made with hands, which are dv-irvn-a, the 
figures or antitypes of the true — now to 
appear in the presence of God for us.' 
Now tvttoq signifies the pattern by which 
another thing is made ; and as Moses was 
obliged to make the tabernacle, and all 
things in it. according to the pattern, shown 
him on the Mount, the tabernacle so formed 
was the antitype of what was shown to 
Moses. Any thing, therefore, formed ac- 
cording to a model or pattern, is an anti- 
type. In the latter passage, the apostle 
speaking of Noah's flood, and the deliver- 
ance of only eight persons in the ark from it, 
says, Qi cai rjfidg clvt'itvtvov vvv G(jjZ,ii j3a7r- 
Tiafxa, ' Baptism, being an antitype to that, 
now saves us, (not the putting away the filth 
of the flesh, but the answer of a good con- 
science towards God, &c.) the meaning is, 
that righteousness, or the answer of a good 
conscience towards God, now saves us, by 
means of the resurrection of Christ; as 
formerly righteousness saved those eight 
persons by means of the ark during the 
flood. The word antitype, therefore, sig- 
nifies in this place a general similitude of 
circumstances ; and the relative y ' to 
which,' refers not to the immediate ante- 
cedent vcaTog, ' water,' but to all that 
precedes. 

ANTO'NIA, a tower or fortress at Jeru- 
salem, situated on the west and north angle 
of the temple, and built by Herod the Great, 
in honour of his friend Marc Antony. It 
stood upon an eminence cut steep on all 
sides, and inclosed by a wall three hundred 
cubits high. It was in the form of a square 
tower, and had a tower at each of the four 
corners. It was so high, that from it was 

103 



a full view of the temple; and there was 
a covered way of communication between 
it and the temple : so that as the temple 
was, in some sort, a citadel to the town, the 
tower of Antonia was a citadel to the tem- 
ple. The Romans generally kept a garri- 
son in this tower ; and from it the tribune ran 
with his soldiers, to rescue Paul out of the 
hands of the Jews, who had seized him in 
the temple, and intended to kill him. (Acts 
xxi. 31, 32.) 

ANTOSIANDRIANS, a sect of rigid 
Lutherans, who opposed the doctrines of 
Osiander relating to justification. They 
are otherwise denominated Osiandromas- 
tiges. The Antosiandrians deny that man is 
made just, with that justice, with which 
God himself is just ; that is, they assert that 
he is not made essentially, but only imputa- 
tively just, or that he is not really made 
just, but only so pronounced. 

APE, or Monkey, Simla, in Hebrew rpp 
Koph. It is a genus of quadrupeds of the 
order of the anthropomorpha, or quadrupeds 
that resemble the human figure. The Ourang 
Outang makes the nearest approaches to 
man, and is said to possess surprising swift- 
ness, address, and ferocity. Baboons con- 
stitute the second division of the ape kind, 
and form a large, fierce, and formidable 
race. The baboon properly so called, 
grows to the height of from three to four 
feet. Monkeys form the last division of 
the ape kind, and are discriminated by the 
length of the tail ; an appendage which in 
the former two divisions is either very' 
short, or entirely wanting. 

The Scripture says, that Solomon's fleet 
brought ivory and apes. (1 Kings x. 22.) 
It is likely that the loplum here men- 
tioned were now for the first time seen in 
Judea ? If so, and if they were apes, the 
monkeys and apes brought into Egypt by 
the African caravans must have singularly 
escaped the notice of the Jews. It is cer- 
tain that no former hint respecting them oc- 
curs in Scripture. If then apes be really 
the creatures meant by the word kophim, 
they were probably a species of a scarcer 
and more uncommon nature, than Africa 
could furnish by the way of Egypt. But 
this is founded on the supposition that they 
were now first seen in Judaea ; which we 
can neither affirm nor deny. Scripture 
Illustrated. 

APIS, an Egyptian deity, which was ei- 
ther an ox or a bull. To this animal great 
honours were paid during its life, but 
much greater after its death. When it 
died, a general mourning was observed, 
and its funeral was celebrated with ex- 
traordinary magnificence. At Heliopolis, 
the Egyptians maintained an ox, which 
they called Mnevis, and which was con- 
secrated to the sun ; and at Memphis, another 
named Apis, dedicated to the moon. On the 
death of one of these animals, the Egyptians 



APO 



APO 



sought a successor. The marks, hy which 
they distinguished it from the rest of its 
species, were a white spot on its forehead, 
in the shape of a half-moon ; the figure of 
an eagle on its back ; and that of a beetle 
under its tongue. When they found a 
calf with these marks, their mourning for 
the former animal was turned into joy; and 
they brought the new deity to Memphis, 
where it was installed with great ceremony. 
The Egyptians sacrificed bulls to Apis, and 
were so scrupulous in the choice of them, 
that if they found on them only a single 
black hair, they were deemed improper 
victims. Herodot. lib. iii. cap. 38 ; Pliny, 
lib. viii. cap. 46 ; Strabo, lib. xvii. 

Under this animal the Egyptians pre- 
tended to worship Osiris, whose soul, they 
said, migrated into a bull, and, by a suc- 
cessive transmigration, passed from one 
into another. It has been generally thought, 
that the golden calf, which Aaron made 
for the Israelites in the wilderness, and 
the calves set up by Jeroboam to be wor- 
shipped by the ten tribes, were imita- 
tions of the Egyptian Apis. See Calf, 
Cherub. 

APOCALYPSE, ' A-rroKaKvi/iQ, signifies 
revelation. It is, however, particularly ap- 
plied to the revelation, which St. John had 
in the isle of Patmos, whither he was ba- 
nished. The Apocalypse is a canonical 
book of the New Testament. Irenaeus 
thinks that it was written about the year of 
Christ 96, in the isle of Patmos, whither St. 
John was banished by Domitian. Sir Isaac 
Newton is of opinion, that this book 
was written in the time of Nero. In sup- 
port of this opinion, he alleges the sense 
of the earliest commentators, and the tra- 
dition of the churches of Syria, which is 
preserved in the title of the Syriac version 
of that book, and is as follows : ' The re- 
velation, which was made to John the Evan- 
gelist by God in the island of Patmos, into 
which he was banished by Nero the Caesar.' 
This opinion he tells us is further con- 
firmed by the allusions in the Apocalypse 
to the temple and altar, and holy city, 
as then standing; and also by the style 
of the book, which contains more Hebra- 
isms than his Gospel. Hence he infers 
that it was written when John had lately 
left Judaea. But why should the churches 
of Syria be alleged respecting the time 
of writing the Apocalypse, when that book 
was pot generally received by them? Be- 
sides, in the titles of the books of the 
New Testament received by them, are 
manifest errors; and we know not when 
the Syriac version of the Apocalypse was 
made. On the whole, there does not appear 
much Weight in any of the arguments of 
Sir Isaac Newton on this Bllbject It seems 
right to adhere to the common opinion, 
that St. John was banished into Patmos, 
hi the reign of Domitian, and hy virtue of 
104 



his edicts for persecuting the Christians, in 
the latter part of his reign. ' All antiquity 
is agreed,' says Mr. Lampe, ' that St. 
John's banishment was by order of Domi- 
tian.' It appears from the book itself, that 
churches had already existed in Asia for 
some time ; as St. John, in the name of 
Christ, reproves faults, which do not im- 
mediately happen. The church of Ephesus 
had left her first love ; and that of Sardis 
had a name to live, but was dead. The 
church of Laodicea was fallen into luke- 
warmness and indifference. But the church 
of Ephesus was not founded by St. Paul, 
before the last years of Claudius ; and in 
CI or 62, when St. Paul wrote to them from 
Rome, instead of reproving them, he com- 
mends their love and faith, (i. 15.) It 
appears from the Revelation, that the 
Nicolaitans were a sect, when this book 
was written, since they are expressly 
named ; whereas, they were only foretold, 
and described in general terms by St. 
Peter in his second epistle, written after the 
year sixty, and in St. Jude's about the time 
of the destruction of Jerusalem by Ves- 
pasian. It is evident, from different places 
of the Revelation, that there had been an 
open persecution in the provinces ; and it is 
certain that Claudius did not persecute the 
Christians, and that the persecutions of 
Nero did not reach the provinces. On the 
whole, the visions here recorded, and the 
publication of them in this book, must be 
assigned, says Lardner, to the years of 
Christ, 95 and 96, or 97- 

Some have attributed this book to the 
arch-heretic Cerinthus ; but the ancients 
unanimously ascribe it to John the son of 
Zebedee, and brother of James. The 
Revelation has not at all times been es- 
teemed canonical. St. Jerom informs us, 
that it was not received by many churches 
of Greece ; and it is not to be found in the 
catalogue of the canonical books prepared 
by the council of Laodicea, nor in that of 
St. Cyril of Jerusalem. However, Justin, 
Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of 
Alexandria, Tertullian, and all the fathers 
of the fourth, fifth, and following centuries, 
quote the Revelations as a book acknow- 
ledged to be canonical. The Alogians, 
Marcionites, Cerdonians, and even Luther 
himself, rejected this book : but in this 
particular the Protestants have forsaken Lu- 
ther, and Beza has strongly maintained 
against his objections, that the Apocalypse 
is authentic and canonical. On the whole 
it appears, that this book has been gene- 
rally received in all ages, though some have 
doubted it, or rejected it, particularly the 
Syrians, and other Eastern Christians. It 
may, however, be questioned whether their 
exceptions, founded on the difference ot 
style, &c. or any other criticisms whatever, 
can be sufficient to create a doubt concern- 
ing the author of this book, which was 



APO 



APO 



acknowledged as a writing of John, the 
apostle and evangelist, as far as we know, 
before the most early of those, who dis- 
puted its authenticity. 

The genuineness of the Revelation ap- 
pears also from its internal evidence. 1. 
{ The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God 
gave unto him, to show unto his servants 
things, which must shortly come to pass ; 
and he sent, and signified it by his angel, 
unto his servant John.' (Rev. i. 1.) Hence, 
it is argued, that John calls himself the 
servant of Christ, in a sense not common 
to all believers, but peculiar to those, who are 
especially employed. In like manner, Paul, 
and other apostles, call themselves servants 
of God and of Christ. (Rom. i. 1. James i. 
1. 2 Pet. i. 1. Jude 1.) This observa- 
tion tends to show that the writer is an 
apostle. 2. ' Who bare record of the word 
of God, and of the testimony of Jesus 
Christ, and of all things that he saw.' 
Some think, that the writer in this passage 
refers to the written Gospel of St John, 
and that he says, he had already borne 
testimony concerning the word of God, 
and Jesus Christ. But the expression is 
ambiguous, and may be understood of the 
book of Revelation, and the matters it 
contains. 3. It is argued in favour of the 
genuineness of this book, that it contains 
many instances of conformity, both in 
sentiment and expression, between the 
Revelation and the uncontested writings of 
St. John. Our Saviour says, ' Be of good 
cheer ; I have overcome the world,' (John 
xvi. 33.) In St. John's first Epistle, Christ- 
ian firmness under trials is frequently 
represented by overcoming the world, or 
overcoming the wicked one, (ii. 13, 14. ; iv. 
4. ; v. 4, 5.) This language is peculiar to 
St. John, and is found in no other books of 
the New Testament. In the Revelation, 
our Saviour says, ' To him that overcometh 
will I grant to sit with me in my throne, 
even as I also overcame, and am set down 
with my Father in his throne, (iii. 21.) 
Compare also ii. 7. 11. 17. 26. ; iii. 5. 12. 
and xxi. 7. Lardner's History of the apos- 
tles and Evangelists, in Bishop Watson's 
Theolog. Tracts, vol. ii. p. 500. 

The book of the Revelation contains 
twenty-two chapters. The first three are 
epistolary admonitions and instructions to 
the angels of the seven churches in Asia 
Minor ; Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, 
Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Lao- 
dicca. The next fifteen chapters contain 
representations of the persecutions, which 
the church was to suffer from Jews, Here- 
tics, and Heathens, particularly from the 
emperors Dioclesian, Maximin, Hercu- 
lius, Severus, Maxentius, Maximinus, Lici- 
nius, and Julian the Apostate. After this, 
we have a display of the divine vengeance 
against its persecutors, the Roman empire, 
and the city of Rome, which is described 
105 



under the name of Babylon, the great 
whore, seated upon seven hills. The 
whole is terminated by a description of 
the victories of the church, and its triumph 
over its enemies ,• of the marriage of the 
Lamb, and the celestial happiness of the 
church triumphant It has been observed 
that the Revelation of St. John is written 
in the same style and language as the pro- 
phecies of Daniel, to which it bears re- 
lation ; and that all of them together form 
one consistent prophecy, and point out the 
various revolutions that would attend both 
Church and State. 

Several other Apocalypses have been 
ushered into the world at different times, 
and under different names, but they are 
now considered as spurious. 1. The Apo- 
calypses, or Revelations of St. Peter, men- 
tioned by Eusebius and St. Jerom, and 
cited by Clemens of Alexandria in his 
Hypotyposes; but we know of none of 
them that are extant. 2. The Apo- 
calypses or Revelation of St. Paul, an 
apocryphal book, used among the Gnos- 
tics and Cainites. This book, as they 
pretended, contained those ineffable things, 
which the apostle saw during his ecstasy, 
and which, he informs the Corinthians, he 
was not permitted to divulge, (2 Cor. xii. 
4.) 3. The Apocalypse of St. John, dif- 
ferent from the true Apocalypse, and of 
which there is a manuscript in the library 
of the emperor of Austria, 4. The Apo- 
calypse of Cerinthus, who composed cer- 
tain Revelations, in which he spoke of an 
earthly kingdom, and certain sensual plea- 
sures, which the saints should enjoy at 
Jerusalem for a thousand years. It has 
been already observed, that some of the 
ancients suspected Cerinthus to be the 
author of St. John's Revelation ; perhaps 
this mistake arose from this imitation by him 
of that work, and the ill use he made of the 
apostle's writings, the better to authorize 
his own visions. 5. The Apocalypse of 
St Thomas, known only by Pope Gela- 
sius's decree, which ranks it among the 
apocryphal books. 6. The Apocalypse of 
Adam, forged by the Gnostics, probably 
from what is said in Genesis, of the Lord's 
causing a deep sleep to fall on Adam, or, 
according to the Septuagint, an ecstasy. 
7- The Apocalypse of Abraham, which 
was forged by the Sethian heretics, and, 
as Epiphanius informs us, abounded with 
filth and nastiness. 8. The Apocalypse of 
Moses, which, Cedrenus says, some au- 
thors assert to be the same work as Genesis 
the Less, another apocryphal book extant 
among the ancients. Syncellus, speaking 
of this Apocalypse, says, that from it is 
taken the following passage of St. Paul to 
the Galatians: ' Neither circunnision 
availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision, but 
a new creature,' (vi. 15.) 9. The Apoca- 
lypse of Elias, from which, St. Jerom says, 



APO 



APO 



the following passage of St. Paul is bor- 
rowed : ' Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, 
neither have entered into the heart of 
man, the things which God hath prepared 
for them that love him.' (1 Cor. ii. 9.) 
Origen, in his citation of them, tells us 
that these words are no where found, but in 
the secret books of Elias. 

APOCRYPHAL, ' AiroKpvfog, signifies 
hidden or concealed, and is an epithet given 
to those books, which are not admitted 
into the canon of Scripture, and which 
are either spurious, or at least not acknow- 
ledged as divine. But it is not known why 
those books, which are not comprehended 
in the canon of Scripture, and which ne- 
vertheless are esteemed by some as sacred, 
are called apocryphal. St. Austin says, 
that they are so denominated, because 
their origin was unknown to the fathers of 
the first ages. St. Jerom calls those books 
apocryphal, which do not belong to the au- 
thors, whose names are prefixed to them, 
and which contain dangerous forgeries. 
In other places, he seems to restrain the 
word apocryphal to the books of heretics ; 
and it is in this sense, that Pope Gelasius 
understands it in his decretal. Some say 
the apocryphal books were so denominated 
because they were concealed, and not read 
commonly, or in public ; others, that they 
were so called, because they deserve to be 
concealed, or forgotten. St. Epiphanius 
seems to have had a peculiar notion of the 
origin of this title, when he says, ' The 
books of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus are 
not reckoned among the sacred writings, 
because they were not deposited in the ark 
of the covenant.' By the ark of the co- 
venant is probably meant the ark or chest, 
in which the Jewish archives were preserved 
in the temple. Hence it appears that the 
apocryphal books are so called enzb Tfjg 
KpvTTrriQ, because they were not contained 
in the chest, in which the sacred writings 
were deposited ; or more probably from the 
verb cnroicpvTrTw, to hide or conceal, because 
they were concealed from the generality of 
readers, their authority not being recognised 
by the church, and because they are books, 
which are destitute of proper testimonials, 
their originals being obscure, their authors 
unknown, and their character either heretical 
or suspected. 

The apocryphal books, according to the 
sixth article of the church of England, are 
the following : — 

The Third Book of Esdras, 

The Fourth Book of Esdras, - 

The Hook of Toliit, 

The Book of Judith, 

The lust of the Book of Esther, 

The Book of Wisdom, 

.lesus the Son of Sirach, 
Baroch the Prophet, 
The Song of tin- three Children, 
The Storv of Susanna, 
106 



The Story of Bel and the Dragon, 

The Prayer of Manasses, 

The First Book of Maccabees, 

The Second Book of Maccabees. 

These, however, in the language of the 
article, " the church reads for example of 
life and instruction of manners, but 
doth not apply them to establish any doc- 
trine." They possess no authority, 
internal or external, to procure their 
admission into the sacred canon. They 
contain no prophecy or other authentic 
mark of inspiration ; they were all written 
subsequently to the cessation of the pro- 
phetic spirit, but previously to the promul- 
gation of the Gospel; they were not in- 
cluded in the Jewish canon, and therefore 
received no sanction from our Saviour ; 
they are not cited nor alluded to in any 
part of the New Testament, they are not 
mentioned as inspired writings by any 
ecclesiastical writer of the first three cen- 
turies ; and they are expressly rejected by 
Athanasius and Jerom in the fourth cen- 
tury. Though these two fathers, and se- 
veral subsequent authors, speak of these 
books with respect, yet the same authority 
was never ascribed to them as to the Old 
and New Testament, till the council ol 
Trent, at its fourth session, admitted them 
all, except the prayer of Manasses, and 
the third and fourth books of Esdras, into 
their canon. This still continues one of 
the many points of difference between the 
church of Rome and that of England. No 
reason, therefore, exists for applying the 
books of the Apocrypha to establish any 
doctrine. They are highly valuable as an- 
cient writings, which throw considerable 
light on the phraseology of Scripture, and 
on the history and manners of the East ; 
and as they contain many noble sentiments 
and useful precepts, our church, in imita- 
tion of the primitive church of Christ, doth 
read than for example of life and instruction 
of manners. But our church does not read 
all the books of the Apocrypha : it reads 
no part of either book of Esdras, or of the 
Maccabees, or of the book of Esther; and 
it does not read the Song of the Three 
Children, nor the Prayer of Manasses. 
Bishop Tom/ine's Elements of Theology, 
vol. ii. p. 197, 198, 199- 

APOLLINARIANS, or Apollina- 
rists, or, as they are called by Epiphanius, 
Dimaritae, a sect, who derived their princi- 
pal name from Apollinaris, bishop of 
Laodicea, in the fourth century. Apol- 
linaris strenuously defended the divinity of 
Christ against the Arians ; but, by indulg- 
ing too freely in philosophical distinctions 
and subtilties, he denied in some measure 
his humanity. He maintained that the 
body, which Christ assumed, was endowed 
with a sensitive, and not a rational soul, 
and that the Divine nature performed the 
functions of reason, and supplied the place 



APO 



APO 



of the intellectual principle in man. Hence 
it seemed to follow, that the Divine nature 
in Christ was hlended with the human, and 
suffered with it the pains of crucifixion and 
death. Apollinaris, and his followers, have 
heen charged with other errors, by certain 
ancient writers ; but it is not easy to deter- 
mine how far their charge is deserving of 
credit It would appear that the infe- 
rence drawn from the doctrine of Apolli- 
naris, that the divine nature suffered with 
the human, is not just ; for if the human 
soid does not suffer death by the dissolution 
of the body, neither can the divine nature. 
The doctrine of Apollinaris was first con- 
demned by a council at Alexandria in 362, 
and afterwards in a more formal manner by 
a council at Rome in 375, and by another 
council in 378, which deposed Apollinaris 
from his bishopric. In short, it was attacked 
at the same time by the laws of the emperors, 
the decrees of councils, and the writings of 
the learned, and sunk, by degrees, under 
their united force. Mosheim's Eccles. His- 
tory, vol. i. p. 344. 

APOLLO'NIUS, an officer belonging to 
Antiochus Epiphanes, whom Grotius, as he 
is called Mysarches in the Greek, supposes 
to have been governor of Mysia. Antio- 
chus having resolved to draw great sums 
from Jerusalem, sent thither Apollonius, to 
execute his design, in the year of the world 
3836, and before Jesus Christ 168. Apol- 
lonius went, at the head of twenty-two thou- 
sand men, and pretended he would continue 
in Jerusalem without giving any disturbance. 
He remained quiet till the Sabbath-day, 
when, attacking the people, he put great 
numbers to the sword, burnt and pillaged 
the city, and carried away ten thousand cap- 
tives. (1 Mace. i. 30, 31. 2 Mace. v. 24, &c.) 
Two years after, Judas Maccabseus having 
collected an army of six thousand Jews, 
Apollonius, who was at that time in Samaria, 
marched against him, but was killed in the 
engagement, and his troops were either dis- 
persed or cut to pieces. (1 Mace. iii. 10, 
&c.) 

Apollonius Daus, governor of Coele- 
Syria, having abandoned the party of 
Alexander Balas, and joined Demetrius 
Nicanor, headed a powerful army to com- 
pel the Jews to declare for Demetrius. He 
encamped at Jamnia, and wrote to Jona- 
than Maccabaeus, challenging him to de- 
scend into the plain, and reproaching him 
for continuing among rocks and mountains. 
Jonathan, stung with these reproaches, sat 
down before Joppa, with his brother Simon, 
and ten thousand chosen troops. The gar- 
rison, which was composed of the troops of 
Apollonius, shut the gates ; but the citizens, 
perceiving that Jonathan intended to force 
them, opened the gates, and received him. 
(1 Mace. x. 6«), &c.) Joseph. Jiitiq. lib. xiii. 
cap. 8. 

Apollonius, informed that Jonathan had 
107 



taken Joppa, advanced to Azotus, with 
three thousand horse, and eight thousand 
foot ; having left one thousand horse in am- 
buscade near a brook, to attack the Jews in 
their rear. But Jonathan having received 
intelligence of this design, ranged his troops 
in such a manner, that they could face the 
enemy on each side, and forbade them to 
quit their ranks ; commanding them to stand 
firm, and receive the first onset. Apollo- 
nius's horse tired themselves all day, with 
throwing darts and arrows against Jona- 
than's troops, who received them on their 
bucklers, and were very little incommoded 
by them. Towards evening, Jonathan 
charged the enemy, and completely defeated 
them. Some who escaped threw themselves 
into the temple of Dagon, near Azotus, 
whither Jonathan pursued them, and burnt 
them with the temple. He also took the 
city of Azotus, which he pillaged and burnt. 
In this action, Apollonius lost eight thou- 
sand men. See Demetrius, Jonathan, 
&c. 

APOL'LOS, 'A7roX\wc, signifies one that 
destroys and lays ivaste. Apollos was a Jew 
of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus in the 
year of our Lord 54, during the absence of 
St. Paul, who had gone to Jerusalem. (Acts 
xviii. 24.) He was an eloquent man, and 
mighty in the Scriptures, and taught dili- 
gently the things of the Lord ; but as he 
knew only the baptism of John, he was no 
more than a catechumen, and not fully in- 
formed of the higher branches of Gospel 
doctrine. However, he knew that Jesus 
Christ was the Messiah, and declared him- 
self openly as his disciple. At Ephesus, 
therefore, he began to speak boldly in the 
synagogue, and demonstrated by the Scrip- 
tures that Jesus was the Christ. Aquila and 
Priscilla having heard him there, took him 
with them, and instructed him more fully in 
the ways of God. 

Some time after, he inclined to go into 
Achaia, and the brethren wrote to the dis- 
ciples there, desiring them to receive him. 
He was very useful at Corinth, where he 
watered what St. Paul had planted. (1 Cor. 
iii. 6.) It has been supposed, that the 
great fondness of his disciples for him, al- 
most produced a schism ; some said, I am of 
Paul; some, I am of Apollos; and others, 
I am of Cephas. But this division, which 
St. Paid mentions and reproves in his first 
Epistle to the Corinthians, did not prevent 
Paul and Apollos, personally, from being 
closely united by the bands of Christian 
charity and affection. Apollos, hearing 
that the apostle was at Ephesus, went to 
meet him, and was there when St. Paul 
wrote the first Epistle to the Corinthians. 
in which he observes, that he had earnestly 
entreated Apollos to return to Corinth, hut 
though he had not prevailed with trim, 
Apollos gave him room to hope* that he 
would visit that city at a favourable oppot> 



APO 



APO 



tunity. Some have supposed, that the 
apostle names Apollos and Cephas, not as 
the real persons, in whose names parties had 
been formed at Corinth, but that, in order 
to avoid provoking a temper, which he 
wished to subside, he transfers by a figure, 
to Apollos and himself, what was really 
meant of other parties, whom from prudence 
he declines to mention. However this 
might be, the reluctance of Apollos to return 
to Corinth, seems to countenance the gene- 
ral opinion. 

St. Jerom says, that Apollos was so dis- 
satisfied with the division, which had hap- 
pened on his account at Corinth, that he 
retired into Crete, with Zeno, a doctor of 
the law ; but that this interruption of Christ- 
ian harmony having been appeased by the 
-letter of St. Paul to the Corinthians, Apol- 
los returned to that city, of which he was 
afterwards bishop. The Greeks say that he 
was bishop of Duras ; some, that he was bi- 
shop of Iconium, in Phrygia ; and others, of 
Caesarea. 

APOSTASY, a forsaking or renouncing 
our religion, either by an open declaration 
in words, or a virtual declaration by our 
actions. The primitive Christian church 
distinguished several kinds of apostasy: 
the first, of those who went entirely from 
Christianity to Judaism ; the second, of 
those who mingled Judaism and Christ- 
ianity together ; the third of those who 
complied so far with the Jews, as to com- 
municate with them in many of their un- 
lawful practices, without formally pro- 
fessing their religion; and the fourth, of 
those who, after having been some time 
Christians, voluntarily relapsed into Pa- 
ganism. 

Other degrees of apostasy are the fol- 
lowing: I. Indifference an religious mat- 
ters, and the want of all concern respecting 
religion. 2. The withdrawing from the 
public testimonies of the profession of 
religion, by forsaking the assemblies of 
Christians convened for the worship and 
service of God. 3. A departure from the 
purity of the Christian doctrine and wor- 
ship, in a gross and notorious manner. 
4. The renouncing and forsaking of Christ- 
ianity, or of some essential part of Christ- 
ianity. 

The sin of apostasy must be confessed to 
be very great. When God has revealed 
his will to mankind, and sent his own Son 
to declare this will, and afforded such tes- 
timonies to him by 'signs and wonders, and 
divers miracles, and gifts of the Holy 
Ghost ;' when he has transmitted to us 
so faithful a record of this revelation, and 
of the miracles wrought to confirm it, in 
the Scriptures ; and when we ourselves 
have so often declared our firm belief of 
this revelation; to apostatize and deny it, 
or to embrace doctrines and practices 
plainly contrary to what it teaches, is the 
108 



greatest contempt of the testimony of God. 
In fact, it is to declare that we either do 
not believe the authority of God, or pay 
no regard to the Creator of the universe. 
• He that believeth not God, hath made him 
a liar, because he believeth not the record 
which God gave of his Son.' He, who 
apostatizes from his religion, or any prin- 
ciple of it, on any other account than a 
full conviction of its falsehood, is either an 
atheist, or a profane and wicked person, 
who though he believes his religion to be 
true, yet exchanges it for another, which he 
believes to be false, merely for the sake of 
some temporal advantage. He who, with- 
out thorough conviction, abandons the pro- 
fession of his religion whether true or false, 
forfeits all the rewards, and incurs all the 
penalties, which true religion promises and 
denounces. He, who viciously abandons his 
religion, betrays God, and falsifies to him 
his trust. He, who renounces his religion, 
through fear of being disappointed in some 
covetous and ambitious hope, is an instance 
of the greatest baseness and impiety. See 
Fall of Man. Tillotson's Sermons; Sher- 
lock's Sermons; Scot's Christian Life; Sharpe's 
Sermons. 

APOS'TLE, 'Attoo-toXoc, properly sig- 
nifies a messenger, or person sent by another 
on some business. Hence, by way of emi- 
nence, it denotes one of the disciples 
commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the 
Gospel. Out of the number of his disciples 
our blessed Lord selected twelve to be in- 
vested with the apostleship. (Matt x. 1. ; 
Mark vi. 7-; Luke ix. 1.) Their names 
were Simon Peter, Andrew, James the 
Greater, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Tho- 
mas, Matthew, James the Less, Jude, sur- 
named Lebbeus or Thaddeus, Simon the 
Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot. Of these, 
Simon, Andrew, James the Greater, and 
John, were fishermen ; and Matthew was a 
publican, or receiver of the public revenues. 
Of what profession the rest were, we are 
not told in Scripture, though it is probable 
they were fishermen. 

There are various conjectures with re- 
spect to the reason of our Saviour's choos- 
ing twelve apostles. The most probable is, 
that it was in allusion to the twelve patri- 
archs, as the founders of their several tribes, 
or to the twelve chief heads, or rulers of 
those tribes, of which the body of the Jewish 
nation consisted. This opinion seems to 
be countenanced by what our Saviour tells 
his disciples, that 'when the Son of Man 
shall sit in the throne of his glory, they 
shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the 
twelve tribes of Israel.' (Matt. xix. 
28.) 

Our Lord's first commission to his apos- 
tles was in the third year of his public mi- 
nistry, about eight months after their so- 
lemn election, when he sent them out by 
two and two. They were to provide no 



JLobuisonsDictionarv 





Fkihkshal Nov' 20,1834 , by S/unrood. Gilbax £ Piper. London . 



APO 



APO 



money for their subsistence in their journey, 
but to expect it from those, to whom they 
preached. (Matt. x. 5 &c.) They were 
to declare that the kingdom of heaven, or 
the Messiah, was at hand, and to confirm 
their doctrine by miracles. They were not 
to go either to the Gentiles, or the Sama- 
ritans, but to confine their preaching to the 
people of Israel. In obedience to their 
Master's directions, the apostles went into 
all the parts of Palestine inhabited by the 
Jews, preaching the Gospel, and working 
miracles. (Mark vi. 12.) The evangelical 
history is silent as to the particular circum- 
stances attending this first preaching of the 
apostles, and only informs us, that they re- 
turned, and told their Master all that they 
had done. (Luke ix. 10.) 

Their second commission, just before 
our Lord's ascension into heaven, was of a 
more extensive and particular nature. 
They were now not to confine their preach- 
ing to the Jews, but to ' go and teach all 
nations, baptizing them in the name of 
the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
Holy Ghost.' (Matt, xxviii. 19, 20.) 
Accordingly, they began publicly, after 
our Lord's ascension, to exercise the office 
of their ministry, daily working miracles 
in proof of their mission, and converting 
great numbers to the Christian faith. This 
alarming the Jewish Sanhedrim, the apos- 
tles were apprehended, and being examined 
before the high-priest and elders, were 
commanded not to preach any more in 
the name of Christ. (Acts iv.) But this 
injunction did not terrify them from per- 
sisting in the duty of their calling ; for they 
continued daily, in the temple, and in pri- 
vate houses, teaching and preaching the 
Gospel. 

After the apostles had exercised their 
ministry for twelve years in Palestine, they 
resolved to disperse themselves in different 
parts of the world, and agreed to determine 
by lot what parts each should take. Ac- 
cording to this division, St. Peter went 
into Pontus, Galatia, and other provinces 
of the Lesser Asia. To St Andrew were 
allotted the vast countries of Scythia and 
Sogdiana. St. John's portion was partly 
the same as Peter's, namely, the Lesser 
Asia. To St. Philip was assigned Upper 
Asia, with some parts of Scythia and 
Colchis. Arabia Felix fell to the lot of 
St. Bartholomew. St. Matthew preached 
in Chaldsea, Persia, and Parthia. St. Tho- 
mas preached also in Parthia, as well as to 
the Hyrcanians, Bactrians, and Indians. 
St. James the Less continued in Jerusalem, 
of which church he was bishop. To St. Simon 
were allotted Egypt, Cyrene, Libya, and 
Mauritania; to St. Jude, Syria and Meso- 
potamia; and to St. Matthias, who was 
chosen in the room of the traitor Judas, 
Cappadocia and Colchis. Thus, by the 
dispersion of the apostles, Christianity was 
109 



very early planted in very many parts of 
the world. Of their travels and actions 
we have only short and imperfect accounts. 
In order to qualify the apostles for the 
arduous task of converting the world to 
the Christian religion, they were in the 
first place, miraculously enabled to speak 
the languages of the several nations, to 
whom they were to preach, (Acts ii.) ; 
and in the second place, they were endowed 
with the power of working miracles, in 
confirmation of the doctrines they taught. 
These gifts were unnecessary, and there- 
fore ceased, in the after ages of the church, 
when Christianity was established by the 
civil power. 

St. Paul is frequently called the apostle 
by way of eminence, and the apostle of the 
Gentiles, because his ministry was used for 
the conversion chiefly of the Gentile world. 
St. Peter was employed in converting the 
Jews, and was therefore called the apostle 
of the circumcision. The several apostles 
are usually represented with their respec- 
tive badges or attributes: St. Peter is seen 
with the keys ; St. Paul, with a sword ; 
St. Andrew, with a cross ; St. James the 
Less, with a fuller's pole ; St. John, with a 
cup, out of which a dove is flying ; St. Bar- 
tholomew, with a knife ; St. Philip, with a 
long staff, the upper end of which is formed 
into a cross ; St. Thomas, with a lance ; St. 
Matthew, with a hatchet ; St. Matthias, 
with a battle-axe ; St. James the Greater, 
with a pilgrim's staff and a gourd-bottle; 
St. Simon, with a saw ; and St. Jude, with a 
club. 

The appellation of apostle was also given 
to the ordinary travelling ministers of the 
church. Thus, St. Paul says, ' Salute 
Andronicus and Junia, my kinsmen, and my 
fellow prisoners, who are of note among 
the apostles.' (Rom. xvi. 7-) It was also 
a title given to those, who were sent by the 
churches to carry their alms to the poor of 
other churches. This usage was borrowed 
from the synagogues, who called those sent 
on this message by the same name. Thus 
St. Paul tells the Philippians, that Epaphro- 
ditus their apostle, or messenger, had minis- 
tered to his wants. (Phil. ii. 25.) 

The appellation is given in like manner 
to those, who first planted the Christian faith 
in any place. Thus, Dionysius of Corinth 
is called the apostle of France ; Xavier, the 
apostle of the Indies ; and in the East In- 
dies, the Jesuit missionaries are styled 
apostles. 

Apostle is also used among the Jews for 
an officer anciently sent into the several 
parts and provinces in their jurisdiction, 
by way of visitor or commissary, to see 
that the laws were duly observed, and to 
receive the monies collected for the 
ration of the temple, and the tril ute \ y- 
able to the Romans. These apostles were 
a degree below the officers of the syna- 



APO 



APO 



gogue called patriarchs, from whom they 
received their commissions. Apostle, in 
the Greek liturgy, is used for a book con- 
taining the epistles of St. Paul, printed 
in the order in which they are to be 
read in churches, through the course of 
the year. 

APOSTLES' CREED, a formula or sum- 
mary of the Christian faith. Ruffinus says, 
that it was drawn up by the apostles them- 
selves, who during their stay at Jerusalem, 
soon after our Lord's ascension, agreed upon 
this creed, as the rule of faith, and a word 
of distinction, by which, they might know 
friends from foes. Baronius, and some 
other authors, conjecture, that they did not 
compose it till the second year of the reign 
of Claudius, a little before their dispersion. 
With respect to the manner of composing it, 
some imagine, that each apostle pronounc- 
ed his article, and that this is the reason 
of its being called symbolum apostolicum, it 
being formed of sentences jointly contribu- 
ted, after the manner of persons paying each 
their quota {symbolum) or share of a reckon- 
ing. 

But there are reasons, which may induce 
us to doubt whether the apostles composed 
any such creed. These reasons, according 
to Du Pin, are as follow : First, neither St. 
Luke in the Acts, nor any other ecclesias- 
tical writer before the fifth century, men- 
tions an assembly of the apostles, for the 
purpose of composing a creed. Secondly, 
the fathers of the first three centuries, in 
disputing against the heretics, endeavoured 
to prove, that the doctrine contained in 
this creed was the same as the apostles 
taught ; but they never pretend, that it was 
composed by the apostles. Thirdly, if the 
apostles had composed this creed, it would 
have been the same in all churches, and in 
all ages ; and all authors would have cited 
it after the same manner. But the case is 
quite otherwise. In the second and third 
ages of the church, there were as many creeds 
as authors ; and one and the same author 
quotes the creed after a different manner, 
in several places of his works. This is an 
evidence, that there was not at that time 
any creed, which was reputed to be that 
of the apostles. In the fourth century, 
Ruffinus compares together the three 
ancient creeds of the churches of Aquileia, 
Rome, and the East, which differed very 
considerably in the terms. Besides, these 
creeds differed not only in the terms and 
expressions, but also in the articles, some 
of which were omitted in one or other of 
them; as these of the 'descent into hell,' 
the ' comm un ion of saints,' and the 'life 
everlasting.' From these reasons it appears 

that, though this creed may he said to he 
that Of the apOBtleS, with respect to the 
doctrines contained in it, yet it is not to be 

referred to diem as the authors and com- 
posers of it. Who was the true author of 
110 



it is not so easy to determine ; though its 
great antiquity may be hence inferred, that 
the whole form, as it now stands in the 
English liturgy, is to be found in the works 
of St. Ambrose and Ruffinus, who lived in 
the fourth century. Bishop of Lincoln's 
Elem. of Theol. vol. ii. p. 226. 

The primitive Christians did not publicly 
recite the creed, except at the times of 
baptism, which, unless in cases of necessity, 
were only at Easter and Whitsuntide. The 
constant repeating of it was not introduced 
into the church till the end of the fifth cen- 
tury. About that time, Petrus Gnapheus, 
bishop of Antioch, prescribed the recital 
of it every time divine service was per- 
formed. 

APOSTOLIC, Apostolical, something 
that relates to the apostles, or descends 
from them. Thus we say, the apostolical 
age, apostolical character, apostolical doc- 
trine, constitutions, traditions, &c. 

In the primitive church, it was an appel- 
lation given to all such churches as were 
founded by the apostles, and even to the 
bishops of those churches, as the reputed 
successors of the apostles. These were con- 
fined to four; Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, 
and Jerusalem. In succeeding ages, the 
other churches assumed the same quality, 
on account, principally, of the conformity 
of their doctrine with that of the churches, 
which were apostolical by foundation, and 
because all bishops held themselves suc- 
cessors of the apostles, or acted in their 
dioceses with the authority of apostles. 

The first time the term apostolical is attri- 
buted to bishops, is in a letter of Clovis to 
the council of Orleans, held in 511, though 
that king does not in it expressly denomi- 
nate them apostolical, but aposlolicd sede 
dignissimi, highly worthy of the apostolical 
see. In 581, Guntram calls the bishops 
assembled at the council of Macon aposto- 
lical pontiffs. In progress of time, (tie 
bishop of Rome increasing in power above 
the rest, and the three patriarchates of 
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, having 
fallen into the hands of the Saracens, the title 
apostolical was restrained to the pope and 
his church alone. At length, some of the 
popes, and St. Gregory the Great, not con- 
tent to hold the title by this tenure, began 
to insist, that it belonged to them by another 
and peculiar right, as the successors of St. 
Peter. In 1049, the country of Rheims 
declared, that the pope was the sole apos- 
tolical primate of the universal church. 
Hence a great number of apostolicals ; 
apostolical see, apostolical nuncio, aposto- 
lical notary, apostolical chamber, aposto- 
lical brief, apostolical vicar, &c. Cham- 
bers '.v Cyclopadia, vol. i. 

APOSTOLIC (AXONS, rules or laws, 
for the government of the Christian church, 
supposed by some to have been drawn 
up by the apostles themselves. Baro- 



APO 



APO 



nius and Bellarmine rejected the last thirty- 
five as apocrypha], but admitted the first 
fifty as genuine. Dr. Beveridge, with others, 
is of opinion that though these canons 
were not written by the apostles, yet 
they were very ancient, and were properly 
a collection of the canons of several 
councils held before that of Nice. Mr. 
Daille pretends that these canons are of a 
more modern date, and were not collected 
till about the latter end of the fifth century. 
To prove that these canons did not pro- 
ceed from the apostles themselves, Du 
Pin observes, that they contain many 
things, which never could have been esta- 
blished by the apostles. In particular, the 
first canon orders, that a bishop shall not 
be ordained, except by two or three 
bishops ; whereas, in the apostles' days, 
one bishop was sufficient to ordain another. 
In the 34th and 35th, mention is made of 
the jurisdiction of metropolitans, an order 
not established in the time of the apostles. 
The 52d is against the error of the Monta- 
nists and Novatians ; and many of them re- 
late to questions, which could not have 
been debated till several years after the 
death of the apostles. 

APOSTOLIC FATHERS, an appellation 
usually given to the writers of the first cen- 
tury, who employed their pens in the cause 
of Christianity. The apostolic fathers are five 
in number, namely, Barnabas, Clement, 
Hermas. Ignatius, and Polycarp. Of their 
writings, Cotelerius, and after him Le Clerc, 
have published a collection in two volumes, 
accompanied by their own annotations, and 
the remarks of other learned men. Arch- 
bishop Wake also published the genuine 
epistles of the apostolic fathers. 

It has been observed, that the apostolical 
fathers were not remarkable for their 
learning or their eloquence. On the con- 
trary, they express the most pious and ad- 
mirable sentiments in the plainest style. 
This, indeed, is rather a matter of honour, 
than of reproach to the Christian cause ; as 
it proves, that the progress of Christianity 
is not to be attributed to human means, but 
to a divine power. Mosheim' s Eccles. Hist. 
vol. i. p. 92. 

APOSTOLICI, or apostolics, a name 
assumed by three different sects, on account 
of their pretending to imitate the manner 
and practice of the apostles. 

The first apostolici, otherwise called apo- 
tactitae and apotactici, sprang from the En- 
cratites, and Cathari, in the second century. 
They professed to abstain from marriage, 
and the use of wine, flesh, money, &c. 

The second sect of the apostolici belonged 
to the twelth century. Their religious 
doctrine, as St. Bernard, who wrote against 
them, says, was free from error, and their 
lives and manners were irreproachable and 
exemplary. Yet they were reprehensible 
on account of the following peculiarities : 



1. They held it unlawful to take an oath. 

2. They permitted their hair and beards to 
grow to an enormous length. 3. They pre- 
ferred celibacy to wedlock, and called 
themselves the chaste brethren and sisters. 
4» Each man, however, after the manner 
of the apostles, had a spiritual sister, with 
whom he lived in a domestic relation. 

Gerhard Sagarelli was the founder of 
the third sect. He obliged his followers to 
travel from one place to another as the 
apostles did, and to wander about clothed 
in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, 
and bare heads, accompanied by women, 
whom they called their spiritual sisters. 
They also renounced all kinds of property 
and possessions, inveighed against the in- 
creasing corruptions of the church of Home, 
and predicted its overthrow, and the estab- 
lishment of a purer church on its ruins. Sa- 
garelli was burnt at Parma, in the year 1300. 
He was succeeded by a bold and enter- 
prising man, named Dulcinus, a native of 
Novara, who published his predictions with 
more courage, and maintained them with 
greater zeal, than his predecessor. He 
appeared at the head of the apostles ; and 
acting not only in the character of a pro- 
phet, but also in that of a general, he 
assembled an army to maintain his cause. 
He was opposed by Raynerius, bishop of 
Vercelli, who defended the interest of the 
Roman pontiff", and, for more than two 
years, carried on a bloody and dreadful 
war against this chief of the apostles. The 
issue of the contest was fatal to Dulcinus, 
who, after several battles, fought with ob- 
stinate courage, was at length taken pri- 
soner, and put to death at Vercelli, in the 
most barbarous manner, in the year 1307- 
The death of Dulcinus was not immediately 
followed by the downfall of his sect, which 
subsisted in France, Germany, and other 
countries, till the beginning of the fifteenth 
century, when, under the pontificate of 
Boniface IX. it was totally extirpated. 
Mosheim, vol. iii. pp. 132, 133. 

APOS'TOOLIANS, a sect of the Men- 
nonites, which first sprang up in the year 
1664, and derived its name from Samuel 
Apostool, an eminent minister among the 
Mennonites at Amsterdam. They not only 
zealously defended the doctrine generally re- 
ceived among the Mennonites, respecting 
the divinity of Christ and the fruits of his 
death, but also maintained the ancient hy- 
pothesis of a visible and glorious church of 
Christ on earth. They admitted to their 
communion those only, who professed to 
believe all the points of doctrine, which are 
contained in their public confession of faith. 
Mosheim, vol. v. p. 50. 

APOTACTIT^E, or Apotactici, an 
ancient sect, who affected to follow the 
examples of the apostles, and renounced all 
their effects and possessions. It does not 
appear, that at first they held any erroneous 



APP 



AQU 



opinions ; but they afterwards taught, that 
the renouncing of all riches was not a mat- 
ter of counsel and advice only, hut of pre- 
cept and necessity. Encyclop. Britan. 

APPLE, a well known fruit, consisting 
of a rind or skin, a pulp or parenchyma, 
the branchery or seed-vessels, and the core. 
It is produced by a tree of the same name. 
The apple, however, is an appellation 
given to several other fruits, on account of 
their resemblance to the common apple. 
This fruit is frequently mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. Solomon says, that ' a word fitly 
spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of 
silver ;' but in the Hebrew it is, ' apples 
of gold in baskets (or net work) of sil- 
ver.' Some think these golden apples were 
probably oranges or citrons. The first fruits, 
say the Rabbins, were carried to the tem- 
ple in silver baskets. 

With every disposition to render the 
taphuach of the Hebrews by the citron, as is 
now generally done, the testimony of M. 
Forskall is a very great impediment. The 
name is undoubtedly the same ; and it is a 
name remarkable in its formation. Celsus 
thought that the apples of Scripture were 
quinces, which he shows from ancient au- 
thors were golden in colour, delicious in 
taste, fragrant in smell, and refreshing be- 
yond our quinces in England. The apple- 
tree was extremely rare ; yet in Joel, it is 
enumerated among the valuable, but not 
uncommon, garden-trees, the vine, the fig, 
the pomegranate, and the palm, (i. 12.) 
Does the apple, the citron, or the quince, 
best coincide with these ? It is probable, 
that the apple was cultivated by Solomon 
with peculiar care ; and as it grows with 
difficulty in hot countries, he might bestow 
on it uncommon attention. Taylor's Scrip- 
ture Illustrated, p. 26. 

APRIES a king of Egypt, called in the 
sacred writings Pharaoh Hophrah. (Jerem. 
xliv. 30.) Apries was the son of Psammis, 
and grandson of Necho, or Nechao, who 
waged war against Josiah, king of the Jews. 
He reigned twenty- five years, and was long 
considered as one of the happiest princes in 
the world ; but having equipped a fleet for 
the reduction of the Cyrenians, he lost in 
this expedition almost the whole of his 
army. The Egyptians resolved to make 
hirn responsible for this ill success, rebelled, 
and pretended that he undertook the war 
oidy to get rid of his subjects, and that he 
might govern the remainder more absolute- 
ly. Apries deputed Amasis, one of bis offi- 
cers, to suppress the rebellion, and induce 
the people to return to their allegiance. 
But, while Amasis was haranguing them, 
one of the multitude placed a diadem about 
his helmet, arid proclaimed him king. The 
rest applauded him, and Amasis, having ac- 
cepted their oiler, continued with them, and 
confirmed them in their rebellion. Amasis 
put himself at the head of the rebels, and 
112 



marched against Apries, whom he defeated 
and took prisoner. Amasis treated him 
with kindness ; but the people were not sa- 
tisfied till they had taken him from Amasis, 
and strangled him. Such was the end of 
Apries, according to Herodotus. Jeremiah 
threatened this prince with being delivered 
into the hands of his enemies, as he had de- 
livered Zedekiah, king of Judah, into the 
hands of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby- 
lon. (Ibid.) 

Apries had made a league with Zedekiah, 
and promised him assistance. (Ezek. xvii. 
15.) Zedekiah, therefore, relying on his 
forces, revolted from Nebuchadnezzar, in 
the year of the world 3414, and before 
Jesus Christ 590. Early in the year follow- 
ing, Nebuchadnezzar marched against Ze- 
dekiah ; but as other nations of Syria had 
shaken off their obedience, he first reduced 
them to their duty, and towards the end of 
the year besieged Jerusalem. (2 Kings xxv. 
5. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17- Jerem. xxxix. 1. 
lii. 4.) Zedekiah defended himself in Je- 
rusalem, long and obstinately, that he 
might give time to Pharaoh Hophrah, or 
Apries, to come to his assistance. Apries 
advanced with a powerful army; and the 
king of Babylon raised the siege, and 
marched to meet him. But Apries, not 
daring to hazard a battle against the 
Chaldeans, retreated into Egypt, and 
abandoned Zedekiah. Ezekiel reproaches 
Egypt severely with this baseness, and 
says, that it had been a staff of reed to 
the house of Israel, and an occasion of 
falling; for when they took hold of it 
by the hand, it broke and rent all their 
shoulder. He, therefore, prophesies, that 
Egypt should be reduced to a solitude, 
and that God would send against it the 
sword, which would destroy in it man 
and beast. (Ezek. xxix.) This was after- 
wards accomplished, first, in the per- 
son of Apries ; and secondly, in the con- 
quest of Egypt by the Persians. To this 
king, likewise, some apply the following 
words of Habbakuk: ' Woe unto him that 
giveth his neighbour drink, that puttest thy 
bottle to him, and makest him drunken 
also, that thou mayest look on their naked- 
ness.' (Habbak. ii. 15.) 

AQUARIANS, a sect of Christians in 
the primitive church, who consecrated 
water in the eucharist instead of wine. 
This they did under pretence of abstinence 
or temperance ; or, because they thought 
it universally unlawful to eat flesh or drink 
wine. Epiphanius calls them Encratites, 
from their abstinence; St. Austin, Aqua- 
rians, from their use ol' water ; and Theo- 
doret, who says they sprang from Tatian, 
Hydroparastatae, he cause they offered water 
instead of wine. 

Besides these, there was another sort of 
Aquarians, who did not reject the use of 
wine as unlawful : tor they administered the 



AQU 



ARA 



eucharist in wine at evening service : but 
in the morning assemblies they used water, 
lest the smell of wine should discover them 
to the heathens. 

St. Cyprian, who gives a long account 
of the Aquarians, in one of his epistles, 
says, that it was the custom of the church 
to use water mixed with wine, because the 
water represents the people, as the wine 
does the blood of Christ ; and when both are 
mixed together in the cup, Christ and his 
people are united. Ilechford's Account of all 
Religions, p. 375. 

AQ'UILA, a native of Pontus in Asia 
Minor, who, together with his wife Pris- 
cilla, was converted by St. Paul to the 
Christian faith. As Aquila was by trade a 
tent-maker, which was also the occupation 
of St. Paul, the apostle lodged with him at 
Corinth, (Acts xviii. 2, &c.) Aquila had 
come thither from Italy, not long before, 
being obliged to leave Rome, by the edict 
of the emperor Claudius, which banished 
all Jews from that city. St. Paul after- 
wards quitted the house of Aquila, and 
abode with Justus, near the Jewish syna- 
gogue at Corinth. Calmet thinks, that St. 
Paul was induced to this, because Aquila 
was a convert from Judaism, and Justus 
from Paganism : on which account the 
Gentiles might come and hear him with 
more liberty. When the apostle departed 
from Corinth, Aquila and Priscilla accom- 
panied him to Ephesus, where he left 
them to profit that church by their in- 
structions and example, while he went to 
Jerusalem. They rendered St. Paul very 
great services in this city, and even exposed 
their own lives to preserve his. They had 
returned to Rome, when the apostle wrote 
his epistle to the Romans ; for in it he sa- 
lutes them with great encomiums, (Rom. 
xvi. 3, 4.) However, they did not continue at 
Rome, for they had come back to Ephesus, 
when St. Paul wrote his Second Epistle to 
Timothy, in which he desires him to salute 
them in his name, (2 Tim. iv. 19.) What 
became of them afterwards is not known. 
The Greeks call Aquila bishop and apostle. 

AR, *iy, signifies awaking, watching, eva- 
cuation, uncovering. Ar, Ariel of Moab, 
or Rabbath-Moab, was the capital of the 
Moabites, and was situated upon the river 
Arnon, which divided it into two parts, 
(Numb. xxi. 28. Isaiah xxix. I. Deut. iii. 11, 
&c.) On coins it was denominated Rabbath 
Moma; and Eusebius says it was called 
Areopolis in his time. St. Jerom relates, 
that this city was entirely destroyed by an 
earthquake, when he was a young man. 

ARA'BIA, d"3*in, Arabim, Arabians, 
signifies the evening ; or, a place wild and 
desert; or, hostages, pledges, ravens, mix- 
tures, mild. It is possible, that Arabia 
might take its name from the different 
tribes of people, which have mingled them- 
Belves in this country, and which sometimes 
113 



still unite into one body, or separate them- 
selves from other tribes, as circumstances 
occur. Arabia is a very extensive country 
of Asia, and is bounded on the north by 
Judaea, on the east by Persia and the Gulf 
of Persia, on the south by the Indian 
Ocean, and on the west by the Red Sea, and 
the Isthmus of Suez. It is divided into 
three parts ; viz. Arabia Deserta, Arabia 
Petraea, and Arabia Felix. 

Arabia Deserta is situated between the 
Euphrates on the east and the mountains 
of Gilead on the west. It comprehends 
the Ituraeans, the Edomites, the Nuba- 
thaeans, the people of Kedar, and others, 
who lead a wandering life, and have no ci- 
ties, houses, or fixed habitations, but dwell 
wholly in tents, and, in modern Arabic, 
are called Bedoweens. This country seems 
to be described in Scripture by the word 
Arab, which signifies, properly, in Hebrew, 
the west, or people gathered together. They 
may have taken the name of Arabim, or 
western, from their situation, being west 
of the river Euphrates ; and if so, their 
name Arab is prior to the settlement of 
Israel in Canaan. In Eusebius, and authors 
of that and the following ages, the country, 
and the greater part of the cities beyond 
Jordan, and of what they called the third 
Palestine, are considered as parts of Ara- 
bia. It has been observed, that, as Arabia 
Deserta extended to the neighbourhood of 
Damascus, it is not to be questioned, but 
this was the peculiar part of Arabia, into 
which St. Paul retired after his conversion. 
(Gal. i. 17.) Dr. Wells's Geography, vol. ii. 
p. 230. 

Arabia Petr^a is situated south of 
Palestine. Its capital was Petra. This 
country contained the southern Edomites, 
the Amalekites, the Cushites, who are im- 
properly called the Ethiopians, the Hivites, 
the Meonians or Maonim, &c. These 
people are at present known by the ge- 
neral name of Arabians; but it is of con- 
sequence to notice the ancient inhabitants 
of these districts as they are mentioned in 
the text of Scripture. In this country 
were Kadesh-barnea, Gerar, Beersheba, 
Lachish, Libnah, Paran, Arad, Hasmona, 
Oboth, Phunon, Dedan, Segor, &c. Here 
also is Mount Sinai, where the law was given 
to Moses. 

Arabia Felix lies still further south, 
and is bounded on the east by the Per- 
sian Gulf, on the south by the ocean, and 
on the west by the Red Sea. As this Ara- 
bia did not immediately adjoin to the Holy 
Land, it is not so frequently mentioned in 
Scripture as the former Arabias. It is 
thought, that the queen of Sheba, who vi- 
sited Solomon, was queen of a part of Ara- 
bia Felix. (1 Kings x. 1.). This country 
abounded with riches, and particularly with 
spices. 

The Scripture frequently mentions the 



ARA 



ARA 



Arabians (meaning those adjoining to Ju- 
daea) as a powerful people, who valued 
themselves on their wisdom. Their riches 
consisted principally in flocks of cattle. 
They paid king Jehoshaphat an annual 
tribute of seven thousand seven hundred 
sheep, and as many goats. (2 Chron. xvii. 
11.) The kings of Arabia furnished So- 
lomon with a great quantity of gold and 
silver. (lb. ix. 14.) They loved war, but 
carried it on rather like thieves and plun- 
derers, than soldiers. (Ibid. xxii. 1.) They 
lived at liberty in the field, or in the desert, 
concerned themselves little about culti- 
vating the earth, and were not very obe- 
dient to established governments. This is 
the idea given of them in Scripture, (Isaiah 
xiii. 20.) ; and the same is their character at 
this day. 

The inhabitants of Arabia, before Abra- 
ham came into Canaan, were descended 
from Ham. (1 Chron. iv. 40, 41.) We find 
there the Midianites of the race of Cush, 
among whom Moses retired. It is known, 
that Abimelech, king of Gerar, lived in the 
time of Abraham ; and the Amalekites, in 
that of Moses. The Hivites, the Amorites, 
Meonians or Mahonians, extended them- 
selves a good way into Arabia Petraea ; 
and the Horim occupied the mountains 
which lie south of the land of Canaan, and 
east of the Dead Sea. The Rephaim, 
Emim, Zuzim, and Zanzummim, inhabited 
the country afterwards called Arabia De- 
serta, and peopled by the Ammonites, 
Moabites, and Edomites. (Gen. xiv. 5. 
Deut. ii. 8, 9, &c). 

Arabia is, in general, stony, rocky, and 
mountainous ; principally in parts remote 
from the sea, though formerly adjacent to 
it ! In the course of ages, a vast plain has 
been interposed between the mountains, 
now in the midst of the country, and the 
sea, which has gradually retired from 
them. This is now the most fruitful, and 
best cultivated, but the hottest part ; for 
towards the mountains, which contain 
plants and animals of a different kind, the air 
is much cooler than in the plains. The plain 
is denominated Tehama, or the levels. 

Arabia Petraea, and Arabia Felix, were 
possessed by the descendants of Ishmael, 
who were more particularly known by the 
name of Arabians. See Ishmael. 

The first people of Arabia, according to 
the history of that country, were called by 
the present inhabitants pure and unmixed 
Arabians. They were descended from 
Culittui, or Joktdii, the son of liber, and 
broth** Of Pclcg, who, after the division of 
languages; peopled this peninsula of Asia. 
The second Arabians, who succeeded these, 

were the descendants of Ishmael, the son of 

Abraham and Hagaf, who came and settled 
among the anpieni Arabians, and was la- 
ther of the mixed Arabians, or Mota- 

Arabes, or Mosta- Arabes, or Ishmaelites. 
114 



It is observable, that they are very different 
from the modern Mosarabians, or Mosta- 
rabians, who are so denominated, by the 
Spaniards, because they are Arabians 
blended with other nations. Among the 
Malays, and other natives of the islands, 
&c. in the Indian Ocean, to call a person 
' an Ishmaelite' is a term of very great of- 
fence and reproach, and would be pu- 
nished by the death of the offender. This 
may seem to imply, that in ancient times 
Ishmael and his descendants had settled 
themselves by force in some parts of these 
countries, and expelled the original inhabit- 
ants, and that the animosity arising from this 
act still subsists, though the cause is forgotten. 
It seems congenial with the character of Ish- 
mael, as a wild man, whose hand was against 
other men, &c. 

The pure and ancient Arabians were di- 
vided into tribes, as well as the descend- 
ants of Ishmael. Some of these tribes 
still exist in Arabia, others are lost and ex- 
tinct. The Ishmaelites formed tw r elve 
tribes, according to the number of the sons 
of Ishmael, Nebajoth, Kedar, Adbeel, 
Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadar, 
Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah 
(Gen. xxv. 13, 14.) But though these 
people very carefully preserve their ge- 
nealogy, yet they cannot retrace it to Ish- 
mael. They are obliged to stop at Adnam, 
one of his descendants ; and the genealogy 
even of Mahomet rises no higher. 

Besides the descendants of Ishmael, who 
peopled the greater part of Arabia, the sons 
of Abraham and Keturah, of Lot, of Esau, of 
Nahor, and others, dwelt in the same coun- 
try, and mixed with, or expelled the ancient 
inhabitants. 

The present inhabitants of Arabia are 
divided into those, who dwell in cities, and 
those, who live in the fields and deserts. 
The latter abide continually in tents, and 
are much more honest and simple than 
those, who live in towns. The Arabians are 
also divided into Gentiles and Mussulmans. 
The former preceded Mahomet, and are 
now called among them Arabians of the 
Days of Ignorance. The latter have re- 
ceived the doctrines preached by Maho- 
met, and are called Moslemoun, or Mus- 
sulmans, that is, believers. These are the 
people, who conquered, and who still pos- 
sess, great part of Asia and Africa; and 
who, not to mention lesser kingdoms, found- 
ed the four great monarchies of the Turks, 
the Persians, Morocco, and Mogul. 

Arabia Deserta is called llegiaz, and is 
become the most celebrated, by reason of 
the cities of Mecca and Medina, which it 
contains. Arabia Petraea is now known by 
the name of llagar, or Hagiar, which sig- 
nifies a stone or rock ; but Arabia Deserta, 
as understood by the ancients, extended 
much farther towards Syria and the Eu- 
phrates. Arabia Felix is called Yemen. 



ARA 



ARA 



Joktan, the son of Eber, having settled 
in Yemen, erected there a kingdom, and 
was himself the first monarch. He was 
succeeded by his son Jarab, who intro- 
duced the Arabian language, which, as well 
as the country, derived from him its name. 
The third king was Jaschab ; and the fourth 
Abdalschams, surnamed Sobas, from whom 
the old Sabaeans derived their name. His 
descendants reigned in Yemen above two 
thousand years before the rise of Maho- 
metanism 

In general, the Arabians are cunning, 
witty, generous, and ingenious, lovers of 
eloquence and poetry ; but they are super- 
stitious, vindictive, sanguinary, and fond 
of robbing those, who are not under the 
protection of some of their own people. 
Robbery, indeed, they think allowable, be- 
cause Abraham, the father of Ishmael, they 
say, gave his son nothing. (Gen. xxv. 5, 6.) 

The ancient Arabians were idolaters, 
and worshipped a stone, which, they say, 
was originally white, but has wept itself 
black on account of the sins of mankind. 
Herodotus says, they had only two deities ; 
Bacchus and Venus, Alilat, or Alilatta. 
Strabo tells us, that they adored only Ju- 
piter and Bacchus, and that Alexander the 
Great, being informed of this, resolved to 
subdue them, that he might oblige them to 
worship him as their third deity. 

The modern Arabians, descended from 
Ishmael, mention the following names of 
ancient deities worshipped in Arabia : 
Lakiah, whom they invoked for rain ; Ha- 
fedah, for preservation from bad accidents 
in journeys ; Razora, for the necessaries of 
life ; Lath, or Ablat, which is a diminutive 
of Abla, the name of the true God ; Aza, 
or Uza, from Aziz, which signifies the 
mighty God ; Menan, from Menat, the dis- 
tributor of favours. It is very probable, 
that they adored also the two golden an- 
telopes, which are frequently mentioned in 
their histories, and which were conse- 
crated at the temple of Mecca. The an- 
cient Midianites, among whom Moses re- 
tired, when he was received by Jethro, 
worshipped Abda and Hinda. Urotalt, 
mentioned by Herodotus, probably de- 
notes the sun ; and Alilat, the moon. The 
first of these words may signify the god of 
light ; and the second, the god or goddess 
eminently. 

Tbe idolatry of the Arabians, as Sa- 
baeans, consisted chiefly in worshipping the 
fixed stars and planets, and the angels and 
their images, which they honoured as in- 
ferior deities, and whose intercession they 
entreated as their mediators with God. 
For they acknowledged one supreme God, 
tbe creator and lord of the universe, 
whom they called Allah Taala, the most high 
God ; and their other deities, who were sub- 
ordinate to him, they called simply Al 
Habat, or the goddesses. 



Since the time of the Gospel, many Ara- 
bians have embraced Christianity ; though 
by far the greater part profess the faith of 
Mahomet. In Origen's time, a council was 
held here against certain heretics. The Ma- 
hometans acknowledge, that before Maho- 
met, there were three tribes in this coun- 
try, which professed Christianity, viz. those 
of Thanouk, Bahora, and Naclab. That 
of Thanouk having had some difference 
with their neighbours on the subject of 
religion, retired to the province of Baharain, 
on the Persian Gulf. 

ARABIC I, a sect which sprang up in 
Arabia about the year 207. They denied 
the immortality of the soul, which they be- 
lieved to perish with the body, but main- 
tained, at the same time, that it would be 
recalled to life with the body, by the power 
of God. Origen was requested to come 
from Egypt to stop the progress of this 
rising sect ; and he disputed against them, 
in a full council, with such success, that 
they abandoned their erroneous sentiments, 
and returned to the received doctrine of 
the church. Mosheim, vol. i. p. 249. 

A'RAD, "ny, signifies wild ass; in Syriac, 
a dragon. It was the name of a king and also 
of his city lying to the south of the tribe of 
Judah, and the land of Canaan, in Arabia 
Petraea. The Israelites having advanced to- 
wards Canaan, king Arad opposed their pas- 
sage, defeated them, and took from them a 
great booty. (Numb. xxi. 1.) But they de- 
voted his country as accursed, and de- 
stroyed all its cities, when they became 
masters of the land of Canaan. (Numb, 
xxxiii.) Arad was rebuilt, and Eusebius 
places it in the neighbourhood of Kades, 
four miles from Malathis, and twenty from 
Hebron. The Israelites, in their passage 
through the wilderness, having departed 
from Sepher, came to Arad, and thence to 
Makkelath. 

A'RAM, D"IN, signifies elevation, magni- 
ficence ; or, one that deceives ; or, their curse. 
Aram, the fifth son of Shem, was father of 
the people of Syria, who, from him, are 
called Aramaeans or Aramites. The Scrip- 
ture distinguishes many countries of this 
name : Aram Naharim, or Syria of the two 
rivers, that is Mesopotamia ; Aram of Da- 
mascus ; Aram of Soba ; Aram of Bethrohob, 
Aram of Maachah ; because the cities of 
Damascus, Soba, Bethrohob, and Maachah, 
were in Syria, or, at least, because Syria 
contained the provinces of Soba, Maachah, 
&c. Homer and Hesiod called by the 
name of Aramaeans those, whom the more 
modern Greeks denominate Syrians. The 
prophet Amos seems to say, that the first 
Aramaeans dwelt in the country of Kir in 
Iberia, where the river Cyrus runs; ami 
that God brought them thence, as he did 
the Hebrews out of Egypt. (Amos ix. 7-) 
But when this migration took place is not 
known. Moses ahvavs called tin 1 Syrians 
i 2 



ARA 



ARA 



and inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Aramites. 
The Aramaeans often warred against the 
Hebrews. David subdued them, and obliged 
them to pay him tribute. Solomon pre- 
served the same authority. It does not, 
however, appear, that, after the separation 
of* the ten tribes, the Syrians were generally 
subject to the kings of Israel, unless, per- 
haps, under Jeroboam II., who restored the 
kingdom of Israel to its ancient boundaries. 
(2 Kings xiv. 25.) 

Alt'ARAT, t3~nx, 'Apapa, signifies the 
curse, of trembling, and according to the Sy- 
riac, the light of him that runs. Perhaps it 
rather denotes mount of trembling, of great 
perplexities and confusion. Some, however, 
think that this word may denote the moun- 
tain of mucilage, or very soft mud ; as this is 
a just description of a mountain lately over- 
spread by a flood, and now covered with a 
sediment left by the waters. 

Ararat is a famous mountain in Armenia, 
upon which Noah's ark is said to have 
rested, after the deluge. (Gen. viii. 4.) It 
is affirmed, but without proof, that there 
are still remains of Noah's ark upon the 
top of this mountain. M. de Tournefort, 
who visited this spot, says that nothing of 
the kind is to be seen, and that the top of 
mount Ararat is inaccessible, both by rea- 
son of its great height, and of the snow, with 
which it is perpetually covered. Mount 
Ararat is twelve leagues east of Erivan, and 
is situated in a vast plain, in the midst of 
which it rises. 

That part of the mountain of Ararat, 
upon which the ark rested, is called by the 
Greek and Latin writers the Gordiaean 
mountains, or, with some variation, the 
Cordyaei, Cordueni, Carduchi, Curdi, &c. 
By many of the eastern nations it is de- 
nominated Ar-dag, or Parmak-dagh, the 
finger- mountain ; because it is straight, and 
stands by itself, like a finger held ; or per- 
haps it denotes the mountain of Dag. It is 
visible at the distance of ten days' journey ; 
and not far from it is the city of Tauris. 

Tavernier says, that there are many mo- 
nasteries upon mount Ararat ; and that the 
Armenians call it Meresoussar, because the 
ark there rested. It is, as it were, sepa- 
rated from the other mountains of Armenia, 
which form a long chain. From the top to 
the middle it is often covered with snow 
three or four months of the year. 

Some authors, however, maintain that the 
ark rested upon mount Caucasus, near Apa- 
mea, in Phrygia ; but it does not appear, says 
Dr. Wells, thai this opinion is well founded. 
First, if we suppose it true, that in the more 
earl) ag6« of the world, after the flood, there 
were to be seen upon the Gordisan moun- 
tains the remains of a very Large vessel, 
which by their form might be reasonably 
( onjectured to have been relies of the ark, it 
WOUld evidently appear that the ark had 

there rested. Secondly, since the ark is 
116 



supposed to have been built somewhere in 
Eden, or the parts adjoining, would not 
mount Caucasus be at too great a distance 
for such a vessel reaching it in the space of 
the flood's rising ? Thirdly, the waters of 
the ocean, breaking in upon the land in 
these parts from the south, would naturally 
carry the ark northward; whereas mount 
Caucasus is not only farther northward, but 
also much more eastward, than the Gor- 
diaean are westward, with respect to the 
place, whence the ark was carried. 
Fourthly, it may be reasonably conjec- 
tured, that the waters of the Caspian Sea, 
as well as of the main ocean, overflowed, 
and therefore ran from the Caspian Sea 
itself southwards and eastwards. Conse- 
quently, by their thus running, they must 
have kept the ark from coming to mount 
Caucasus, at least to that part of it where 
the ark is supposed to have rested. On the 
whole, the opinion that the ark rested upon 
theGordiaean mountains seems most probable, 
and is therefore most generally received. 

" Agridagh is the name given to this sub- 
lime mountain by the Turks ; the Armenians 
call it Macis ; but all unite in reverencing 
it as the haven of the great ship, which pre- 
served the father of mankind from the wa- 
ters of the deluge. The height of Ararat 
has never yet been measured with any sa- 
tisfactory degree of accuracy, though captain 
Monteith of the Madras engineers, has gone 
nearer to the mark, perhaps, than any other 
traveller. The following are the results of 
several trigonometrical observations, which 
he made at Erivan, and was so kind as to 
communicate to me. From that place to 
the highest point of the loftiest head, he 
found 52,000 yards ; and from the same spot 
to the minor head 55,000 yards. This head, 
which is distinguished by the appellation, 
Little Ararat, while the higher part is 
called Great Ararat, is distant from the 
other, from peak to peak, 12,000 yards. 
These inaccessible summits have never been 
trodden by the foot of man since the days 
of Noah, if even then ; for my idea is, that 
the ark rested in the space between these 
heads, and not on the top of either. Vari- 
ous attempts have been made, in different 
ages, to ascend these tremendous mountain 
pyramids, but in vain. Their form, snows, 
and glaciers, are insurmountable obstacles : 
the distance being so great, from the com- 
mencement of the icy region, to the highest 
points, cold alone would be the destruc- 
tion of any person, who should have the har- 
dihood to persevere. On viewing mount 
Ararat from the northern side of the plain, 
its two heads are separated by a wide cleft, 
or rather glen, in the body of the mountain. 
The rocky side of the greater head runs al- 
most perpendicularly down to the north- 
east, while the lesser head rises from the 
sloping bottom of the cleft, in a perfectly 
conical shape. Both heads are covered with 



ARA 



ARC 



snow. The form of the greater is similar to 
the less, only broader and rounder at the 
top, and shows to the north-west a broken 
and abrupt front, opening about half way 
down into a stupendous chasm, deep, rocky, 
and peculiarly black. At that part of the 
mountain the hollow of the chasm receives 
an interruption from the projection of minor 
mountains, which start from the sides of 
Ararat, like branches from the root of a tree, 
and run along its undulating progressions, 
till lost in the distant vapours of the plain." 
Sir R. Ker Porter's Travels in Persia, 8$c. 
vol. i. pp. 183, 184; Home's Introduction 
to the Critical Study of the Holy Scriptures, 
vol. iii. pp. 512, 513 ; Dr. Wells's Geography, 
vol. i. pp. 30, 31. 

ARAU'NAH, or Aruna, nrrw, signifies 
ark; otherwise, song, joyful cry, curse. Du- 
ring a pestilence, which ravaged Jerusalem, 
the angel of the Lord directed the prophet 
Gad, to bid David go, and raise an altar to 
the Lord, in the threshing-floor of Araunah, 
or Oman, the Jebusite. (1 Chron. xxi. 18, 
&c. ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 18.) It is probable, that 
this Araunah, or Oman, was an ancient in- 
habitant of Jerusalem, whose habitation and 
threshing-floor were situated upon mount 
Moriah, where the temple was afterwards 
built David went immediately towards the 
residence of Araunah, to execute this order. 
When Araunah perceived him, he ran to 
meet him, prostrated himself, and asked 
what it was he desired ? David answered, 
that he came to purchase the threshing- 
floor, with an intention of erecting there an 
altar to the Lord, that he might be pleased 
to stop the plague. Araunah offered him 
not only the threshing-floor, but also wood 
and oxen for a burnt-sacrifice. But the 
king would not accept them till he had 
settled their price ; for he said, God forbid 
that I should offer to the Lord, of that which 
cost me nothing. David therefore bought 
the threshing-floor and the oxen for fifty 
shekels of silver; and to these he afterwards 
added the grounds about the threshing-floor. 
The whole of the two purchases together, as 
the Chronicles import, amounted to six hun- 
dred shekels of gold. 

ARBACES, general of the Medes, and 
governor of Media, under Sardanapalus, 
king of Assyria. Observing the softness 
and effeminate manners of Sardanapalus, 
he could not brook obedience to him any 
longer. He therefore took arms in con- 
junction with the principal officers of the 
Median army ; and he also entered into an 
alliance with Belesis, or Baladan (as the 
Scripture calls him), governor of Babylon. 
They united their forces, and attacked Sar- 
danapalus with an army of four hundred 
thousand men. In the first three battles, 
which were fought against the king, Arbaces 
was worsted ; but in the fourth, the Bac- 
trians deserting to him, he attacked Sarda- 
napalus suddenly in the night, and drove 
117 



him from his camp. The king retired to 
Nineveh, and gave the command of his 
army to Salamenes, his wife's brother. 
Salamenes lost two battles against the con- 
spirators, and almost the whole of his army. 
Nineveh was besieged three years, from the 
year of the world 3254 to 3257- In this last 
year the river Tigris being swelled in an 
extraordinary manner, by the rains, over- 
flowed its banks, and beat down twenty-two 
furlongs, or two thousand five hundred and 
fifty paces of the city wall. The conspi- 
rators entered the breach, and selected their 
principal commander, Arbaces, as king. 
But Arbaces was content with having re- 
stored liberty to his country, and refused 
the title of king. After his death was an 
interregnum, which continued till the year 
of the world 3296, when Dejoces was ac- 
knowledged king of the Medes. 

Dr. Prideaux asserts, that Tiglath-pileser 
and Arbaces are the same person, denoted 
under two distinct names. This is contrary 
to the opinion of Archbishop Usher, who 
supposes that the one possessed Media, and 
the other Assyria. Diodorus Siculus says 
positively, that Arbaces had Assyria, as 
well as Media, for his share in the partition 
of the former empire. If so, there is no 
room, says Prideaux, for a Tiglath-pileser, 
or a Ninus Junior, distinct from him, to 
reign in Assyria during his time. Prideaux 
Connect. Part I. Book I. 

ARCH, TRIUMPHAL. It is said in 
our English translation of the Bible, (1 Sam. 
xv. 12.) that Saul, after the defeat of the 
Amalekites, ' set him up a place,' which is 
understood to mean a triumphal arch or 
monument. In the Hebrew, it signifies, 
' he lifted up an hand.' We know not the 
nature or form of this monument; but it was 
probably some heap of stones, or a column, 
to preserve the memory of his victory. It 
is said, indeed, by the author of the Hebrew 
traditions on the Books of Kings, that Saul's 
triumphal arch was composed of branches 
of myrtle, palm, and olive-trees. The story 
acquires additional force, by this notice of 
the trophy ; since we find that Saul, in the 
midst of his triumph, was punished by the 
predictions, & T c. of Samuel. Perhaps the 
hand erected by Moses on, or over against, 
the throne of the Lord, (Exod. xvii. 15, 16.) 
might be of the same nature as this hand 
erected by Saul. Add. margin to Calmcfs Diet. 

ARCHANGEL, according to some di- 
vines, means an angel occupying the higher 
rank in the celestial hierarchy; but others, 
including Bishop Horsley, reckon it a title 
applicable only to our Saviour. Compare 
Jude 9. with Dan. xii. 1. and 1 Thess. iv. 
16. 

ARCHBISHOP, the chief or metropo- 
litan bishop, who has under him several 
suffragans. Archbishops were not known in 
the east till about the year $20 ; and though 
soon after this there were some, who m>s^ 



ARC 



ARC 



sessed the title, yet that was only a personal 
honour, by which the bishops of considerable 
cities were distinguished. Athanasius ap- 
pears to have been the first, who used the title 
of archbishop. 

The archbishop, besides the inspection 
of the bishops and inferior clergy in the 
province, over which he presides, exercises 
episcopal jurisdiction in his own diocese. 
He exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction in 
his province, and is guardian of the spiritu- 
alties of any vacant see, as the king is of the 
temporalties. He is entitled to present by 
lapse to all the ecclesiastical livings in the 
disposal of his diocesan bishop, if not filled 
within six months. He has also a customary 
prerogative, on consecrating a bishop, to 
name a clerk or chaplain to be provided 
for by such bishop ; instead of this, it is 
now usual to accept, an option. He is said 
to be enthroned when vested in the arch- 
bishopric ; whilst bishops are said to be 
installed. 

The ecclesiastical government of England 
is divided into two provinces, Canterbury 
and York. To Canterbury appertain 
twenty-one ; and to York, four suffragan 
bishoprics. The first archbishop of Can- 
terbury was Austin, who was appointed by 
king Ethelred, on his conversion to Christ- 
ianity, about the year 598. His grace of 
Canterbury is the first peer of England, 
and next to the royal family, having pre- 
cedence of all dukes, and of all officers of 
the crown. It is his privilege by custom to 
crown the kings and queens of this kingdom. 
By common law, he possesses the power of 
probate of wills and testaments, and of 
granting letters of administration. He has 
also a power to grant licences and dispen- 
sations in all cases formerly sued for in the 
court of Rome, and not repugnant to the law 
of God. Accordingly, he issues special li- 
cences to marry, to hold two livings, &c. ; 
and lie exercises the right of conferring de- 
grees. 

The archbishop of York possesses the 
same rights in his province, as the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. He has precedence 
of all dukes not of the royal blood, and of 
all officers of state, except the lord high 
chancellor. He has also in certain parts 
the rights of a count palatine. The first 
archbishop of York was Paulinus, who was 
appointed by Pope Gregory about the year 
622. He had formerly jurisdiction over all 
the bishops of Scotland ; but in the year 
14/0, pope Sixtus IV. created the bishop 
of St. Andrew's archbishop and metro- 
politan of all Scotland. Hurd on Religious 
Riifs, Ceremonies, &c. p. 030. 

ARCHDEACON, a priest invested with 
authority or. jurisdiction over the clergy and 
laity, next to the bishop, either through the 

whole, or only a part of the dioeese. In 
England ari' sixty archdeacons, whose office 
18 to visit every two years in three, to in- 
118 



quire into the reparations and moveables 
belonging to the church, to reform abuses 
in ecclesiastical matters, and bring the more 
weighty affairs before the bishop. They 
have also a power to suspend and excom- 
municate ; in many places to prove wills, 
and to induct all clerks within their re- 
spective jurisdictions. Hurd on Religious 
Rites, Ceremonies, fyc. p. 633. 

ARCHELA'US, 'Apx^«oc, signifies 
prince of the people. Archelaus was the son 
of Herod the Great, and Malthace his wife. 
Herod having put to death his sons Alex- 
ander, Aristobulus, and Antipater, and ex- 
punged from his will Herod Antipas, whom 
he had declared king, substituted Arche- 
laus, and gave Antipas only the title of 
tetrarch. After the death of Herod, Arche- 
laus ordered that king's will to be read, in 
which he, Archelaus, was declared king, on 
condition that Augustus consented. Upon 
this, the whole assembly cried, ' Long live 
king Archelaus !' and the soldiers promised 
the same fidelity to him, as they had shown 
to his father. Archelaus buried his father 
magnificently, and came to Jerusalem, 
where, according to custom, he mourned 
seven days. He then gave a splendid en- 
tertainment to the people. He went to the 
temple, harangued the multitude, promised 
them good treatment, and declared that he 
could not assume the title of king till it had 
been confirmed by the emperor. These 
events took place in the year of the world 
4001. 

Though the people declared so readily 
for Archelaus, yet they assembled in a tu- 
multuous manner, and demanded the exe- 
cution of those, who advised Herod to slay 
certain zealots, that had pulled down a 
golden eagle from one of the temple gates. 
They also required Archelaus to divest 
Joazas of the high-priesthood ; and they 
vehemently reproached the memory of the 
late king. Archelaus ordered some troops 
to march against the seditious people, of 
whom they killed near three thousand about 
the temple. After this, he embarked at 
Caesarea for Rome, to procure from Au- 
gustus a confirmation of Herod's will. An- 
tipas, his brother, went also to Rome, to 
dispute his title, pretending that Herod's 
first will should be preferred to his last, 
which, he said, had been made when his 
understanding was not entire. 

The two brothers, Archelaus and An- 
tipas, procured able orators to display their 
pretensions before the emperor ; and when 
they had finished speaking, Archelaus threw 
himself at Augustus's feet. Augustus 
gently raised him, and said he would do 
nothing contrary to Herod's intention, or 
his interest, but refused to decide the mat- 
ter at that time. Not long after this, 
the Jews sent a solemn embassy to Rome, 
desiring that Augustus would permit them 
to live according to their own laws, and 



ARC 



ARC 



continue them as a Roman province, with- 
out subjecting them to kings of Herod's 
family, and only to the governors of Syria. 
Augustus heard them, and also Archelaus 
in reply, and then dismissed the assembly 
without declaring himself. After some 
days, he sent for Archelaus, and gave him 
the title not of king, but of ethnarch, with 
one moiety of the territories, which his 
father Herod had enjoyed. He also pro- 
mised him the crown, if he should deserve 
it by his conduct. Archelaus returned to 
Judaea, and, under pretence that Joazas 
had countenanced the seditions against 
him, deprived that high-priest of his dig- 
nity, which he gave to his brother Eleazar. 
Archelaus governed Judaea with so much 
violence, that, seven years after his return 
from Rome, the chiefs of the Samaritans 
and Jews accused him before Augustus. 
The emperor immediately sent for his agent 
at Rome, and, without condescending to 
write to that prince himself, commanded 
the agent to depart instantly for Judaea, and 
order Archelaus to Rome, that he might 
give an account of his conduct. 

On the arrival of Archelaus at Rome, the 
emperor called for his accusers, and per- 
mitted him to defend himself. His defence, 
however, was so insufficient, that Augustus 
banished him to Vienne in Gaul, where he 
continued, in exile, to the end of his life. 
The exact time of his death has not been 
ascertained. Joseph. Antiq. lib. xvii. cap. 
10. et ult. ; et de Bello. lib. i. cap. 6. 

Joseph, on his return from Egypt, with 
the young child Jesus and his mother, 
having heard that Archelaus reigned in 
Judaea, in the room of his father Herod, was 
afraid to go thither ; but being warned by 
God in a dream, he turned aside into the 
parts of Galilee, and dwelt in the city of 
Nazareth. (Matt. ii. 22.) 

ARCHISYNAGOGUS, chief of the sy- 
nagogue ; the title of an officer among the 
Jews. There were generally several men 
of eminence, who presided in the syna- 
gogues, and in all assemblies held in them. 
Their number was not fixed, nor the same 
in all places, but depended on the extent 
of the cities where they were, or on the 
number of the people, who frequented the 
synagogue. In some synagogues there 
might be seventy elders who presided ; in 
some, perhaps, ten ; in some, four or five ; 
and in others no more than one head, or 
archisynagogus. They are sometimes called 
by the Jews angels or princes of the syna- 
gogue, and also Chachamim, or wise nun. 
They presided in the religious assemblies, 
and invited those to speak, who were 
thought capable of that office. They 
also judged of affairs relating to money, of 
thefts, and some other matters. They had 
a right to inflict whipping or other punish- 
ments on those convicted of acting contrary 
to the law. They could also excomniu- 
119 



nicate and expel from the synagogue those 
who deserved this punishment. Basnage's 
Hist, of the Jews, lib. vii. cap. 7- 

ARCHITRICLI'NUS, ' ApxirpiicXivog, 
signifies prince of the triclinium, or three beds. 
It is generally translated steward, but 
seems rather to denote the master or in- 
tendant of the feast. He was one, who was 
the husband's friend, and was commissioned 
to conduct the order and economy of the 
feast. He gave directions to the servants, 
superintended every thing, and, as he 
thought proper, commanded the tables to 
be covered or cleared of the dishes. Hence, 
his name as regulator of the triclinium, or 
festive-board. The author of Ecclesiasticus 
describes this office as follows : " If thou 
be made the master of a feast, lift not 
thyself up, but be among them as one 
of the rest ; take diligent care of them, and 
so sit down. And when thou hast done all 
thy office, take thy place, that thou mayest 
be merry with them, and receive a crown for 
the well-ordering of the feast," (xxxii. 1, 2.) 
This office is mentioned in John ii. 8, 9. 
Theophylact well observes as follows: 'That 
no one,' says he, ' might suspect that their 
taste was vitiated, by having drunk to ex- 
cess, so as not to know water from wine, our 
Saviour orders it to be first carried to the 
governor of the feast, who was certainly 
sober ; for those, who on these occasions are 
entrusted with this office, observe the strictest 
sobriety, that they may be able properly to 
regulate the whole.' 

ARCHONTICS, a sect which arose to- 
wards the close of the second century. They 
received their name from the Greek word 
dpxovTiQ, principalities, or hierarchies of an- 
gels ; because they held that the world was 
not created by God, but by angels, called 
archontes. They also denied the resurrec- 
tion of the body. They were a branch of 
Valentinians. Encycl. Brit, in verb. 

ARCH PRIEST, or Archpresbyter, a 
priest established with a superiority over 
the rest. Anciently, the archpriest was the 
first person after the bishop. He was seated 
in the church next the bishop, and, during 
his absence, acted as his vicar in all spi- 
ritual concerns. In the sixth century there 
were several archpriests in the same dio- 
cese ; and from this time, some are of opi- 
nion, that they were the same as our deans 
in cathedral churches. In the ninth century, 
they distinguished two kinds of cures or 
parishes : the smaller governed by simple 
priests ; and the baptismal churches by arch- 
priests. These last, besides the immediate 
concern of the cure, had the inspection of 
the inferior priests, and gave an account of 
them to the bishop, who governed in person 
the chief or cathedral church. In the Greek 
church are still archpresbyters. vested with 
most of the functions and privileges of eho- 
repiscopi, or rural deans. Enci/clop. Briton. 
in verb. 



ARC 



ARE 



ARCTU'RUS, wy, Hasch, signifies pro- 
perly the bear's tail, and denotes a star be- 
hind the great bear's tail. This star is of 
the first magnitude, and is situated at some 
distance from the great bear, and between 
the thighs of Bootes. Arcturus rises about 
the twelfth of September, and sets about the 
twenty-fourth of May; and its rising and 
setting are said to presage storms and bad 
weather. Speaking of the power of God, 
Job says, ' Which maketh Arcturus, Orion, 
and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south,' 
(ix. 9.) In another place he says, 'Canst 
thou guide Arcturus with his sons?' (xxxviii. 
32.) Hence some commentators think, that 
1 from this term of sons, Pleiades must be 
the constellation meant in this last passage, 
which our translators have rendered Arc- 
turus.' 

On this subject Costard says, Aish or 
Hasch, mentioned twice in the book of Job, 
signifies nothing more than a cluster; and 
therefore seems to be the same constellation 
as the Pleiades of the Greeks. As it is de- 
scribed along with its sons, these may mean 
the rest of the stars attending or following 
them ; for the year began in those early 
times, with the heliacal risings of the Ple- 
iades. Astron. 

Niebuhr observes, that some of the Arabs 
call the Great Bear Ash, Nash, or Benat 
Ndsh ; and from the conversation he had 
with Jewish astrologers, he is of opinion, 
that Ash signifies the Great Bear (Ursa 
Major), which is often called a chariot, 
Charles's wain ; or rather, the four greater 
stars, or wheels of the wain, or waggon. 
Though what Niebuhr urges seems ex- 
tremely probable, yet the Septuagint call 
Ash, or Aish, the Pleiades; but the most 
part, says Scheuzer, think that it denotes 
the Pole-star. 

Pliny says, that Arcturus seldom rises 
without bringing hail and tempests; but the 
ancients were mistaken in this idea, for the 
rising, &c. of this and some other stars 
marked only that time of the year when 
storms might naturally be expected. Scrip- 
ture Illustrated. 

AREOP'AGUS,'Apeo7rayoc, signifies the 
hill of Mars. It was a sovereign tribunal 
at Athens, famous for the justice and im- 
partiality of its decisions. In this court, 
the Areopagites, the celebrated and supreme 
judges of Athens, assembled. Authors are 
not agreed with respect to the number of 
judges that composed this august court; 
some reckoning thirty-one, some fifty-one, 
and others five hundred. It is probable, 
however, that their number was not always 
the same. At first, this tribunal consisted 
of only nine persons, who had all filled the 
office of archon. and had proved, in a so- 
le, in examination, that tlmy had discharged 
their duty with equal zeal and fidelity. 
Their salary was equal, and paid from the 

treasury of the republic; and they received 
1 20 



for each cause three oboli. The members 
held their office for life. They sat in judg- 
ment in the open air ; and they met during 
the night, that their minds might be more 
attentive, and that no object of pity or aver- 
sion might influence them in favour of either 
the criminal or the accuser. The pleadings 
before them were in the simplest and most 
artless manner. At first, they took cogni- 
zance of criminal causes only, but in time 
their jurisdiction became very extensive. 

Mr. Spon, who examined the antiquities 
of Athens, found some remains of the Are- 
opagus still existing in the middle of the 
temple of Theseus. This building was once 
in the midst of the city, but is now without 
the walls. He says, that the foundation of 
the Areopagus is a semi-circle, with an es- 
planade of one hundred and forty paces 
round it, which properly formed the hall of 
the Areopagus. A tribunal is cut in the 
middle of a rock, with seats on each side, 
where the Areopagites sat exposed to the 
open air. It appears, however, from 
' Stuart's Ruins of Athens,' that, though 
some small remains of the foundation of 
buildings are still visible upon the eminence, 
where the Areopagus was situated, yet there 
is nothing by which to determine its form or 
construction. 

It is uncertain when this court was insti- 
tuted ; but its existence may be traced back 
to the time of Cecrops, who was probably its 
founder. Some, however, have asserted, 
that it was instituted by Solon, though it was 
certainly of a more ancient date. 

St. Paid having preached at Athens against 
a plurality of gods, and declared that he 
came to reveal to the Athenians that God, 
whom they adored without knowing him, 
was carried before the Areopagites, as the 
introducer of a new religion. He spoke on 
this occasion with so much wisdom, that he 
converted Dionysius, one of his judges, and 
was dismissed without any interference on 
their part. (Acts xvii. 19, &c.) It is ob- 
servable, that our translation, by calling it 
' Mars' -hill,' has lost the correct representa- 
tion of the passage, since Mars'-hill might 
not be a court of justice. The station of 
Dionysius, as one of the Areopagites, is also 
lost on the reader. 

The appearance of the Areopagus is thus 
described by Dr. E. D. Clarke :— " It is not 
possible to conceive a situation of greater 
peril, or one more calculated to prove the 
sincerity of a preacher, than that in which 
the apostle was here placed : and the truth 
of this, perhaps, will never be better felt 
than by a spectator, who from this uninence 
actually beholds the monuments of pagan 
pomp and superstition, by which he, whom 
the Athenians considered as the setter forth 
of strange gods, was then surrounded: re- 
presenting to the imagination the disciples 
of Socrates and of Plato, the dogmatist of 
the porch, and the sceptic of the academy, 



AR1 



ARI 



addressed by a poor and lowly man, who, 
rude, in speech, without the enticing words of 
man's wisdom, enjoined precepts contrary to 
their taste, and very hostile to their pre- 
judices. One of the peculiar privileges of 
the Areopagitae seems to have been set at 
defiance by the zeal of St. Paul on this occa- 
sion; namely, that of inflicting extreme and 
exemplary punishment upon any person, who 
should slight the celebration of the holy 
mysteries, or blaspheme the gods of Greece. 
We ascended to the summit by means of 
steps cut in the natural stone. The sublime 
scene here exhibited is so striking, that a 
brief description of it may prove how truly 
it offers to us a commentary upon the apos- 
tle's words, as they were delivered upon the 
spot. He stood upon the top of the rock, 
and beneath the canopy of heaven. Before 
him there was spread a glorious prospect of 
mountains, islands, seas, and skies; behind 
him towered the lofty Acropolis, crowned 
with all its marble temples. Thus every 
object, whether in the face of nature, or 
among the works of art, conspired to elevate 
the mind, and to fill it with reverence to- 
wards that Being, who made and governs the 
world, (Acts xvii. 24. 28.) who sitteth in 
that light, which no mortal eye can approach, 
and yet is nigh unto the meanest of his 
creatures; in whom we live, and move, and 
have our being." Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. 
vi. pp. 263 — 265 ; Home's Introduction to 
the Holy Scriptures, vol. iii. pp. 125, 126; 
Additions to Calmet's Dictionary. 

ARE'TAS, 'Apsrag, signifies one that is 
agreeable, that pleases, that is virtuous. Are- 
tas, who was before called iEneas, succeeded 
Obodas, in the kingdom of Arabia. One 
Syllabus having prejudiced Augustus against 
him, by accusing him of assuming the crown 
of Arabia without waiting for the emperor's 
consent, Aretas was for some time very much 
perplexed, as he was at too great a distance 
to vindicate himself, and confute the ca- 
lumnies of his enemy. At length, however, 
the emperor discovered the impostures of 
Syllabus, and confirmed Aretas in the king- 
dom. In the year of the world 3998, Herod 
Antipas married the daughter of Aretas; 
but he divorced her some time after, and 
took Herodias, his sister-in-law, the wife of 
his brother Philip. Aretas's daughter re- 
tiring to her father, he declared war against 
Antipas, under pretence of difficulties con- 
cerning the limits of Gamala. Antipas was 
entirely defeated ; and every one considered 
this as a just punishment for the murder of 
John the Baptist, whom Herod had beheaded 
for reproving his incest. Additions to Cal- 
met's Diet. 

Antipas wrote to Tiberius an account of 
this war, and what had happened. The 
emperor was so much provoked, that he 
ordered Vitellius, then governor of Syria, 
to make war against Aretas, and if he could 
take him alive, to send him in person ; but 

121 



if not, to send his head. Vitellius advanced 
with his army to Ptolemai's ; and the Jews 
entreating him not to go through their coun- 
try with his troops, by reason of the images 
borne on their standards, he marched through 
the great plain, and probably intended to 
pass the Jordan at Scythopolis. Vitellius 
himself went with his friends to Jerusalem, 
where he continued three days. During his 
stay here, news was brought that Tiberius 
was dead, and that Caius was elevated to the 
empire. Vitellius, therefore, being unwilling 
to commence this war without orders from 
the new emperor, commanded his army to 
return. 

The following year, the apostle Paul, who 
had been some time at Damascus, and 
preached the Gospel with much zeal, was 
persecuted by the Jews of that city, then 
under the dominion of Aretas. They pre- 
vailed with the governor to keep the gates 
shut day and night, to prevent Paul from 
escaping. However, the apostle, being in- 
formed of their design, was let down in a 
basket over the city walls by the brethren, 
and so happily avoided their snares. (Acts 
ix. 23, 24, &c. ; 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33.) 

ARIANISM, the heresy of Arius, a pres- 
byter of the church of Alexandria, about the 
year 315. He maintained, that the Son of 
God was totally and essentially distinct from 
the Father ; that he was the first and noblest 
of those beings, whom God had created, the 
instrument by whose subordinate operation 
the Almighty Father formed the universe, 
and therefore inferior to the Father both 
in nature and dignity. His opinions con- 
cerning the Holy Ghost are not so well 
known. 

The Arians acknowledged that the Son 
was the Word, but denied that Word to 
have been eternal. They held, that Christ 
had nothing of man in him but the flesh, to 
which was joined the Aoyog, or Word, the 
same as the soul in us. The opinions of 
Arius were no sooner divulged, than they 
found in Egypt, and the neighbouring pro- 
vinces, a number of abettors, among whom 
were many distinguished as well by the su- 
periority of their learning and genius, as by 
their rank and station. On the other hand, 
Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, in two 
councils assembled at that place, accused 
Arius of impiety, and caused him to be ex- 
pelled from the communion of the church. 
Arius received this sentence with great firm- 
ness, and retired into Palestine, whence he 
wrote to the most eminent men of those 
times, and endeavoured to demonstrate the 
truth of his opinions. In this attempt he 
was so successful, that great numbers were 
induced to join him, and among these, Eu- 
sebius, bishop of Nicomedia, a man distin- 
guished in the church by his influence and 
authority. The many disputes occasioned 
by the heresy of Arius, created so much dis- 
turbance in the church, that the emperor 



ARI 



ARI 



Constantine the Great, found himself under 
the disagreeable necessity of interposing be- 
tween the contending parties. In the year 
325 he assembled the famous council of 
Nice, in Bithynia, to which the deputies of 
the church universal were summoned, to put 
an end to this controversy. At this council 
were present three hundred and eighteen 
bishops, besides a vast number of other offi- 
cers. Arius being ordered to appear, boldly 
supported his opinions. However, the 
sentence of excommunication, pronounced 
against him by Alexander, was confirmed. 
To this was added a decree of the emperor, 
which excluded him and all his followers 
from places either ecclesiastical or civil. At 
the same time they were condemned to per- 
petual banishment. 

However, this severity did not long con- 
tinue ; for about three years after, all the 
Arian bishops were restored to their sees, 
and Arius himself was also recalled. Being 
permitted to wait on the emperor, Arius 
presented him with a confession of his faith, 
so artfully drawn up, that Constantine was 
satisfied. However, Athanasius, who was 
now advanced to the see of Alexandria, re- 
fused to admit him and his followers to com- 
munion. This so enraged the Arians, that, 
by their interest at court, they procured that 
prelate to be deposed and banished. But 
the church of Alexandria still refusing to 
admit Arius into their communion, the em- 
peror sent for him to Constantinople ; and 
on his delivering a fresh confession of his 
faith, in terms less offensive, the emperor 
commanded Alexander, the bishop of that 
church, to receive him the next day into his 
communion. However, that very evening 
Arius died. The manner of his death was 
very extraordinary : as his friends were con- 
ducting him in triumph to the great church 
of Constantinople, Arius, pressed by a na- 
tural necessity, stepped aside to ease him- 
self ; and his bowels gushing out, he expired 
on the spot. It is probable, that his death 
was occasioned by poison or some other 
violence. But this heresy did not die with 
the heresiarch. The Arian party found a 
protector in Constantius, who succeeded his 
father in the empire of the east; and the 
zeal with which he abetted them, produced 
many animosities and tumults to the time of 
his death, in the year 362. Under succeed- 
ing emperors they underwent various revo- 
lutions, sometimes persecuting, and at other 
times persecuted, according to the degree of 
interest they possessed in the civil powers, 
till at length Theodosius the Great exerted 
every possible means to suppress and dis- 
perse them. In their sentiments, the Arians 
acknowledged one God the Father; that 
the Son was a created being ; and that the 
Holy Ghost was a ray or emanation of the 
Deity. 

In the fifth century, Arianism was car- 
ried into Africa under the Vandals ; and 
122 



into Asia under the Goths. Italy, the 
Gauls, and Spain, were also deeply infected 
with it ; and towards the commencement of 
the sixth century, it was triumphant in 
many parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 
But it sank almost at once, when, by the 
arms of Justinian, the Vandals were driven 
from Africa, and the Goths from Italy. 
However, it revived in Italy under the 
Lombards in the seventh century, and was 
not extinguished till about the end of the 
eighth. In 1531, Servetus, a Spaniard, 
revived Arianism again in the west, for 
which he suffered death. After his death, 
a new system of Arianism, which greatly 
perplexed Calvin, was formed at Geneva. 
From Geneva, the new Arians removed to 
Poland, where they gained considerable 
ground ; but at length they became Soci- 
nians. It is thought that Erasmus, in his 
Commentaries on the New Testament, 
aimed to revive Arianism, and that the 
learned Grotius adopted the same doctrines. 

The appellation of Arian has been indis- 
criminately applied in more modern times 
to all those, who consider Jesus Christ as 
inferior and subordinate to the Father ; but 
it is evident that their sentiments cannot 
be supposed to coincide exactly with those 
of the ancient Arians. The most eminent 
writers among the Arians in the seventeenth 
century were Saudires and Biddle, though 
the latter may be more properly classed 
among the Socinians. Mr. Whiston was 
one of the first divines, that revived this 
controversy in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. This learned visionary 
and upright man suffered considerably for 
his opinions. He was removed not only 
from his theological and pastoral functions, 
but also from his mathematical professorship 
at Cambridge, as if Arianism could extend 
its baneful influence even to the science of 
lines, angles, and surfaces ! He was of 
opinion that at the incarnation of Christ, 
the Logos, or eternal wisdom, supplied the 
place of the rational soul ; that the eternity 
of the Son of God was not a real distinct 
existence, as of a Son properly co-eternal 
with his Father by a true generation, but 
rather a metaphysical existence in potentia, 
or in some sublimer manner in the Father, 
as his wisdom or word ; and that Christ's 
real creation, or generation, both of which 
are terms used by the earliest writers, took 
place some time before the creation of the 
world. 

He was followed by Dr. Samuel Clarke, 
who published his famous book, entitled, 
' The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity,' 
&c. To avoid Tritheism, he denied the 
self-existence of the Son and Holy Ghost, 
and maintained that they were derived 
from, and subordinate to, the Father. To 
avoid Sabellianism, he acknowledged the 
personality and distinct agency of theSon 
and Holy Ghost ; and to escape from the 



AM 



AR1 



dangers of Arianism, he asserted the eter- 
nity of the two divine subordinate persons. 
He maintained an equality of perfections 
between the three persons, but a subordina- 
tion of nature in point of existence and dura- 
tion. But though the doctor was so cir- 
cumspect, yet his work was censured, and 
he was reproached with the title of Semi- 
Arian. He was also threatened by the 
convocation, and combated by argument. 
The learned Dr. Waterland was one of his 
principal adversaries, and stands at the 
head of a polemical body of eminent di- 
vines, such as Gastrell, Wells, Nelson, 
Mayo, Knight, and others, who appeared 
in this controversy. If, however, Dr. 
Clarke was accused of verging towards Arian- 
ism, by maintaining the derived and caused 
existence of the Son and the Holy Ghost, 
it seemed no less evident that Doctor Wa- 
terland verged towards Tritheism, by main- 
taining the self-existence and independence of 
these divine persons, and by asserting that 
the subordination of the Son to the Father 
is a subordination of office only, and not of 
nature. The history of this controversy 
during the last century, may be found in a 
pamphlet entitled, ' An Account of all the 
considerable Books and Pamphlets that 
have been wrote on either side, in the con- 
troversy concerning the Trinity, since the 
year 1712, in which is also contained, An 
Account of the Pamphlets written this last 
year on each side by the Dissenters, to the 
end of the year 1719.' This pamphlet was 
published in London, in the year 1720. 
The learned Dr. Stillingfleet well observes, 
' Since both sides yield, that the matter 
they dispute about is above their reach, 
the wisest course they can take is, to 
assert and defend what is revealed, and not 
to be peremptory and quarrelsome about 
that, which is acknowledged to be above 
our comprehension ; I mean as to the manner 
how the three persons partake of the divine 
nature.^ 

Arius owned Christ to be God in a sub- 
ordinate sense, and considered his death to 
be a propitiation for sin ; and his followers 
acknowledge that the Son was the Word; 
but they deny that Word to have been eter- 
nal, contending, that it had only been 
created prior to all other beings. Christ, 
say they, had nothing of man in him, except 
the flesh, with which the Aoyog , Word, spoken 
of by St. John, was united, which supplied 
the rest, and was the same in us as the soul. 
Though they deny that Christ is the eternal 
God, yet they contend against the Socinians 
for his pre-existence, which they found on 
our Lord's prayer, — 'Glorify me with the 
glory, which I had with thee before the world 
was ;' and on this expression, which he 
uses on another occasion, — 'Before Abra- 
ham was, I am.' These, and many other 
texts of a similar kind, are, in their opinion, 
undeniable proofs that Christ did actually 
123 



exist in another state, before he was born of 
the Virgin Mary. 

But, ' whilst they all concur in maintain- 
ing the pre-existence of Christ as a super- 
angelic Spirit, which supplied the place of 
a soul to him upon his conception and birth, 
and also his derivation from, and subordi- 
nation to, the Father, some of them ascribe 
to him a higher degree, rank, and dignity, 
than others. Accordingly they have been 
sometimes distinguished into High and Low 
Arians. The former, approaching in opi- 
nion to those that have been called Semi- 
Arians, or rather to the ancient Arians, 
whilst they believe the Father to be the one 
supreme God over all, absolutely eternal, 
underived, unchangeable, and independent, 
conceive the Son to be the first derived 
Being from the Father, and under him em- 
ployed in creating, and also in preserving 
and upholding, the world, and in exercising 
a moral, as well as natural, administration 
over mankind ; so that, under this distin- 
guishing character, he is invested with the 
office of final Judge. 

* Of these High Arians, some suppose, 
that Jesus Christ sustaining relations, and 
exercising offices so honourable in them- 
selves, and so interesting to mankind, is a 
proper object of subordinate worship ; whilst 
others imagine, that worship, in the proper 
and discriminating sense of the term, be- 
longs only to the Father, the self- existent, 
infinite, and supreme Deity. 

' Some Arians of this class have main- 
tained, that the Son of God, before his in- 
carnation, had only, or chiefly, the care and 
government of the Jewish people allotted to 
him ; whilst other angels were appointed 
presidents, or princes, of other nations and 
countries. 

' Others have also maintained, that the 
conduct of all the dispensations of Provi- 
dence, in every period of time, as they re- 
lated to the patriarchs, to the Jewish na- 
tion, to the prophets, to Christians, and to 
the world in general, has been entrusted to 
Christ; and that he was distinguished by 
various appropriate titles, as Jehovah, the 
Angel of the Covenant, the Angel Jehovah, 
the Angel of the Presence and the Logos, 
&c. To this purpose they allege, among 
other arguments, the declaration of the 
apostle, (Heb. i. 2. ; ii. 3.) that it was by 
Christ God made the worlds, aidvag, the 
ages, or dispensations, that is, by whom God 
formerly disposed those eminent and re- 
markable periods of time, — the antedilu- 
vian, the patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the 
present — being put under his government, 
according to the will of the Father. It is 
also alleged, as a further presumption in 
favour of this hypothesis, that the sacred 
writings contain a revelation and history of 
the administration of Providence, with re- 
gard merely to the inhabitants and concerns 
of our world, or of the terrestrial globe ; 



ARI 



ART 



and, of course, that the subordinate direc- 
tion and superintendence of this part of the 
government of the supreme and infinite 
Sovereign of this, and innumerable other 
worlds, is entrusted with Jesus Christ : a 
superior Being, adapted by his pre-existent 
dignity, and extraordinary perfections and 
powers, to the office of Ruler and Judge. 

• The Low Arians, on the other hand, are 
distinguished from the Socinians in no other 
respect, besides their maintaining the pre- 
existence, prior dignity, and transcendent 
native perfections, of that super-angelic 
spirit, which was united to the body of 
Christ, in his miraculous incarnation ; but 
they hold that he is entitled to no kind of 
religious worship, in the peculiar and ap- 
propriate meaning of this term.' 

Hence, while the High Arians believe 
that Christ is the Maker, Preserver, and 
Governor of the world, these modern Arians 
(a name by which the advocates of the hy- 
pothesis of the simple pre- existence of Christ, 
are willing to be distinguished, as well as 
by that of Unitarians) do not admit that he 
has any concern in its formation or govern- 
ment, or that he was in former ages, the 
medium of Divine dispensation to mankind. 

The Arians believe that the Holy Ghost 
is not God, but the creature of the Son, be- 
gotten and created by him, and inferior in 
dignity to the Father and the Son. In their 
doxologies they ascribe ' Glory to the Fa- 
ther, through the Son.' It is also worthy 
of notice, that the friends of Arianism drew 
up seventeen different confessions of faith, 
within forty years, after they had rejected 
the Nicene Creed ; that, after all, they would 
abide by none of these confessions ; and it 
does not appear that they have had, to this 
day, any stated creed. That by Mr. B. 
Carpenter, in his Liturgy, ' to be said by the 
minister and people,' wants three articles, 
and is as follows : ' I believe in God the 
Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and 
earth ; and in Jesus Christ his only Son our 
Lord, who taught us the way of God in truth, 
and set us an example that we should fol- 
low his steps : who died for our sins, ac- 
cording to the Scriptures, and the third day 
rose again from the dead. He ascended 
into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand 
of God the Father Almighty ; from thence 
he shall come to judge both the living and 
the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, — 
in the forgiveness of sins upon repentance, 
— in the necessity of a holy and religious 
life, — in the resurrection of the dead, — and 
in a future state of rewards and punish- 
ments ; and I believe that, in every nation, 
he that feareth God and worketh righteous- 
ness, is accepted with him.' 

The first Arians were accused of idolatry, 
for worshipping him whom they accounted a 
creature ; and the more modern Arians, in 
order to evade this accusation, have framed 
a distinction between supreme and inferior 
124 



worship ; but this, like the Roman Catholic 
distinction of Latreia, and Dulia, does not 
appear to others to have any foundation 
in Scripture. Whiston, Clarke, Emlyn, 
Chandler, Benson, Pierce, and Grove, and, 
in short, all the most eminent Arians, whe- 
ther churchmen or dissenters, have been 
worshippers of Christ; but we have been 
told, that ' since the publications of the late 
Dr. Price,' who was a great advocate of 
Arianism, the Arians ' seem to have aban- 
doned the worship of Jesus Christ,' not- 
withstanding they still continue to believe 
that he is the Maker, Supporter, and Go- 
vernor of the world, and the immediate 
Dispenser of all things pertaining both to 
life and godliness. 

But though Dr. Clarke continued to join 
in the worship of the church of England, 
and even to take an active part in it, yet he 
thought he saw the necessity of reforming 
her liturgy ; and accordingly, a short time 
before his death, he himself made and pro- 
posed some striking alterations, chiefly in 
the devotional parts, and with respect to the 
object of worship. All those passages, in 
which the Son and the Holy Ghost are 
called God, or divine worship is ascribed to 
either of them, he took the liberty of eras- 
ing, or of changing, so as to direct the wor- 
ship to God the Father. This work, which, 
it is believed, was never published, was 
lodged by his son, Mr. Clarke, in the British 
Museum, and was intituled ' Amendments, 
humbly proposed to the consideration of 
those in authority, of the Book of Common 
Prayer,' &c. It does not appear that the 
Common Prayer, with these alterations, has 
been used in any congregation of Arians ; 
but it, or something on the same plan, seems 
to be required by Arians and Unitarians ; 
and it forms the ground-work of the liturgy 
used since 1774, in the Unitarian chapel, 
Essex-street, Strand. 

According to Trinitarians, it is difficult 
to say which of the two is more unreason- 
able and unscriptural : Socinianism, which 
considers Christ as only a mere man, or 
Arianism, which regards him only as a 
supposititious God, ' a deified creature, a 
visible and inferior Jehovah.' Between 
these two, in their opinion, lies the true 
Christian faith, which, as it allows him to 
be ' perfect God and perfect man,' is never 
offended, or obliged to use any shifts, by 
what the Scripture says of him in either 
capacity. 

' Nothing, indeed, is more repugnant to 
reason, than that a finite being should have 
made the universe; should uphold it ; should 
possess it ; should govern it ; should judge 
and reward its intelligent inhabitants; 
should forgive their sins ; should be the 
source of life ; should communicate endless 
life ; and should be the ultimate end for 
which they and all things else were created. 
Every one of these matters is not only ut- 



ARK 



ARK 



terly different from the dictates of reason 
on this subject (a mystery quite inexplica- 
ble), but is directly repugnant to common 
sense. Nothing is more strongly realized 
by reason, than that 'he who built all 
things is' very ' God ;' that he who made 
the universe can alone uphold, possess, or 
govern it ; or be the ultimate end, for which 
it was created ; or do all or any of the things 
just now recited. If this Being be not God, 
in the absolute sense, reason has no know- 
ledge and no evidence that there is a God.' 
Dwight's Theology, vol. ii. pp. 133, 134; 
Rees's Cyclopad. art. Arians ; Adams's Reli- 
gious World, vol. ii. pp. 123, &c. ; Evans's 
Sketch, &c. pp. 55, &c. ; Moshe hit's Ecclesi- 
ast. History, vol. i. pp. 335, 33G, &c. vol. v. 
pp. 57, 58. 99, &c. 

ARlMATHiE'A, 'ApifiaOaia, signifies a 
lion dead to the Lord, or light of the death to 
the Lord. It was the city of Joseph, the 
counsellor, who asked of Pilate the body of 
Jesus ; and having taken it down from the 
cross, he wrapped it in linen, and laid it in 
a sepulchre, hewn in stone, in which never 
man before was laid. (Luke xxiii. 50, &c.) 
This city is supposed to be the same as 
Ramatha, (1 Sam. i. 1.) and to have been 
situated in the tribe of Ephraim. St. Je- 
rome places Arimathaea between Lydda and 
Joppa. 

ARISTAR'CHUS, ' Apitrrapxog, signifies 
a good prince. Aristarchus, mentioned by 
St Paul, (Coloss. iv. 10. Philem. ver. 24.) 
and in the Acts of the Apostles, was a Ma- 
cedonian, and a native of Thessalonica. He 
accompanied St. Paul to Ephesus, and con- 
tinued with him during the two years of his 
abode in that city, partaking in all his la- 
bours and dangers. He had nearly been 
killed in a tumult raised by the Ephesian 
silversmiths. He left Ephesus with the apos- 
tle, and accompanied him into Greece and 
Asia, and thence to Rome. (Acts xix. ; xx. 
4. ; xxvii. 2.) Ado, and the Roman mar- 
tyrology, call him bishop of Thessalonica; 
but the Greeks say, that he was bishop of 
Apamea, in Syria, and beheaded with St. 
Paul at Rome under Nero. 

ARISTOTELIANS, the followers of 
Aristotle. They believed in the eternity of 
the world, and represented the Deity as 
something similar to a principle of power 
that gives motion to a machine, and as happy 
in the contemplation of himself, but entirely 
regardless of human affairs. With respect 
to the human soul, they were uncertain as 
to its immortality. This sect derived their 
tenets as well as their name from Aristotle, 
and contributed to excite a proud and pre- 
sumptuous spirit of infidelity. Encyclop. 
Jiritan. in verb. 

ARK, or Noah's Ark, mn, Thebat, 
Kifiiorbg, a chest, or Aapva%, a coffer. It 
was a floating vessel built by Noah, for the 
preservation of his family, and tbe several 
species of animals, during the deluge. (Gen. 
125 



vi. 14.) The term Thebat used by Moses is 
different from the common name by which 
he describes a coffer. He employs the same 
Hebrew word, when speaking of the little 
basket, in which he was exposed on the Nile ; 
and hence some have thought, that the ark 
was of wicker-work. It was a sort of bark, 
in shape and appearance much like a chest, 
or trunk. The ancients inform us, that the 
Egyptians used on the Nile barks, which 
were made of bulrushes, and which were so 
light as to be carried upon their shoulders, 
when they met with falls of water that pre- 
vented their passage. 

In all probability, Noah's ark was like 
these Egyptian boats, but infinitely larger. 
It has been observed, that the proportions 
of this vessel pretty nearly agree with those 
of the human figure, so that it resembled a 
dead body laid out for burial : 300 cubits in 
length is six times its breadth, 50 cubits ; 
and ten times its height, 30 cubits. The 
body of a man lying on the water, flat on his 
back, will float without any exertion, so as 
to keep the mouth above water, and the nose 
free for the purpose of breathing. It would 
seem, therefore, that similar proportions 
would suit a vessel, whose purpose was float- 
ing only ; and hence it has been thought by 
some not impossible that it might remain 
stationary all the time of the deluge. 

If we reckon the Hebrew cubit at 
twenty-one inches, Noah's ark was 512 feet 
long, 87 wide, and 52 feet, high ; and its 
internal capacity was 357,600 cubical cu- 
bits. If we suppose the cubit to be only 
eighteen inches, its length was 450 feet, its 
width 75 feet, and its height 45 feet. Its 
figure was an oblong square, but the cover- 
ing might have a declivity to carry off 
water. Its length exceeded that of most 
churches in Europe. Snellius computes 
the ark to have been above half an acre in 
area. Father Lamy shows, that it was 110 
feet longer than the church of St. Mary, at 
Paris, and 64 feet narrower; and if so, it 
must have been longer than St. Paul's 
church in London from west to east, 
broader than that church is high in the 
inside, and 54 feet of our measure in height. 
Dr. Arbuthnot computes it to have been 
81,062 tons. 

The creatures contained in the ark were, 
besides eight persons of Noah's family, one 
pair of every species of unclean animals, 
and seven pairs of every species of clean 
animals, with provisions for them all during 
a whole year. At first view, the former 
appears almost infinite, but if we calculate, 
we shall find the number of species of ani- 
mals less than is generally imagined, and 
that they do not amount to a hundred spe- 
cies of quadrupeds, nor to two hundred of 
birds. From this number are to bo ex- 
cepted in this case such animals as can live 
in the water. Zoologists usually reckon 
only one hundred and seventy species in 



ARK 



ARK 



all ; and Bishop Wilkins shows, that only 
seventy-two of the quadruped kind needed 
a place in the ark. 

By the description which Moses gives of 
the Ark, it appears to have heen divided 
into three stories, each ten cubits or fifteen 
feet high. It is supposed to be most pro- 
bable, that the lowest story was intended 
for the beasts ; the middle for the food ; and 
the highest for the birds, with Noah and his 
family; each story being subdivided into 
different apartments, stalls, &c. Josephus, 
Philo, and other commentators, add a kind 
of fourth story under the rest, and think 
that this was the hold of the vessel to con- 
tain the ballast, and receive the filth and 
faeces of so many animals. Father Calmet, 
however, is of opinion, that what is here 
called a story was no more than what is 
termed the keel in ships, and served only 
as a conservatory of fresh water. Drex- 
elius reckons three hundred apartments ; 
F. Fournier, three hundred and thirty- three ; 
the anonymous author of the questions on 
Genesis, four hundred; Buteo, Tempo- 
rarius, Arius Montanus, Hostus, Wilkins, 
Lamy, and others, suppose that there were 
as many partitions as different sorts of ani- 
mals. Pelletier reckons only 72; 36 for the 
birds, and as many for the beasts. His 
reason is, that if we suppose a greater num- 
ber as 333 or 400, each of the eight persons 
in the ark must have had 37, 41, or 50 stalls, 
to attend and cleanse daily, which he thinks 
could not be done. But it is observed that 
this argument is of little force. To diminish 
the number of stalls without the diminution 
of animals is in vain ; and it is perhaps 
more difficult to take care of 300 animals in 
72 stalls, than in 300. With respect to the 
number of animals contained in the ark, 
Buteo computes, that it could not be equal 
to 500 horses ; and he even reduces the 
whole to the dimensions of 56 pairs of oxen. 
F. Lamy enlarges it to 64 pairs, or 128 
oxen ; and therefore, supposing one ox 
equal to two horses, if the ark could contain 
256 horses, it would be sufficiently capa- 
cious for holding all the animals. The 
same author, however, demonstrates, that 
allowing nine square feet to a horse, one 
floor of the ark would be sufficient for 500 
horses. 

With respect to the food in the second 
story, it is observed by Buteo from Colu- 
mella, that thirty or forty pounds of hay 
commonly suffice an ox during a day, and 
that a solid cubit of hay, as usually pressed 
down in our hay ricks, weighs about forty 
pounds. Hence a square cubit of hay is 
more than enough for one ox during a day. 
Now it appears, that the second story con- 
tained 150,000 solid cubits, which being di- 
vided among 206 oxen, will afford to each 
more hay by two- thirds, than he can eat in 
a year. Bishop Wilkins computes all the 
carnivorous animals equal, with respect to 
126 



the bulk of their bodies and their food, to 
twenty-seven wolves ; and all the rest to 
two hundred and eighty beeves. For the 
former he allows 1825 sheep; and for the 
latter, 109,500 cubits of hay; all of which 
would be easily contained in the first two 
stories. With respect to the third story, no 
person doubts that it was sufficient for the 
fowls, with Noah, his sons, and daughters. 
On the whole, the learned Bishop remarks, 
that of the two, it appears much more diffi- 
cult to assign a number and bulk of neces- 
sary things to correspond with the capacity 
of the ark, than to find sufficient room for 
the several species of animals, which it is 
known to have contained. This he attri- 
butes to the imperfection of our list of ani- 
mals, especially those of the unknown parts 
of the earth. He adds, that the most 
learned and accurate calculators, and those 
most conversant in the building of ships, 
conclude, that if the ablest mathematicians 
had been consulted about proportioning the 
several apartments in the ark, they could 
not have done it with greater correctness 
than Moses has done ; and this narration in 
the sacred history is so far from furnishing 
Deists with arguments, by which to weaken 
the authority of the Holy Scriptures, that, 
on the contrary, it supplies good arguments 
to confirm that authority ; since it seems in 
a manner impossible for a man in Noah's 
time, when navigation was so imperfect, to 
discover by his own wit and invention, 
such accuracy and regularity of proportion, 
as is remarkable in the dimensions of the 
ark. It follows, therefore, that the correct- 
ness must be attributed to divine inspira- 
tion, and to a supernatural direction. 

It is observable, that, besides the places 
requisite for the beasts and birds, and their 
provisions, space would be required for 
Noah to preserve household utensils, the 
instruments of husbandry, grains, and seeds, 
with which to sow the earth after the deluge. 
For this purpose it is thought Noah might 
spare room in the third story for thirty- six 
cabins, besides a kitchen, a hall, four cham- 
bers, and a space about forty-eight cubits 
in length, in which he and his family might 
walk. It has been asked how long was 
Noah in building the ark ? Interpreters ge- 
nerally believe that he was an hundred and 
twenty years ; and this opinion is founded 
on the following words : ' My spirit shall 
not always strive with man for that he 
also is flesh ; yet his days shall be an hun- 
dred and twenty years.' (Gen. vi. 3.) They 
suppose that God by this predicted an in- 
terval of only 120 years to the deluge ; and 
that this time was necessary for Noah to 
make preparations to build the ark, to 
preach repentance, and to collect provisions, 
animals, &c. But how shall we reconcile 
this with what is afterwards said, that Noah 
was five hundred years old when he begat 
Shem, Ham, and Japheth? (Gen. v. 32.) 



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And when God commands him to build the 
ark, he says, ' Thou shalt come into the 
ark, thou and thy sons, and thy wife, and 
thy sons' wives with thee.' (Gen. vi. 18.) 
At that time his three sons, who were not 
born till after the five hundredth year of 
his age, were all married, though the deluge 
happened in the six hundredth year of Noah. 
It is therefore impossible, that he should 
have received orders to build the ark one 
hundred and twenty years before the de- 
luge, unless, in fact, Noah had other sons, 
though only these three attended to his or- 
der. Or, it may be said, that when Noah is 
declared to have begotten Shem, Ham, and 
Japheth, at five hundred years of age, it 
should be translated had begotten, instead of 
begat. 

The wood, of which the ark was built, is 
called in the Hebrew, "vy "i3"a Gopher-woods, 
and in the Septuagint, £u\a rtrpayuva, 
square pieces of wood. Some translate it 
cedar ; some, pine ; others, box, &c. Pel- 
letier prefers cedar, on account of its incor- 
ruptibility; and this wood was so plentiful 
in Asia, "that as Herodotus and Theophras- 
tus relate, the kings of Egypt and Syria built 
whole fleets of it instead of deal. The 
common tradition also throughout the east 
is, that the ark is still preserved entire upon 
mount Ararat. Our learned countryman, 
Mr. Fuller, has observed in his Miscellanies, 
that the wood, of which the ark was built, 
was that which the Greeks call KV7ra.picro-og, 
or cypress ; for if we take away the termi- 
nation, cupar and gopher will differ very little 
in sound. Bochart has also shown, that no 
country abounds so much with this wood, 
as that part of Assyria, which is contiguous 
to Babylon. Yet the accuracy of Mr. 
Fuller's observation may be reasonably 
doubted. Dr. Geddes says, that the ark 
was made of wicker work 1 and Abraham 
Dawson renders the passage, ' Make thee 
an ark of bulrushes; of reeds shalt thou 
make it ! ! ' These are certainly strange 
ideas. Some writers have thought that for 
the building of this ark Noah was to take 
two kinds of woods (otzi, plural), gopher, and 
kauan, mentioned in the margin. The gopher, 
i. e. the inflammable, resinous kind (the 
pine) was used for the uprights, the main 
beams, the ribs, and other places requiring 
strength ; and this kind of tree abounded 
upon the mountains, where Noah is sup- 
posed to have dwelt. Kanan, or long canes, 
which grew in the neighbouring marshes, 
were nailed along the upright ribs, both on 
the outside and on the inside. 

In what place Noah built and finished the 
ark, is also a matter of dispute. Some sup- 
pose that he built it in Palestine, and 
planted in the plains of Sodom the cedars of 
which it was made. Some think that it was 
built upon mount Caucasus, on the confines 
of India; some in China, where they ima- 
gine Noah dwelt before the flood ; in Chalda>a, 

127 



where, in the time of Alexander, was so 
great a quantity of cypress in the groves and 
gardens, that that prince, for want of other 
timber, built of it a whole fleet. There is 
also a Chaldaean tradition, which says, that 
Xithurus (another name for Noah) set sail 
from that country. 

The Mahometans say, that while Noah 
was employed in this building, the wicked 
rallied him. Some said, to what purpose is 
a vessel built in the open plain at such a 
distance from the waters ? Some exclaimed 
in a way of ridicule, which has become pro- 
verbial, l You have made a ship, now bring 
it to the waters.' Others said, that after 
having long practised the business of a hus- 
bandman, he was at last reduced to that of 
a carpenter. But his answer to them was, 
* I shall have my turn ; and you will learn, 
at your expense, who he is that punishes the 
wicked in this world, and reserves chastise- 
ment for them in the next.' 

The number of men and animals which 
were included in the ark has plentifully 
supplied matter of dispute. However, about 
the number of men, if we observe the texts 
of Moses, and Peter, w r e shall have no con- 
test: Moses expressly says, that Noah went 
into the ark, himself, his wife, his three sons, 
and their wives ; and St. Peter tells us, that 
there were only eight persons saved from 
the deluge. In fixing the number of ani- 
mals, Moses perplexes us in these words: 
' Of every clean beast thou shalt take to 
thee by sevens, the male and his female ; 
and of beasts that are not clean by two, the 
male and his female.' In the Hebrew, Sa- 
maritan, &c. the reading is seven, seven, two, 
two, went in. The text will, therefore, bear 
to be construed seven and seven, in like 
manner as it is said in the Gospel, that our 
Saviour sent away his disciples two and tiro, 
and they departed two and two, not four and 
four together. This opinion is followed by 
almost all commentators. Nevertheless, the 
contrary opinion is not without defenders, and 
the original text may signify fourteen clean 
beasts or seven pairs ; and of unclean, two 
pairs or only one pair. 

It may be asked, what are we to under- 
stand by clean and unclean beasts ? Was 
this distinction, which is declared by Moses 
in the law, known and practised before the 
deluge ? Or did Moses mention it as known 
and understood by the people, for whom he 
wrote? It seems probable that this dis- 
tinction was known to Noah, and that the 
same animals were esteemed pure or impure 
both by him and the Jews. It is manifest, 
that by pure animals in general are meant 
those only, which might be offered in sacri- 
fice, as bulls, sheep, goats, and their several 
species ; and of birds, as pigeons, doves. 
hens, and sparrows. For the common uses 
of life, as food, &c. Moses allows a greater 
number of animals ; but it would seem that 
in this place we arc not to extend the pure 



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animals beyond those admitted in sacrifice. 
The pair of unclean beasts could be only 
one male and one female ; but the seven 
clean beasts might be two males and five 
females ; one male for sacrifice, and the rest 
for multiplying the species. Taylor's Scrip- 
ture Illustrated, Exposit. Index, p. 18; Univ. 
Hist. Book i. Chap. i. 

Ark of the Covenant, p"i«, arun, de- 
notes the coffer or chest, in which the tables 
containing the commandments were depo- 
sited. This coffer was three feet nine inches 
in length, two feet three inches in breadth, 
and two feet three inches in height ; and 
besides the tables of the covenant, it con- 
tained the golden pot that held manna, and 
Aaron's rod, (Exod. xvi. 33. Numb. xvii. 
10. Heb. ix. 4.) It was made ofshittim- 
wood, and covered with a lid of solid gold. 
This lid or covering was called the pro- 
pitiatory or mercy-seat; at the two ends of 
which were two cherubim, that looked to- 
wards each other with expanded wings, and 
embracing the whole circumference of the 
mercy-seat, met on each side in the middle, 
(Exod. xxv. 17-22, &c.) Here the 
Shechinah or divine presence rested both 
in the tabernacle and the temple, and ap- 
peared in a cloud. (Levit. xvi. 2.) Hence 
issued the _ divine oracles by an audible 
voice, as often as God was consulted in the 
behalf of his people. Hence also God is 
said in Scripture to dwell between the che- 
rubim on the mercy-seat, because there was 
the seat or throne of the appearance of his 
glory, (2 Kings xix. 15. 1 Chron. xiii. 6. 
Psalm lxxx. 1.) For this reason the high- 
priest appeared before the mercy-seat once 
every year on the great day of expiation, 
when he approached nearest to the divine 
presence to mediate and make an atonement 
for the whole people of Israel. On the two 
sides of the ark were four rings of gold, two 
on each side ; and through these rings were 
put staves overlaid with gold, by means of 
which it was carried upon the shoulders of 
the Levites, when they marched through the 
wilderness, &c. (Exod. xxv. 13, 14 ; xxvii. 
5. Numb, iv.) 

After the passage of Jordan, the ark con- 
tinued for some time at Gilgal, whence it 
was removed to Shiloh. From this place 
the Israelites carried it to their camp ; and, 
in an engagement with the Philistines, the 
ark of the Lord was taken by the enemy. 
The Philistines, oppressed by the hand of 
God, returned the ark, and it was lodged at 
Kirjath-jearim. 11 was afterwards in the 
reign of Saul at Nob. David conveyed it 
to Obed-edom, and thence to his palace at 
Sion ; and lastly, Solomon brought it into 
the temple at Jerusalem. It remained in 
the temple with all suitable respect till the 
times of the latter kings of Judah, who 
gave themselves up to idolatry, and were 
so daring as to establish their idols in the 
very holy place itself. The priests, unable 
128 



to endure this profanation, removed the ark, 
and carried it from place to place, to preserve 
it from the impiety of these princes. Josiah 
commanded them to bring it back to the 
sanctuary, and forbade them to carry it into 
the country, as they had hitherto done. (2 
Chron. xxxv. 3.) 

It is doubted, with good reason, whether 
the ark was replaced in the temple after the 
return of the Jews from Babylon. Dr. Pri- 
deaux, however, is of opinion, that as the Jews 
found it necessary for the celebration of their 
worship in the second temple to have a new 
altar of incense, a new table of shew bread, 
and a new candlestick, they had also a new 
ark. Since the holy of holies, and the veil 
drawn before it, were entirely for the sake of 
the ark, there would have been no need of 
these in the second temple, if the ark, to 
which they referred, had been wanting. 

Some think that Nebuchadnezzar convey- 
ed the ark to Babylon, among the spoil of 
rich vessels carried off by him from the tem- 
ple. Others are of opinion, that Manasseh 
having set up idols in the temple, took away 
the ark, which was not returned during his 
reign. The author of Esdras represents 'the 
Jews as lamenting that the ark of the cove- 
nant was taken by the Chaldeans among the 
plunder of the temple. (2 Esdras x. 22.) 

The Gemara of Jerusalem and that of Ba- 
bylon, acknowledged that the ark of the co- 
venant was one of the things wanting in the 
second temple. The Jews flatter themselves 
that it will be restored by their Messiah ; but 
Jeremiah, speaking of the time of the Mes- 
siah, says, they shall neither talk nor think 
of the ark, nor remember it any more. (Jer. 
iii. 16.) Ezra, Nehemiah, the Maccabees, 
and Josephus, never mention the ark in the 
second temple; and Josephus says expressly, 
that when J erusalem was taken by Titus, no- 
thing was found in the sanctuary. 

Lastly, the Rabbins agree in saying, that 
after the captivity of Babylon, the ark was 
not extant at Jerusalem; and that the foun- 
dation stone, which they believe to be the 
centre of the holy mountain, was placed in 
the sanctuary in its room. The fathers and 
Christian commentators agree generally with 
the Jews in this matter. 

The ark of the covenant was the centre of 
worship to all those of the Hebrew nation 
who served God according to the Levitical 
law. Not only in their worship in the tem- 
ple, but in whatever country they were dis- 
persed, when they prayed, they turned their 
faces towards the place where the ark stood. 
(Dan. vi. 10.) Hence the author of the book 
of Cosri says, that the ark, with the mercy-seat 
and cherubim, was the foundation of the tem- 
ple, and of the whole Levitical worship. 

The Heathens also had their religious 
chests or cistse, in which they deposited 
their most sacred things. In certain proces- 
sions in Egypt was a chest-bearer, who car- 
ried a box containing the richest things for 






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their religious uses. We likewise read of a 
box, in which the Trojans locked up their 
mvsteries, and which, at the siege of Troy, 
fell to the share of Euripulus- The same 
custom prevailed among the Greeks and Ro- 
mans. It has been doubted, whether the 
sacred chests of the Heathen did not refer 
originally to the ark of Noah, rather than to 
the ark of Moses. As instances of comme- 
moration, it seems more probable that they 
represented the former, of which the tradition 
was constant and general, than the latter, of 
which the knowledge and the interest were 
very feeble, if at all sensible in distant, and 
especially in Heathen countries. It is, how- 
ever, observable, that a chest or coffer very 
nearly resembling the Jewish ark, and called 
the house of God, was found in Huaheine, one 
of the islands in the South Sea. Hawkes- 
worth's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. ; Pri- 
deaur's Connect. Part I. B. iii. p. 204, &c. 

ARMAGED'DOX, 'ApfiayeScwv, signifies 
the mountain of Megiddo, the mountain of the 
Gospel. Armageddon is a place spoken of in 
the book of Revelation, (xvi. 16.) Accord- 
ing to Mr. Pool, it does not signify any par- 
ticular place, but, as some think, alludes in 
this passage to the city of Megiddo in the 
great plain at the foot of Mount Carmel. 
Here Barak overcame Sisera and his great 
armv, (Judg. v. 19 ;) and here good king Jo- 
siah received his mortal wound in the battle 
against Necho, king of Egypt. (2 Chron. 
xxxv. 22, 23.) Pool's Annot. ; Lowman's Pa- 
raphrase on the Revelation, p. 244. 

ARME'XIA, 12-nx, Ararat, a province of 
Asia, consisting of the modern Turcomania 
and part of Persia. It is bounded on the 
north by Georgia, on the south by Curdistan, 
the ancient Assyria, and on the west by Na- 
tolia, or the Lesser Asia. In this province 
are the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates, 
and those of the Araxes and Phasis ; and in 
it many suppose Eden and also Paradise to 
have been situated. The name Armenia is 
derived either from Aram, the father of the 
Syrians, or from Harminni, the mountain of 
the Mineans. Moses says, that the ark 
rested upon the mountains of Armenia, ac- 
cording to the Vulgate ; but in the Septua- 
gint and Hebrew, the reading is Ararat, 
(Gen. viii. 4.) In the Second Book of Kings, 
it is said, that the two sons of Sennacherib, 
after having killed their father, escaped into 
Armenia, or, according to the Hebrews, the 
land of Ararat, (xix. 37.) 

It seems highly probable, that both the 
Greater and the Lesser Armenia were en- 
lightened with the knowledge of the truth in 
the first, or early in the second, century; but 
the Armenian church was not completely 
formed till the beginning of the fourth cen- 
tury, when Gregory, the son of Anax, com- 
monly called the Enlightener, converted to 
Christianity Tiridates, king of Armenia, and 
all the nobles of his court. Gregory was 
consecrated bishop of the Armenians by 
129 



Leontius, Bishop of Cappadocia ; and his 
ministry was crowned with such success, 
that the whole province was soon converted 
to the Christian faith. From that period 
Armenia has undergone so many revolutions, 
that it must appear more remarkable, that 
the Armenians should still persevere in the 
Christian faith, than that they should deviate 
in many particulars from the original doc- 
trines of their church. They no longer exist 
collectively as a nation, once famous for the 
wealth and luxury of its monarchs ; but suc- 
cessively subjected to the Turks, Tartars, 
and Persians, they have preserved only their 
native language, and the remembrance of 
their ancient kingdom. 

Early in the seventeenth century, the 
state of the Armenian church underwent 
a considerable change, in consequence 
of the incursions of Abbas the Great, king 
of Persia, into Armenia. This prince, to 
prevent the Turks from approaching his 
frontier, laid waste all that part of Armenia, 
which was contiguous to his dominions, and 
ordered the inhabitants to retire into Persia. 
In the general emigration that ensued, the 
more opulent of the Armenians removed to 
Ispahan, the capital of Persia, where they 
were allowed a beautiful suburb for their 
residence, and the free exercise of their re- 
ligion. After the death of this generous 
monarch, the storm of persecution that arose 
upon them shook their constancy. Many 
of them apostatized to the Mahometan re- 
ligion, and it was justly to be feared that this 
branch of the Armenian church would gra- 
dually perish. On the other hand, the state 
of religion in that church derived consider- 
able advantage from the settlement of a 
great number of Armenians in different parts 
of Europe, for the purpose of commerce. 
These merchants, who had fixed their resi- 
dence during this century in London, Am- 
sterdam, Marseilles, and Venice, were not 
unmindful of the interests of religion in their 
native country. They supplied their Asiatic 
brethren with Armenian translations of the 
Holy Scriptures, and with theological books 
from the European presses, especially from 
those of England and Holland. These works 
were dispersed among the Armenians, who 
lived under the Turkish and Persian govern- 
ments, and without doubt contributed to 
preserve that people from falling into the 
most deplorable ignorance. 

The Armenian was formerly considered 
as a branch of the Greek church. It pro- 
fessed the same faith, and acknowledged the 
same subjection to the see of Constantinople, 
till nearly the middle of the sixth century. 
when the heresy of the Monophysites spread 
through Africa and Asia, and comprehended 
the Armenians among its votaries. But, 
though the members of this church still 
agree with the Other Monophysites in the 
principal doctrine of that sect, respecting the 
unity of the divine and human nature in 
K 



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Christ, they differ from them in so many 
points of faith, worship, and discipline, that 
they hold no communion with that branch of 
the Monophysites who are Jacobites in the 
more limited sense of that term, nor with 
either the Copts or the Abyssinians. 

The Armenians allow and accept the ar- 
ticles of faith according to the council of 
Nice ; and use the Apostles' Creed. With 
respect to the Trinity, they agree with the 
Greeks in acknowledging three persons in 
one divine nature, and that the Holy Ghost 
proceeds only from the Father. They 
believe that Christ descended into hell, and 
liberated thence all the souls of the damned, 
by the grace and favour of his glorious 
presence ; that this liberation was not for 
ever, nor by a plenary pardon or remission, 
but only till the end of the world, when the 
souls of the damned shall again be returned 
into eternal flames. 

Du Pin insinuates, that the Armenians 
were reconciled to the church of Rome at 
the council of Florence, in the middle of 
the fifteenth century ; but if we attend to 
the learned and judicious Dr. Mosheim, 
we shall find that the scheme of comprehen- 
sion projected in that council was completely 
frustrated, not only in regard to the Greek 
church, but to all the Oriental churches. 
At the same time it ought to be acknow- 
ledged, that the subsequent attempts of the 
Roman missionaries on the faith of the 
Armenians have not been altogether un- 
successful. 

The Armenians believe, that neither the 
souls, nor the bodies, of any saints or pro- 
phets, departed this life, are in heaven, ex- 
cept the blessed Virgin, and the prophet 
Elias. Yet, notwithstanding their opinion 
that the saints shall not be admitted into 
heaven till the day of judgment, by a certain 
imitation of the Greek and Latin churches, 
they invoke those saints with prayers, reve- 
rence and adore their pictures and images, 
and burn to them lamps and candles. The 
saints commonly invoked by them, are all the 
prophets and apostles ; and also St. Silves- 
ter, St. Savorich, &c. 

They worship after the Eastern manner, 
by prostrating their bodies, and kissing the 
ground three times. When they first enter 
the church, they uncover their heads, and 
cross themselves three times ; but after- 
wards, they cover their heads, and sit cross- 
legged on carpets. The greatest part of 
their public divine service is performed in 
the morning before it is light. They are 
very devout on vigils to feasts, and on Sa- 
turday evenings, when they all go to church, 
and, after their return home, perfume their 
houses with incense, and adorn their little 
pictures with lamps. In their monasteries, 
the whole Psalter of David is read over every 
twenty-four hours; but in the cities and 
parochial churches, the Psalter is divided 
into eight portions, and each portion into 
130 



eight parts, at the end of each of which is 
said the Gloria Patri, &c. 

The rites and ceremonies of the Armenian 
church greatly resemble those of the Greek. 
Their liturgies also are essentially the same, 
or at least are ascribed to the same authors. 
The fasts, which they observe annually, are 
not only more numerous, but kept with 
greater rigour and mortification than is 
usual in any other Christian community. 
They mingle the whole course of the year 
with fasting : and there is not a single day, 
which is not appointed either for a fast or 
a festival. They commemorate our Lord's 
nativity on the 6th of January, and thus ce- 
lebrate in one festival his birth, epiphany, 
and baptism. 

The Armenians practise the trine immer- 
sion, which they consider as essential to 
baptism. After baptism, they apply the 
myron or chrism, and anoint the forehead, 
eyes, ears, breast, palms of the hands, and 
soles of the feet, with consecrated oil, in the 
form of a cross. Then they administer to 
the child the eucharist, with which they only 
rub its lips. The eucharist is celebrated 
only on Sundays and festivals. They do 
not mix the wine with water, nor put leaven 
into their bread, as do the Greeks. They 
steep the bread in the wine, and thus the 
communicant receives both kinds together, 
— a form different from that of the Latin, 
Greek, and reformed churches. They differ 
from the Greeks in administering bread un- 
leavened, made like a wafer ; and, from the 
Romans, in giving both kinds to the laity. 

When the Armenians withdrew from the 
communion of the Greek church, they did 
not change their ancient episcopal form of 
church government, but claimed only the 
privilege of choosing their own spiritual 
rulers. The name and office of patriarch 
was continued ; but three or four prelates 
shared that dignity. The chief of these 
exercises his jurisdiction over Turcomania, 
or Armenia Major, and is said to number 
among his suffragans forty-two archbishops, 
each of whom can claim the obedience of 
four or five suffragans. Though this prelate 
is elevated to the highest rank of ecclesi- 
astical power and preferment, yet he rejects 
all the splendid insignia of authority, and 
fares no better than the poorest monastic. 
The Armenians place much of their religion 
in fasting and abstinences ; and, among the 
clergy, the higher the degree, the lower they 
must live, insomuch that the archbishops 
are said to live on pulse only. 

The second patriarch of the Armenians 
rules over the churches established in Cap- 
padocia, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Syria, and 
has under his jurisdiction twelve archbi- 



The third, and last in rank of the Arme- 
nian patriarchs, has no more than eight or 
nine bishops under his jurisdiction. 

In the Armenian, as in the Greek church, 



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a monastery is considered as the only proper 
seminary for dignified ecclesiastics ; and it 
seems to be a tenet of their church, that ab- 
stinence in diet, and austerity of manners, 
should increase with preferment. Hence, 
though their priests are permitted to marry 
once, their patriarchs and mastabets (or 
martabets), that is, bishops, must remain in 
a state of strict celibacy. It is also ne- 
cessary that their dignified clergy should 
assume the sanctimonious manners of an 
ascetic. 

Their monastic discipline is extremely 
severe. Their monks neither eat flesh nor 
drink wine ; and they sometimes continue 
in prayer from midnight till three o'clock in 
the afternoon, during which time they are 
required to read the whole Psalter, besides 
performing many other spiritual exercises. 

The extreme ignorance of the Armenian 
clergy, even with respect to their own 
doctrine, is palliated, if possible, by their 
wretched and abject state. The chief part 
of their income arises from what we call 
surplice fees, in the exaction of which they 
are said to be very encroaching and impor- 
tunate. Adams's Religious World Displayed, 
vol . i. p. 408, &c. ; Buchanan's Christian Re~ 
searches, p. 255, &c. 

ARMIES. The Lord, in Scripture, as- 
sumes the name of the God of Hosts, or of 
armies. The Hebrew word mxnv, zabaoth, 
which signifies armies, is often understood of 
flocks of sheep ; and in several places armies 
are compared to flocks. (1 Kings xx. 27. 
Jer. iii. 19. Psalm lxxvii. 20, &c.) The 
Hebrew nation, in many places, is called 
the army of the Lord, because their head 
and general was God, who named the cap- 
tains of their armies, who ordained war and 
peace, and whose priests sounded the trum- 
pets, &c. 

The armies of Israel were not composed 
of troops kept constantly in pay; but the 
whole nation were fighting men, ready to 
march, as occasion required. The army 
expected no reward besides honour, and 
the captured spoils, which were divided by 
the chiefs. Each soldier furnished himself 
with arms and provisions, and their wars were 
generally of a short duration. They fought 
on foot, and had no horse in their army till 
the reign of Solomon. David was the first 
who had regular troops ; and his successors, 
for the most part, had only militia, except 
their body guards, which were not very nu- 
merous. When they were ready to give 
battle, proclamation was made at the head 
of every battalion. (Deut. xx. 5.) 

The ark of God was generally borne in 
the army, and was not out of the camp 
during the whole time of Israel's abode in 
the wilderness. Joshua ordered it to be 
carried almost constantly with him in his 
wars against the Canaanites. The Israelites 
being vanquished by the Philistines, in the 
time of Eli, the high -priest, they sent for 
131 



the ark; and, on its coming, they were filled 
with joy, whilst terror spread through the 
camp of the Philistines. (1 Sam. iv. 4, 5.) 
David commanded it to be carried to the 
siege of Rabbah ; and being compelled to 
flee before his son Absalom, the high-priest, 
Zadok, brought out to him the ark, but 
David ordered it back to Jerusalem. (2 Sam. 
xv. 24.) In imitation of Judah, the Israelites 
of the ten tribes carried their golden calves 
with them in their camp, as the Philistines 
did their idols. (1 Chron. xiv. 12. 2 Chron. 
xiii. 8.) 

ARMINIANS, those who maintain the 
doctrines respecting Predestination and 
Grace, which were embraced and defended 
by James Harmensen, or Arminius, an emi- 
nent Protestant divine, and a native of Hol- 
land, who flourished at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. The same religionists 
have also obtained the name of Remon- 
strants, particularly on the continent, be- 
cause, in 1610, they presented to the States 
of Holland a petition, intituled their Re- 
monstrance, in which they state their griev- 
ances, and pray for relief. 

Arminius, from whom are derived the 
origin and the name, but not the doctrines 
of the sect, was born in 1560, and died in 
1609. He first studied at Leyden, and then 
at Geneva. Whilst at the university of 
Geneva, he studied under Beza, by whom 
he was instructed in the doctrines of Calvin ; 
and having been judged by Martin Lydius, 
professor of divinity at Franeker, a proper 
person to refute a work, in which the Cal- 
vinistic doctrine of Predestination had been 
attacked by some ministers of Delft, he 
undertook the task. On a strict examina- 
tion of the reasons on both sides, he became 
a convert to the opinions, which he was em- 
ployed to refute, and afterwards went still 
farther than the ministers of Delft The 
result of his inquiries on this, and other 
subjects connected with it, was, that think- 
ing the doctrine of Calvin, with respect to 
free-will, predestination, and grace, too se- 
vere, he expressed his doubts respecting 
them in the year 1591, and at length 
adopted the religious system of those, who 
extend the love of God, and the merits of 
his Son, to all mankind. 

After his appointment to the theological 
chair of Leyden, in 1603, he avowed and 
vindicated the principles which he had em- 
braced ; and the freedom with which he 
published and defended them, exposed him 
to the resentment of those, who adhered to 
the theological system of Calvin, and in par- 
ticular to the opposition of Gomar, his 
colleague. 

After the death of Arminius, the contro- 
versy thus begun, became more general, and 
threatened to involve the United Provinces 
in civil discord. However, the Arminian 
tenets gained ground, and were adopted by 
several persons cf merit and distinction. 
k2 



ARM 



ARM 



The Calvinists, or Gomarists, as they were 
now called, appealed to a national Synod. 
Accordingly, a Synod was convened at Dor- 
drecht, or Dort, and was composed of eccle- 
siastical and lay deputies from the United 
Provinces, and also of ecclesiastical deputies 
from the reformed churches of England, 
Switzerland, Bremen, Hesse, and the Pala- 
tinate. This Synod sat from the first of 
November, 1618, to the twenty-sixth of 
April, 1619. The principal advocate in favour 
of the Arminians was Episcopius, who was at 
that time professor of divinity at Leyden. 

The Arminians insisted on beginning 
with a refutation of the Calvinistic doctrines, 
especially that of reprobation; whilst the 
other party determined, that, as the Re- 
monstrants were accused of departing from 
the reformed faith, they ought first to justify 
themselves by Scriptural proof that their 
own opinions were well founded. As the 
Arminians would not submit to this latter 
mode of proceeding, they were banished the 
Synod for their refusal. Their cause was 
tried in their absence ; and they were pro- 
nounced guilty of pestilential errors, and 
condemned as corrupters of the true religion. 
In consequence of this decision, which some 
think was premeditated and determined 
even before the meeting of the Synod, they 
were considered as enemies to their country, 
and its established religion, and were ex- 
posed to much persecution. They were 
treated with great severity, and deprived of 
all their posts and employments. Their 
ministers were silenced, and their congrega- 
tions suppressed. The great Barneveldt 
lost his life on a public scaffold ; and the 
learned Grotius, being condemned to per- 
petual imprisonment, made his escape, and 
took refuge in France. However, after the 
death of prince Maurice, in 1625, the Ar- 
minians, who had been driven into exile, 
were restored to their former reputation and 
tranquillity; and under the toleration of 
the States, which was granted them in 1630, 
they erected churches, and founded a college 
at Amsterdam, in which Episcopius was ap- 
pointed the first theological professor. 

The religious principles of the Arminians 
have insinuated themselves more or less 
into the established church in Holland, and 
infected the theological system of many of 
those pastors, who are appointed to maintain 
the doctrine and authority of the Synod of 
Dort. The principles of Arminius were 
early introduced into various other coun- 
tries, as Britain, France, Geneva, and many 
parts of Switzerland ; but their progress is 
said to have been rather retarded of late, 
especially in Germany and several parts of 
Switzerland, by the prevalence of the Leib- 
nitzian and Wolfian philosophy, which is 
more favourable to Calvinism. 

The distinguishing tenets of the Arminians 
may be said to consist chiefly in the different 
light, in which they view the subjects of the 

132 



five points, or in the different explanation, 
which they gave to them, as comprised in 
the five following articles ; Predestination, 
Universal Redemption, the Corruption of Hu- 
man Nature, Conversion, and Perseverance. 
See Calvinism. 

1. With respect to the first, they main- 
tained, — ' That God, from all eternity, de- 
termined to bestow salvation on those, who 
he foresaw would persevere unto the end 
in their faith in Jesus Christ, and to inflict 
everlasting punishments on those, who should 
continue in their unbelief, and resist to the 
end his divine assistance ; — so that election 
was conditional, and reprobation, in like 
manner, the result of foreseen infidelity and 
persevering wickedness.' 

2. On the second point they taught, — 
' That Jesus Christ, by his sufferings and 
death, made an atonement for the sins of all 
mankind in general, and of every individual 
in particular ; that, however, none but those, 
who believe in him, can be partakers of 
their divine benefit.' 

3. On the third article they held, — 
' That true faith cannot proceed from the 
exercise of our natural faculties and powers, 
nor from the force and operation of free 
will ; since man, in consequence of his na- 
tural corruption, is incapable either of 
thinking or doing any good thing : and that 
therefore it is necessary to his conversion 
and salvation, that he be regenerated, and 
renewed by the operation of the Holy 
Ghost, which is the gift of God through 
Jesus Christ.' 

4. On the fourth, they believed, — ' That 
divine grace, or the energy of the Holy 
Ghost, begins and perfects every thing, that 
can be called good in man, and consequently 
all good works are to be attributed to God 
alone ; — that, nevertheless, this grace is offer- 
ed to all, and does not force men to act 
against their inclinations, but may be re- 
sisted and rendered ineffectual by the per- 
verse will of the impenitent sinner.' 

5. On the fifth, they held,—' That God 
gives to the truly faithful, who are regene- 
rated by his grace, the means of preserving 
themselves in this state;' and though the 
first Arminians entertained some doubts 
respecting the closing part of this article, 
their followers uniformly maintain, ' that 
the regenerate may lose true justifying 
faith, fall from a state of grace, and die in 
their sins.' 

It appears, therefore, that the followers of 
Arminius believe that God, having an equal 
regard for all his creatures, sent his Son to 
die for the sins, not of the elect only, but of 
the whole world ; that no mortal is rendered 
finally unhappy by an eternal and invincible 
decree, but that the misery of those, who 
perish, arises from themselves ; and that, in 
this present imperfect state, believers, if not 
peculiarly vigilant, may, through the force 
of temptation, and the influence of Satan, 



ARM 



ARN 



fall from grace, and sink into final perdi- 
tion. 

They found these sentiments on the ex- 
pressions of our Saviour, respecting his 
willingness to save all that come unto him ; 
especially on his prayer over Jerusalem ; on 
his sermon on the mount; and above all, 
on his delineation of the process of the last 
day, in which the salvation of men is not 
said to have been obtained by any decree, 
but because ' they had done the will of their 
Father, who is in heaven.' This last argu- 
ment they deem decisive. They also say, 
that the terms respecting election in the 
Epistle to the Romans, are applicable only 
to the state of the Jews as a body, and relate 
not to the religious consideration of indi- 
viduals, either in this world, or the next. 
Mosheim's Ecclesiastical Hist. ; vol. v. p. 464, 
&c. Evans's Sketch ; Adams's Religious World, 
vol. ii. p. 245, &c. 

ARMS of the Hebrews. The Hebrews 
used in war the offensive arms employed 
by other people of their time, and of 
the East ; swords, darts, lances, javelins, 
bows, arrows, and slings. For defensive 
arms they made use of helmets, cuirasses, 
bucklers, and armour for their thighs. At 
particular periods, especially when under a 
state of servitude, whole armies of Israelites 
were without any good weapons. In the 
war of Deborah and Barak against Jabin, 
neither shields nor lances were among 
forty thousand men. (Judg. v. 8.) In 
the time of Saul, none in Israel, besides 
Saul and Jonathan, were armed with swords 
and spears, (1 Sam. xiii. 22.) because the 
Philistines, who were masters of the coun- 
try, forbade the Hebrews to use the trades 
of armourers and sword-cutlers, and even 
obliged them to employ Philistines to sharpen 
their tools.of husbandry. But as the Philis- 
tines were their masters, they would make 
for them no arms. 

Arms were anciently made either of brass 
or of iron. In Scripture, we meet with 
brazen shields, helmets, and bows. The 
helmet, greaves, and target of Goliath, 
were of brass. The Hebrews were expert 
archers and slingers, as the exploit of David 
against Goliath sufficiently proves; (1 Sam. 
xvii. 5, 6, 7.) and the Benjamites could 
throw stones to a hair's breadth, without 
missing. The Scripture adds, that they com- 
monly used both hands alike. (Judg. xx. 16.) 

In the original Hebrew, we meet with 
four terms to signify bucklers, of which 
there were different kinds ; but it is difficult 
to fix their particular forms and uses. They 
were made of wood or ozier, and covered 
with brass, iron, or leather ; sometimes bor- 
dered with metal, and, at other times, with 
several foldings of leather. The shoulders 
of Goliath were covered with a large shield 
of brass. 

Cuirasses were made sometimes of linen, 
woollen, or cotton, beaten like felt ; some- 
133 



times of brass, or copper, like coats of mail ; 
or even composed of scales, or thin plates, 
laid one over another ; and at other times, 
they were thin plates of copper, iron, or 
steel. Goliath had a coat of mail. (1 Sam. 
xvii. 5.) Saul had one of very solid and 
almost impenetrable linen. (2 Sam. i. 9.) 
The Hebrew \>nu> shebetz, signifies an em- 
broidered coat (Exod. xxviii. 4. Psalm xlv. 
14.) The following passage has divided 
interpreters : ' Slay, me,' says Saul, ' for 
anguish is come upon me.' (2 Sam. i. 9.) 
Some think that it should be rendered a 
close coat, made of rings in the nature of 
coats of mail. If so, Saul's sword might 
hitch in the oeilets of his armour ; and his 
pains still continuing to agonize him, he 
desired to be speedily slain. 

It was customary to hang arms and 
shields upon the towers of strong places. 
It is said in the Canticles, that bucklers 
were hung upon David's tower. Ezekiel 
speaks of the bucklers and helmets, which 
the Tyrians, Persians, Libyans, and Lydians, 
hung upon the walls of Tyre, (xxvii. 10.) 
The Maccabees, having purified and dedi- 
cated the temple, adorned the portal with 
gold crowns and bucklers. (1 Mace. iv. 
57.) Simon Maccabaeus embellished the 
mausolaeum, erected for his brethren, with 
arms and ships carved on the stone. (1 Mace, 
xiii. 29.) Among the most perplexing pas- 
sages of Scripture is the following : ' And 
Moses built an altar, and called its name 
Jehovah Nissi.' (Exod. xvii. 15, 16.) It is 
probable, that this was some kind of mili- 
tary trophy, which Moses erected as a me- 
morial of the victory gained over Amalek, 
and also of future wars of the Lord against 
Amalek. 

St. Paul has frequent allusions to arms, 
war, military exercises, and public games. 
He exhorts Christians to use their mem- 
bers as the armour of righteousness on the 
behalf of God, not as the armour of iniquity 
on the part of sin. He bids them put on 
the armour of light, as being to engage not 
with enemies of flesh and blood, but with 
the rulers of darkness. ' Take,' says he, 
1 the armour of God, put on the breast-plate 
of righteousness, and have your feet shod 
with the preparation of the Gospel of 
peace ; take the helmet of salvation, and 
the sword of the Spirit, which is the word 
of God,' &c. (Ephes. vi. 13.) He ob- 
serves again, ' Let us put on the breast- 
plate of faith and love, and for an helmet, 
the hope of salvation.' (1 Thess. v. 8.) Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, No. 
cexviii. p. 91 ; No. ccxix. p. 92. 

ARNOLDISTS, the followers of Arnold 
of Brescia, in Italy, who, in the twelfth 
century, distinguished himself by being the 
founder of a sect, which opposed the wealth 
and power of the Romish clergy. He is 
also charged with having preached against 
baptism ami the eucharist Arnold, like 



ARO 



ARR 



some other reformers, went too far ; and 
passion vitiated undertakings, which were 
perhaps begun with motives the most lau- 
dable. He was burnt at Rome in 1155, and 
his ashes were cast into the Tiber, lest the 
people should collect his remains, and vene- 
rate them as the relics of a martyr. Mosheim, 
vol. ii. p. 449. 

AR'OER, or Auroor, liny, signifies 
heath, tamarisk ; or, nakedness of the skin ; or, 
exultation ; or, nakedness of the watch, or of 
the enemy. Aroer was a city in the tribe of 
Gad, on the north bank of the river Arnon, 
and at the extremity of the country which 
the Hebrews possessed beyond Jordan. 
(Numb, xxxii. 34.) Eusebius says, that, in 
his time, Aroer was seated upon a moun- 
tain. In conjunction with this city Aroer, 
mention is made of the city that is by the 
river, (Deut. ii. 36.) ; and of the city that is 
in the midst of the river. (Josh. xiii. 9. 16.) 
Some commentators think, that this was a 
distinct city from Aroer ; others, and by far 
the more numerous, are of opinion, that it 
was the same. 

AR'PAD, or Ar'phad, ibix, signifies the 
light of redemption, or covering ; or, that lies 
down, that makes his bed. Arpad is thought 
to have been a city of Syria, and is always 
placed in connection with Hamath. (2 
Kings xviii. 34. ; xix. 13. Isaiah x. 9. ; xxxvi. 
19. ; xxxvii. 13. Jer. xlix. 23.) Sennacherib 
boasts of having reduced Arpad and Hamath, 
or of having destroyed the gods of these 
two places. Hamath is known to be the 
same as Emesa; and it is supposed, that 
Arpad is the same as Arad or Arvad, as it 
is sometimes called in the Hebrew. Oppo- 
site to the land of Hamath is the small 
island denominated Aradus, which contains 
apparent marks of the Hebrew name Arpad 
or Arphad. Wells's Geography. 

ARPHAX'AD, -IU09-1K, signifies one that 
heals ; or, one that releases. Arphaxad, the 
son of Shem, and father of Salah, was born 
in the year of the world 1658, one year after 
the deluge, and died in the year of the world 
2096, aged 438. (Gen. xi. 12.) 

Arphaxad, a king of the Medes, men- 
tioned in Judith, (i. 1.) Calmet supposes 
this prince to be the same with Phraortes, 
the son and successor of Dejoces, king of 
Media. In this he differs in opinion from 
Prideaux and Usher, who think Arphaxad 
to be Dejoces, and not Phraortes, his suc- 
cessor : for it is observed, that Arphaxad is 
said to be that king of Media, who was the 
founder of Ecbatane ; and all other writers 
agree that this was Dejoces; and the be- 
ginning of the twelfth year of Saosduchinus 
exactly corresponds with the last year of 
Dejoces, when the battle of Ragau is said to 
have been fought. Herodotus informs us, 
that Phraortes first subdued the Persians, 
and afterwards almost all Asia ; but at last, 
coming to attack Nineveh, and the Assyrian 
empire, he was killed, in the twenty-second 
134 



year of his reign. The book of Judith says, 
that he built Ecbatane, and was defeated in 
the great plains of Ragau, which were, pro- 
bably, about the city of Rages, in Media. 
(Tobit i. 14. ; iii. 7. ; iv. 1.) Prid. Connect. 
part i. b. 1. 

ARROW, a missive weapon of offence, 
made to be shot with a bow. It would seem 
that the Israelites first learned the use of 
the bow from the Philistines, in whose ar- 
mies or battles we find no mention of this 
kind of weapon, before that engagement, in 
which Saul was killed. (1 Sam. xxxi. 3.) 
Some think, that when David came to the 
throne, he taught the Israelites the use of 
the bow, (2 Sam. i. 18.) that they might not 
be inferior to the Philistines, nor suffer a 
similar disaster. Certain it is, that when he 
had concluded a peace with the Philistines, 
he took some of their archers, of whom he 
formed his body-guard, and who are fre- 
quently mentioned under the name of Cere- 
thites. 

Divination by arrows was an ancient me- 
thod of presaging future events. Ezekiel 
informs us that Nebuchadnezzar marching 
against Zedekiah and the king of the Am- 
monites, and coming to the head of two 
ways, mingled his arrows in a quiver, that 
he might thence divine in what direction he 
should pursue his march ; and that he con- 
sulted teraphim, and inspected the livers of 
beasts, in order to determine his resolution. 
(Ezek. xxi. 21.) Jerom, Theodoret, and 
modern commentators, think that this prince 
took several arrows, upon each of which he 
wrote the name of a king, town, or province, 
that he designed to attack ; as, on one, Je- 
rusalem ; on another, Rabbah ; on a third, 
Egypt, &c. These being put into a quiver, 
were hustled together, and drawn out ; and 
the arrow, which came first, was considered 
as declarative of the will of the gods, to 
attack first that city, province, or king- 
dom, the name of which was written on 
the arrow. 

' I saw,' says Delia Valle, ' at Aleppo, a 
Mahometan, who caused two persons to sit on 
the ground, one opposite to the other ; and 
he gave them four arrows into their hands, 
which both of them held with their points 
downwards, and, as it were in two right 
lines united to each other. Then, a ques- 
tion being put to him respecting any busi- 
ness, he began to murmur his enchant- 
ments, by which he caused the said four 
arrows, of their own accord, to unite their 
points in the midst, though he that held them 
moved not his hand. According to the 
future event of the matter, those of the 
right side were placed over those of the 
left, or vice versd.' It cannot be affirmed, 
that this was the mode of divination prac- 
tised by the king of Babylon. In our trans- 
lation, it is said, He made his arrows bright, 
or, as the original imports, to move very 
lightly, to be exceedingly light. Now, how 



ARS 



ART 



the placing of a number of arrows together 
in a quiver, (the mode referred to in ex- 
planation of the passage), may render them 
exceedingly light, seems difficult to ascer- 
tain. But if the word may signify, made 
very light, for the purpose of obtaining an 
accurate equilibrium when held in the 
hand ; or, if it may signify vibrating very 
lightly, and by a very small impulse, when 
so held, it may be accommodated to this 
extract. For, those arrows, whose points, 
from being held downwards, united their 
points to the others, must have been very 
light, very easily moved. Perhaps, the ob- 
servation of Delia Valle explains why the 
divination for Jerusalem was at or in his 
right hand. ' The arrows of the right side, 
or of the right hand, in which they were 
held, were placed over those of the left.' 
This, I suppose, was an affirmative answer 
to the inquiry, when foretelling a favourable 
issue ; but if the answer had been unfavour- 
able, the arrows in the left would have pre- 
dominated over those in the right hand. 
Fragments attached to Calmet's Diet. No. 
clxxix. p. 178 ; Patrick's Comment ; History 
of the Life of King David. 

AR'SACES, 'ApGa.Kr)Q, signifies who lifts 
up the buckler. Arsaces, otherwise Mithri- 
dates, king of the Parthians, is mentioned 
in the First Book of Maccabees. (1 Mace. 
xiv. 2.) By his valour and good conduct 
he considerably enlarged the kingdom of 
Parthia. Demetrius Nicanor, or Nicator, 
king of Syria, invaded his country, and at 
first obtained several advantages. Media 
declared for the king of Syria, and the Ely- 
maeans, Persians, and Bactrians, joined him ; 
but Arsaces, having sent one of his officers 
to him, under pretence of treating for peace, 
Demetrius fell into an ambuscade, his army 
was cut off by the Persians, and himself was 
taken prisoner by Arsaces. 

ARSENAL, a public magazine, or place 
appointed for the keeping of arms, either 
for defence or assault. The ancient He- 
brews had each his own arms, because all 
went to the wars ; but they had no arsenals, 
or magazines of arms, because they had no 
regular troops or soldiers in constant pay. 
There were no arsenals in Israel, till the 
reigns of David and Solomon. David col- 
lected a large quantity of arms, and conse- 
crated them to the Lord in his tabernacle. 
The high-priest Jehoiada took them out of 
the treasury of the temple, to arm the peo- 
ple and Levites, on the day the young king 
Joash ascended the throne. (2 Chron. xxiii. 
9.) Solomon collected a great quantity of 
arms, in his palace of the forest of Lebanon, 
and established well-provided arsenals in 
all the cities of Judah, which he fortified. 
(2 Chron. xi. 12.) He sometime obliged 
the conquered and tributary nations to 
forge for him arms. (1 Kings x. 25.) King 
Uzziah furnished his arsenals not only with 
spears, helmets, shields, cuirasses, swords, 

i:<5 



bows, and slings, but also with such ma- 
chines as were proper for sieges. (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 14.) Hezekiah used the same pre- 
caution, and collected stores of arms of all 
sorts, (lb. xxxii. 27-) Jonathan and Simon 
Maccabaeus had arsenals stored with good 
arms, not only such as had been taken from 
the enemy, but also with others, which they 
had purchased, or commissioned to be 
made. 

ARTAXERXES, NnruoniN, Artach- 
shasta, signifies the silence of light, or, light 
that imposes silence ; or, joy that is in haste. 
Artaxerxes is the title of several Persian 
kings. Professor Gesenius derives it from 
the ancient Persian word Artahshetr, which 
is found in the inscriptions of Nachsehi 
Roustam. The latter part of this word is the 
Zendish Khshethro, (also sherao), a king ; but 
the syllable art, which is found in several 
Persian names, as Artabanus, Artaphernes, 
Artabazus, appears to have signified to be 
great or mighty. At least the Greeks gave 
it this interpretation. This signification is 
now lost in the Persian. From the original 
Artahshetr, the modern Persians formed 
Ardeshir (a name borne by three kings of 
the dynasty of the Sassanides ;) the Arme- 
nians, Artashir ; the Greeks, Artaxerxes ; 
and the Hebrews, Artachshaschtha. 

Artaxerxes Longimanus is sup- 
posed by Dr. Prideaux to be the Ahasue- 
rus or Artaxerxes of Esther ; and this 
opinion is considered as the most probable. 
See Ahasuerus. In the beginning of the 
reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the Jews 
commenced the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and 
erecting the walls; but they were hin- 
dered by an order from him, in consequence 
of a letter of complaint from the principal 
Samaritan officers, Rehum the chancellor, 
Shimshai the scribe, &c. against ' the rebel- 
lious and the bad city.' They stated that if 
it was allowed to be rebuilt and walled again, 
the inhabitants would foment sedition, as 
they had formerly done, and endanger the 
king's revenue, by refusing to pay toll, tri- 
bute, or custom ; and they appealed to the 
records of the empire to prove that Jerusa- 
lem had formerly been destroyed, and its 
walls dismantled, because it had been a rebel- 
lious and seditious city. Upon this, search 
was made, and the statement found to be 
correct; and the king, by letter, authorized 
the Samaritan chiefs to stop the work till 
further orders. This they executed immedi- 
ately 'by force and power.' (Ezra iv 6 — 23.) 
The opposition of the Samaritans, on this 
occasion, was very opportune. Egypt had 
revolted from the Persian yoke, immediately 
on the death of Xerxes ; and the Samaritans 
seized the opportunity of exciting the king's 
fears, lest the Jews should not only follow 
the example of the Egyptians, in refusing to 
pay tribute, but also obstruct the Persian 
army, in its passage through Palestine, for 
the reduction of Egypt. 



ART 



ASA 



After Artaxerxes had subdued all his do- 
mestic foes and competitors for the crown, 
he instituted in the third year of his reign a 
general rejoicing at Shushan, for half a year ; 
and at a public banquet, when the queen 
Vashti refused to obey his summons, and 
show herself and her beauty to the princes 
and the people, he deposed her from being 
queen, by the advice of his council, and ap- 
pointed Esther, a Jewess, in her place, in 
preference to all the other virgins, her com- 
petitors, in the fourth year of his reign. 
(Esther i.) 

When Artaxerxes was firmly established 
on the throne, he turned his arms against 
the Egyptians, whom he subdued in the 
sixth year of his reign. (Diodorus Siculus, 
lib. ii.) Hence, we may presume, that in 
the seventh year of his reign, ' Ezra, the 
priest, and a scribe of the law of the God of 
heaven,' was sent by the king and his council 
to Jerusalem, to beautify or adorn the house 
of the Lord, out of respect to the former 
edicts of Cyrus and Darius Hystaspes, and 
to collect donations from the Jews of Ba- 
bylon, for the service of the temple, and 
also liberal offerings from the royal trea- 
sures ; and he was likewise vested with 
ample powers, civil and ecclesiastical, to ap- 
point magistrates and judges throughout 
Judea and Samaria, and all the countries 
beyond the river, or westward of the Eu- 
phrates, all such as knew the laws of his 
God, and to teach those that knew them not. 
(Ezra vii.) See Ezra. 

In the twelfth year of Artaxerxes, a 
dreadful plot for the massacre of all the 
Jews throughout his dominions, and the 
spoliation of their goods, contrived by Ha- 
inan the Amalekite, and an inveterate foe 
of that nation, was defeated by the piety 
and address of Esther the queen, and turned 
against the contriver himself, who was de- 
stroyed with all his family. (Esther iii. iv. 
v. vi. vii.) The king gave Hainan's em- 
ployment to Mordecai, and his forfeited 
estate to Esther. On this occasion, ap- 
peared the mischievous effect of the law of 
the Medes and Persians, that the king's 
decree, when signed by him, and sealed 
with his seal, could not be changed or re- 
pealed. Artaxerxes was obliged to issue a 
counter- decree, empowering the Jews to 
take up arms in self-defence, and to repel 
the assailants by force. In consequence of 
this, they slew in the palace of Shushan, on 
the appointed day of massacre, five hundred 
men, and the next day three hundred more, 
and in the provinces seventy-five thousand 
men ! Such was the bloody result of a rash 
and unjust decree, ratified at a banquet; 
' when the king and Haman sat down to 
drink; but the city of Shushan was per- 
plexed.' 

In the twentieth year of his reign, Ar- 
taxerxes granted the permission, which he 
had long refused, of rebuilding the walls of 
136 



Jerusalem, at the instances of Nehemiah, a 
Jew, and his cup-bearer. (Nehem. ii.) See 
Nehemiah. 

Prideaux says, that Artaxerxes was king 
of Persia from the year of the world 3531 to 
3579 ; but Dr. Hales, whose Chronology 
seems chiefly to be depended on, states that 
he reigned forty-one years. Hales' 's Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. pp. 490. 524 — 
527 ; Prideaux's Connect, part i. book v. 

A'S A, NDX, signifies physician ; according 
to the Syriac, cure. Asa the son and suc- 
cessor of Abijam, king of Judah, began to 
reign in the year of the world 3049, and 
before Jesus Christ 955. He reigned forty- 
one years at Jerusalem. Asa did right in 
the sight of the Lord : he expelled those 
who, from religious superstition, prostituted 
themselves in honour of their false gods ; he 
purged Jerusalem from the infamous prac- 
tices attending the worship of idols ; and he 
deprived his mother of her office and dignity 
of queen, because she erected an idol to 
Astarte, which he burnt in the valley of 
Hinnom. (1 Kings xv. 8, &c.) It has been 
observed, that by the words ' His mother's 
name was Maachah,' in the tenth verse, is 
not denoted Asa's natural mother, but his 
grandmother. We must, therefore, consider 
the expression of the king's mother, as only 
a title of dignity, which was enjoyed by one 
lady solely of the royal family, and denoted 
that she was the first in rank, chief sultana, 
or queen dowager, whether she was the 
king's natural mother, or not. 

The Scripture reproaches Asa with not 
destroying the high-places, which, perhaps, 
he thought it necessary to tolerate, to avoid 
the greater evil of idolatry. He carried into 
the house of the Lord the gold and silver 
vessels, which his father Abijam had vowed 
he would consecrate. Asa fortified several 
cities, and repaired others, encouraging his 
people to this labour, while the kingdom 
was at peace, and the Lord favoured them 
with his protection. After this he levied 
three hundred thousand men in Judah, 
armed with shields and pikes ; and two hun- 
dred and eighty thousand men in Benjamin, 
armed with shields and bows, all men of 
courage and valour. 

About this time, Zerah, king of Ethiopia, 
or rather of Cush, which is part of Arabia, 
marched against Asa with a million of foot, 
and three hundred chariots of war, and ad- 
vanced as far as Mareshah. This probably 
happened in the fifteenth year of Asa's reign, 
and in the year of the world 30G3. (2 Chron. 
xiv. 9.) Asa advanced to meet Zerah, 
and encamped in the plain of Zephathah, 
or rather Zephatah, near Mareshah. Asa 
prayed to the Lord, and God struck the 
forces of Zerah with such a panic fear, that 
they began to flee. Asa and his army pur- 
sued them to Geran, and slew of them a 
great number. 

After this, Asa's army returned to Jem- 



ASA 



ASC 



salem, laden with booty. The prophet 
Azariah met them, and said, ' Hear ye me, 
Asa, and all Judah, and Benjamin, the 
Lord is with you while ye be with him, and 
if ye seek him, he will be found of you ; 
but if ye forsake him, he will forsake you. 
Be ye strong therefore, and let not your 
hands be weak : for your work shall be 
rewarded.' (2 Chron. xv. 2. 7-) After this 
exhortation, Asa being animated with new 
courage, destroyed the idols of Judah, 
Benjamin, and mount Ephraim ; repaired 
the altar of burnt- offerings ; and assembled 
Judah and Benjamin, with many from the 
tribes of Simeon, Ephraim, and Manasseh, 
and on the third day, in the fifteenth year 
of his reign, celebrated a solemn festival. 
Of the cattle taken from Zerah, they sacri- 
ficed seven hundred oxen, and seven thou- 
sand sheep ; they renewed the covenant 
with the Lord ; and, the cymbals and trum- 
pets sounding, they swore to the covenant, 
and declared, that whoever should forsake 
the true worship of God, should be put to 
death. The Lord gave them peace ; and, 
according to the Chronicles, the kingdom 
of Judah had rest till the thirty-fifth year of 
Asa. Concerning this year, however, there 
are difficulties ; and some think, that we 
should read the twenty-fifth, instead of the 
thirty -fifth, since Baasha, who made war on 
Asa, lived no longer than the twenty-sixth 
year of Asa. (1 Kings xvi. 8.) 

In the thirty-sixth, or, as chronologers 
say, in the twenty-sixth year of Asa, Ba- 
asha, king of Israel, began to fortify Ramah, 
on the frontiers of the two kingdoms of 
Judah and Israel, that he might prevent the 
Israelites from resorting to the kingdom of 
Judah, and the temple of the Lord at Jeru- 
salem. When Asa was informed of this, 
he sent to Benhadad, king of Damascus, all 
the gold and silver of his palace, and of the 
temple, to induce him to break his alliance 
with Baasha, and to assist him against the 
king of Israel. Benhadad accepted Asa's 
presents, and invaded Baasha' s country, 
where he took several cities belonging to the 
tribe of Naphtali. This obliged Baasha to 
retire from Ramah, that he might defend 
his dominions nearer home. Asa imme- 
diately ordered his people to Ramah, carried 
off' all the materials pi-eparedby Baasha, and 
employed them in building Geba and Mizpah. 

This application to Benhadad for assist- 
ance was inexcusable. It implied, that Asa 
distrusted God's power and goodness, which 
he had so lately experienced. Therefore, 
the prophet Hanani was sent to reprove him 
for his conduct. Asa, however, was so ex- 
asperated at his reproaches, that he put the 
prophet in chains, and, at the same time, 
ordered the execution of several persons in 
Judah. Towards the latter part of his life, 
he was incommoded with the gout in his 
feet, or, as Scheuzer thinks, that kind of 
137 



swelling of the feet and legs called (Edema- 
tous, which, gradually rising higher, dege- 
nerates into the dropsy. This disorder 
rising upwards, killed him. The Scripture 
reproaches him with having recourse to 
physicians rather than to the Lord. He 
was buried in the sepulchre, which he had 
provided for himself in the city of David ; 
and after his death, they placed him ' in the 
bed, which was filled with sweet odours and 
divers kinds of spices prepared by the apo- 
thecaries' art : and they made a very great 
burning for him.' (2 Chron. xvi. 14.) He 
died in the year of the world 3090, and 
before Jesus Christ 914, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Jehoshaphat. Scripture 
Illustrated ; Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Diet. No. xvi. p. 31. 

A'SAPH, f)DN, signifies, one that assem- 
bles together ; or, one that finishes and 
completes. Asaph, the son of Barachias, 
of the tribe of Levi, and the father of 
Zaccur, Joseph, Nethaniah, and Asarelah, 
was a celebrated musician in David's time. 
(1 Chron. vi. 39. ; xxv. 2.) In the distri- 
bution of the Levites, which that prince 
directed for the service of the temple, he 
appointed Kohath's family to be placed in 
the middle, about the altar of burnt-sacri- 
fices. Merari's family was to the left, and 
Gershon's family to the right. Asaph, who 
was of Gershon's family, presided over this 
band ; and his descendants held the same 
rank and place. 

We find several psalms with Asaph's 
name in the title, as the fiftieth, the seventy- 
third, and the ten following psalms. It is 
not known whether Asaph composed the 
words, together with the music, or David 
the words, and Asaph the music ; or whether 
some of Asaph's descendants wrote them, 
and prefixed to them the name of that 
eminent master of the temple-music, or of 
that division of singers, of which Asaph's 
family was the head. Some think this last 
the most probable. It is observable, that all 
these psalms do not suit the time of Asaph ; 
some of them were written during the cap- 
tivity, others in the time of Jehoshaphat, &c. 
By ' a psalm of Asaph,' might be meant a 
psalm of Asaph's family. 

ASCENSION of our Lord, a festival 
celebrated forty days after the resurrection, 
in memory of Jesus Christ's ascending into 
heaven, in the presence of his disciples. 
Our Saviour having conversed with his dis- 
ciples for forty days after his resurrection, 
led them from Jerusalem to Bethany, and 
the mount of Olives, about one or two 
miles from Jerusalem. He then lifted up 
his hands, and blessing them, was raised 
up to heaven in their sight. (Luke xxiv. 
50. Acts i. 4, &c.) 

Tradition relates, that when he ascended, 
he left the impression of his foot on tlu> 
stones, which still remains. Some have 



ASC 



ASC 



added to this miracle, and tell us, that the 
empress Helena, having built a magnificent 
church over this place, in the midst of 
which the impression of our Saviour's foot 
was visible, this spot could never be paved 
though often attempted ; whatever was laid 
on the place immediately leaving it. Others 
say, that no one could close the roof over 
this place, and that all the space, through 
which Christ ascended to heaven was left 
open. This seems to be merely an allegory, 
intended to denote his spiritual opening of 
the way to glory. The origin of this festival 
is so ancient, that it has been thought to be 
derived traditionally from the apostles. 

The ascension of the Messiah was pre- 
figured under the Jewish dispensation. Ac- 
cording to the author of the Epistle to the 
Hebrews, the high-priest's entrance into 
the holy of holies, the innermost and most 
sacred part of the temple, performed once 
a year, praesignified that Christ, the Messiah, 
should once suffer death, as a propitiation 
for the sins of mankind, and after that 
ascend into the heaven of heavens. The 
Jews believed, that the tabernacle was 
meant to represent this world, and the holy 
of holies the highest heaven. As the high- 
priest once in the year offered a sacrifice for 
the sins of the people, and with its blood 
entered into the holy place ; so the Messiah, 
by the oblation of himself once offered, was 
to enter into the holy place, not made with 
hands, eternal in the heavens, and there to 
present the sacrifice he offered, and his 
blood that was shed for the sins of the 
world. 

In noticing the evidence, which we have 
of the truth of our Lord's ascension, we 
may observe, that the Apostles must have 
had a clear conviction of the certainty of 
this fact. Their constant attendance on 
him rendered it altogether impossible that 
they should be deceived. His ascension 
was slow and gradual, and not quick and 
sudden, so as possibly to carry the appear- 
ance of illusion. When he had spoken, 
while they beheld, or had a fixed and steady 
view of his ascension, and while they were 
following him with eager eyes, he was taken 
up, and a cloud received him out of their 
sight. And while they looked stedfastly 
towards heaven as he went up, behold two 
men, inhabitants probably of the heavenly 
region, whither he had ascended, stood by 
them in white apparel, and said, ' Ye men 
of Gallilee, why stand ye gazing towards 
heaven ? This same Jesus which is taken 
from you, shall so come, in like manner as 
ye have seen him go into heaven.' (Acts i.) 
The apostles, therefore, could not be de- 
ceived by any artifice or illusion. 

As a corroborative proof, that when he 
was taken from them, and a cloud received 
him out of their sight, there was no decep- 
tion or imposition on the senses, they were 
338 



convinced in a few days by the most sen- 
sible effects, when they found themselves 
vested, as he had promised, with miraculous 
powers, and were enabled to execute his 
command of teaching all nations, by the 
gift conferred on them of speaking in all 
languages. They could then no longer 
doubt that his prediction was verified ; that 
he was gone to the Father, and that all 
power was committed to him both in heaven 
and on earth. 

As the apostles were sufficiently assured 
of the truth of our Saviour's ascension, so 
they transmitted a faithful account of it to 
succeeding ages. Besides the incredibility of 
supposing that a few illiterate persons were 
capable of planning and conducting an im- 
position of that nature and consequence, 
which they might be certain would not be 
implicitly received, their narration discovers 
all the internal marks and evidences of 
veracity, all the characters of artless undis- 
guised probity, and impartial regard for 
truth, which any writing can be supposed 
to contain. But should we suppose them 
capable of propagating an imposture in the 
world, the discerning jealousy of the Jews 
would have rendered it impracticable. Be- 
sides, what prospects could invite, what 
conceivable motives tempt them to project 
or carry on the fraud ? Though they saw 
not only opposition and persecution, not 
only bonds and imprisonment, but even 
death, in all its various forms of terror, 
awaiting the declaration of so unwelcome 
a truth, yet they persisted in their testimony 
with an unshaken constancy, and, with the 
most persevering and determined assiduity, 
continued to publish, that Christ was ascend- 
ed into heaven, far above all principalities 
and powers. 

Since, therefore, we have the unanimous 
testimony of persons, who by the evidence 
of their own sight, confirmed by the voice 
of angels, were assured of our Saviour's 
ascension; since they were persons inca- 
pable of forming or conducting any artful 
design ; since it was a doctrine, which, if 
false, could be productive of no advantage 
to the propagators of it; and since they 
persevered in asserting it, in despite of all 
the tortures, that cruelty could devise or 
power inflict ; we have the fullest evidence 
of our Saviour's ascension that the nature of 
the fact can admit, or we in reason require. 
Sermons by George Carr, vol. ii. p. 128, &c. 

ASCETICS, those who retire from the 
world for the purpose of devotion and mor- 
tification. When the monks came in fash- 
ion, this title was given them, especially 
to such of them as lived in solitude. They 
professed very great sanctity and virtue, 
and declared their resolution of obeying all 
the counsels of Christ, that they might en- 
joy communion with God here, and in the 
next world approach the supreme centre of 



ASC 



ASH 



happiness and perfection. They considered 
themselves as prohibited from the use of 
wine, flesh, matrimony, and commerce ; and 
they thought it their duty to attenuate the 
body by watchings, abstinence, labour, and 
hunger. They expected felicity in solitary 
retreats and desert places, where, by medi- 
tation, they raised the soul above all external 
objects, and all sensual pleasures. Both men 
and women imposed on themselves the most 
severe tasks, and the most austere disci- 
pline. In the second century, when they 
first appeared, they submitted to all these 
mortifications in private, and did not with- 
draw from the concourse of men ; but in 
process of time, they retired into deserts, 
and, after the manner of the Essenes and 
Therapeutae, formed themselves into com- 
panies. Mosheim, vol. i. p. 157- 

Ascetics was also the title of several 
books of spiritual exercises. 

ASCODROGITES, a denomination which 
arose about the year 181. They brought 
into their churches bags or skins filled with 
new wine, to represent the new bottles filled 
with new wine mentioned by Christ They 
danced round these bags or skins, and, it is 
said, intoxicated themselves with the wine. 
Broughton's Hist. Lib. vol. i. p. 88. 

ASCOODRUTES, a sect, in the second 
century. They rejected the use of all sym- 
bols and sacraments, on the principle, that 
incorporeal things cannot be communicated 
by things corporeal, nor divine mysteries 
by any thing visible. Broughton, vol. i. 
p. 89. 

AS'ENATH, rDDN. signifies peril, or mis- 
fortune, and was the name of the daughter 
of Potipherah, and wife of Joseph. (Gen. xli. 
45.) She was the mother of Ephraim and 
Manasseh. It is questioned, whether Ase- 
nath be the daughter of the same Potiphar, 
who bought Joseph, and afterwards, being 
imposed on by his wife, threw him into a 
dungeon 1 The Hebrews, cited in Origen, 
relate, that Asenath discovered to her father 
Potiphar what had passed between Joseph 
and her mother, and convinced him that 
his suspicions were entirely groundless. St. 
Jerom, Rupert, Fostatus, and some others, 
are also persuaded, that Asenath is the 
daughter of Potiphar, Joseph's first master. 
But the generality of the fathers and ex- 
positors are of a contrary opinion, for the 
reasons following; First, the name of Poti- 
phar, (Poti-pherah) Joseph's father-in-law, is 
somewhat different from the name of that Po- 
tiphar who bought him. Secondly, the Scrip- 
ture not having noticed this as the same 
Potiphar, there is reason to believe it may 
be another. Thirdly, the character of priest 
of On, ascribed to Potipherah, Joseph's fa- 
ther-in- law, does not seem consistent with 
the quality of captain of Pharaoh's guards, 
which is given to Potiphar, Joseph's master. 
Fourthly, the city of On is too remote from 
Tanais, where the king of Egypt kept his 
139 



court, to suffer the same Potiphar who at- 
tended the king in this employment, to 
reside at On above fifteen leagues distant. 
These reasons determine in favour of the 
opinion that Asenath was not the daughter 
of that Potiphar, to whom Joseph was sold. 
These arguments, however, are not without 
reply. See Potiphar. 

ASH'DOD, -muw, signifies pillage, theft; 
or, expulsion, exile ; or, perhaps, the fire of 
affection. In the Vulgate, this city is called 
Azoth ; and in the Greek, Azotus. It was 
assigned by Joshua to Judah, (Josh.xv. 47.) ; 
but it was long possessed by the Philistines, 
and was rendered famous for the temple of 
their god Dagon. (1 Sam. v. 2, &c.) In the 
New Testament it is called Azotus, and was 
the place where Philip was found after bap- 
tizing the eunuch. (Acts viii. 39, 40.) It 
was situated near the shore of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, between Gaza and Joppa ; and 
in the times that Christianity flcurished in 
these parts, it was made an episcopal see, 
and continued a fair village till the days 
of St. Jerom. Wells's Geography, vol. ii. 
pp. 6. 237- 

ASH'ER, *wn, signifies happiness. Asher 
was the son of Jacob, and Zilpah, his wife, 
who had been Leah's servant. (Gen. xxx. 
13.) We know no particulars of his life or 
death. Asher had four sons and one daugh- 
ter. The inheritance of his tribe lay in a 
very fruitful country, (Gen. xlix. 20. Deut. 
xxxiii. 24.) and had Phoenicia on the west, 
Mount Libanus on the north, Mount Carmel 
and the tribe of Issachar on the south, and 
the tribe of Zebulon and Naphtali on the 
east The tribe of Asher never possessed 
the whole range of district which was as- 
signed to it, and which extended to Libanus, 
Syria, and Phoenicia. 

ASHES, the terrene or earthy part of 
wood, and other combustible bodies, re- 
maining after they are burnt, or consumed 
with fire. To repent in sackcloth and ashes 
is a frequent expression in Scripture for 
mourning and self- affliction for sin. Indi- 
cating his deep sense of his own meanness 
in comparison with God, Abraham said to 
the Lord, I am but dust and ashes, (Gen. 
xviii. 27.) ; and Job says, that man, who is 
only dust and ashes, shall again turn to dust. 
(Job xxxiv. 15.) God threatens to shower 
dust and ashes (powder) on the lands instead 
of rain, (Deut. xxviii. 24.) and thereby to 
render them barren instead of blessing them, 
to dry them up, instead of watering them. 
Travellers tell us, that in the eastern coun- 
tries, the wind blows very high in hot and 
dry seasons, and raises to a great height in 
the air thick clouds of dust and sand. These 
grievously annoy all those, among whom 
they fall, filling their eyes, ears, nostrils, 
entering even into their mouths, and search- 
ing every place, as well within, as without 
the tents and houses. This may afford us 
some idea of the penetrating power of the 



ASH 



ASH 



dust of the land of Egypt, which was con- 
verted into lice, (Exod. viii. 16.); and of the 
effect of the ashes of the furnace, which 
Moses took and sprinkled up towards hea- 
ven, and which, being driven by the wind 
to all parts, and entering every where, be- 
came a boil breaking forth with blains upon 
man and upon beast. (Id. ix. 8.) 

Tamar, after the injury she had received 
from Amnon, covered her head with ashes. 
(2 Sam. xiii. 19.) The Psalmist, in great 
sorrow, poetically says, that he had eaten 
ashes as it were bread. (Psalm cii. 9.) He 
sat on ashes, he threw ashes on his head ; 
his food, his bread was sprinkled with the 
ashes, with which he was himself covered. 
In like manner, Jeremiah introduces Jeru- 
salem, saying, that the Lord had covered her 
with ashes. (Lament, iii. 16.) 

A sort of ley and lustral water was made 
with the ashes of the heifer sacrificed on the 
great day of expiation : the ashes of the 
heifer were distributed to the people; and 
this water was used in purifications to such 
as had touched a dead body, or had been 
present at funerals. (Numb. xix. 17-) 

The ancient Persians had a punishment, 
which consisted in executing certain cri- 
minals by stifling them in ashes. Thus 
was dispatched the wicked Menelaus, who 
caused the troubles which had disquieted 
Judaea. (2 Maccab. xiii. 5, 6.) He was 
thrown headlong into a tower fifty cubits 
deep, which was filled with ashes to a cer- 
tain height. The action of the criminal to 
disengage himself, plunged him still deeper 
in the ashes ; and this agitation was in- 
creased by a wheel, which stirred the ashes 
continually about him, till he was entirely 
stifled. Fragments annexed to Calmet's Diet. 
No. clxxii. p. 172. 

ASH IMA., nq^k, signifies crime ; other- 
wise, position ; otherwise, fire of the sea. It 
was the name of a deity, worshipped by the 
people of Hamath, who settled in Samaria. 
(2 Kings xvii. 30.) Some of the Rabbins 
say, that it had the shape of an ape ; others, 
that of a lamb, a goat, or a satyr. Selden 
imagined the word Ashima to signify fire, 
which was adored by the Persians and Sa- 
maritans. It is observable, that these people 
came from Hamath, or Emesa, a city of 
Syria, where the sun was adored under the 
name of Elah-Gabalah, whence the em- 
peror Heliogabalus took his name. This 
god Elagabal was represented by a large 
stone, which was round at the bottom, and 
which, rising insensibly to a point, termi- 
nated in a cone or pyramidal figure. His 
worship became celebrated at Rome, from 
the time of Heliogabalus, who caused a mag- 
nificent temple to be erected to him. The 
name of Ashima may very well be under- 
stood of fire from heaven, or the sun ; or it 
may be derived from the Persian Asuman, 
which is the name of an angel, or genius, 
who, say the ancient Magi of Persia, pre- 
140 



sides over the twenty-seventh day of every 
solar month. 

ASH'KENAZ, mwtt, signifies afire that 
spreads, and was the name of the eldest son 
of'Gomer. (Gen. x. 3.) Calmet thinks, that 
Ashkenaz was the father of the Ascantes, a 
people who dwelt about Tanais and the 
Palus Mceotis. It is scarcely to be doubted, 
however, says Dr. Wells, that Ashkenaz 
settled in the north-west part of Lesser Asia. 
Geography of the Old and New Testament, 
vol. i. p. 59. 

ASH'TAROTH, or Astar'te, a goddess 
of the Zidonians. The word Ashtaroth pro- 
perly signifies flocks of sheep, or goats ; and 
sometimes the grove, or woods, because she 
was goddess of woods, and groves were her 
temples. In groves consecrated to her, 
such lasciviousness was committed, as ren- 
dered her worship infamous. She was also 
called ' the queen of heaven ;' and some- 
times her worship is described by that of 
' the host of heaven.' She was certainly 
represented in the same manner as Isis, 
with cow's horns on her head, to denote the 
increase and decrease of the moon. Cicero 
calls her the fourth Venus of the Syrians. 
She is almost always joined with Baal, and 
is called gods, the Scriptures having no par- 
ticular word to express a goddess. 

It is believed that the moon was thus 
adored. Her temples generally accom- 
panied those of the sun ; and while bloody 
sacrifices or human victims were offered to 
Baal, bread, liquors, and perfumes were pre- 
sented to Astarte. For her tables were 
prepared upon the flat terrace roofs of 
houses, near gates, in porches, and at cross- 
ways, on the first day of every month : and 
this was called by the Greeks Hecate's 
Supper. 

Solomon, seduced by his foreign wives, 
introduced the worship of Ashtaroth in 
Israel; but Jezebel, daughter of the king 
of Tyre, and wife to Ahab, principally es- 
tablished her worship. She caused altars 
to be erected to this idol in every part of 
Israel ; and at one time four hundred priests 
attended the worship of Ashtaroth. (1 Kings 
xviii.) 

The manner of representing Ashtaroth on 
medals is not always the same. Sometimes 
she is in a long habit ; and at other times 
in a short habit. Sometimes she holds a 
long stick, with a cross upon its top. Some- 
times she has a crown of rays ; and some- 
times she is crowned with battlements, or 
by a victory. 

Some have believed that by Ashtaroth, 
which signifies sheep, was meant Rachel, the 
beloved wife of Jacob, both words denoting 
the same in the Hebrew language. Ashta- 
roth is said to have consecrated the city of 
Tyre, by depositing in it a fallen star. 
Hence, perhaps, according to Bochart, ori- 
ginated the report that a star or globe of light 
at certain times descended from the top of 



ASH 



ASI 



Mount Libanus, near her temple at Aphek, 
and plunged into the river Adonis, and was 
thought to be Venus. Her temple, at 
Aphek, upon Mount Libanus, was a sink of 
lewdness, a school of the most beastly lusts, 
which were here permitted, because Venus 
was said to have had her first intercourse in 
this place with her beloved Adonis. Ash- 
tarotli, or Astarte, is still worshipped by the 
Druses of Mount Libanus. Dr. Clarke's 
Travels, vol. v. pp. 32. 453 — 459 ; Brough- 
ton's Diet, of Religions ; Hurd on Religions ; 
Univ. History. 

ASH'UR, -nnwK, 'Affwp, signifies brown, 
black; otherwise, fire of whiteness, or, fire of 
the hole or cave ; or, fire of liberty. Ashur, 
TWK, signifies, one that is happy, that walks, 
that looks. 

Ashur, the son of Shem, who gave name 
to Assyria. It is believed that he originally 
dwelt in the land of Shinar, and about Baby- 
lonia, but that he was compelled by Nimrod 
to remove thence, and settle higher towards 
the springs of Tigris, in the province of As- 
syria, which was so called from him, and 
where he built Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, 
and Resen. This is the sense generally re- 
ceived from those words of Moses : ' Out of 
that land (Shinar) went forth Ashur, and 
builded Nineveh,' &c. (Gen. x. 11, 12.) Bo- 
chart, however, explains the text differently. 
He understands it to speak of Nimrod, who 
left his own country, and attacked Assyria, 
of which he made himself master, and where 
he built Nineveh, &c. Here he established 
the seat of his empire, and became the most 
powerful, and, probably, the first monarch 
of the East. Some think, that the prophet 
Micah calls Assyria the land of Nimrod. 
(Mic. v. 6.) Others, however, are of opi- 
nion, that in this passage the land of Ashur 
and the land of Nimrod are mentioned as 
two distinct countries. If Nimrod had 
built Nineveh, and planted Assyria, Baby- 
lon and Assyria would have been only one 
empire. In that case, the one could not 
be said to conquer the other; whereas, 
Diodorus expressly tells us, that the Assy- 
rians conquered the Babylonians. Hence 
we may infer, that before Ninus united 
them, Babylonia and Assyria were two dis- 
tinct kingdoms, founded by one and the 
same person. 

Suidas, John Malala, and Cedrenus, 
relate, thatThuras reigned at Nineveh, after 
Ninus. He warred against Caucasus, who 
was of the race of Japhet, and whom he con- 
quered and killed. After the death of Thu- 
ras, the Assyrians called the planet Mars by 
his name, and adored him under that of Baal, 
which signifies the god of war. This we learn 
from Suidas. Daniel speaks of this god as 
woi-shipped at Babylon. It is generally be- 
lieved, that Thuras and Ashur were the same 
persons, and perhaps the name is also the 
same, only transposed ; so that the Baal of 
the Assyrians and Babylonians was the 
141 



founder of their monarchy. But instead of 
making Thuras the son and successor of Ni- 
nus, Calmet observes, that, on the contrary, 
Ninus should be called the son and successor 
of Thuras or Ashur, otherwise denominated 
Baal or Belus. For all historians agree, that 
Ninus was the son of Belus, though some 
confound Ninus with Ashur. Care, however, 
should be taken to distinguish the old Belus, 
who is probably the same with Evechoiis, 
king of Chaldea, from Belus the Assyrian, 
father of Ninus. Evechoiis reigned at Baby- 
lon 440 years before Belus the Assyrian. 

The empire of the Assyrians is thought 
to have been the most ancient in the East. 
Herodotus, who is generally followed in this 
matter, says, that Ninus, the son of Belus, 
founded the Assyrian empire, which subsist- 
ed 520 years. Usher fixes the beginning of 
this empire to the year of the world 2737, 
and before the Christian sera 1267- The 
Scripture speaks of the foundation of the As- 
syrian empire, by Nimrod, long before Ninus, 
that is, about the time that the tower of Babel 
was building, in the year of the world 1757. 
and before the taking of Babylon, by Alex- 
ander the Great, 1903 years, (Gen. x. 8, 9, 
10, 11.) From this time the Babylonians 
made observations on the heavens ; and of 
those sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle, the 
earliest dated from that period of years. Dio- 
nysius Halicarnasseus observes very well, 
that the Assyrian empire in the beginning was 
of small extent. This is sufficiently con- 
firmed, since we see kings of Shinar, Elam, 
Chaldaea, and Ellasar, attacking the kings 
of Sodom, Gomorrah, and the neighbouring 
cities, (Gen. xiv.) at a time when the Assy- 
rian empire, founded by Nimrod, must have 
subsisted, and before Ninus, the son of 
Belus, had founded, or rather aggrandized, 
the only empire of Assyria, which was 
known to profane authors ; for they had no 
notice of that established by Nimrod. See 
Assyria. Shuckford's Connect, vol. i. pp. 
1 GO. 182. 

A'SIA, ' Acria, signifies m uddy, boggy ; or, 
perhaps more properly, continuity, extent, 
according to the Chaldee. Asia, the largest 
continent of the old world, is bounded on 
the north by the Frozen Ocean, on the west 
by Europe and Africa, on the east by the 
Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the In- 
dian Ocean. It is situated between 25 and 
180 degrees of east longitude, and between 
the equator and 80 degrees of north lati- 
tude ; extending 7580 British miles from east 
to west, and 5250 from north to south. 

Asia, in its largest acceptation, denotes 
the whole Asiatic continent. In this sense 
it is distinguished into two parts : Asia the 
Lesser denotes so much as lies between the 
Euxine or Black Sea northward, and the 
Mediterranean southward ; and Asia the 
Greater denotes all the rest of the Asiatic 
continent. Asia the Lesser contained the 
provinces of Bithynia, Pontus, Galatia, Cap- 



ASK 



ASP 



padocia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Lycao- 
nia, Phrygia, Mysia, Troas, all of which are 
mentioned in the New Testament ; Lydia, 
Ionia and iEolis, which are sometimes in- 
cluded under Lydia, Caria, Doris, some- 
times included under Caria and Lycia. Of 
these, Lydia and Caria taken in their larger 
acceptations, Mysia and Phrygia including 
Troas, or Phrygia Minor, formed the Roman 
proconsular Asia, which has heen thought 
by some to he the same as the Scripture 
Asia. But it is evident that Mysia, Phrygia, 
and Troas, are reckoned by the sacred 
writer as distinct provinces from the Asia 
so called in Scripture. It is therefore sup- 
posed, that by Asia in the New Testament 
is to be understood Lydia in its largest ac- 
ceptation, so as to include Ionia and iEolis ; 
for in it were comprehended the seven cities 
the churches of which are styled by the sa- 
cred penman the churches of Asia. 

The ancient Hebrews were strangers to 
the division of the earth into parts or quar- 
ters ; and we never find the name Asia in 
any Hebrew book. They seem to have 
thought that the continent consisted only 
of Asia and Africa; and the rest of the 
world, and even, occasionally, Asia Minor, 
was comprised under the name of the Isles 
of the Gentiles. (Gen. x. 5.) We are not. 
acquainted with the true etymology of the 
word Asia. This name occurs only in the 
books of the Maccabees, and in the New 
Testament. Asia is considered as that part 
of the world which has been most favoured. 
Here the first man was created ; here the 

Eatriarchs lived ; here the law was given ; 
ere the greatest and most celebrated mo- 
narchies were formed ; and hence the first 
founders of cities and nations, in other parts 
of the world conducted their colonies. In 
Asia, Jesus Christ appeared ; here he 
wrought salvation for mankind; here he 
died, and rose again ; and hence the light 
of the Gospel has been diffused over the 
world. Laws, arts, sciences, and religions, 
almost all had their origin in Asia. Wells's 
Geography, vol. ii. p. 261. 

AS'KELON, pbpWK, signifies weight or 
balance ; otherwise, fire of infamy ; otherwise, 
the residence, or station of fire, in activity, or 
heating. Askelon, or, as it was called by 
the Greeks and Latins, Ascalon, was a city 
in the land of the Philistines, situated 
between Azoth and Gaza, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean Sea, about 520 furlongs from 
Jerusalem. After the death of Joshua, the 
tribe of Judah took Askelon, which afterwards 
became one of the five governments belong- 
ing to the Philistines. (Judges i. 18.) It is 
said to have been of great note for a temple 
dedicated to Derceto, the mother of Semira- 
mis, who was worshipped here in the form of 
a mermaid ; and for another of Apollo, in 
which Herod, the father of Antipater and 
grandfather of Herod the Great, served as 
priest. In the primitive ages of Christianity, 
142 



it was an episcopal see ; and during the holy 
wars, it was beautified with a new wall, and 
many fair buildings by our king Richard the 
First. 

At present, it is a very inconsiderable 
place. The wine of Askelon is mentioned ; 
and the cypress-tree, a shrub much esteemed, 
was there very common. Wells's Geography, 
vol. ii. p. 5. 

ASMONJE'ANS, a name given to the 
Maccabees, the descendants of Mattathias. 
In the latter times of the Hebrew common- 
wealth, the family of the Asmonaeans became 
very illustrious ; was the support of the reli- 
gion and liberty of the Jews ; and possessed 
the supreme authority from Mattathias to 
Herod the Great. See Maccabees. 

It is no where said, whether the Asmo- 
naeans were of the race of Josedech, in 
whose family the office of high-priest con- 
tinued in a lineal descent, till Alcimus was 
promoted to that dignity. Certain, how- 
ever, it is, that the Asmonaeans were of the 
course of Joarib, which was the first class of 
the sons of Aaron ; and, therefore, on failure 
of the former pontifical family, which had 
then happened by the flight of Onias, the son 
of Onias, into Egypt, they had the best right 
to succeed to that station. Under this right, Jo- 
nathan took the office, to which he was nomi- 
nated by the then reigning king of Syria, 
and also elected by the general suffrage of the 
people. Prideaux's Connect, part ii. b. iv. 

ASNAP'PER, or Asenapher, isddx, 
signifies unhappiness, misfortune of the bull ; 
otherwise, fruitfulness, or increase of danger. 
Asnapper, the king of Assyria, who sent the 
Cuthaeans into Egypt. (Ezra iv. 10.) Many 
think that this was Salmaneser ; others, with 
more probability, that it was Esar-haddon. 

ASP, a kind of serpent, the poison of 
which is so rapid in its operation, that it kills 
almost instantly as it operates, without pos- 
sibility of cure. The Scripture often mentions 
the asp or adder. The most remarkable 
place is that where it is said, ' to stop its 
ears, that it may not hear the voice of the 
charmer.' (Psalm lviii. 58.) It is affirmed, 
that this creature stops its ears with its tail, 
ito prevent its hearing. Some are of opinion 
,that there is a sort of asp which is really deaf, 
'which is the most dangerous of its kind, and 
to which the Psalmist here alludes. Some 
think that the asp, when it grows old, be- 
comes deaf. Others are of opinion, that the 
asp, as well as other serpents, hears exqui- 
sitely well ; but that, when any one attempts 
to charm it, it stops its ears, by applying one 
very close to the earth, and stopping the other 
with the end of its tail. It is probable that 
this expression of the Psalmist is taken from 
an actual observation of nature. It is a 
known fact, that serpents are overcome, as 
if charmed, so that whilst they will bite some 
persons with great venom, they are harmless 
to others ; but the mode of producing this 
effect has not yet been communicated to 



ASP 



ASS 



European travellers. A Hottentot affirmed, 
that, in his country, the naja, or hooded 
snake, was charmed by a peculiar whistle ; 
but it appeared, that the attention of the 
creature was excited by the whistled tune, 
and that opportunity was seized on to kill 
it If, however, there be a kind of asp, 
over which such a whistle, &c. has no power 
to excite his attention, but he steadily keeps 
himself safe within his hole of concealment, 
this may coincide with the Psalmist's idea, 
and justify his expression. Such a serpent, 
hid in the cleft of a rock, may look at his 
enemy, and preserve himself motionless, 
notwithstanding every art to entice him from 
his hiding place. Additions to Calmcfs 
Dictionary. 

AS'PHAR, a lake mentioned in the first 
book of Maccabees, (ix. 33.) Calmet 
thinks it probable, that this is the same as 
the Lacus Asphaltites, or lake of Sodom, 
which Maundrell says, is called by the pre- 
sent inhabitants of the adjacent country, 
the lake of Lot. It was denominated Lacus 
Asphaltites, from the great quantities of 
aspltaltus, or bitumen, with which it abounds. 
Sometimes large pieces of bitumen float on 
the waters, at other times small pieces, 
which being collected are employed in the 
preparation of medicines, and particularly 
in embalming dead bodies. The asphaltus 
of the Dead Sea is thought to be the best. 
At particular seasons, it rises from the bot- 
tom of the lake ; and the Arabians fish for it 
diligently, or gather it on the shore whither 
it is driven by the wind. Tt is shining, dark, 
and heavy, and has a strong smell when 
burnt. 

The lake Asphaltites receives all the wa- 
ter of the Jordan, of the brooks Arnon and 
Jabbock, and other rivulets from the neigh- 
bouring mountains. It has no visible out- 
let, and yet does not overflow, because the 
evaporation from its surface compensates all 
these influxes ; and, perhaps, it increases in 
saltness, as the vapours exhaled consist of 
fresh water only. Some, however, think, 
that this lake discharges its waters by sub- 
terraneous passages into the Mediterranean 
or Red Sea. The author of the book of 
Wisdom says, ' The waste land (of Sodom) 
that smoketh, is a testimony, and plants 
bearing fruit that never come to ripeness ; 
and a standing pillar of salt, is a monu- 
ment of an unbelieving soul.' (Wisd. x. 7-) 

As the Hebrews call nitre and bitumen 
by the name of Salt, the Dead Sea is deno- 
minated by them the Salt Sea. Galen says, 
that its water is not only salt but bitter; 
and that it is so strongly impregnated with 
salt, that if salt be thrown into it, it will 
scarcely melt. It is said to be called the 
Dead Sea, because no animal lives in it ; 
and if by chance any fish come into it, they 
die, and swim upon the surface. The truth 
of this, however, is doubted by Maundrell, 
who observed, among the pebbles on the 
143 



shore, two or three shells of fish resembling 
oyster shells. Chateaubriand, in his late 
travels, observes, that the marvellous pro- 
perties ascribed to the Dead Sea, have va- 
nished upon more rigid examination. 

It appears, however, that the acrid salt- 
ness of its waters is much greater than that 
of the sea ; and that the land which sur- 
rounds this lake, being equally impregnated 
with that saltness, refuses to produce plants. 
To this Moses alludes : ' the whole land 
thereof is brimstone and salt.' (Deut. xxix. 
23.) The air itself, which is by evaporation 
loaded with it, is fatal to vegetation ; and 
hence arises the deadly aspect which reigns 
around the lake. The water of this sea 
looks remarkably clear and pure ; but on 
being tasted, it is nauseous and bitter in the 
extreme. Pliny states the total length to 
be one hundred miles, and its greatest 
breadth twenty-five. Josephus says, that it 
is 580 furlongs in length, and 150 in breadth ; 
and Dr. Shaw, and other modern travellers, 
have stated its length to be about seventy- 
two English miles, and its greatest breadth 
to be nearly nineteen ; but Mr. Came, who 
visited the Dead Sea in 1825, estimates its 
length to be about sixty miles, and its ge- 
neral breadth eight. ' Whoever,' says Mr. 
Came, ' has seen the Dead Sea, will ever 
after have its aspect impressed upon his 
memory ; it is, in truth, a gloomy and fear- 
ful spectacle. The precipices, in general, 
descend abruptly into the lake ; and on ac- 
count of their height, it is seldom agitated 
by the winds. Its shores are not visited by 
any footstep, save that of the wild Arab, and 
he holds it in superstitious dread. No un- 
pleasant effluvia are perceptible round it, 
and birds are seen occasionally flying across. 
The water has an abominable taste, in which 
that of salt predominates ; and we observed 
incrustations of salt on the surface of some 
of the rocks.' Carne's Letters from the East, 
pp. 316, 317 ; Home's Introduction, vol. iii. 
p. 42 ; Chateaubriand's Travels in Palestine, 
&c. vol. ii. Jolliffe's Letters from Palestine. 

ASS, an animal well known for domestic 
uses, and frequently mentioned in Scripture. 
Le Clerc observes, that the Israelites having 
only few chariots, were not allowed to keep 
many horses. People, therefore, of the best 
quality in Palestine rode upon asses, which 
in the eastern countries are much larger and 
more beautiful than with us. Deborah, in 
her song, describes the greatest men in 
Israel by those who ride upon asses. (Judg. 
v. 10.) Jair, of Gilead, had thirty sons, who 
rode upon as many asses, and commanded 
in thirty cities. (Judg. x. 4.) Abdon, one 
of the Judges of Israel, had forty sons, and 
thirty nephews, who rode upon seventy 
asses. (Judg. xii. 14.) 

We read that, in order to accomplish an 
ancient prophecy, our Saviour rode upon an 
ass into Jerusalem, in a triumphant manner. 
(Matt. xxi. 4. Zechariah ix. 9.) By some 



ASS 



ASS 



this has been made a subject of ridicule. It 
ought, however, to be considered, not only 
that the greatest men in Israel rode an- 
ciently upon asses, but that God had abso- 
lutely prohibited the use of horses and of 
chariots for war, (Deut. xvii. 16. Josh. xi. 
6. and Judg. v. 22.) ; that David rode upon 
a mule, and ordered Solomon to use it at his 
coronation (1 Kings i. 33, 34.) ; that after- 
wards when Solomon and succeeding princes 
multiplied horses, they were rebuked for it, 
(Isaiah ii. 6, 7-; xxxi. 1. Hosea xiv. 3.); 
and that the removal of horses is promised 
in the days of the Messiah. (Hosea i. 7- 
Micahv. 10, 11. Zechar. ix. 10.) On the 
whole, therefore, we find that this action of 
our Lord ought to be viewed in the light of a 
recurrence to ancient principles ; not merely 
as an accomplishment of a prophecy, but as 
a revival of an ancient and venerable He- 
brew custom. 

The ass was unclean by the law, because 
it did not chew the cud. To draw with an 
ox and an ass together was prohibited. 
(Levit. xi. 26.) 

In the Gospel is mentioned the mola asi- 
naria, (Matt, xviii. 6. Mark ix. 42.) to ex- 
press a large millstone, which was turned by 
asses, and which was heavier than that 
turned by women and slaves. 

The Pagans accused the Jews of worship- 
ing the head of an ass. It is probable that 
Appion the grammarian was the author of 
this slander. He affirmed, that the Jews 
kept the head of an ass in the sanctuary, 
where it was discovered, when Antiochus 
Epiphanes took the temple, and entered into 
the most holy place. He added, that one 
Zabidus having secretly got into the temple, 
carried off the ass's head, and conveyed it 
to Dora. Suidas says, that Damocritus, or 
Democritus, the historian, asserted that the 
Jews adored the head of an ass, made of 
gold, and sacrificed to it a man, every three, 
or every seven years, after having cut him 
in pieces. Plutarch and Tacitus were im- 
posed on by this calumny ; they believed, 
that the Hebrews adored an ass, out of gra- 
titude for the discovery of a fountain, by one 
of these creatures in the wilderness, at a 
time when the army of this nation was 
parched with thirst, and extremely fatigued. 
The Heathen imputed the same worsbip to 
Christians. Tertullian adds, that certain 
enemies of the Christians exposed to public 
view a picture, in which was represented a 
person holding a book in his hand, dressed 
in a long robe, with the ears and foot of an 
ass, and on which was inscribed, ' The God 
of the Christians has an ass's hoof.' There 
is no doubt but the Jews, as well as the 
Christians, were accused without foundation 
of worshipping an ass. Learned men, who 
have endeavoured to search into the origin 
of this slander, are much divided in opinion. 
Their explications, though ingenious, are 
not solid ; and it is probable, that no one 
144 



will ever be able to give a good reason for 
this accusation, which, perhaps, might arise 
from a joke, or from chance. Calmet thinks, 
that Le Moine has best succeeded. He 
says, that in all probability, the golden urn 
containing the manna, which was preserved 
in the sanctuary, was taken for the head of 
an ass ; and that the omer of manna might 
have been confounded with the Hebrew 
hamor, which signifies an ass. For, accord- 
ing to the Rabbins, upon the prongs of the 
golden urn was the head of an animal, which 
would seem to be that of a young bull, but 
which might be the origin of the calumny, 
that the Jews worshipped an ass's head. 

In the article Balaam, the reader will 
find some account of his ass. It may not, 
however, be improper to inquire here, 
whether it was a reality, or an allegory ; an 
imagination, or a vision of Balaam ? Several 
of the Jewish doctors, who on other occa- 
sions are sufficiently credulous, seem 
doubtful in this matter. Philo, in his Life of 
Moses, suppresses it entirely; and Mai- 
monides pretends that it happened to Ba- 
laam in a vision only. St. Austin, with the 
greater number of commentators, supposes 
that it was a certain fact, and understands 
it literally. He discovers nothing in the 
whole relation more surprising than the 
stupidity of Balaam, who heard his ass 
speak, and replied to it as to a reason- 
able person. He is of opinion that this 
diviner was accustomed to similar pro- 
digies ; or that he was strangely blinded 
by avarice, not to be stopped by so extra- 
ordinary an event. He adds, as his opi- 
nion, that God did not give the ass a rea- 
sonable soul, but permitted it to repeat 
certain words to reprove the covetousness 
of the prophet. St. Peter also speaks of 
this fact as literal and certain. (2 Pet. ii. 16.) 
Gregory of Nyssa seems to think, that the 
ass did not utter words, but that having 
brayed as usual, or more than usual, the 
diviner, practised in drawing presages from 
the voices of beasts and birds, easily un- 
derstood the meaning of the ass by its 
noise ; and that Moses, designing to ridicule 
this superstitious art of augury, relates the 
matter as if the ass really spoke articulately. 
Le Clerc solves the difficulty, by saying, 
that Balaam believed the transmigration of 
souls, passing from one body into another, 
from a man into a beast reciprocally, and, 
therefore was not surprised at the ass's 
complaint, but conversed with it, as if it 
were rational. Bishop Patrick thinks, that 
Balaam was so enraged at the supposed 
perverseness of his beast, in crushing his 
foot, that he could not attend to any 
thing besides ; though the account of Moses, 
he says, is so concise, as to omit many cir- 
cumstances, which, if rightly known, would 
dispel the difficulties in this translation. 
It is yet to be considered whether the ass 
uttered sounds, which by the power of the 



ASS 



ASS 



angel then present, were conveyed to Ba- 
laam as combined into distinct words, 
though not such when they quitted the 
mouth of the ass ; in this case the miracle 
was in the words, or in the combination 
of sounds in the air : or, whether the mi- 
racle was in the ears of Balaam, who heard, 
as combined into articulate words, sounds 
which the ass uttered without conscious- 
ness of her speaking, or any verbal sense 
intended, beyond her ordinary braying, or 
those utterances, by which she had formerly 
been accustomed to express her complaints. 
The fact is as consonant to reason as any 
other extraordinary operation; for all mi- 
racles are alike, and equally demand our 
assent, if properly attested, and the giving 
of articulation to a brute is no more to the 
Deity than the making of the blind to see, 
or the deaf to hear. We may assume as 
facts, that Balaam was accustomed to augury 
and presages ; that on this occasion he would 
notice every event capable of such an interpre- 
tation, as presages were supposed to indi- 
cate ; that he was deeply intent on the issue 
of the event ; that the whole of his conduct 
towards Balak was calculated to represent 
himself as an extraordinary personage ; and 
that the behaviour of the ass actually pre- 
figured the conduct of Balaam in the three 
particulars of it, which are recorded. First, 
the ass turned aside, and went into the field, 
for which she was smitten, punished, re- 
proved ; and Balaam, on the first of his per- 
verse attempts to curse Israel, was, as it 
were, smitten, reproved, punished by God, 
and also by Balak. Secondly, the ass was 
more harshly treated for hurting Balaam's 
foot against the wall ; and Balaam, for his 
second attempt, was doubtless still further 
mortified. Thirdly, the ass, seeing danger 
inevitable, fell down, and was smitten se- 
verely ; and Balaam was over-ruled by God, 
to speak truth to his own disgrace, and 
escaped with the hazard of his life from the 
anger of Balak. Balaam had no sword in 
his hand, though he wished for one, with 
which to slay his ass ; and Balak, notwith- 
standing his fury, and his seeming inclina- 
tion, had no power to destroy Balaam. In 
short, the ass was opposed by the angel, but 
driven forward by Balaam ; and Balaam was 
opposed by God, but driven forward by Balak, 
against his better knowledge. If Balaam 
wrote this story, and Moses copied it, as 
the Rabbins affirm, this view of the subject 
would remove all difficulties. See Balaam. 
In 2 Kings vi. 25. it is said, ' There was 
a great famine in Samaria, until an ass's 
head was sold for eighty pieces of silver.' 
The ass here mentioned was perhaps a 
measure, or a kind of pack, or other quan- 
tity, well known. Jesse sent to Saul an 
ass of bread, (1 Sam. xvi. 20.) and three 
asses of bread were eaten by one person in 
one day. It may also be doubted, whether 
Abigail (1 Sam. xxv. 18.) really loaded asses, 
145 



quadrupeds, with her presents to David; 
for in the original, the literal meaning is, 
that she took 200 of bread, &c. and placed 
them on the asses,' which seems to hint at 
something distinct from asses, animals. In 
Exod. viii. 14. what our translators have 
rendered heaps, in the original is asses asses ; 

* they gathered the frogs together asses 
asses,' that is, many of that quantity called 
an ass. Samson says of his defeated ene- 
mies, a heap, heaps, or ass, asses. Though 
we mean not to determine accurately, even 
if it were possible, the quantity of an ass, 
yet if we take the English word pile to de- 
note this quantity, it will lead us to the idea 
that Jesse sent to Saul a pile of bread; that 
a person ate three piles of bread in one day ; 
that Abigail placed her bread, wine, corn, 
raisins, and figs in piles ; that the Egyptians 
gathered the stinking frogs into piles; and 
that Samson's enemies lay in piles. This 
may vindicate those Jews, who translate not 
the head of an ass, chamor, but the head of a 
measure, chomer ; for the letters are pre- 
cisely the same in the original. The word 
rash, translated head, signifies the total, the 
whole ; see Psalm exxxix. 17- Exod. xxx. 12. 
Numb. i. 2, &c. These ideas combined will 
render the passage in Kings to this effect ; 

* the famine was so severe that the whole of 
a pile, that is, of bread, or a complete pile of 
bread, sold for eighty pieces of silver. 
But as there is no mention of bread in the 
original, the ass or pile, as we have supposed, 
may refer to the dove's dung, as follows: 
' The whole of the quantity called an ass (of 
dove's dung, or chick-peas) was sold for 80 
pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab 
of dove's dung (chick-peas) for 5 pieces of 
silver.' See Dove. Scripture Illustrated, 
Expos. Index, p. 116 ; Additions to Calmet's 
Dictionary ; Home's Introduction to the Study 
of the Scriptures, vol. iii. p. 593. 

ASSIDiE'ANS, D'TDn, Chasidim, 'A<ri- 
daloi, signifies, merciful, pious, religious. 
They were a religious society among the 
Jews, and their chief and distinguishing 
character consisted in maintaining the ho- 
nour of the temple. For this purpose they 
paid more than the usual tribute for the 
reparation of the temple ; and on every day, 
except that of the great expiation, besides 
their daily oblations, they sacrificed a lamb, 
which was called the sin-offering of the As- 
sidaeans. They used greater mortifications 
than the rest of the Jews : and they com- 
monly swore by the temple, an oath, for 
which our Saviour reproves the Pharisees. 
(Matt, xxiii. 16'.) From this sect sprang 
the Pharisees, who produced the Essenians. 
Both these sects were strenuous in maintain- 
ing the importance of unwritten traditions, 
which they held to be superior in authority 
even to the written word of God. Their 
opponents, the Tsadikim, would, on the con- 
trary, allow to tradition no force or authority 
whatsoever. The Assidoeans were very nu- 
L 



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merous, and distinguished for their valour, 
as well as their zeal for the law. (1 Maccab. 
ii. 42.) Prid. Connect, part ii. b. iii. &c. ; 
Jennings's Jewish Antiq. b. i. c. ix. 

ASSURANCE of reconciliation to God, a 
doctrine held by the Methodists, by whom 
it is frequently termed the new birth. With- 
out doubt a good man may be filled with 
hope, even a well-founded hope, which will 
comfort and refresh his soul. But what 
shall we say, when we are told that a con- 
demned criminal could rise from his knees, 
and eagerly exclaim, ' I am now ready to 
die ; I know Christ has taken away my sins, 
and there is no more condemnation for 
me V Such persons, we are told, were ori- 
ginally either very wicked sinners, or merely 
formal Christians, but that at some period, 
on a sudden, and generally on accidentally 
hearing some Methodist preacher, they were, 
in the language of the Methodists, ' con- 
vinced of sin,' or ' for sin.' Then, and not 
till then, they became sensible that Christ 
died for them. 

Upon this follow such influxes of Divine 
Grace, called by them ' experiences,' that 
the man continues from thenceforth fully 
assured of his salvation. Occasionally, in- 
deed, certain doubtings and backslidings 
occur ; but, upon the whole, there is a per- 
severance to the end in this blessed state. 

Now it is plain that this is only our doc- 
trine of repentance and faith dressed up in 
new colours, with the addition of a few ex- 
travagances. Repentance is called being 
' convinced of sin ;' because a new term may 
be made better to accord with their theory 
of sudden conversions. And to faith is 
superadded the notion of experiences, ad- 
mirably calculated by the promise, which it 
holds out, of distinguished favour, to strike 
the imagination, and to allure the vain and 
conceited, the weak and the unwary, to 
flatter the pride and presumption of man. 

In the apostolical writings we are parti- 
cularly cautioned to ' be sober, to be vi- 
gilant,' (1 Pet. v. 8.) : 'not to be high-minded, 
but to fear,' (Rom. xi. 20.): and this with a 
particular reference to our spiritual pri- 
vileges : to ' work out our salvation with 
fear and trembling,' (Phil. ii. 12.): « not to 
deceive ourselves,' (1 Corinth, iii. 18.) All 
these expressions, and many others which 
might be adduced, are inconsistent with 
every idea of this personal and sensibly 
continued communion with the Spirit, and 
assurance of salvation. Thus too, when the 
apostles speak of their feelings, the terms 
which they use are only such as might be- 
come any man, who was conscious of having 
tried to do his duty, and entertained a firm 
hope that he had not failed. ' We trust,' says 
St. Paul, ' we have a good conscience, in all 
things willing to live honestly,' (Heb. xiii. 
18.): also ' our rejoicing is this, the testimony 
of our conscience.' (2 Cor. i. 12.) 'Herein,' 
he says elsewhere, ' do I exercise myself, to 
146 



have always a conscience void of offence to- 
ward God and toward men.' (Acts xxiv. 16.) 
St. Peter, too, speaks of ' the answer of a 
good conscience toward God.' (1 Pet. iii. 21.) 
St. John's expression is somewhat different, 
but to the same effect ; ' Beloved,' he says, 
' if our heart condemn us not, then have we 
confidence toward God.' (Uohn iii. 21.) 
All these passages clearly point out that 
satisfaction, and that only, which results 
from reflecting upon a life well spent, and 
agreeing with what St. James teaches, that 
our faith must be shown by our works. 
(James ii. 18.) 

It is with caution that St. Paul himself 
admits the doctrine of assurance, and there- 
fore he styles it ' the assurance of hope.' 
(Heb. vii. 11.) Nor is the meaning of the 
expression altered when, in the same epistle, 
he calls it the assurance of faith, as he con- 
siders this assurance as arising from a true, 
pure, and assured profession of Christianity ; 
which he emphatically denominates a new 
and living way. ' Let us draw near with a 
true heart in full assurance of faith, hav- 
ing our hearts sprinkled from an evil con- 
science, and our bodies washed with pure 
water.' (Heb. x. 20. 22.) 

We should be cautious in encouraging an 
indiscriminate assurance, independent of re- 
ligious experience. ' My little children, let 
us not love in word, neither in tongue, but 
in deed and in truth. And hereby we know 
we are of the truth, and shall assure our 
hearts before him.' (1 John iii. 18, 19.) 
This indeed is the test of assurance, and it 
is with fear and trembling that the best of 
Christians approaches it. But as he is di- 
rected to have ' boldness to enter into the 
Holiest by the blood of Jesus,' let him in 
all humility of mind ascend into the hill of 
Sion, and laying aside all human righteous- 
ness, he shall then, and then only, ' have 
confidence towards God.' Mesurier's Ser- 
mon on Predestination and Assurance, pp. 
33 — 35; Brewster's Secular Essay, pp. 161 
—163. 

ASSYRIA, a country of Asia, the boun- 
daries of which it is difficult to designate. 
It appears to have been situated between 
the Tigris and the Euphrates, inclosed be- 
tween those two rivers, from the part where 
they begin to approach each other, on leav- 
ing Mesopotamia, to that where they join, 
not far from their mouth, in the Gulf of 
Persia. From Ashur, the son of Shem, 
Assyria derived its name. See Ashur. 

We have already noticed the opinions of 
authors with respect to the peopling of this 
country, and the antiquity, duration, and 
extent of the Assyrian empire. After the 
time of Nimrod, we find nothing in the 
sacred records respecting the Assyrian em- 
pire, till about the year 3234, when Pul, 
king of Assyria, invaded the territories of 
Israel, under the reign of Menahem. (2 Kings 
xv. 19. 1 Chron. v. 26.) It is generally be- 



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lieved, that Pul so greatly extended the 
empire of Assyria, as to be its real founder. 
Thus Jonah, who prophesied about sixty 
years before the reign of Pul, mentions in- 
deed the king of Nineveh, but not that of 
Assyria. (Jonah iii. 6, 7-) 

Tiglath-pileser, who is supposed to be 
the son of Pul, succeeded him in the throne, 
and also invaded Israel, carrying away the 
inhabitants captive into Assyria. (2 Kings, 
xv. 29.) He was succeeded by his son Shal- 
maneser, who compelled Hoshea, king of 
Israel, to pay him tribute. (2 Kings xvii. 3.) 
Sennacherib, the successor of Shalmaneser, 
is famous in sacred and profane writings. 
He was killed by two of his sons, and suc- 
ceeded by another son, Esar-haddon, be- 
fore Christ 710. Esar-haddon united the 
disse vered empires of Chaldaea and Assyria, 
and revived the glory of the Assyrian name, 
which had been eclipsed in the reign of his 
predecessor. He left the throne to Saosdu- 
chinus, or Saosducheus, who is the Nabu- 
chodonosor of sacred history, and who 
reigned twenty years. Saosduchinus was 
succeeded by Sarac, or Chynaladan, who 
reigned twenty-two years. 

Nabopolassar, otherwise Nebuchadnez- 
zar, governor of Babylon, and Astyages, 
otherwise Ahasuerus, son to the king of 
Media, besieging Nineveh, took the city, 
and divided the monarchy of the Assyrians. 
Nabopolassar possessed Nineveh and Baby- 
lon ; and Astyages, Media, and the neigh- 
bouring provinces. Nabopolassar was the 
father of Nebuchadnezzar, who took Jeru- 
salem. He was succeeded by Evilmerodach ; 
Evilmerodach, by Belshazzar ; and Belshaz- 
zar by Darius the Mede. We have the 
authority of Scripture in respect to Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Evilmerodach, Belshazzar, and 
Darius the Mede. 

However, profane authors relate the 
series of Evilmerodach's successors in a 
different manner. Megasthenes says, that 
Evilmerodach was slain by Neriglissor, his 
brother-in-law, who reigned four years. 
Neriglissor was succeeded by Lebasso- 
arachus, who was killed by conspirators, 
that gave the crown to one of their number, 
named Nabonidas, or Nabannidoch, or La- 
binith. From this last, Cyrus conquered 
Babylon ; and having rendered himself 
master of the Chaldaean empire, he re- 
united the empires of Assyria, Chaldaea, 
and Persia. Usher's Annals ; Cahnet's Dic- 
tionary. 

ASTY'AGES, 'AoTvayijg, signifies the 
chief, or captain of the city. Astyages, other- 
wise Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and suc- 
cessor to Phraortes, reigned forty years, 
and died in the year of the world 3409. 
He was father of Astyages, otherwise called 
Darius the Mede. He had two daughters, 
Mandane and Amytis : Mandane married 
Cambyses the Persian, and was the mother 
ot Cyrus : Amvtis married Nebuchadnezzar, 
147 



the son of Nabopolassar, and was the mother 
of Evilmerodach. 

Astyages, otherwise Ahasuerus, (Tobit 
ult v. ult. in the Greek ; Dan. ix. I.) Ar- 
taxerxes, (Dan. vi. 1, in the Greek,) or 
Darius the Mede, (Dan. v. 31.) or Cyaxares 
his father's name (Xenophon), or Apandas 
in Ctesias. He was appointed by his father, 
Cyaxares, governor of Media, and sent with 
Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, against 
Sarac, or Chynaladan, king of Assyria. 
These two princes besieged Sarac in 
Nineveh, took that city, and dismembered 
the Assyrian empire. Astyages was with 
Cyrus at the conquest of Babylon, and 
succeeded Belshazzar, king of Babylon, in 
the year of the world 3447- (Dan. v. 30, 31.) 
He was succeeded by Cyrus, in the year ot 
the world 3456. (Dan. xiii. 65. in the Vul- 
gate.) 

ASYLUM, signifies a sanctuary whither 
unfortunate persons might retire for security 
from their enemies, and whence they could 
not be forced. The ancient Hebrews, as 
well as the Heathens, had their asylums. 
The most remarkable of those belonging to 
the Jews, were their cities of refuge, which 
were intended for the security of those, who 
by accident, and without design, killed a 
man. They were six in number, three on 
each side Jordan, (Exod. xxi. 13. Numb, 
xxxv. 11.) The Jews were also com- 
manded to add three more, when they 
should enlarge their borders ; but as they 
did not comply wdth this command, the 
Rabbins say, that the Messiah, when he 
comes, will accomplish it. 

Besides the cities of refuge, the temple, 
and especially the altar of burnt-offerings, 
enjoyed the privilege of an asylum. This 
privilege began to be enjoyed by the Chris- 
tian churches, about the time of Constan- 
tine ; but whatever intention it was to 
answer, or whatever might be the laws con- 
cerning it, the modern asylums of the 
Christian church, in protecting criminals of 
almost all descriptions, and thus disappoint- 
ing the ends of the civil laws, proved a 
great abuse of the ancient institution, and 
were therefore abolished, particularly in 
England. 

A'TAD, 112N, signifies a thorn, a bramble- 
bush. At Atad's threshing-floor, the sons of 
Jacob, and the Egyptians who accompanied 
them, mourned for Jacob ; and hence it was 
afterwards called x\bel-mizraim, the mourn- 
ing of the Egyptians. (Gen. 1. 11.) St. 
Jerom fixes this place between the Jordan 
and Jericho, two miles from the river, and 
three from Jericho : and Dr. Wells thinks, 
that it was situated on the west of Jordan, 
and not far from Hebron. Geography of the 
Old and New Testament, vol. i. p. 186. 

ATHALI'AH, rrbny, lVoSoXta, signifies 

the time of the Lord. Athaliah was the 

daughter of Omri, king of Samaria, and 

wife to Jehoram, king of Judah. Being 

L 2 



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informed that Jehu had slain her son, Aha- 
ziah, and forty-two princes of his family, 
she resolved to massacre all the princes of 
the blood royal of Judah, that she might 
ascend the throne without a rival. (2 Kings 
xi. 1, 2, &c.) However, Jehosheba, the 
daughter of king Jehoram, and sister to 
king Ahaziah, took Joash, son of Ahaziah, 
with his nurse, and privately preserved him 
from the slaughter of the king's children. 
He was secretly supported six years, with 
his nurse, in the temple, and in the seventh, 
the high-priest, Jehoiada, determined to 
place him on the throne of his ancestors. 
This he accomplished amid the acclama- 
tions of the multitude. Athaliah hearing 
the noise, entered the temple ; and seeing 
the young king seated on his throne, she 
tore her clothes, and cried, treason, treason ! 
Jehoiada commanded the Levites, who were 
armed, to carry her without the inclosure 
of the temple, and to put to death those 
who followed her. They dragged her by 
the way of the horse-gate, near the palace, 
where she was slain, in the year of the world 
3126, and before the Christian era 878. 
She had reigned six years, 

ATHANASIAN CREED, a formulary 
or confession of faith, long supposed to 
have been drawn up by Athanasius, bishop 
of Alexandria, in the fourth century, to 
justify himself against the calumnies of his 
Arian enemies. However, it is now gene- 
rally allowed not to have been his. Dr. 
Waterland ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of 
Aries, for several reasons. He thinks that 
Hilary composed it, about the year 430, for 
the use of the Gallican clergy, and particu- 
larly for those of his own diocese ; that 
about the year 570, it became sufficiently 
famous to be commented on, but was yet 
simply styled The Catholic Faith ; and that 
before 670, it obtained the name of the 
Athanasian Creed, being in itself an ex- 
cellent system of the Athanasian princi- 
ples of the Trinity and incarnation, in 
opposition chiefly to the Arians, Mace- 
donians, and Apollinarians. 

This creed obtained in France about 
850, and was received in Spain and Ger- 
many about 180 years later. As to our 
own country, we have clear proofs, that it 
was sung alternately in our churches in 
the tenth century. It was in common use 
in some parts of Italy about the year 
960, and was received at Rome about 
1014. It has been questioned whether 
it was ever received by the Greek and 
Oriental churches, though some writers are 
of opinion that it was. It has been rejected 
by the episcopal churches of America. Still 
it appears, however, that the reception of this 
creed has been both general and ancient. 

As to the matter of this creed, it is given 
as a summary of the true orthodox faith. 
Unhappily, however, it has proved a fruit- 
ful source of unprofitable controversy. 
148 



Though the account of the doctrine of 
the Trinity contained in this creed appears 
just and satisfactory, yet its damnatory 
clauses have by some been thought excep- 
tionable. That they are exceptionable, 
however, is denied by bishop Cleaver, who, 
in a sermon preached before the university 
of Oxford, has highly censured the objec- 
tions made by the Bishop of Lincoln to 
these clauses. ' Great objection,' says the 
bishop of Lincoln, ' has been made to 
the clauses of this creed, which denounce 
damnation against those, who do not be- 
lieve the Catholic faith, as here stated ; and 
it certainly is to be lamented, that asser- 
tions of so peremptory a nature, unex- 
plained and unqualified, should have been 
used in any human composition. We know 
that different persons have deduced different 
and even opposite doctrines from the 
words of Scripture, and, consequently, 
there must be many errors among Chris- 
tians ; but since the Gospel no where in- 
forms us, what degree of error will ex- 
clude from eternal happiness, I am ready 
to acknowledge, that in my judgment, not- 
withstanding the authority of former times, 
our church would have acted more wisely, 
and more consistently with the general 
principles of mildness and toleration, if it 
had not adopted the damnatory clauses of 
the Athanasian creed. Though I firmly 
believe that the doctrines of this creed are 
all founded in Scripture, I cannot but con- 
ceive it to be both unnecessary and presump- 
tuous to say, that ' except every one do keep 
them whole and undefiled, without doubt 
he shall perish everlastingly.' Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. ii. p. 219. 

ATHEIST, in the strict and proper 
sense of the word, is characteristic of a 
person, who does not believe in the exist- 
ence of a God, or who owns no Being supe- 
rior to nature. It is compounded of the 
two terms, a negative, and Oeog, God, sig- 
nifying without God. Atheists have been 
also known by the name Infidels ; but the 
word Infidel is now commonly used to dis- 
tinguish a more numerous sect, and is be- 
come almost synonymous with Deist. He 
who disbelieves the existence of a God, as 
an infinite, intelligent, and a moral agent, 
is a direct or speculative Atheist ; he who 
confesses a Deity and providence in words, 
but denies them in his life and actions, is 
a practical Atheist. 

That Atheism existed, in some sense, 
before the flood, may be suspected from 
what we read in Scripture, as well as from 
heathen tradition ; and it is not very unrea- 
sonable to suppose, that the deluge was 
partly intended to evince to the world a 
heavenly power as Lord of the Universe, 
and superior to the visible system of nature. 
This was at least a happy consequence of 
that fatal catastrophe ; for, as it is observed 
by Dean Sherlock, ' The universal deluge, 



ATH 



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and the confusion of languages, had so 
abundantly convinced mankind of a Divine 
Power and Providence, that there was no 
such creature as an Atheist, till their ridi- 
culous idolatries had tempted some men of 
wit and thought, rather to own no God, than 
such as the heathens worshipped.' 

Atheistical principles were long nou- 
rished and cherished in Greece, and espe- 
cially among the atomical, peripatetic, and 
sceptical philosophers ; and hence some have 
ascribed the origin of Atheism to the phi- 
losophy of Greece. This is true, if they 
mean that species of refined Atheism, 
which contrives any impious scheme of 
principles to account for the origin of the 
world, without a Divine Being. For 
though there may have been in former ages, 
and in other countries, some persons irre- 
ligious in principle as well as in practice, 
yet we know of none who, forming a phi- 
losophical scheme of impiety, became a 
sect, and erected colleges of atheistical learn- 
ing, till the arrogant and enterprising 
genius of Greece undertook that detestable 
work. Carrying their presumptuous and 
ungoverned speculations into the very 
essence of the Divinity, at first they 
doubted, and at length denied, the existence 
of a First Cause independent of nature, and 
of a Providence that superintends its laws, 
and governs the concerns of mankind. 

These principles, with the other improve- 
ments of Greece, were transferred to 
Rome ; and, excepting in Italy, we hear 
little of Atheism, for many ages after the 
Christian era. ' For some ages before 
the reformation,' says Archbishop Til- 
lotson, ' Atheism was confined to Italy, 
and had its chief residence at Rome.' — 
1 But, in this last age, Atheism has tra- 
velled over the Alps and infected France, 
and now of late it hath crossed the seas, 
and invaded our nation, and hath prevailed 
to amazement' However, to Tillotson, 
and other able writers, we owe its sup- 
pression in this country; for they pressed 
it down with a weight of sound argument, 
from which we trust it will never be able to 
raise itself. 

Atheism, in its primary sense, compre- 
hends, or indeed goes beyond, every heresy 
in the world, for it professes to acknow- 
ledge no religion, true or false. The two 
leading false hypotheses, which have pre- 
vailed, respecting this world and its origin, 
are, that of Ocellus Lucanus, adopted and 
improved by Aristotle, that it was eternal. 
and that of Epicurus, that it was formed by 
a fortuitous concourse of atoms. ' That the 
soul is material and mortal, Christianity an 
imposture, the Scripture a forgery, the wor- 
ship of God superstition, hell a fable, and 
heaven a dream, our life without providence, 
and our death without hope, like that of 
asses and dogs, are part of the glorious 
Gospel of Atheists.' 
149 



The being of a God may be proved from 
the marks of design, and from the order 
and beauty visible in the world; from 
universal consent; from the relation of 
cause and effect; from eternal consci- 
ousness ; and from the necessity of a final 
as well as efficient cause. 

' Of all the false doctrines and foolish 
opinions, which ever infested the mind of 
man, nothing can possibly equal that of 
Atheism, which is such a monstrous contra- 
diction of all evidence, of all the powers 
of understanding, and the dictates of com- 
mon sense, that it may be well questioned, 
whether any man can really fall into it by a 
deliberate use of his judgment. 

' All nature so clearly points out, and 
so loudly proclaims, a Creator of infinite 
power, wisdom, and goodness, that who- 
ever hears not its voice, and sees not its 
proofs, may well be thought wilfully deaf, and 
obstinately blind. 

' If it be evident, self-evident to every 
man of thought, that there can be no effect 
without a cause, what shall we say of that 
manifold combination of effects, that series 
of operations, that system of wonders, 
which fill the universe, which present them- 
selves to all our perceptions, and strike 
our mind and our senses on every side ! 
Every faculty, every object of every faculty, 
demonstrates a Deity. The meanest insect 
we can see, the minutest and most con- 
temptible weed we can tread upon, is really 
sufficient to confound Atheism, and baffle 
all its pretensions. — How much more that 
astonishing variety and multiplicity of 
God's works, with which we are continually 
surrounded ! Let any man survey the 
face of the earth, or lift up his eyes to the 
firmament: let him consider the nature and 
instincts of brute animals, and afterwards 
look into the operations of his own mind, 
will he presume to say or suppose that all 
the objects he meets with are nothing more 
than the result of unaccountable accidents 
and blind chance ? Can he possibly con- 
ceive that such wonderful order should 
spring out of confusion ; or that such per- 
fect beauty should be ever formed by the 
fortuitous operations of unconscious, in- 
active particles of matter? As well, nay 
better, and more easily, might he suppose 
that an earthquake might happen to build 
towns and cities ; or the materials carried 
down by a flood fit themselves up without 
hands into a regular fleet. For what are 
towns, cities, or fleets, in comparison of the 
vast and amazing fabric of the universe ! 

' In short, Atheism offers such violence 
to all our faculties, that it seems scarce 
credible it should ever really find any foot- 
ing in the human understanding.' 

Atheism is unreasonable, because it gives 
no tolerable account of the existence of the 
world. This is one of the greatest diffi- 
culties, with which the Atheist has to con- 



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ATO 



tend. For he must suppose either that the 
world is eternal, or that it was formed by 
chance and a fortuitous concourse of the 
parts of matter. That the world had a he- 
ginning is evident from universal tradition, 
and the most ancient history that exists ; 
from there being no memorials of any 
actions performed previously to the time 
assigned in that history as the era of the 
creation ; from the origin of learning and 
arts ; and the liability of the parts of matter 
to decay. That the world was not pro- 
duced by chance is also evident. Nothing 
can be more unreasonable than to ascribe to 
chance an effect, which appears with all the 
characters of a wise design and contrivance. 
Will chance fit means to ends, even in ten 
thousand instances, and not fail in a single 
one? How often might a man, after shaking 
a set of letters in a bag, throw them on the 
ground, before they would become an exact 
poem, or form a good discourse in prose? 
In short, the arguments in proof of Deity 
are so numerous, and at the same time so 
obvious to a thinking mind, that to waste 
time in disputing with an Atheist, is ap- 
proaching too much towards that irra- 
tionality, which may be considered as one 
of the most striking characteristics of the 
sect. 

When Hobbes and his followers say, 
that the notion of a God is not from nature, 
nor revelation, but from policy and state 
craft, they own it to be for the good of 
society. When it is supposed that the world 
came into existence by chance, and is every 
moment liable to be destroyed by it, then 
it is dangerous to live in such a world. When 
it is alleged that the world is eternal, and 
that all things are by fatal necessity, then 
liberty and choice were infinitely better. When 
it is argued from supposed defects in the 
frame of nature, and in the government of 
the world, then it is better that the world 
had been made, and were governed by a per- 
fectly wise and gracious being. 

It may be affirmed, that the abettors of 
Atheism and irreligion were never more 
numerous than they have been of late. But we 
have reason to believe, that, as has always 
been the case, they are more numerous in 
Europe, and particularly in France, Ger- 
many, and Italy, than in any other part. 

The more noted Atheists, since the refor- 
mation, are Machiavel, Spinoza, Hobbes, 
Blount, and Vanini. To these may be added 
Hume, and Voltaire the Coryphaeus of the 
sect, and the great nursing father of that 
swarm of them, which has appeared in these 
last days. Adams's Religious World, vol. iii. p. 
484, &c. Tillotson's Sermons, vol. i. 70, &c. 

ATH'ENS, 'AQfjvai, a celebrated city of 
Greece, and some time a very powerful 
commonwealth, distinguished by the mili- 
tary talents, but still more by the learning, 
eloquence, and politeness of its inhabitants. 
St. Paul coming hither, in the year of Christ 
150 



52, found it plunged in idolatry, occupied 
in inquiring and reporting news, curious 
to know every thing, and divided in opinion 
concerning religion and happiness, (Acts 
xvii.) The apostle, therefore, took an op- 
portunity of preaching Jesus Christ in this 
city, and was carried before the judges of 
the Areopagus; where he gave an illus- 
trious testimony to truth, and a remarkable 
instance of powerful reasoning. See Areo- 
pagus. 

ATONEMENT, the satisfying of Divine 
Justice by the meritorious death and pas- 
sion of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. The 
first Gospel declaration on this subject is 
the exclamation of John the Baptist, when 
he saw Jesus coming unto him : ' Behold 
the Lamb of God, which taketh away the 
sin of the world.' It seems plain, that 
when John called our Lord the Lamb of 
God, he spoke with a reference to his being 
sacrificed, and to the effect of that sacrifice, 
as an atonement for the sins of mankind. 
This was said of our Lord, even before he 
entered on his office. If any doubt should 
exist respecting the meaning of the Baptist's 
expression, it is removed by other pas- 
sages, in which a similar allusion to a lamb 
is adopted, and in which the allusion is spe- 
cifically applied to the death of Christ, as 
an atonement for sin. In the Acts of the 
Apostles, the following words of Isaiah (liii.) 
are, by Philip the evangelist, distinctly ap- 
plied to our Lord, and to his death. ' He was 
led as a sheep to the slaughter ; and like 
a lamb dumb before his shearer, so opened 
he not his mouth : in his humiliation his 
judgment was taken away : and who shall 
declare his generation ? for his life is taken 
from the earth.' By the concluding words 
it is evident that to his death this description 
relates ; and Philip taught the eunuch that 
this passage was spoken of Christ. This 
particular part and expression of the pro- 
phecy being applied to Christ's death, the 
whole must relate to the same subject; for it 
is undoubtedly one entire prophecy, and the 
other expressions, which are still stronger, 
are equally applicable. ' He was wounded 
for our transgressions ; he was bruised for 
our iniquities ; the chastisement of our peace 
was upon him ; and with his stripes we are 
healed : the Lord hath laid on him the ini- 
quity of us all.' In the first Epistle of Peter, 
is a strong and very apposite text, in which 
the application of the term ' lamb' to our 
Lord, and the sense in which it is applied, 
can admit of no doubt : ' Forasmuch as ye 
know, that ye were not redeemed with cor- 
ruptible things, but with the precious blood 
of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish and 
without spot.' (1 Peti. 18, 19.) It is therefore 
evident that the prophet Isaiah, seven hundred 
years before the birth of Jesus ; that John the 
Baptist, on the commencement of his minis- 
try ; and that St. Peter, his friend, companion, 
and apostle, subsequent to the transaction ; 



ATO 



ATT 



speak of Christ's death as an atonement for 
sin, under the figure of a lamb sacrificed. 

The passages that follow, plainly and dis- 
tinctly declare the efficacy of Christ's death : 
1 Now once in the end of the world hath he 
appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of 
himself. Christ was once offered to bear 
the sins of many : and unto them that look 
for him shall he appear the second time 
without sin unto salvation.' (Heb. ix. 26.28.) 
' This man after he had offered one sacri- 
fice for sin, for ever sat down on the right 
hand of God, for by one offering he hath 
perfected for ever them that are sanctified,' 
(Id. x. 12. 14.) It is observable, that nothing 
similar is said of the death of any other per- 
son, and that no such efficacy is imputed to 
any other martyrdom. ' While we were yet 
sinners, Christ died for us. Much more then, 
being now justified by his blood, we shall 
be saved from wrath through him. For if, 
when we were enemies, we were reconciled 
to God by the death of his Son, much more 
being reconciled we shall be saved by his 
life.' (Rom. v.) The words ' reconciled to 
God by the death of his Son,' show that his 
death had an efficacy in our reconciliation : 
but reconciliation is only preparatory to 
salvation. He has 'reconciled us' to his 
Father ' through the blood of his cross,' 
and in the body of his flesh through death.' 
(Coloss. i. 20. 22.) What is said of recon- 
ciliation in these texts, is in some others 
spoken of sanctification, which is also pre- 
paratory to salvation : ' We are sanctified,' 
now ? ' by the offering of the body of Christ 
once for all.' (Heb. x. 10.) In the same 
Epistle, the blood of Jesus is called the blood 
of the covenant by which we are sanctified. 

Daniel, in his ninth chapter, recites from 
the mouth of Gabriel, the following words : 
' Seventy weeks are determined upon thy 
people ; — to finish the transgression, and to 
make an end of sins, and to make reconci- 
liation for iniquity, and to bring in ever- 
lasting righteousness, and to anoint the 
Most Holy.' In the following verse, he 
farther informs us, that at the end of the 
' seventy weeks,' the ' Messiah should be 
cut off, but not for himself.' Accordingly, 
at the end of seventy weeks, or four hundred 
and ninety years, ' from the commandment 
to rebuild Jerusalem, published by Artax- 
erxes Longimanus, (before Christ 457.) the 
Messiah was cut off, but not for himself;' 
that is, within four years after he had been 
anointed by the Holy Ghost, accoi-ding to 
the same prediction. The effect of his be- 
ing cut off was to make an end of sin, and 
to make reconciliation of iniquity. ' Christ 
died for our sins, according to the Scrip- 
tures.' (I Cor. xv. 3.) Here it is asserted, 
not only that ' Christ died for our sins,' but 
that this fact took place • according to the 
Scriptures.' The same doctrine is taught 
by Christ himself, (Luke xxiv. 25, 26. 45, 
'16.) who asserts that his death was due or 
151 



necessary, because it had been before de- 
clared by the prophets, and in the Scriptures. 

' Who gave himself for our sins, that he 
might deliver us from this present evil world.' 
(Gal. i. 4.) ' When he had by himself 
purged our sins.' (Heb. i. 3.) • Who his 
ownself bare our sins in his own body on 
the tree ; that we, being dead to sins, should 
live unto righteousness : by whose stripes 
ye were healed.' (1 Pet. ii. 24.) ' He was 
manifested to take away our sins.' (1 John 
iii. 5.) ' Unto him that loved us, and 
washed us from our sins in his own blood, 
and hath made us kings and priests unto 
God.' (Rev. i. 5.) 

From every one of these passages, as well 
as from many others, it is evident beyond 
all doubt, that Christ stood in the place of 
mankind — bore their sins, and healed them 
by the stripes which he suffered — that our 
iniquities were laid on him — that he washed 
our sins away — became a curse for us — was 
wounded for our transgressions — made re- 
conciliation for iniquity — and was cut off, 
not for himself, but for mankind. 

The death of Christ was an atonement 
for the sins of mankind, and the accomplish- 
ment of our eternal redemption. It was that 
great sacrifice, the efficacy of which reaches 
back to the first transgression of man, and 
forward to the end of time. But the nature 
and extent of that efficacy we are unable, 
as yet, fully to trace. Part we are capable 
of beholding ; and the wisdom of what we 
behold we have reason to adore. We dis- 
cern in this plan of redemption, the evil of 
sin strongly exhibited ; and the justice of 
the Divine government awfully exempli- 
fied, in Christ suffering for sinners. But 
let us not imagine, that our present disco- 
veries unfold the whole influence of the 
death of Christ. It is connected with causes, 
into which we cannot penetrate. It pro- 
duces consequences too extensive for us to 
explore. ' God's thoughts are not as our 
thoughts.' In all things, we • see only in 
part ;' and here, if any where, we see also 
' as through a glass darkly.' Paley's Ser- 
mons, Sermon xviii ; Blair's Sermons, vol. i. 
p. 122, 1 23 ; Dwighfs Theology, vol. ii. pp. 
333, 334. 

ATTRIBUTES of GOD, the several 
qualities or perfections of the Divine nature. 
Some distinguish them into negative, and 
positive, or affirmative. The negative are 
such as remove from him whatever is im- 
perfect in creatures ; as, infinity, immutabi- 
lity, immortality, &c. The positive are such 
as assert some perfection in God, which is 
in and of himself, and which in the crea- 
tures, in any measure, is derived from God. 
This distinction is now mostly discarded. 
Some distinguish them into absolute and 
relative. Absolute are such as agree with 
the essence of God ; as Jehovah, Jah, fee. 
Relative are such as agree with him in 
time, with some respect to his creatures, as 



ATT 



UG 



Creator, Governor, Preserver, Redeemer, 
&c. But the attributes of God are more 
commonly distinguished into communicable 
and incommunicable. The communicable 
are those, of which there is some resem- 
blance in men ; as, goodness, holiness, wis- 
dom, &c. The incommunicable are those, 
of which there is no appearance in men ; as, 
independence, immutability, immensity, and 
eternity. Buck's Theolog. Diet. 

ATTRITION. By the casuists of the 
Romish church, a distinction is made be- 
tween a perfect and an imperfect contrition. 
The latter is called by them attrition ; which 
is the lowest degree of repentance, or a 
sorrow for sin arising from a sense of shame, 
or any temporal inconvenience attending 
the commission of it, or merely from fear of 
punishment, without any resolution not to 
sin again. In consequence of this doctrine, 
they teach that, after a wicked and flagi- 
tious course of life, a man may be recon- 
ciled to God, and his sins forgiven on his 
death-bed, by confessing them to the priest 
with this imperfect degree of sorrow and 
repentance. This distinction was settled 
by the council of Trent. It might, how- 
ever, be easily shown, that the mare sor- 
row for sin because of its consequences, 
and not on account of its evil nature, can- 
not be more acceptable to God than hy- 
pocrisy. No man, who has seriously con- 
sidered the nature of God and religion, can 
ever be persuaded to build his hopes of 
happiness on such a foundation. The ab- 
solution of all the priests in the world will 
not procure the forgiveness of God to any 
man not disposed for his mercy by such a 
repentance as the Gospel requires. 

In the catechism published in France by 
order of Buonaparte, and sanctioned by the 
Pope's legate, it is said, that attrition, or, 
as it is called, imperfect contrition, does 
not reconcile a sinner to God, but disposes 
him to receive the grace of justification in 
the sacrament of penance ; and that, for 
this purpose, it ought to include three things, 
a sincere resolution to sin no more, a hope 
of pardon, and a beginning of love to God 
as the source of all righteousness. Catechism 
published by the French Government ; Tillot- 
son's Sermons, vol. iv. p. 95. 

AUGSBURGH, or Augustan Confes- 
sion, a celebrated confession of faith drawn 
up by Luther and Melancthon, on behalf of 
themselves and other ancient reformers, and 
presented, in 1 530, to the emperor Charles 
V. at the diet of Augusta, or Augsburgh, in 
the name of the evangelic body. This con- 
fession contains twenty-eight chapters ; of 
which the greatest part is employed in re- 
presenting with perspicuity and truth, the 
religious opinions of the Protestants, and 
the rest in pointing out the errors and 
abuses that occasioned their separation from 
the church of Rome. The leading doctrines 
of this confession are the true and essential 
152 



divinity of the Son of God ; his substitution, 
and vicarious sacrifice ; and the necessity, 
freedom, and efficacy of Divine grace. This 
diet was followed by a civil war, which lasted 
upwards of twenty years, but which, instead 
of extirpating, tended only to spread the 
new opinions. Mosheim, vol. iii. p. 354, 
&c. 

AUGUSTINS, a religious order, who 
observed the rule of St. Augustin, pre- 
scribed to them by Pope Alexander IV. in 
1256. By this rule, they were to have all 
things in common; the rich, who entered 
among them, to sell their possessions, and 
give them to the poor ; to employ the first 
part of the morning in labouring with their 
hands, and the rest in reading ; when they 
went abroad, to go always two in com- 
pany ; never to eat except in their mo- 
nastery, &c. 

Soon after their institution, this order 
was brought into England, where they had 
about thirty-two houses at the time of their 
suppression. Kurd's Hist, of Religious Rites, 
&c. p. 191. 

AUGUS'TUS, from augur, like robur, ro- 
bustus, (Valpy's Etym. Diet.) Augustus was 
emperor of Rome, and successor to Julius 
Caesar. The battle of Actium fought with 
Antony, gave him the empire, in the year of 
the world 3973, and before Jesus Christ 31. 
He died in the year of our Lord 14. Augus- 
tus was the emperor who appointed the en- 
rolment which obliged Joseph and Mary to 
go to Bethlehem, where the Messiah was to 
be born. (Luke ii. 1.) 

Augustus procured from the Roman 
senate the crown of Judaea for Herod. 
After the defeat of Marc Antony, Herod 
adhered to Augustus, to whom he was con- 
stantly faithful. Augustus loaded him 
with honours and riches ; and when the 
emperor undertook to subject Arabia to 
the Roman empire, Herod gave .ZElius Gal- 
lus, who commanded the expedition, five 
hundred of his guards. Augustus took 
upon him the education of Alexander and 
Aristobulus, Herod's sons ; and he exa- 
mined into the quarrels between Herod and 
his sons, and reconciled them. After- 
wards, he greatly disapproved the rigour 
exercised by Herod towards his sons, in 
executing Alexander and Aristobulus ; and, 
lastly, Antipater. On this occasion, the 
emperor is said to have observed, that it 
was much better to be Herod's hog, than his 
child. 

After the death of Lepidus, Augustus 
assumed the office of high-priest among 
the Romans ; and this dignity gave him the 
inspection of ceremonies and religious con- 
cerns. One of his first proceedings was 
an examination of the Sybils' books, which 
were then in many hands, and occasioned 
great disorders among the people, every 
one interpreting them as suited his fancy 
and inclination. It is said, that he burnt 



AVI 



AZA 



nearly two thousand copies, and preserved 
only those, which bore the name of some 
particular Sybil, and which, after close ex- 
amination, were esteemed genuine. These 
were put into two little gold boxes, under 
the pedestal of the statue of Apollo, whose 
temple was within the inclosure of the pa- 
lace. This is worthy of notice, as there is 
every reason to suppose these prophecies 
had excited a general expectation, that some 
great person would be born about that time. 
It should also be remembered, that Augus- 
tus had the honour of shutting the temple of 
Janus, in token of universal peace, at the 
time when the Prince of peace was born. 
This is the more remarkable, because that 
temple was shut only a very few times. Ad- 
denda to Calmet's Diet. 

A' VOI, a^y, signifies the wicked, and was 
the name of a people descended from He- 
vaeus, son of Canaan. They originally dwelt 
in the country afterwards possessed by the 
Caphtorim, or Philistines. (Gen. x. 17- 
Josh. xiii. 3.) At Shechem or Gibeon were 
also A vim or Hivites, (Josh. xi. 19.) ; for 
the inhabitants of Shechem and the Gibeon- 
ites were Hivites. (Gen. xxxiv. 2.) There 
were likewise some of them beyond Jordan, 
at the foot of Mount Hermon. Bochart 
thinks that Cadmus, who conducted a co- 
lony of Phoenicians into Greece, was a Hivite. 
His name, Cadmus, is derived from the He- 
brew word Kedem, the East ; because he came 
from the eastern parts of the land of Canaan ; 
and Hermione, the name of his wife, from 
Mount Hermon, at the foot of which the 
Hivites dwelt. In this case, the metamor- 
phosis of Cadmus's companions into ser- 
pents is founded on the signification of the 
name Hivites, which, in the Phoenician lan- 
guage, signifies serpents. If, however, Cad- 
mus was of ^Ethiopia, his name might also 
signify serpent ; as here was a powerful race 
of kings, whose family name was Serpent. 

AXE, a well known instrument of iron for 
cutting down trees, &c. This word is used 
figuratively in Scripture for a person or 
power, who, as a cutting instrument in the 
hand of God, is employed to lop off branches 
and boughs, and sometimes to cut down the 
tree itself. If, therefore, sinners be com- 
pared to trees in a forest, he who smiteth 
them is compared to an axe. (Isaiah x. 15, 
&c.) This especially appears in the prover- 
bial phraseology of John the Baptist : ' The 
axe is laid to the root of the trees,' (Matt. 
iii. 10. Luke iii. 9.) that is, approaching 
punishment, destruction, is near. We may 
refer this ultimately to the Roman power 
and armies, which, as an axe, most vehe- 
mently cut away the very existence of the 
Jewish state and polity. 

This simile may be taken as addressed, 
1 . to each individual tree, i. e. sinner ; 2. to 
the nation and people of the Jews, to whom 
the plural form of the word ' trees' inclines. 



(Judg. ix. 8, &c. Psalm lxxiv. 5. Isaiah xiv. 
6, 7, 8. Ezek. xvii. 22, 23, 24. ; xxxi. 3, &c.) 

Supplement. Addenda to Calmet's Diet. 

AZART'AH, nmK, signifies assistance, or 
court of the Lord ; otherwise, he that hears 
the Lord, or, whom the Lord hears. 

Azariah or Uzziah, king of Judah, be- 
gan to reign at sixteen years of age, and 
reigned fifty-two years at Jerusalem. (2 
Kings xv.) His mother's name was Jecho- 
liah. He did right in the sight of the Lord, 
but did not destroy the high places. This 
prince, who is called Uzziah, (2 Chron. xxvi. 
1,3, Src.) presuming to offer incense in the 
temple, an office peculiar to the priests, was 
struck with a leprosy, and continued without 
the city, separated, to his death. Josephus 
says, that on this occasion a great earthquake 
was felt ; that the temple opened at the top, 
and a ray of light darted on the forehead of 
the king, who was instantly struck with a 
leprosy. He adds, that the earthquake was 
so violent, as to divide the mountain west of 
Jerusalem, and the earth moving along a 
space of four furlongs, (500 paces) till it 
met the mountain east of the city, closed up 
the high-way, and covered the king's gar- 
dens. We know, indeed, that there was a 
very great earthquake in the reign of Uzziah ; 
it is expressly mentioned in Amos, (i. 1.) 
Zechariah, (xiv. 5.) Kings, and Chronicles. 
But that it happened at the very time when 
Uzziah presumed to offer incense, is very 
uncertain. 

The beginning of Uzziah's reign was very 
happy ; and he obtained great advantage over 
the Philistines, Ammonites, and Arabians. 
He added to the fortifications of Jerusalem, 
and had an army of 307.500 men with great 
magazines of arms for attack or defence. He 
was a great lover of agriculture, and em- 
ployed numerous husbandmen in the plains, 
vine-dressers in the mountains, and shep- 
herds in the valleys. He died in the year of 
the world 3246, and before the Christian 
era 758. As he was a leper, he was not 
buried in the royal sepulchres, but in an 
adjacent field. 

AZA'ZEL, Vtntk, or Hazazel, commonly 
called the scape-goat. Some, however, con- 
sider this word as relating only to the cere- 
mony of the scape-goat, under the Jewish 
religion. Some think azazel to be the name 
of a mountain. Bochart says, that it signi- 
fies departure, or removal. Spencer affirms, 
that it denotes some demon ; and that the 
goat sent to azazel was given to the devil. 
Le Clerc translates azazel prtecipitium, and 
believes it to be that steep and inaccessible 
place, to which the scape-goat was sent, and 
where it perished. CaJmet, however, prefers 
the version of the Greek interpreters, who 
derived azazel from the Hebrew haz, or hoz, 
' a goat,' and azal, ' he went away.' See 
Scape-goat. 



153 



BAA 



BAA 



B. 



B 



>A'AL, or Bol, bm, signifies he that 
rules and subdues ; master, lord, or husband. 
Baal, Bel, or Belus, was an idol of the 
Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, and Canaanites. 
Baal and Ashtaroth are commonly men- 
tioned together ; and, as it is believed that 
Ashtaroth denotes the moon, it is concluded, 
with apparent reason, that Baal represents 
the sun. The name Baal is used in a ge- 
neric sense for the superior god of the Phoe- 
nicians, Chaldaeans, Moabites, &c. It is 
often compounded with the name of some 
other god ; as Baal-peor, Baal-zebub, Baal- 
gad, Baal-zephon, Baal-berith. The He- 
brews too often imitated the idolatry of the 
Canaanites, and worshipped Baal. They 
offered to him human sacrifices, and erected 
altars to him in groves, upon high places, 
and upon the terraces of houses. Baal had 
priests and prophets consecrated to his ser- 
vice ; and many infamous and immodest ac- 
tions were committed in the festivals of Baal 
and Astarte, or Ashtaroth. Some learned 
men think, that the Baal of the Phoenicians 
was the Saturn of the Greeks and Romans ; 
and, indeed, there was a great conformity 
between the services and sacrifices per- 
formed to Saturn, and what the Scripture 
relates of the sacrifices offered to Baal. 
Others are of opinion, that Baal was the 
Phoenician or Tyrian Hercules, a god of 
great antiquity in Phoenicia ; perhaps, in 
reality, this opinion is not inconsistent with 
the other. However, it is generally con- 
cluded, that Baal was the sun ; and the He- 
brews sometimes call the sun Baal-shemesh, 
Baal the sun. Manasseh adored Baal, 
planted groves, and worshipped all the host 
of heaven. Josiah, desirous of repairing the 
evil introduced by Manasseh, put to death 
the idolatrous priests that burned incense 
unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and 
to the planets, and to all the host of heaven. 
He also took away the ' horses that the kings 
of Judah had given to the sun, and burnt 
the chariots of the sun with fire.' (2 Kings 
xxiii. 5. 11.) Here the worship of the sun 
is particularly described ; and the sun itself 
is often called by the name of Baal. This 
great luminary was adored over all the East, 
and is the most ancient deity, whose worship 
is acknowledged among the Heathens. 

The Scripture calls temples consecrated 
to this god chamanim, (Exod. xxxiv. 13. 
Isaiah xvii. 8. ; xxvii. 9. 2 Chron. xxxiv. 
4.) ; they were places enclosed with walls, 
in which was kept a perpetual fire. They 
were frequent in the East, particularly among 
154 



the Persians. Maundrell, in his Journey 
from Aleppo to Jerusalem, observed some 
remains of these inclosures in Syria. In 
most of them were no statues; in others 
were some, but of no uniform figure. 

This false deity is frequently mentioned 
in Scripture in the plural number, (Baalim); 
and this may intimate, either that the name 
Baal was given to several different gods, or 
that there were many statues bearing differ- 
ent appellations consecrated to this idol. 
Arnobius tells us, that Baal was of an uncer- 
tain sex, and that his votaries, when they 
invoked him, said, ' Hear us, whether thou 
art a god or a goddess.' 

Several critics have thought, that the god 
Belus of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians 
was Nimrod, their first king ; some, that he 
was Belus the Assyrian, father of Ninus; 
and others, a son of Semiramis. Many have 
supposed Belus to be the same with Jupi- 
ter. It is, however, generally believed, that 
Baal was worshipped as the sun among the 
Phoenicians and Canaanites ; and that he 
was often taken for the great god of the 
eastern people. 

Baal. There were many cities in Pa- 
lestine, into whose name the word Baal en- 
tered by composition ; either because the 
god Baal was adored in them, or because 
these places were considered as the capital 
cities, lords, superiors, of their respective 
provinces. 

BA'AL-BERITH, mn-bya, signifies 
idol of the covenant ; otherwise, he that pos- 
sesses, or subdues, the covenant. Baal-berith 
was the god of the Shechemites, to whom 
the idolatrous Israelites, after the death of 
Gideon, prostituted themselves, and whom 
they made their god. (Judg. viii. 33. ; ix. 4.) 
At Shechem was a temple of Baal-berith, 
in whose treasury they accumulated that 
money, which they afterwards gave to Abi- 
melech, the son of Gideon. Bochart con- 
jectures, that Berith is the same as Beroe, 
the daughter of Venus and Adonis, whom 
Bacchus married, and who gave her name 
to the city of Berith, in Phoenicia, of which 
she afterwards became the goddess. The 
most simple explanation of the name Baal- 
berith is to take it for the god who presides 
over alliances and oaths. In the same man- 
ner, the Greeks had their Zevg bpicioe, ; and 
the Romans, their Deus Fidius, or Jupiter 
Pistius. 

BA'AL-PE'OR, or Be'el-phe'gor, or 
Ba'al-phe'gor, *iays - bj;n, signifies master 
of the opening, and was the name of the 



BAA 



BAA 



god Peor, an idol of the Moabites and 
Midianites. The Scripture tells us, that 
the Israelites being encamped in the plains 
of Shittim, were seduced to worship Baal- 
peor, to partake of his sacrifices, and to 
commit whoredom with the daughters of 
Moab, (Num. xxv. 1, &c.) ; and that Solomon 
erected an altar to this idol upon the Mount 
of Olives. (1 Kings xi. 7-) 

It has been very much questioned what 
this Baal-peor was. Some have thought 
him to be Priapus, or the idol of turpitude, 
and that the worship of him consisted in 
the most obscene practices. Maimonides 
says, that they adored this idol by uncover- 
ing before him what modesty conceals. 
There is no doubt, that Baal-peor was god 
of impurity. We know with what impu- 
dence the daughters of Moab engaged the 
Israelites to sin, (Numb, xxv.) ; and the pro- 
phet Hosea, speaking of this crime, says, 
' They went to Baal-peor, and separated 
themselves unto that shame.' (ix. 10.) 

Some think, that Baal-peor was Saturn, 
a deity worshipped in Arabia. The cas- 
tration of this deity by his own son, might 
contribute to introduce the obscenities prac- 
tised in the worship of Baal-peor. 

Selden suggests, that Baal-peor is Pluto, 
the god of the dead, and founds his con- 
jecture on the following passage: 'They 
joined themselves also unto Baal-peor, 
and ate the offerings of the dead.' (Psalm 
cvi. 28.) Vossius, however, observes, 
that by the offerings of the dead in this 
passage may be meant no more than offer- 
ings to idols or false gods, who are pro- 
perly called the dead, in contradistinction 
to the true God, styled in Scripture the 
living God. 

An ingenious author is of opinion, that 
Baal-peor was the sun, the same as Mo- 
loch of the Ammonites, and Chemosh of 
the Moabites ; and that he was denomi- 
nated Baal-peor from the particular place 
of his worship, as Jupiter Capitolinus, 
Jupiter Casius. &c. Dr. Wells says, that 
Peor is thought to be a part of the moun- 
tains Abarim ; and that upon this mount 
seems to have been the temple of an idol, 
thence called Peor or Baal-peor. 

However, Calmet maintains, that Peor 
was the same as Adonis, whose feasts were 
celebrated in the manner of funerals ; and, 
he observes, that the persons, who celebrated 
these feasts, committed many dissolute ac- 
tions, particularly when they were told that 
Adonis, whom they had mourned as dead, 
was restored to life. 

BA'AL-ZE'BUB, Beel'zebub, or Bel'- 
zebub, mST-bjn, Bu\£t€ox)\, signifies the 
god of flies, and was an idol of the Ekronites. 
It is not easy to discover how this false deity 
obtained its name. Some commentators 
think, that this god was called Baal-semin, 
or the lord of heaven, but that the Jews, from 
contempt, gave him the name of Baal-zebub. 
155 



Others with greater reason believe, that he 
was denominated the god of flies by his vo- 
taries, because he defended them from flies, 
which are extremely troublesome in hot 
countries; in the same manner as the 
Eleans worshipped Hercules under the ap- 
pellation of 'ATTOfiviog, the fly-chaser. Pliny 
is of opinion, that the name of Achor, the 
god invoked at Cyrene against flies, is 
derived from Accaron or Ekron, where 
Baal-zebub was worshipped, and where he 
had a famous temple and oracle. In Scrip- 
ture, this false deity is called the prince of 
devils, (Matt. xii. 24. Luke xi. 15. ;) and 
for this reason, Patrick and Le Clerc think, 
that he is the same deity with Pluto, whom 
the heathens call the god of hell. Ahaziah, 
king of Israel, having received a dan- 
gerous hurt by a fall, sent to consult this 
deity whether he should recover. 

The worship of this false deity must have 
prevailed in the time of our Saviour, since 
the Jews accused him of driving out the 
devils in the name of Beelzebub, their 
prince. Under what form this deity was 
represented, is uncertain. Some place him 
on a throne, in the attire of a king ; and 
Procopius Gazeus paints him under the 
figure of a fly. 

Winkelman (Monum. Ined. p. 13.) has 
given the figures of two heads, ' both of 
them images of Jupiter, called by the 
Greeks, 'Attojivioq, and by the Romans, 
Muscarius, that is to say, fly -driver • for 
to this Jupiter was attributed the function 
of driving away flies.' It appears, that 
Bellori considered the god of flies as the 
god of bees. Might not this be one reason 
why honey was forbidden to be offered on 
the altar of the Lord, as we find it prohi- 
bited V (Levit. ii. 11.) 

It is evident that Beelzebub was consi- 
dered as the patron deity of medicine, for 
this is plainly implied in the conduct of 
Ahaziah. (2 Kings i.) Besides, the same 
deity had power over evil spirits, and was 
capable of expelling them, as appears from 
the opinions of the Pharisees, (Matt xii. 
24. Mark iii. 22. Luke xi. 15.); who 
accuse our Lord of a combination with 
Beelzebub. The Greek mythology con- 
sidered Apollo as the god of medicine, 
and attributed also to him those posses- 
sions by a pythonic spirit, which occasion- 
ally perplexed spectators, and of which 
we have an instance in Acts xvi. 16. 
Apollo, too, was the sun. On these prin- 
ciples, we probably see the reason why 
Ahaziah sent to Beelzebub to inquire the 
issue of his accident ; since Beelzebub 
was Apollo, and Apollo was the god of 
physic. We see also the reason of that ap- 
parently strange expression of the Scribes, 
(Mark iii. 22.) « He hath Beelzebub,' that 
is, he is possessed by a pythonic spirit ; 
as we read in verse 30, ' Because they 
said, He hath an unclean spirit,' that is, of 



BAB 



BAB 



a heathen deity. With this agrees the 
contrast in the preceding verses, between 
an impure spirit and the Holy Ghost. It 
illustrates also the propriety of our Lord's 
assertion, (Matt. xii. 28.) that he cast out 
devils, not by a pythonic spirit, — not by 
the god of physic, but by ' the Spirit of 
God.' 

The Jews, who changed Beelzebub into 
Beelzebul, ' god of a dunghill,' perhaps, 
had a reference to the Greek of pytho, 
which signifies putrefied. Scripture Illus- 
trated. 

BA'AL-ZEPHON, ■pav-byn, signifies the 
idol, or the possession of the north; other- 
wise, hidden, or secret. Baal-zephon is 
supposed by the Jewish Rabbins, and after 
them by Grotius and others, to have been 
an idol erected to guard the confines of 
Egypt. It was probably a temple to Baal, 
at the 'northern point of the Red Sea, and 
was alio an establishment or town, like 
the present Suez, in which, or adjacent to 
which, stood this temple. We read, that 
the Hebrews having left Egypt, after three 
days, came to Baal-zephon, where they 
passed the sea. (Exod. xiv. 2, 9.) Sacred 
Geography. 

EA'ASHA, or Bosha, Nwyn, signifies 
in the work ; otherwise, in the moth ; other- 
wise, in the compression ; otherwise, he that 
seeks and demands. Baasha was the son of 
Ahijah, commander of the armies of Nadab, 
son of Jeroboam, king of Israel. He 
killed his master treacherously at the 
siege of Gibbethon, a city of the Philis- 
tines, and usurped the kingdom, which he 
possessed twenty-four years. He extermi- 
nated the whole race of Jeroboam, as God 
had commanded ; but by his bad conduct 
and his idolatry, he incurred God's indig- 
nation, in the year of the world 3051, and 
before Jesus Christ, 953. However, instead 
of properly using admonition, Baasha was 
transported with rage against the prophet, 
who denounced against him and his house 
the judgments of God, and whom he killed. 
(1 Kings xv. 27, xvi. 1, 7-) When it is 
said, in the second verse, that God exalted 
Baasha to the kingdom of Israel, we are 
to understand, that though his accession 
to the kingdom was from the divine decree, 
yet the form and manner of his accession 
were occasioned by his own ambition and 
covetousness. Poole's Annot. 

BA'BEL, or Babylon, ^32, signifies 
confusion, or mixture. This name was given 
to the city and province of Babylon, because, 
when the tower of Babel was building, God 
confounded the languages of those, who were 
employed in that undertaking ; about the 
year of the world 1757, and about one 
hundred years after the deluge. (Gen. 
xi. 9.) Some, however, think it more pro- 
bable, that the city was called Babel, either 
from having been itself, or from having its 
principal temple, dedicated to the god Bel, 
156 



or El, the deified personification of the sun ; 
and it is observed, that Babel seems to be 
derived, not from the Hebrew and Chaldee, 
which were not the original languages of 
Babylon, but from the Arabic word bab, a 
gate ; as if the gate or city of Bel. 

It is thought that Nimrod, the son of 
Cush, was the principal instigator in build- 
ing the tower of Babel. It is evident, 
however, that all mankind were not em- 
ployed on this tower ; for we are told, that 
those, who attempted jt, were travellers 
from the East, and consequently those left 
in the East did not participate in the un- 
dertaking. It would appear, that it was 
their design to erect a chapel or temple 
upon the summit of the tower, and that 
the building of this tower, which was in- 
tended to be sacred to the heavenly powers, 
was occasioned by their idolatrous wishes ; 
for it is reasonable to suppose, that idol- 
atry, intended or perpetrated, was the im- 
mediate cause of the divine anger. It may 
be inferred, that Shem had no share in this 
undertaking. 

Many have thought, that the tower of 
Belus, mentioned by Herodotus, and ex- 
tant in his time at Babylon, was the 
tower of Babel, or, at least, a continua- 
tion of it built on the old foundations. The 
learned Bochart has adopted this opinion, 
which appears the more probable, because 
this tower was completed and raised to its 
full height. Herodotus says, that it was 
composed of eight towers placed one upon 
another, decreasing gradually in their size 
from the lower to the upper; and that 
over the eighth or last, was the temple 
of Belus. This author does not men- 
tion the complete height of the whole 
edifice, nor of its respective towers. He 
merely says, that the lowest of the 
eight towers was a furlong, or a hundred 
twenty-five paces, high and wide, or square ; 
for his text, which is not very clear, is 
craSiov Kai to pfJKog, icai to evpog. (Her. I. 
181.) Some think, that this was the height 
of the whole edifice ; others, that each 
of the eight towers was a furlong in 
height, and the whole fabric eight fur- 
longs, or a thousand paces high, which 
seems impossible. However, St. Jerom 
says, by report, that it was four thousand 
paces high ; and others affirm, that it was 
still higher. If instead of height, that is, 
perpendicular height, we understand these 
measurements as denoting ascent, the as- 
cending height, they may all be true, 
though at first they appear contradictory. 
Besides a direct way adapted for the pro- 
cessions of priests and sacred services, 
there was, doubtless, a more circuitous 
way, by which, perhaps, loaded animals, 
and even carriages, might advance to the 
top of this tower. If by ascending on 
one side, we proceed one mile to the top, 
which is the direct way, by going round all 



BAB 



BAB 



the four sides, we must proceed four miles 
to the top ; and thus Jerom's account is 
reconciled with the former, and contributes 
even to establish it. On this estimate, 
' one furlong in height,' may mean lateral 
height ; so that a cord, stretched from the 
top to the furthest extent of the building, 
would be a furlong in length. 

It is said in Gen. xi. 3. that the builders 
proposed to make bricks and burn them 
thoroughly ; that these bricks were em- 
ployed by them as stones, of which it 
would appear their country was destitute ; 
and that instead of clay-mortar, which is 
the kind used in countries east of Shinar, 
they employed the bitumen mortar, to 
resist moisture and wet. The tower was 
first begun, and the building of it advanced 
ages before it was finished. During this 
suspension, it was nick-named ' Confu- 
sion,' by those, who opposed the object 
of its worship. Afterwards, it was re- 
sumed and completed ; a prodigious city 
was built around it ; and in this latter state 
it was, when the accounts, which we have 
of it, were composed, and which unite de- 
scriptions of the tower or temple, and of 
the city, partly from observation, and partly 
from recollection. 

Herodotus says, that the square of the 
temple was two stadia, or 1250 feet; and 
the tower itself one stadium ; in which 
Strabo agrees. The former adds, ' In the 
midst, a tower rises, solid, of the height 
(or length, jurj/coc) and breadth of one 
stadium ; upon which resting seven other 
towers are built in regular succession. The 
ascent is on the outside, which, winding 
from the ground, is continued to the high- 
est tower ; and in the middle of the whole 
structure there is a convenient resting 
place. In the last tower is a large chapel, 
in which is a couch magnificently adorned ; 
and near it a table of solid gold, but there 
is no statue in the place.' He afterwards 
describes another chapel, lower down in 
the structure, with golden statues, tables, 
and altars ; all of which appear to have 
been forcibly taken away by Xerxes, who 
also put the priest to death. 

Strabo says, that the sepulchre of Belus 
was a pyramid of one stadium in height, the 
base of which was a square of similar dimen- 
sions ; and that it was destroyed by Xerxes. 
Arrian agrees in this particular ; and both of 
them say, that Alexander wished to restore 
it, that is, we may suppose, both the tower 
and temple, but that he found it too great a 
labour. Arrian calls it a stupendous and 
magnificent fabric, and says, that it was si- 
tuated in the heart of the city. Diodorus says, 
that it was entirely gone to ruin in his time, 
and that nothing certain could be made out 
concerning its design ; but he adds, that it 
was of a very great height, built of brick, and 
cemented with bitumen, and in this the 
others generally agree. Diodorus says, that 
157 



upon the top was a statue of Belus, 40 feet 
in height, in an upright posture. 

That this tower was very lofty, must be 
conceived by the mode of expression, em- 
ployed by those, who describe it. If it be ad- 
mitted, that the whole fabric was a stadium 
in height, as Strabo says, and as appears pro- 
bable, even this measure, which is about 625 
feet, must be allowed to be a vast height, for 
so bulky a structure raised by the hands of 
men, and would exceed the loftiest pile in 
this island, (Salisbury steeple) by 200 feet, 
and the great pyramid of Memphis in Egypt, 
by about 80 feet. Dr. Greaves says, that the 
old steeple of St. Paul's, previously to the fire 
of 1666, was 520 feet in height, and of course 
105 feet lower than the tower of Belus. 

Authors differ also, in respect of the man- 
ner, in which the tower was completed at the 
top. Herodotus says, that it terminated in 
a spacious dome, in the nature of a chapel or 
temple ; but others say, an observatory. 
Diodorus says, that the statue Belus was at 
the top ; Herodotus, lower down the building. 
Xerxes is said to have removed the statues ; 
and, therefore, Herodotus could not have seen 
them. 

It may be concluded, that the uppermost 
stories consisted more of masonry than of 
earth ; but the lower chiefly of earth, which 
was retained in its place, by a vast wall of 
sun-dried bricks, the outer part, or facing of 
which was composed of such as had under- 
gone the operation of fire. Strabo says, that 
the sides of the tower were of burnt bricks. 

It would appear, that though the great 
design of these builders was defeated, yet the 
tower was raised to a certain height at this 
time ; probably it was afterwards ornamented, 
and various enrichments and finishings were 
bestowed on it by Nebuchadnezzar ; but whe- 
ther it was raised in height may be doubted. 

Belus, king of Babylon, by whose direc- 
tions the building of the tower, which He- 
rodotus mentions, is said to have been under- 
taken, lived long after Moses ; whether by 
Belus be meant the father of Ninus, or Belus 
the son of Semiramis. Archbishop Usher 
places Belus, the father of Ninus, about the 
year of the world 2682. 

Modern travellers vary in their descrip- 
tions of the remains of the tower of Babel. 
Fabricius and Guion say, that it might have 
been about a mile in circumference. Benja- 
min, who is much more ancient, informs us, 
that the foundations were two thousand paces 
in length. It is, howevei - , highly probable, 
that the remains of towers usually shown in 
Babylonia, are only ruins of old Babylon, 
built by Nebuchadnezzar, and formed no 
part of the original tower of Babel. 

Mr. Rich, in his ' Memoirs of Babylon,' 
has observed, that ' all travellers, since the 
time of Benjamin of Tudela, who first revived 
the remembrance of these ruins, whenever 
they fancied themselves near the site of Ba- 
bylon, universally fixed upon the most con- 



BAB 



BAB 



spicuous eminences to represent the tower of 
Belus.' The Birs Nimrod, which is a cor- 
ruption of Birs for Berus or Belus, and is 
designated Nimrod merely because the inha- 
bitants of the country are fond of attributing 
every thing to that ' mighty hunter,' is now 
generally considered as the remains of the 
tower of Babel. The Birs Nimrod, or Nim- 
rod's tower, is situated on the west side of 
the Euphrates, about six miles south-west of 
Hillah. ' To all the features, by which the 
tower of Babel has been described in ancient 
authors, the remains of the monument called 
the Birs Nimrod exactly correspond. The 
form of its ascent is that of a pyramid ; and 
four of the eight stages of which its whole 
height was composed, may be distinctly 
traced, on the north and east sides. Its di- 
mensions at the base, as accurately measured 
by Mr. Rich, are in circumference seven hun- 
dred and sixty-two yards, or two thousand 
two hundred and eighty-six feet, exceeding 
the square of a stadium, or two thousand 
feet, by no more than might be expected 
from the accumulation of the rubbish around 
it on all sides. The height of the four ex- 
isting stages is equal to about one half of that 
of the original building, or two hundred and 
fifty feet ; which, as the eight stages are said 
to have risen above each other in regular 
succession, may be fairly supposed to repre- 
sent the four lowermost of them. The 
square inclosure to be traced around the 
whole, appears, from the summit of the build- 
ing, to occupy a line of three hundred yards 
for each of its sides, which may be thought to 
correspond accurately enough with the in- 
closure of two stadia, or one thousand feet, 
assigned by the historian.' 

On the Birs Nimrod Mr. Rich also ob- 
serves, that the masonry is infinitely supe- 
rior to any thing of the kind he had ever 
seen ; that the impression made by a sight of 
it is, that it was a solid pile, composed in the 
interior of unburnt bricks, and perhaps earth 
or rubbish ; that it was constructed in re- 
ceding stages, and faced with fine burnt 
bricks, having inscriptions on them, laid in a 
very thin layer of lime cement ; and that it 
was reduced by violence to its present ruin- 
ous condition. Buckingham's Travels in Me- 
sopotamia, vol. ii. p. 380, 381 ; Scripture Il- 
lustrated ; Geographical Excursions, p. 54, 
55 ; Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, 
No. clxv. p. 170. 

BAB'YLQN, the capital of Chaldaea, was 
built by Nimrod, (Gen. x. 10.) adjacent to 
the tower of Babel. It was the capital of 
Nimrod's empire ; and its antiquity is un- 
questionable. Profane authors say, that its 
founder was the son of Belus, who lived two 
thousand years before Semiramis ; some, that 
it was Belus the Assyrian, father of Ninus ; 
and others, Semiramis. However, the opi- 
nion most generally followed is, that it was 
founded by Nimrod, enlarged by Belus, and 
increased with so many and so very consider- 
158 



able works by Semiramis, that she might be 
called, not improperly, its foundress ; but it 
was finally augmented, both in size and 
beauty, by Nebuchadnezzar, who rendered it 
one of the wonders of the world, and therefore 
arrogated to himself the whole glory of it, say- 
ing in the pride of his heart, ' Is not this 
great Babylon, that I have built?' (Dan.iv. 30.) 

The Scripture often speaks of Babylon, 
particularly after the reign of Hezekiah, 
who, on his recovery, was visited by ambas- 
sadors from Berodach-baladan, king of Ba- 
bylon. (2 Kings xx. 12.) Isaiah, who lived 
at the same time, especially foretels the ca- 
lamities which the Babylonians should bring 
on Palestine ; the captivity of the Hebrews ; 
their return from Babylon ; the fall of that 
great city, and its capture by the Persians 
and Medes. The prophets who lived alter 
Isaiah, as Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, in 
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and who saw 
the desolation of Jerusalem and Judah, en- 
large still more on the grandeur of Babylon, 
its cruelty, and the evils with which God 
would overwhelm it. 

The sacred authors describe this metropo- 
lis as the greatest and most powerful city in 
the world. Berosus and Abydenus ascribe 
to Nebuchadnezzar the building of the walls 
of Babylon, and those prodigious gardens 
raised on arches, which some attribute to Se- 
miramis. Herodotus, however, says, that 
the bridge, the river-banks, -and the lakes, 
were the work of Nitocris, the daughter-in- 
law of Nebuchadnezzar. Concerning the 
height and extent of the walls of Babylon, 
authors are not agreed. Clitarchus, cited by 
Diodorus Siculus, says the circuit of the walls 
was 368 furlongs ; Quintus Curtius says, 
60,000 paces; Herodotus 480 furlongs; 
Ctesias, in Diodorus Siculus, 360 furlongs, 
which makes 44,600 paces, or nearly fifteen 
leagues ; and Strabo 385 furlongs. Quintus 
Curtius and Strabo describe the walls as 65 
feet high, and 32 wide ; and Pliny and Seli- 
nus, as 200 feet high, and 50 wide. Quintus 
Curtius relates, that these walls were built in 
a year, and that the workmen finished a fur- 
long, or 125 paces in a day ; but Berosus and 
Abydenus inform us, that this wonderful 
work was completed in fifteen days. 

Julius Africanus says, that Evechoiis, who 
is probably the same with Jupiter Belus, be- 
gan to reign over the Chaldseans, in the time 
of the patriarch Isaac, in the year of the 
world 2242, and before Jesus Christ 1762. 

The Arabians deprived Chinitzitus, king 
of Babylon, of his crown, and Mardocentius 
reigned there in his stead, in the year of the 
world 2466, before Jesus Christ 1538, and 
about the fortieth year of Moses. 

Belus the Assyrian began to reign in 
Babylon, in the year of the world 2682, be- 
fore Jesus Christ 1322, and in the time of 
Shamgar, judge of Israel. Belus was succeeded 
by Ninus, Semiramis, Ninyas, and others, 
whose names are not mentioned in Scripture, 



BAB 



BAB 



at least, under the title of kings of Babylon. 
According to Herodotus, the Assyrian em- 
pire was founded by Ninus, and subsisted 
520 years. During this interval, the city 
and province of Babylon were under a go- 
vernor appointed by the king of Assyria. Of 
all the Assyrian monarchs, who reigned at 
Babylon, the Scripture mentions only Pul, 
who was probably the father of Sardanapa- 
lus, the last of the Assyrian kings, tbe suc- 
cessors of Ninus. Under the reign of Sar- 
danapalus, and in the year of the world 3257, 
Arbaces, governor of the Medes, and Belesus, 
or Baladan, (Isai. xxxix. compared with 2 
Kings xx. 12.) or Nabonassar, governor of 
Babylon, revolted, and besieged Sardanapa- 
lus in Nineveh, where they obliged him to 
burn himself, with all that was dear to him. 
The insurgents then divided the monarchy ; 
Arbaces reigned in Media, and Belesus at 
Babylon. Tiglath-pileser reigned at Nine- 
veh, and continued the succession of the 
Assyrian kings ; but the kingdom was much 
diminished in extent. He was succeeded 
by Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, and Esar- 
haddon. 

Belesus, or Baladan, was father or grand- 
father to Berodach-baladan, who sent to con- 
gratulate Hezekiah after the miracle of the 
sun's re trogradation. (2 Kingsxx. 12.) Esar- 
haddon, king of Assyria, conquered Babylon, 
and he and his successors, Saosduchinus, 
called in Scripture Nebuchadnezzar, or Ne- 
buchodonosor, and Chynaladan, otherwise 
denominated Sarac, possessed it, till Nabopo- 
lassar, governor of Babylon, and Astyages, 
the son of Cyaxares, took up arms against 
Chynaladan, killed him, divided his domi- 
nions, and destroyed the Assyrian empire, 
in the year of the world 3378, and before Je- 
sus Christ 626. 

Nabopolassar was the father of Nebuchad- 
nezzar the Great, who destroyed Jerusalem, 
and was the most magnificent king of Baby- 
Ion. Evilmerodach succeeded Nebuchadnez- 
zar; Belshazzar, Evilmerodach; Darius the 
Mede, Belshazzar ; and Cyrus, Darius the 
Mede, otherwise called Astyages. The death 
of Belshazzar is fixed in the year of the 
world 3448 ; and the first year of Cyrus's 
reign at Babylon, to 3457. 

The following were the successors of Cyrus, 
in their order ; Cambyses, the seven Magi, 
Darius, son of Hystaspes, Xerxes, Arta- 
xerxes Longimanus, Xerxes II. Secundianus 
or Sogdianus, Ochus or Darius Nothus, Ar- 
taxerxes Mnemon, Ochus, Arses, Darius 
Codomannus overcome by Alexander the 
Great, in the year of the world 3673, and be- 
fore Jesus Christ 331. 

The following account of Babylon, in its 
greatest splendour, is borrowed principally 
from Herodotus, who had been on the spot, 
and is the oldest author that has treated of 
the subject. The city was square, being 
120 furlongs, that is fifteen miles, or five 
leagues, every way ; and the whole circuit of 
159 



it was 480 furlongs, or twenty leagues. The 
walls were built with large bricks, cemented 
with bitumen, a thick glutinous fluid, which 
rises out of the earth in the neighbouring 
country, and which binds stronger than 
mortar, and becomes harder than brick it- 
self. These walls were eighty-seven feet 
thick, and three hundred and fifty feet high. 
Those who mention them as only fifty cubits 
high, refer to their condition, after Darius, 
son of Hystaspes, had commanded them to 
be demolished to that height, to punish a re- 
bellion of the Babylonians. 

The city was encompassed with a vast 
ditch, which was filled with water, and the 
sides of which were built up with brick- 
work. The earth which was dug out was 
used in making bricks for the walls of the 
city ; so that the depth and width of the 
ditch may be estimated by the extreme 
height and thickness of the walls. There 
were a hundred gates to the city, twenty- 
five on each of the four sides. These gates, 
with their posts, &c. were all of brass. Be- 
tween every two gates were three towers, 
raised ten feet above the walls, where neces- 
sary ; for the city being encompassed in se- 
veral places with marshes which defended 
the approach to it, those parts stood in no 
need of towers. 

A street corresponded with each gate ; so 
that there were fifty streets, which cut one 
another at right angles, and each of which 
was fifteen miles in length, and 151 feet in 
width. Four other streets, which had houses 
on one side, and the ramparts on the other, 
encompassed the whole city, and were each 
of them 200 feet wide. By the streets cross- 
ing each other, the whole city was divided 
into 676 squares, each of which was four fur- 
longs and a half on every side, and two miles 
and a quarter in circuit. The houses of these 
squares were three or four stories high, and 
their fronts were embellished ; and the inner 
space was filled with courts and gardens. 

The city was divided into two parts by the 
Euphrates, which ran from north to south. 
A bridge of admirable structure, about a fur- 
long in length, and sixty feet in width, form- 
ed the communication across the river ; and 
at the two extremities of this bridge were 
two palaces, the old palace on the east, and 
the new palace on the west side of the river. 
The temple of Belus, which stood near the 
old palace, occupied one entire square. The 
city was situated in a vast plain, the soil of 
which was extremely fat and fruitful. To 
people this immense city, Nebuchadnezzar 
transplanted hither an infinite number of 
captives from the many nations that he sub- 
dued. It would appear, however, that the 
whole of it was never inhabited. 

The famous hanging gardens, which 
adorned the palace in Babylon, wore ranked 
among the wonders of the world. They con- 
tained four hundred feet square, and were 
composed of several large terraces : and the 



BAB 



BAL 



platform of the highest terrace equalled the 
walls of Babylon in height, or 350 feet. The 
ascent from terrace to terrace was by steps 
ten feet wide. The whole mass was support- 
ed by large vaults, built upon each other, and 
strengthened by a wall twenty- two feet thick. 
The tops of these arches were covered with 
stones, rushes, and bitumen, and plates of 
lead to prevent leakage. The depth of earth 
was so great, that in it the largest trees 
might take root. Here was every thing that 
could please the sight; large trees, flowers, 
plants, and shrubs. Upon the highest ter- 
race was a reservoir, supplied by a certain 
engine with water from the river. 

The predictions of the prophets against 
Babylon gradually received their accom- 
plishment. Berosus relates, that Cyrus hav- 
ing taken this city, demolished its walls, lest 
the inhabitants should revolt. Darius, son 
of Hystaspes, destroyed the gates, &c. Alex- 
der the Great intended to rebuild it, but was 
prevented by death from accomplishing his 
design. Seleucus Nicator built Seleucia on 
the Tigris ; and this city insensibly deprived 
Babylon of its inhabitants. Strabo assures 
us, that under Augustus, Babylon was almost 
forsaken ; and that it was no longer any 
thing more than a great desert. St. Jerom re- 
lates, on the testimony of a monk, who dwelt 
at Jerusalem, that in his time, Babylon and 
its ancient precincts were converted into a 
great park, in which the kings of Persia were 
accustomed to hunt. 

The remains of ancient Babylon, as de- 
scribed by recent travellers, are so vast, that 
the whole could never be suspected of hav- 
ing been the work of human hands, if it were 
not for the layers of bricks, wbich are found 
there. The bricks of Babylon are of two 
kinds, sun-dried, and fire-burnt. The former 
is generally largest, as it is of a coarser fa- 
bric than the latter ; but its solidity seems, 
by proof, to be equal to the hardest stone. 
It is composed of clay mixed with chopped 
straw, or broken reeds, to compact it, and 
then dried in the sun. These unburnt bricks 
commonly form the interior or mass of any 
strong foundation among the ruins of Baby- 
lon. The fire-burnt bricks are cemented with 
zepht or bitumen ; and between each layer 
are oziers. In the ruins of Babylon are 
found these large and thick bricks imprinted 
with those unknown characters resembling 
arrow-heads, specimens of which are pre- 
served in the British Museum, in the Mu- 
seum of the East India Company, and in 
other depositories of antiquities. 'It is evi- 
dent,' says the Honourable Captain Keppel, 
' that, with some exceptions, the great build- 
ings of Babylon were composed of sun-burnt 
bricks, and coated with bricks burnt in the 
furnace.' Hence it appears, that the com- 
position of these bricks corresponds exactly 
with the account given by the sacred histo- 
rian of the builders of Babel. ' Let us make 
brick,' said they, ' and burn them throughly 
160 



And they had brick for stone, and slime had 
they for mortar.' (Gen. xi. 3.) 

The literal fulfilment of the predictions 
uttered against Babylon by the Hebrew pro- 
phets, has been shown by various modern 
travellers, who have described the present 
state of the ruins. 'The mound (Mujillebe,)' 
says captain Keppel, ' was full of large 
holes : we entered some of them, and found 
them strewed with the carcases and ske- 
letons of animals recently killed. The 
odour of wild beasts was so strong, that pru- 
dence got the better of curiosity, for we had 
no doubt as to the savage nature of the inha- 
bitants. Our guides, indeed, told us, that all 
the ruins abounded in lions, and other wild 
beasts; so literally has the divine prediction 
been fulfilled, that "wild beasts of the desert 
should lie there ; that their houses should be 
full of doleful creatures ; that wild beasts of the 
islands should cry in their desolate houses."' 
(Isai. xiii. 21, 22.) KeppeVs Narrative of 
Travels from India, vol. i. p. 171 — 188; 
Buckingham's Travels in Mesopotamia, vol. ii. 
p. 258—394 ; Sir R. K. Porter's Travels in 
Georgia, Sfc. vol. ii. p. 308—332, 337—400. 

BABYLONIA, a province of Chaldaea 
or Assyria, of which Babylon was the capi- 
tal, and which is now called Irac. 

BACCHFDES, BcucxiSriQ, signifies son of 
Bacchus, or like to Bacchus. Bacchides 
was governor of Mesopotamia, and general 
of the troops belonging to Demetrius Soter, 
king of Syria. (1 Mace. ix. 1.) He and 
the high-priest Alcimus were sent, by 
Demetrius, to examine into the depreda- 
tions alleged against Judas Maccabaeus in 
the country. From several instances men- 
tioned of him, he appears to have been a 
cruel and perfidious character. 

BA'LAAM, or Belom, Dyba, signifies 
old age, or absorption ; otherwise, without 
the people ; otherwise, their destruction. Ba- 
laam was a prophet or diviner of the city 
of Pethor, on the Euphrates. (Numb. xxii. 
4, 5.) Balak, king of Moab, having seen 
the multitude of Israel, feared that they 
would attack his country; and to avert 
this dreaded misfortune, he sent for Ba- 
laam, as a man famous for prediction, 
to come and curse that nation. His mes- 
sengers having declared their errand, Ba- 
laam, during the night, consulted God, 
who forbade him to go. Afterwards, Ba- 
lak sent other messengers of superior qua- 
lity. Balaam still declined to go, but kept 
them in his house that night : during this 
time, the Lord said to him, ' If the men 
come to call thee, rise up and go with 
them ; but yet the word which I shall say 
unto thee, that shalt thou do.' It has 
been thought that, on this occasion, Ba- 
laam lodged the messengers in some apart- 
ments of his house, whilst he himself slept 
upon the top or terrace, in expectation of 
some communication from Heaven. If so, 
this will render clear the nature of the sign, 



BAL 



BAL 



upon which depended his going with them. 
' If to call thee (call to thee — at thee, as 
Samuel went to call Saul), the men come 
up to thee, rise, and go with them.' But 
we do not read that he waited for this 
sign. ' He rose up early in the morning,' 
perhaps before his visitors were awake, 
' saddled his ass, and went.' His forward- 
ness was greater than their's, and was pu- 
nished. If he slept upon the top of the 
house, where he might gather auguries, &c. 
from the aspects of heaven, the stars, the 
sun-rising, the flight of birds, &c. he cer- 
tainly slept single, and the messengers might 
have called him without intrusion. 

Balaam, therefore, without staying for 
the signal appointed to him, of being called 
by the messengers, rose up in the morn- 
ing, and went with the envoys of Balak. 
God, perceiving this forward evil disposi- 
tion of his heart, was angry ; and an angel 
stood in the way to stop him. Balaam's 
ass, seeing the angel, while the diviner 
himself was probably lost in thought, turn- 
ed out of the road into the fields. Balaam 
forced her into the way again ; but the ass 
left the road a second and a third time. 

At length Balaam became sensible of 
the divine interposition, and offered to 
return home ; but receiving permission to 
continue his journey, he went to Balak, 
who complained of his reluctance in com- 
ing. ' Now I am come,' said Balaam, ' I 
can say nothing : the word that God put- 
teth into my mouth, that must I speak.' 
Balak conducted him to a feast in his capi- 
tal of Kirjath-huzoth and the next morning 
carried him to the high places of Baal, where 
he showed him the extremity of the camp of 
the Israelites. 

Whilst they were here, Balaam ordered 
seven altars to be erected, and seven oxen 
and seven rams to be prepared; and having 
offered an ox and a ram on each altar, he 
left Balak to stand by the sacrifices, while 
he himself withdrew to consult the Lord. 
(Numb, xxiii.) When Balaam was with- 
drawn, God gave him his commission, and 
bade him return. He then uttered an ora- 
cular blessing upon Israel, and not a curse ; 
and this he did a second and a third time, 
to the extreme mortification of Balak. Ba- 
lak was enraged against Balaam, and said, 
I called thee to curse mine enemies, and 
behold thou hast altogether blessed them 
these three times. Therefore now flee 
unto thy place. I thought to promote 
thee to great honour, but now the Lord 
hath kept thee back from honour. Ba- 
laam answered, Spake I not also to thy 
messengers, saying, if Balak would give 
me his house full of silver and gold, I can- 
not go beyond the commandment of the 
Loi-d to do either good or bad of my own 
mind. Then Balaam also foretold what 
Israel, in future times, should do to the 
surrounding nations. 
161 



After these predictions, Balaam re- 
turned into his own country, or at least, 
quitted Balak for a time ; but before he de- 
parted, as if vexed at his disappointment 
in missing the reward he expected, he ad- 
vised Balak to engage Israel in idolatry 
and whoredom, that they might offend 
God, and lose his assistance. (Numb. xxv. 
1, 2, 3. ; xxxi. 16. Mic. vi. 5. 2 Pet. ii. 15. 
Jude 11. Rev. ii. 14.) This evil counsel 
was followed. The young women of Moab 
invited the Hebrews to the feasts of Baal- 
peor, persuaded them to idolatry, and se- 
duced them to impurity. God commanded 
Moses to avenge this insidious action. 
Moses therefore declared war against the 
Midianites, slew five of their princes, and 
a great number of other persons ; and 
among those who fell, on this occasion, 
was Balaam himself. (Numb. xxv. 17, 18. ; 
xxxi. 1, 2, 7, 8.) 

The Rabbins say, that Balaam was the 
author of that passage in Numbers, in which 
his history is related, and that Moses in- 
serted it, in the same manner as he inserted 
other writings. It has been questioned 
whether Balaam was a true prophet of the 
Lord, or a mere diviner, magician, or for- 
tune-teller, as he is called. Origen says, 
that all his power consisted in magic and 
cursing; because the devil, by whose influ- 
ence he acted, can only curse and injure, 
and not bless. It cannot, however, be de- 
nied, that the Scripture calls him a prophet. 
(2 Pet. ii. 16.) St. Jerom has adopted the opi- 
nion of the Hebrews, that Balaam knew the 
true God, that he erected altars to him, and 
was a true prophet, though corrupted by 
avarice. 

Moses says, that Balaam consulted the 
Lord, and calls the Lord his God : ' I can- 
not go beyond the commandment of the 
Lord my God.' (Numb. xxii. 18.) The 
reason why Balaam calls Jehovah my God, 
may be, because he was of the posterity of 
Shem, who maintained the worship of Je- 
hovah, not only in his own person, but 
among his descendants ; so that while the 
posterity of Ham fell into idolatry, and the 
posterity of Japhet were settled at a dis- 
tance in Europe, the Shemites retained the 
worship of God, and knew the holiness of 
his nature. This appears, from the profli- 
gate advice, which Balak received from Ba- 
laam, to seduce Israel to transgress against 
Jehovah, with the holiness of whose nature 
the perverted prophet seems to have been 
well acquainted. On the whole there ap- 
pears to be little doubt, that Balaam was a 
true prophet, though a very bad man ; and 
this is the opinion of most of the com- 
mentators. Additions to CahneVs Dictionary. 
Fragments annexed to Cahnet's Dictionary, 
No. cciv. p. 23. 

BAL'ADAN, pxbn, signifies the Lord 
God ; ripeness of judgment ; or, without judg- 
ment ; or, without command. Baladan is the 

M 



BAL 



BAN 



Scripture name of a king of Babylon, who 
is called, in profane authors, Belesis, or Be- 
lesus, Nabonassar, or Nanybrus. Baladan 
was at first only governor of Babylon ; and 
confederating with Arbaces, governor of 
Media, he rebelled against Sardanapalus, 
king of Assyria. These two generals marched 
against Sardanapalus with an army of four 
hundred thousand men. The conspirators 
lost three battles ; but the Bactrians desert- 
ing to them, they rendered themselves mas- 
ters of the king's camp. Sardanapalus re- 
treated to Nineveh, which was besieged by 
the conspirators three years; but in the 
third year the Tigris overflowed, and beat 
down twenty furlongs of the walls. On this 
the conspirators entered the city ; Sardana- 
palus burnt himself, with his valuables, 
upon a funeral pile, in his palace. Arbaces 
was acknowledged king of Media ; and Ba- 
ladan, king of Babylon. Berodach-baladan, 
who sent ambassadors to Hezekiah, was, 
probably, the son of Baladan. (2 Kings xx. 

BA'LAK, pbs, signifies who lays waste 
and desert ; otherwise, who licks, or laps. 
Balak, the son of Zippor, king of the 
Moabites, terrified at the multitude of Is- 
raelites, encamped on the confines of his 
country, and fearing they would attack him, 
sent deputies to Balaam the diviner, and 
requested him to come and curse, or devote 
(execrate) this people. (Numb. xxii. ; xxiii. ; 
xxiv. ; xxv.) See Balaam. 

Balaam advised him to engage the Israel- 
ites in sin ; and Balak, politically as he 
thought, followed his advice. This proved 
equally pernicious to him, who gave the 
counsel, to those who adopted it, and to 
those, against whom it was intended. The 
Israelites who were betrayed by it, were 
slain by their brethren, who continued un- 
perverted; Balaam, the author of it, was in- 
volved in the slaughter of the Midianites ; 
and Balak, who had executed it by means of 
the Midianite women, saw his allies attacked, 
their country plundered, and himself ac- 
cused as the cause of their calamity. 

BALANCE, an instrument for weighing 
commodities. It is supposed that the He- 
brew balance pretty much resembled the 
Roman steel-yard, on which the weight was 
hung at one end, and the article to be 
weighed at the other end of the beam. Ba- 
lances, in the plural, generally mean scales 
— a pair of scales. Supplement. Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary. 

BALDNESS, a natural effect of old age, 
when the hair of the head wanting nourish- 
ment, falls off, and leaves the head naked. 
Artificial baldness was adopted as a token 
of mourning ; and it is threatened to the 
voluptuous daughters of Israel. (Isaiah iii. 
17. Mic. i. 16. Isaiah xv. 2. Jerem. xlvii. 5. 
Ezek. vii. 18. Amos viii. 10.) Supplement. 
Addenda to Calmet. 

BA'MOTH-BA'AL, tya-rnna, signifies 
162 



altars or heights of the idol, or in the death of 
the idol, or rather heights sacred to Baal. 
Bamoth-baal was a city beyond Jordan 
given to Reuben. (Josh. xiii. 17-) Eusebius 
says, that it was situated in the plain, through 
which the Arnon runs. 

BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY, a 
controversy that arose with the bishop of 
Bangor. Dr. Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, 
in a sermon preached before George I. as- 
serted, that Christ was supreme in his own 
kingdom ; that he had not delegated his 
power, like temporal lawgivers, during their 
absence, to any persons, as his vicegerents 
or deputies ; and that the church of Eng- 
land, as all other national churches, was 
merely a civil or human institution, estab- 
lished for the purpose of diffusing and per- 
petuating the knowledge and belief of 
Christianity. On the meeting of the convo- 
cation, a committee was appointed to ex- 
amine this publication. A heavy censure 
was passed against it, as tending to subvert 
all government and discipline in the church 
of Christ, to reduce his kingdom to a state 
of anarchy and confusion, and to impugn 
and impeach the royal supremacy in matters 
ecclesiastical, and the authority of the legis- 
lation to enforce obedience in matters of re- 
ligion, by their sanction. To these proceed- 
ings a sudden stop was put by proroguing 
the convocation. However, the contro- 
versy, which had been commenced, was con- 
tinued for several years, by the bishop and 
his adherents on the one side, and by men 
of equal learning and talents on the other. 

" The whole stream of ecclesiastical 
history, from the days of the apostles to 
the present hour, presents to our view a 
visible, as well as an invisible church. An 
eminent divine, Dr. Rogers, considered 
the subject, during this contest, in this 
light ; and indeed if we take away this argu- 
ment we must remove at the first onset that 
venerable council, which assembled at Je- 
rusalem, on the great question of circum- 
cision, as well as that body of Christians 
to whom the decree was directed. The 
nature of Christ's kingdom, no doubt, 
is spiritual, but as he has commanded a 
communion of saints, an union of men, 
whose sole object is, or ought to be, the 
promotion of their own and others' sal- 
vation, according to the doctrines of the 
Gospel, we must acknowledge that under 
Him a directing power must reside some 
where. He has given us no reasons to 
suppose that power infallible. Where 
then can we look for it, but in an assem- 
bly of good men, united under his autho- 
rity, according to the measure of grace 
which he has given them, that church 
which he has planted upon earth ? I speak 
not here of any particular church, but of 
the catholic or universal church of Christ, 
of the 'general assembly and church of 
first-born, whose names are written 



BAP 



BAP 



in heaven.' " Brewster's Secular Essay, p. 
(14, o'5. 

BAPTISM, from /3a7rrt£w, signifying to 
wash, dip, or plunge, and was reckoned among 
the rites of the Jewish religion. We read that 
Aaron and his sons were initiated into the 
priesthood by baptism (Exod. xxix. 4.); 
and Spencer proves that long before our 
Saviour's time, the Jews received prose- 
lytes into their church by baptism. Some, 
indeed, reckon this ceremony of initiation 
into the Jewish religion among the inven- 
tions of the Talmudists. When, how- 
ever, we consider, that the Jews always 
held the practices of the Christians in ab- 
horrence, it will appear highly probable, 
that this rite was derived to them from the 
usage of their ancestors, before the coming 
of Christ. It is farther probable, that, 
as the sacrament of the Lord's Supper is 
plainly derived from the Jewish passover, 
the twin sacrament of baptism had its 
origin also in the rites of the Jewish reli- 
gion. 

Grotius is of opinion, that the rite of 
baptism dated its origin from the time of 
the deluge ; immediately after which, he 
thinks, it was instituted, as a memorial that 
the world was purged by water. Some 
learned men are of opinion, that it was 
added to circumcision, soon after the 
Samaritan schism, as a mark of distinc- 
tion to the orthodox Jews. Spencer, who 
is fond of deriving the rites of the Jewish 
religion from the ceremonies of the hea- 
thens, supposes it probable, that the Jews 
received the baptism of proselytes from the 
neighbouring nations, who prepared can- 
didates for the more sacred functions of 
their religion, by a solemn ablution ; 
that by this affinity of sacred rites, the 
Jews wished to induce the Gentiles to 
embrace their religion, and that the prose- 
lytes, in gaining whom they were ex- 
tremely diligent, (Matt, xxiii. 15.) might 
more easily comply with the transition from 
Gentilism to Judaism. In confirmation 
of this opinion, he observes, first, that there 
is no Divine precept for the baptism of pro- 
selytes, God having enjoined only the rite 
of circumcision for the admission of stran- 
gers into the Jewish religion ; secondly, 
that among foreign nations, as the Egyp- 
tians, Greeks, Romans, and others, it was 
customary for those, who were initiated 
into their mysteries or sacred rites, to be 
first purified by dipping their whole body 
in water. As a farther confirmation of 
his opinion, that learned writer adds, 
that the cup of blessing, annexed to the 
Paschal Supper, seems plainly to have been 
derived from a Pagan origin ; for the 
Greeks, at their feasts, had one cup, called 
TTOTrjptov ayaSov Saifiovog, the cup of the 
good dcemon or god, which they drank at the 
conclusion of the entertainment, when 
the table was removed. Since, then, a 
163 



rite of Gentile origin was added to one 
of the Jewish sacraments, viz. the pass- 
over, there can be no absurdity in sup- 
posing that baptism, which was annexed 
to the other sacrament, namely, circum- 
cision, might be derived from the same 
source. Lastly, he observes, that Christ, 
in the institution of his sacraments, paid 
a peculiar regard to those rites, which 
were borrowed from the Gentiles ; for, 
rejecting circumcision and the Paschal 
Supper, our Saviour adopted into his reli- 
gion baptism and the sacred cup, and 
thus prepared the way for the conversion 
of the Gentiles, and their reception into 
his church. Selden observes, that the 
proselyte was not baptized till the wound 
of circumcision was perfectly healed, 
when the ceremony was performed by 
plunging him into some natural receptacle 
of water; and that baptism was never 
repeated in the same person, or in any of 
his posterity, who derived their legal purity 
from the baptism of their ancestors. 

When John the Baptist began to preach 
repentance, he practised a baptism in the 
waters of Jordan. To this service he did 
not attribute the virtue of forgiving sins, 
but used it only as a preparation for the 
baptism of Jesus Christ, and remission of 
sins through him. (Matt. iii. 2. Mark i. 4.) 
He exacted not only sorrow for sin, but 
a change of life, manifested by such prac- 
tices as were worthy of repentance. The 
baptism of John was more perfect than that 
of the Jews, but less perfect than that of 
Jesus Christ. It was, says Chrysostom, 
as it were a bridge, which, from the bap- 
tism of the Jews, made a way to that of 
our Saviour; it was superior to the first, 
but inferior to the second. That of John 
promised what that of Jesus executed. 
Though John the Baptist did not enjoin 
his disciples to continue his baptism after 
his death, because it was superseded by 
the manifestation of the Messiah, and the 
gifts of the Holy Ghost, yet it was admi- 
nistered by many of his followers, and, 
several years after the death of Jesus 
Christ, some were ignorant that there was 
any other baptism. Among this number 
was A polios, a learned and zealous man 
of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus 
twenty years after the resurrection of our 
Saviour. (Acts xviii. 25.) When St. Paul 
came afterwards to the same city, he 
found many, either constant residents in 
Ephesus, or only occasional visitors, who 
had received no other baptism than that 
of John, and knew not that there were 
any influences of the Holy Ghost, com- 
municated by baptism into Jesus Christ. 
(Acts xix. 1.) Perhaps, however, these 
were only occasional visitors at Ephesus. 
Our Savioui-, when sending his disciples 
to preach the Gospel, said, ' Go teach 
all nations; baptizing them in the name of 
m 2 



BAP 



BAP 



the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost. Whosoever believeth and is bap- 
tized shall be saved ; but he that believeth 
notshall be damned.' (Matt, xxviii. 19. Mark 
xvi. 16. Johnii'u5.) Baptism, therefore, is 
the first mark, by which the disciples of Je- 
sus Christ are distinguished. 

The word baptism is frequently used in 
Scripture for sufferings. ' Can ye drink of 
the cup that I drink of, and be baptized with 
the baptism, which I am baptized with V 
(Mark x. 38.) ' I have a baptism to be bap- 
tized with, and how am I straitened till it be 
accomplished?' (Luke xii. 50.) Traces of si- 
milar phraseology are found in the Old Tes- 
tament, (Psalm lxix. 2, 3,) where waters 
often denote tribulations ; and where, to be 
swallowed up by the waters, to pass through 
great waters, &c. signify to be overwhelmed 
by misfortunes. 

Many difficulties have been raised on the 
following words of St.. Peter : ' Repent and 
be baptized every one of you, in the name 
of Jesus Christ, for the remission of sins. 
(Acts ii. 38.) It has been questioned, whe- 
ther such baptism was ever administered in 
the name of Jesus only, without express 
mention of the Father and the Spirit ? and 
whether such baptism could be valid or law- 
ful ? Many fathers and some councils be- 
lieved, that the apostles had occasionally 
baptized in the name of Jesus only ; and 
Ambrose asserts, that though only one per- 
son of the Trinity were named, the baptism 
is perfect. For he adds, whoever names one 
person of the Trinity, means the whole. But, 
as this opinion is founded on only a dubious 
fact, and an obscure text, it is not impossible 
that these fathers and councils might be 
mistaken. By baptizing in the name of Je- 
sus may be signified, first, either to baptize 
with invocation of the name of Jesus alone 
without mentioning the Father and the Spi- 
rit ; or, secondly, to baptize in his name, by 
his authority, with his baptism, and into his 
religion, mentioning expressly the three 
persons of the Trinity, as he has clearly 
and plainly commanded in Matthew. 
Since, therefore, we have a positive and 
explicit text for this service, what obliges 
us to quit it and to follow another capable 
of different senses? Who will believe, 
that the apostles, forsaking the form of bap- 
tism prescribed to them by Jesus Christ, 
had instituted another form entirely new, 
and without necessity ? In fact, the opi- 
nion that baptism ought to be administered 
in the name of the whole Trinity, and 
with express invocation of the three per- 
sons, has in its favour a clear text of 
Scripture, in which the rite is, as it were, 
instituted, and expressly discussed. The 
passage, ' to be baptized in the name of Je- 
sus Christ,' may be explained ' solemnly to 
profess to be a follower of Jesus, and to bind 
oneself to embrace his doctrine.' 

St. Paul, proving the resurrection of 
164 



the dead, says, ' If the dead rise not at 
all, wbat shall they do who are baptized for 
the dead?' (1 Cor. xv. 29.) The question 
is, what is meant by baptism for the dead ? 
No one can pretend, that the apostle ap- 
proves the practice, or authorizes the opi- 
nion. It is sufficient, that there were per- 
sons, who thus thought and acted at the time. 
It is also observable, that he does not say, 
the Corinthians caused themselves to be 
baptized for the dead, but what shall they do 
who are baptized for the dead ? How will 
they support this practice, upon what will 
they justify it, if the dead rise not again, and 
if souls departed do not exist after death ? 
It would appear, that some at this time, who 
called themselves Christians, were baptized 
for the dead, — for the advantage of the dead. 
When this epistle to the Corinthians was 
written, twenty-three years after the resur- 
rection of our Saviour, several heretics, as 
the Simonians, Gnostics, and Nicolaitans, 
denied the real resurrection of the dead, and 
acknowledged only a metaphorical resurrec- 
tion received in baptism. The Marcionites, 
who appeared some time afterwards, em- 
braced the same principles ; they denied the 
resurrection, and, what is more particular, 
received baptism for the dead. This we 
learn from Tertullian, who tells the Marcion- 
ites, that they ought not to use St. Paul's 
authority in favour of their practice of re- 
ceiving baptism for the dead ; and that if the 
apostle notices this custom, it is only to 
prove the resurrection of the dead against 
themselves. In another place he confesses, 
that in St. Paul's time some were baptized a 
second time for the dead, — on behalf of the 
dead, hoping it would be serviceable to others, 
at their resurrection. Chrysostom says, that 
among the Marcionites, when any of their ca- 
techumens died, they placed a living person 
under the bed of the deceased; and then ad- 
vancing to the dead body, they asked whether 
he was willing to receive baptism ? The per- 
son under the bed answered for him, that he 
earnestly desired to be baptized ; and then 
accordingly, he was baptized, instead of the 
dead person. Epiphanius asserts, that the 
Marcionites received baptism not only once, 
but as often as they thought proper ; that 
they procured themselves to be baptized in 
the name of those among them, who died 
without baptism, as substituted representa- 
tives of such persons ; and that St. Paul had 
these heretics in view. However, the late 
bishop Warburton was of opinion, that the 
apostle alluded to vice as death, and to a re- 
turn to virtue as life ; and Dr. Doddridge, 
and some others think, that at the time 
when St. Paul wrote this epistle, it was too 
early to notice the practice of the Marcion- 
ites. 

Mr. Bloomfield observes, " The phrase 
seems to be idiotical, and there is (populari 
more) an ellipis of av clot anting. Thus the 
sense will be, ' baptized in the confidence and 



BAP 



BAP 



expectation of a resurrection from the dead.' 
Of course, by dead are meant the dead that 
die in the Lord ; and by the resurrection, the 
resurrection to happiness. This interpreta- 
tion is established beyond all doubt by 
Chrysostom, who has examined the passage 
at considerable length, and with his usual 
ability. He and the other Greek commenta- 
tors notice, but with the strongest censure, 
the interpretation which makes this an allu- 
sion to the vicarious baptism of the dead. 
They all agree that there is an allusion to the 
form in Baptism, ' I believe in the resurrec- 
tion of the dead,' to which is added, ' Wilt 
thou be baptized in this faith V ' It is my 
desire.' " 

Many different ideas have been entertain- 
ed respecting the effects of baptism. The 
Remonstrants and Socinians reduce it to a 
mere sign of divine grace. On the contrary, 
the Romanists exalt its power ; they main- 
tain, that by it all sin is taken away; and 
that it absolutely confers the grace of justifi- 
cation, and consequently grace ex opere ope- 
rato. Some also speak of an indelible cha- 
racter impressed by it on the soul, called 
character dominicus, and character regius ; 
but this is not admitted by others, since the 
spiritual character, conferred in regenera- 
tion, may easily be effaced by mortal sins. 
Dodwell maintained, that by baptism the 
soul is rendered immortal, and that those 
who die without it will not rise again. 
BloomfielaVs Recensio Synoptica, vols. iv. p. 
89 ; vi. p. 688 ; Doddridge's Family Expositor, 
vol. iv. p. 99 ; Warburton's Divin. Legat. vol. 
i. p. 435. 

BAPTISM of the DEAD was a custom, 
which anciently prevailed among some peo- 
ple in Africa, of baptizing the dead. The 
third council of Carthage speaks of it as a 
matter of which ignorant Christians were 
fond. Gregory Nazianzen also observes, 
that the same superstitious opinion prevailed 
among some, who delayed to be baptized. In 
addressing these men, he asks, whether they 
delayed to be baptized till after death ? It is 
also mentioned by Philastrius as the general 
error of the Montanists or Cataphrygians, 
that they baptized men after death. The 
practice seems to be founded on a vain opi- 
nion, that when men had neglected to re- 
ceive baptism during their life, some com- 
pensation might be made for this default by 
conferring it after death. 

BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christ- 
ians, who consider immersion in water as es- 
sential to Christian baptism, and who disap- 
prove of the admission o£ infants to that ordi- 
nance. Many of the Hussites in the fifteenth, 
of the Wickliffites or Lollards in the four- 
teenth, of the Petrobrussians in the twelfth 
century, and of the Waldenses, were Bap- 
tists in sentiment. However, much of the 
present felicity of this denomination on the 
continent may be traced to the laborious ef- 
forts of Menno Simon, a native of Friesland, 
165 



from whom they received the name of Men- 
nonites, and who in 1536 publicly embraced 
the communion of the Anabaptists. As it 
happens that many of those, whom this deno- 
mination baptize, have undergone what the 
Baptists term the ceremony of sprinkling in 
their infancy, the Baptists have been called 
Anabaptists, as if they re-baptized. This, 
however, they deny, and allege that those 
who have undergone this ceremony in their 
infancy, did not thereby receive Christian 
baptism. 

In England, fourteen Anabaptists were 
put to death in 1535, and thirty were banish- 
ed in 1539, for their opinions, in the reign of 
Henry the Eighth. Yet bishop Burnet re- 
marks, that in 1547 many Anabaptists were 
in England, and that they were generally 
Germans, whom the revolutions in their own 
country had banished from home. It is add- 
ed, that in the reign of Queen Elizabeth they 
greatly increased, and were subjected to im- 
prisonment. A few, indeed, recanted their 
opinions, but two were burnt in Smithfield, 
in 1575. In the reign of James I., among 
the persecuted exiles that fled to Holland 
were several Anabaptists ; and in the same 
reign, Edward Wightman, a Baptist of Bur- 
ton-upon-Trent, was burnt at Lichfield. He 
was the last that suffered this cruel kind of 
death in England. 

The Baptists having been thus exposed 
to many severities, were a long time in estab- 
lishing themselves in England. Neale places 
their first congregation in this country in 
1640, when they separated from the in- 
dependents, under a Mr. Jesse. From that 
time they have prevailed more or less, and 
at present subsist under two separate and 
distinct societies. Those who have followed 
the doctrines of Calvin, are called Particular 
Baptists, from particular election, the princi- 
pal tenet of that system ; and those, who pro- 
fess the Arminian or Remonstrant doctrines, 
are denominated General Baptists, from the 
chief of those tenets, general or universal re- 
demption. 

About 1620, and the same time that the 
Independents settled in New England, seve- 
ral Anabaptists emigrated to that country. 
However, their congregational brethren, 
though they had themselves fled from perse- 
cution, afforded no great latitude to their 
tender consciences. Yet they have main- 
tained their establishment in America ever 
since, and have gradually increased in num- 
ber. At present, the communicants, and 
other members of the Baptist congregations 
in the United States alone, are computed at 
255,670. 

It has been already observed, that the 
members of this denomination are distin- 
guished from all other professing Christ- 
ians, by their opinions respecting the ordi- 
nance of Christian Baptism. Conceiving, 
that positive institutions cannot be estab- 
lished by analogical reasoning, but depend 



BAP 



BAP 



on the will of the Saviour, revealed in 
express precepts, and that apostolical exam- 
ple illustrative of this is the rule of duty, 
they differ from their Christian brethren 
with regard both to the subjects and the 
mode of baptism. 

With respect to the subjects, from the 
command, which Christ gave after his re- 
surrection, and in which baptism is men- 
tioned as consequent to faith in the Gospel, 
they conceive them to be those, and those 
only, who believe what the apostles were 
then enjoined to preach. So, when the iEthi- 
opian eunuch asked the evangelist Philip, 
' What doth hinder me to be baptized V 
he answered, ' If thou believest with all 
thine heart, thou may est.' — ' They that 
gladly received the Spirit were baptized ;' 
and it is said, ' Many of the Corinthians 
hearing, believed, and were baptized.' 

With respect to the mode, thev affirm, 
that, instead of sprinkling or pouring, the 
person ought to be immersed in the water. 
They maintain that immersion or plunging 
is the primary and common signification of 
the word /3a7rn<rfia, both in sacred and pro- 
fane authors. They again refer to the pri- 
mitive practice, and observe, that the bap- 
tizer as well as the baptized having gone 
down into the water, the latter is baptized 
in it, and both come up out of it. They 
say, that John baptized in the Jordan, and 
that Jesus, after being baptized, came up 
out of it. Believers are said also to be 
' buried with Christ by baptism into death, 
wherein also they are risen with him ;' and the 
Baptists insist, that this is a doctrinal allu- 
sion incompatible with any other mode. 

But they say, that their views of this in- 
stitution are much more confirmed, and may 
be better understood, by studying its na- 
ture and import. They consider it as an im- 
pressive emblem of that, by which their 
sins are remitted or washed away, and of 
that, on account of which the Holy Spirit 
is given to those who obey the Messiah. 
In other words, they view Christian bap- 
tism as a figurative representation of that 
which the Gospel of Jesus is in testimony. 
To this the mind of the baptized is there- 
fore naturally led, while spectators are to 
consider him as professing his faith in the 
Gospel, and his subjection to the Redeemer. 
The Baptists, therefore, would say, that 
none ought to be baptized, except those 
who seem to believe this Gospel, and that 
immersion is not properly a mode of baptism, 
but baptism itself. 

With respect to infants, Jesus said, ' Suf- 
fer little children to come unto me, and for- 
bid them not, for of such is the kingdom 
of heaven.' Though the Baptists see no 
reason for baptizing them, in this or any 
other passage, yet this express assurance 
of the divine favour towards their chil- 
dren affords them much consolation. 

Thus the English and most foreign Bap- 
1G6 



tists consider a personal profession of faith, 
and an immersion in water, as essential to 
baptism. The profession of faith is gene- 
rally made before the congregation, at a 
church meeting. On these occasions some 
have a creed, to which they expect the can- 
didate to assent, and to give a circumstan- 
tial account of his conversion ; but others 
require only a profession of his faith as a 
Christian. The former generally consider 
baptism as an ordinance, which initiates per- 
sons into a particular church ; and they say 
that, without breach of Christian liberty, 
they have a right to expect an agreement in 
articles of faith in their own societies. The 
latter think, that baptism initiates merely 
into a profession of the Christian religion, 
and therefore say, that they have no right 
to require an assent to their creed from such 
as do not intend to join their communion ; 
and in support of their opinion, they quote 
the baptism of the eunuch, in the eighth 
chapter of the Acts of the Apostles. 

Some, both of the General and the Par- 
ticular Baptists, object to free or mixed 
communion, and do not allow persons, who 
have been baptized in their infancy, to join 
with them in the celebration of the Lord's 
Supper ; because they consider such as not 
having been baptized, and consequently 
inadmissible to the other ordinance. Others, 
however, of both classes of Baptists, sup- 
pose that this ought to be no objection ; 
that such as think themselves really baptized, 
though in infancy, and such as are par- 
takers of grace, belong to the true Church 
of Christ, and are truly devoted to God, 
ought not to be rejected on account of 
a different opinion respecting this particu- 
lar ordinance. Some of these also, with- 
out referring to a man's persuasion that he 
has been baptized, think that he ought 
to be received into the fellowship of the 
churches. If therefore he, with many Uni- 
tarians, should doubt the perpetuity of bap- 
tism, or that it is a perpetual ordinance, 
as it respects the descendants of Chris- 
tians, though it may be properly adminis- 
tered to proselytes from other religions, he 
might be admitted as a communicant at the 
Lord's Supper. 

Some of both classes of Baptists are, at 
the same time, Sabbatarians, and, with 
the Jews, observe the seventh day of the 
week as the Sabbath. This has been 
adopted by them, from a persuasion that 
all the ten commandments are in their na- 
ture strictly moral, and that the observance 
of the seventh day was never abrogated or 
repealed by our Saviour or his apostles. 

In church government the Baptists differ 
little from the Independents, except that, 
in some of their churches, the Baptists have 
three distinct orders of ministers, who are 
separately ordained, and to the highest of 
whom they give the name of messengers, to 
the second that of elders, and to the third 



BAP 



BAP 



that of deacons. With respect to excom- 
munication, they seem closely to follow our 
Saviour's directions, in the eighteenth chap- 
ter of St. Matthew's Gospel, which they 
apply to differences between individuals ; 
and if any man be guilty of scandalous im- 
morality they exclude him from the bro- 
therhood, or fellowship of the church. 
Like the other Protestant dissenters, and 
the Presbyterians in Scotland, &c. the Bap- 
tists receive the Lord's Supper sitting at a 
common table, and giving the elements one 
to another. This is a practice unknown in 
the primitive church, in which ' the sacra- 
ment was received by the communicants 
sometimes standing and sometimes kneel- 
ing; but there is no trace in any ancient 
writer of its having ever been received 
sitting.' 

The Baptists in Great Britain, Ireland, 
Holland, Germany, the United States of 
America, Upper Canada, &c. are divided, 
as has been already observed, into two dis- 
tinct classes, or societies, the Particular or 
Calvinistic, and the General or Arminian 
Baptists. The former are said to be much 
more numerous than the latter, and to have 
nearly 400 meeting-houses in England, of 
which 15 are within the bills of mortality 
in London. In December 1798, the Par- 
ticular Baptist congregations in England 
amounted to three hundred and sixty-one ; 
and in Wales, to eighty-four. At the same 
time, the numbers of most congregations 
were greatly increasing ; and their Itinerant 
Society in London were making great 
exertions in Cornwall, Salop, Devon, and 
the north part of Somersetshire, &c. This 
class of Baptists ordain in almost the same 
manner as the Independents. The most 
distinguished of their society are, per- 
haps, Dr. Gill, Mr. John Bunyan, and 
Dr. Samuel Stennett. 

The father of the General Baptists was a 
Mr. Smith, who was at first a clergyman 
of the church of England ; but resigning 
his living, he went over to Holland, where 
his baptist principles were warmly op- 
posed by Messrs. Ainsworth and Robin- 
son, of whom the former was pastor of 
the Brownists or Independents at Amster- 
dam, and the latter of those at Leyden. 
As Mr. Smith did not think that any one 
at the time was duly qualified to admi- 
nister the ordinance of baptism, he bap- 
tized himself, and hence was denominated 
a se -baptist. He afterwards adopted the 
Arminian doctrines; and in 1611, the Ge- 
neral Baptists published a Confession of 
Faith, which diverges much farther from 
• Calvinism, than those who are now called 
-Armenians would approve. However, the 
General Baptists are said to be on the de- 
cline at present, and a considerable num- 
ber of them have embraced Socinianism or 
A nanism. On this account, several of 
their ministers and churches, who disap- 

107 



prove of those principles, have within 
the last forty years, formed themselves into 
a distinct connection, called The New Asso- 
ciation. The churches in this union keep 
up a friendly acquaintance, in some out- 
ward things, with those from whom they 
have separated : but in things more essen- 
tial, and particularly as to the changing 
of ministers, and the admission of mem- 
bers, they disclaim any connection. Among 
the eminent General Baptists may be 
ranked the names of Gale, Foster, Bur- 
roughs, Foot, Noble, Bulkley, Wiche, 
Robinson, and, perhaps, Whiston. 

Much praise is due to the Baptists for 
their zeal and exertions in converting the 
heathens. In 1793, the Particular Baptists 
formed a missionary society ; and Messrs. 
John Thomas and William Carey were sent 
out to India as missionaries. These have 
been followed by others ; and the know- 
ledge of Christianity, as undertood and 
professed by the Baptists, has been zeal- 
ously and assiduously propagated. The 
Baptists, therefore, seem likely to rival 
the Moravians in their endeavours to spread 
the knowledge of the Gospel in heathen 
countries ; and should they be equally 
gifted with patient endurance and perse- 
verance, they may probably become much 
more successful, by the exertions they are 
now making, in translating the Scriptures 
into the languages of the East. 

It is a distinguishing tenet of the Bap- 
tists, as well as of the Independents, to 
admit of no opinions or rites, which are 
not countenanced by apostolic precept or 
example ; and as the former conceive, that 
the Scriptures contain neither the one nor 
the other for the baptism of infants, they 
disclaim it, notwithstanding the arguments 
from tradition, &c. alleged in its defence. 
Though it would seem, that all those, who 
oppose infant baptism, must deny original 
sin, yet no sect or party of Christians are 
more strenuous supporters of the doctrine 
of original sin than the Particular Bap- 
tists. 

The Baptists in England separate from 
the established church for the same reasons 
as the other dissenters, and also on ac- 
count of their particular tenets respecting 
baptism. " Before the act of toleration, 
they were liable to pains and penalties 
as non-conformists, and often for their pe- 
culiar sentiments as Baptists ; but, by that 
act, they, in common with other dissenters, 
are protected in the exercise of their reli- 
gious worship. 

With respect to the mode of baptism by 
immersion, they are by no means singular. 
It is administered in this manner in the 
Greek and Russian churches ; and in the 
church of England it is enjoined to be thus 
administered to those who are thought 
capable, though it is never practised. 
However, according to some, the question 



BAP 



BAP 



with the Baptists does not so properly regard 
either the subjects or the mode of baptism, 
as whether it should be administered on 
the candidates' own profession of faith only, 
or on that of another. If the Baptists re- 
quire a personal profession of faith from 
all their members, the church of England 
does the same. The latter, however, re- 
quires this profession not previously, but 
subsequently to baptism, when she calls 
upon her members to renew, ratify, and 
confirm the vows of their baptism by con- 
firmation, after which they may be ad- 
mitted to every Christian privilege. Evans's 
Sketch of the Denominations of the Chris- 
tian World, p. 142, &c. Adam's Religious 
World, vol. iii. p. 57, 58, &c. 

BAPTISTS, SCOTTISH. Till the year 
1765 there were no Baptist churches in 
Scotland, except one, which existed from 
about the year 1653 to the restoration, 
and which, in all probability, was com- 
posed of English Baptists, who had left 
their native country during the civil wars. 
In 1765, Mr. Robert Carmichael, who had 
been a dissenting minister, and Mr. Ar- 
chibald M'Lean, a printer in Glasgow, 
openly professed the doctrine of Believer- 
Baptism. From that time the Baptist prin- 
ciples in Scotland gradually and impercep- 
tibly gained ground till the year 1777» 
when a great number of persons joined the 
Baptist churches in Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
and other places. 

The Scottish Baptists have some distin- 
guishing tenets, which it may be necessary 
to mention. With them it signifies nothing, 
though a man should have been baptized 
in his riper years, if he does not appear 
to have been converted by the Word and 
Spirit of God, so as to know and believe 
the precious truth of the Gospel, which 
' flesh and blood cannot reveal,' to experi- 
ence its saving power, and to ' bring forth 
fruits meet for repentance.' They have 
not proceeded chiefly on the distinguishing 
principle of adult baptism, but on the im- 
portant grounds that Christ's kingdom is 
not of this world, and the obligation im- 
posed on his disciples to observe his ordi- 
nances in a state of separation from the 
world, and in all things to hear his voice. 
They consider the baptism of infants not 
only as opposite to all the precepts and 
examples in the New Testament, but as 
completely subversive of the doctrine of 
Christ's kingdom, which is frequently de- 
nominated the Kingdom of Heaven, and 
which admits not the fleshly seed of be- 
lievers, as such, to be accounted its sub- 
jects, or to partake of its blessings and 
privileges ; for ' except a man be born 
again, he cannot see the kingdom of 
God.' Yet they admit, that the heavenly 
and eternal kingdom of God consists of 
infants as well as adults ; that some of the 
children of believers that grow up to matu- 
168 



rity are of the elect of God, though such, 
while infants, cannot be distinguished by 
man; and that the whole word of God is 
favourable to the salvation of all that die 
in infancy. 

The Scottish Baptists are particularly 
jealous with regard to salvation through 
the blood of Christ alone. They are per- 
suaded, that the vilest sinner needs nothing 
more to relieve his guilty conscience, than 
to believe that Jesus, the Son of God, a 
divine person, 'was delivered up for the 
offences of sinners, and raised again for 
their justification,' and that 'he who be- 
lieveth shall be saved.' They affirm, 
that the grace, which saves the most virtu- 
ous of men, is as free and sovereign as 
that which saved the dying thief upon 
Mount Calvary. They maintain, that a 
man is justified by faith, without the deeds 
of the law ; and that faith does not signify 
working, but merely believing, or giving 
credence to the divine record. At the 
same time, they plead with equal zeal, in 
another point of view, for the necessity of 
good works. Though in their opinion faith 
and works are opposed to each other, 
so far as justification is concerned, yet 
these, with respect to sanctification, per- 
fectly harmonize. Deliverance from the 
power of sin is, in their view, an essential 
part of that salvation which Christ came 
to bestow, and which is promised to those 
who believe in his name. They are fully 
convinced, that he, who professes to be- 
lieve the Gospel, and on whom the effects 
of righteousness are not produced, is still 
' in the gall of bitterness, and in the bond 
of iniquity.' 

They consider the peculiar and distin- 
guishing love, which the disciples of Christ 
owe to each other, as one of the most 
striking evidences of true Christianity; 
and they perceive, that among the fruits of 
that love, works of charity, or minister- 
ing to the temporal wants of poor brethren, 
are most frequently inculcated in the New 
Testament, and that showing no mercy in 
this respect puts a negative on a man's 
pretensions to the love of God. 

The Scottish Baptists refrain from eating 
blood, observe the kiss and feasts of cha- 
rity, and endeavour to exemplify a com- 
plete equality among the brethren. 

They acknowledge no standard of faith 
and practice among Christians, except that 
of divine revelation ; but they are not 
satisfied with a general acknowledgment 
that the Bible is an infallible standard. 
They maintain, that the sense, in which a 
man understands the Scripture, constitutes 
his faith ; and, therefore, they have no 
communion with those, who do not agree 
with them in the sense of Scripture, re- 
specting every thing essential to their faith 
and order. According to them, the reli- 
gion of Christ is at present the same, in 



BAP 



BAR 



all respects, as in the apostolic age. They 
affirm that, during that period, there were 
no presbyteries, except the elderships of 
distinct and independent churches ; no bi- 
shops, except presbyters, who were all in 
an equal degree bishops, or overseers, as the 
word literally signifies; no decisions re- 
specting ecclesiastical matters, without the 
suffrage of the brethren ; and no attempts 
to establish Christ's religion by human laws, 
or to render it palatable to the world, who 
love darkness rather than light. 

The public ordinances, in which the Scot- 
tish Baptists continue stedfastly, are the 
apostle's doctrine, or hearing the word of 
God read and preached ; fellowship, or con- 
tribution for the poor, and for other neces- 
sary purposes ; the breaking of bread, or the 
Lord's Supper ; the prayers, which accom- 
pany all these ordinances ; and singing the 
praises of God. They observe the Lord's 
Supper, as well as all the other Divine or- 
dinances, every first day of the week, being 
of opinion, that obedience to their Lord's 
commandment, • Do this in remembrance 
of me,' was a principal thing the first 
churches had in view, when they assembled 
together on that day. (Acts xx. 7-) The 
prayers and exhortations of the brethren 
form a part of their church order, under the 
direction and control of the elders, pastors, 
or overseers of the flock, to whom it exclu- 
sively belongs to preside in conducting the 
worship, to rule in cases of discipline, and 
to preach the Gospel. These are, therefore, 
distinguished from the brethren exhorting 
each other, except only when persons qua- 
lified for preaching the word are approved 
by the church, of which they are. members, 
and regularly called to exercise that func- 
tion. Such persons may preach the Gospel 
and baptize, but have no official charge in 
any particular church. 

The elders of the churches here de- 
scribed are all laymen. They are chosen 
from among the brethren, by the rules laid 
down in the epistles to Timothy and Titus. 
They are not distinguished by any religious 
titles, or peculiar garb ; and they are gene- 
rally persons engaged in worldly business, 
which they continue after their appoint- 
ment to the office of elder. However, they 
who are taught consider it as their indis- 
pensable duty to support those who labour 
in the word and doctrine, if the latter can- 
not earn a comfortable livelihood, or be de- 
voted entirely to the work of the ministry. 
The teachers claim no dominion over the 
consciences of their brethren, among whom 
they are ranked, without forming them- 
selves into a separate class. The official 
character of the teachers gives them no pre- 
eminence; and no exception exists in fa- 
vour of those, who have been formerly cler- 
gymen. 

The Scottish Baptists admit the useful- 
ness of some branches of human learning, 
169 



when these are not abused to serve the pur- 
poses of pride and vain jangling. At the 
same time, they affirm that no improvement 
of a man's intellectual powers can enable 
him to understand ' the mysteries of the 
kingdom of heaven,' which God hath hidden 
from the wise and prudent, and revealed to 
babes ; and that those theological and phi- 
losophical studies, which are generally 
thought necessary, tend to increase the na- 
tural enmity of man's heart against the 
preaching of the cross, which was a stum- 
bling-block to the Jews, who required a 
sign, and foolishness to the Greeks, who 
sought after wisdom. They say, that they 
cannot add to the qualifications of a Christ- 
ian teacher laid down in the word of God. 
They deny that a liberal education is essen- 
tial to his character and office ; but they 
consider it absolutely necessary that he 
should diligently study the Holy Scriptures, 
which are able ' to make the man of God 
perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good 
works.' 

The discipline and government of the 
Scottish Baptist churches are strictly con- 
gregational. After publicly professing their 
faith, members are received with the con- 
sent of the whole church, which, when the 
congregation is numerous, is expressed by a 
show of hands ; and every case of discipline 
is determined in the same manner. A con- 
scientious regard to the law of discipline, 
instituted by the great head of the church, 
(Matt, xviii.) is thought absolutely neces- 
sary for the safety of the whole body, and 
for maintaining purity of communion, and 
the due exercise of brotherly love. The 
Scottish Baptists consider all existing pow- 
ers as ordained of God, and are therefore 
cheerfully subject to every ordinance of man 
for the Lord's sake. 

In Scotland are fifteen Baptist churches, 
with some small societies, &c. that amount 
to about one thousand members ; and the 
number of the Scottish Baptists has of late 
years considerably increased. In England 
and Wales are a few churches of the same 
faith and order. In Scotland, two congre- 
gations at least are in communion with the 
Particular Baptists in England, and must 
therefore be considered as wholly distinct 
from the society that has formed the sub- 
ject of this article. 

The most considerable works by mem- 
bers of this denomination are M'Lean's Il- 
lustration of the Commission given by Jesus 
Christ to his Apostles, and the Answer to 
Glas's Dissertation on Infant Baptism ; In- 
glis's Two Letters to the Public on the Grace 
of God; and the Publications of Mr. William 
Braidwood. Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. 
p. 233—248. 

BARAB'BAS, Bapafifiag, signifies son of 
the father, or, of the master ; otherwise, son 
of confusion and shame. Barabbas was a re- 
markable thief, guilty also of sedition and 



BAR 



BAR 



murder. Yet, he was preferred before Jesus 
Christ by the Jews, when Pilate asked them 
at the feast of the Passover, which of the 
two they would have released, Jesus or Ba- 
rabbas? (John xviii. 40.) Origen says, 
that in many copies Barabbas was also 
called Jesus. The Armenian has the same 
reading : ' whom will ye that I deliver unto 
you, Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus who is called 
Christ V This, as it gives additional spirit 
to the history, is well worthy of notice. 

BARACHI'AS, rwn, signifies who 
blesses the Lord, who bends the knee before the 
Lord. Barachias was the father of Zacha- 
rias, who was slain between the temple and 
the altar. (Matt, xxiii. 35.) A diversity 
of opinion prevails concerning this Zacha- 
rias, son of Barachias. Some think (and 
this is the opinion most generally adopted), 
that he was Zacharias son of Jehoiada, who 
was killed by the order of Joash, between 
the temple and the altar. (2 Chron. xxiv. 
21.) They are of opinion, that Jehoiada 
had two names, Barachias and Jehoiada ; 
and in the Gospel of the Nazarenes, cited 
by St. Jerom, instead of Zacharias, the son 
of Barachias, was inserted Zacharias, the 
son of Jehoiada. Others think, that this 
Barachias was father of Zechariah, the last 
of the twelve lesser prophets, (Zech. i. 1.) ; 
but we have no proof, that this Zechariah 
was killed in the temple. Several of the 
ancients were of opinion, that Zacharias, 
the father of John the Baptist, was the son 
of Barachias ; and in some apocryphal books 
it was said, that Zacharias was killed in the 
temple, because he contrived to secure his 
son from the fury of Herod, when he or- 
dered the massacre of the children of Beth- 
lehem. But nothing can be more uncertain 
than this story. There is a Zachariah, the 
son of Barachias (or Jeberechiah), to whom 
the prophet Isaiah addressed himself, to 
witness his prophecy concerning the birth 
of the Messiah. Lastly, several moderns 
conjecture, that this Barachias is Baruk, 
father of Zacharias, mentioned by Josephus, 
in his books of the Jewish War. This Za- 
charias was killed between the porch and 
tne altar, by the zealots, a little before the 
taking of Jerusalem by the Romans. 

BA'RAK, pin, signifies thunder ; other- 
wise, in vain. Barak, the son of Abinoam, 
was chosen by God to deliver the Hebrews 
from that bondage under which they were 
held by Jabin, king of the Canaanites. 
(Judges iv. 4, 5, &c.) At first he refused 
to obey the Lord's orders, signified to him 
by Deborah the prophetess, and answered, 
If you will go with me, I will go, if not, I 
will not go. I will surely go, said Deborah, 
but the honour of the victory will not be 
your's ; for the Lord shall sell Sisera into 
the hands of a woman. By this she meant 
either Jael, who killed Sisera; or herself, 
who had the greater share in the success 
of this expedition. However, Deborah 

170 



marched with Barak towards Kadesh, the 
capital of Naphtali ; and having assembled 
ten thousand men, they advanced to Mount 
Tabor. 

Sisera being informed of this movement, 
marched with nine hundred chariots of war, 
and encamped near the river Kishon. Ba- 
rak rapidly descended from Mount Tabor ; 
and the Lord having spread terror through 
Sisera's army, Barak easily defeated it, and 
obtained a complete victory. Sisera was 
killed by Jael. Barak and Deborah com- 
posed a hymn of thanksgiving ; and the land 
had rest forty years, from the year of the 
world 2719 to 2759. 

Some have supposed, that Barak was the 
son of Deborah ; some, that he was her fa- 
ther ; and others, that he was her husband ; 
and that Barak and Lapidoth are the same 
person. It is certain from the text, that 
Deborah was married to Lapidoth, and that 
Barak was not related to her. It is observ- 
able, that some have understood the Hebrew 
word Lapidoth in the sense of splendour, 
' a woman of splendour,' a woman, whose 
mode of living was in great splendour ; and 
others, as a town, a woman who lived at 
Lapidoth. 

BARBARIAN, rjfb, loez, in the Hebrew 
sense of the word, signifies a stranger, one 
who knows neither the holy language, nor 
the law. Some, however, derive it from 
berbir, a shepherd, whence Barbary, the 
country of wandering shepherds, Bedouins, 
Sceni, Scythae, as if wanderers in tents, and, 
therefore, barbarians. According to the no- 
tions of the Greeks, all nations who were 
not Greeks, or governed by laws similar to 
those of the Greeks, were Barbarians. In 
their phraseology, the Persians, Egyptians, 
Hebrews, Arabians, Gauls, Germans, and 
even the Romans, were barbarians, however 
learned or polite they might be in them- 
selves and in their manners. St. Paul com- 
prehends all mankind under the names of 
Greeks and Barbarians : ' I am debtor both 
to the Greeks and to the Barbarians ; to the 
wise and to the unwise.' (Rom. i. 14.) St. 
Luke calls the inhabitants of the island of 
Malta, Barbarians. (Acts xxviii. 2. 4.) St. 
Paul, in the Colossians, uses the terms Bar- 
barian and Scythian in almost the same sig- 
nification. In another place, he says, that 
if he, who speaks a foreign language in an 
assembly, be not understood by those, to 
whom he discourses, with respect to them 
he is a Barbarian ; and, in like manner, if 
he understand not those, who speak to him, 
they are to him Barbarians. It appears, 
therefore, that the word barbarian is used 
for every stranger, or foreigner, who does 
not speak our native language, and that it 
has no implication whatever of savage na- 
ture or manners in those, respecting whom 
it is employed. 

BAR-CHOCHEBAS, Cochebas, or 
Chochibus, a famous impostor. It is said, 



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that he assumed the name of Bar-Choche- 
bas, that is son of the star, from the words of 
Balaam, which he applied to himself, as the 
Messiah : ' There shall come a star (cocab) 
out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of 
Israel.' Others think, that he derived his 
name from the town of Cochaba, beyond Jor- 
dan, in the neighbourhood of Ashtaroth-Car- 
naim. Bar-Chochebas engaged the Jews to 
revolt under the reign of Adrian. Akiba, 
the famous Jew, supported him, and main- 
tained that he was the Messiah. It is said, 
that an order, forbidding the Jews to practise 
circumcision, induced them to rebel at this 
time, Bar-Chochebas, that he might impose 
on the Jews, put kindled straw into his 
mouth, and appeared to vomit fire. He for- 
tified many places, and massacred an infinite 
number of men, raging with fury principally 
against the Christians. 

Adrian sent against him Julius Severus, 
who, at length, shut him up in Bether. The 
siege was long and very obstinate ; but, at 
last, the town was taken, and the war was 
soon after terminated. In it Bar-Chochebas 
perished. The Jews say, that he fell into 
the hands of the Romans, who tore off his 
skin with iron pincers. The multitude of 
Jews put to death, or sold during this war, 
and in consequence of it, was almost innu- 
merable. Great numbers were sold at the 
fair of the turpentine-tree ; those, who re- 
mained unsold, were exposed to sale at Gaza ; 
and such as were unsold at Gaza, were car- 
ried into Egypt, and perished by shipwreck, 
or famine, or slaughter. After this, Adrian 
published an edict, forbidding the Jews, on 
pain of death, to visit Jerusalem ; and guards 
were placed at the gates, to prevent their 
entrance. The rebellion of Bar-Chochebas 
happened A. d. 178, 1 79, in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth years of Adrian. 

BARDESANITES, a sect of heretics in 
the second century. They obtained their 
name from their leader Bardesanes, a na- 
tive of Edessa, who was a man of a very 
acute genius, and who acquired a consider- 
able reputation by his writings. Seduced 
by the fantastic charms of the oriental 
philosophy, he adopted it with zeal, but, at 
the same time, with such modifications, as 
rendered his system less extravagant than 
that of the Marcionites. The sum of his 
doctrine was as follows: There is a su- 
preme God, pure and benevolent, abso- 
lutely free from all evil and imperfection ; 
and there is also a prince of darkness, the 
fountain of all evil, disorder, and misery. 
The supreme God created the world with- 
out any mixture of evil in its composition ; 
he gave existence also to its inhabitants, 
who came out of his forming hand, pure 
and incorrupt, endued with subtle ethe- 
real bodies, and spirits of celestial nature. 
But when, in process of time, the prince 
f darkness had enticed men to sin, then 
lie supreme God permitted them to fall 
171 



into sluggish and gross bodies, formed of 
corrupt matter by the evil principle ; he 
permitted also the depravation and disorder 
which this malignant being introduced 
both into the natural and the moral world, 
designing, by this permission, to punish 
the degeneracy and rebellion of an apos- 
tate race ; and hence proceeds the perpe- 
tual conflict between reason and passion in 
the mind of man. It was on this account, 
that Jesus descended from the upper re- 
gions, clothed not with a real, but with a 
celestial and an aerial body, and taught 
mankind to subdue that body of corruption, 
which they carry about with them in this 
mortal life ; and by abstinence, fasting, and 
contemplation, to disengage themselves 
from the servitude and dominion of that 
malignant matter, which chained down the 
soul to low and ignoble pursuits. Those, 
who hear the voice of this divine instructor, 
and submit themselves to his discipline, 
shall, after the dissolution of this terrestrial 
body, mount up to the mansions of felicity, 
clothed with ethereal vehicles, or celestial 
bodies. 

This sect, which was a branch of the 
Gnostics, subsisted a long time in Syria, 
though Bardesanes afterwards abandoned the 
chimerical part of his system. Moskeim's 
Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. p. 179, 180. 

BAR/JESUS, or according to some copies 
Barjeu, BapirjcrovQ, signifies son of Jesus. He 
was a Jewish magician, in the isle of Crete, 
and is called by Luke Elymas, which in Ara- 
bic signifies sorcerer. (Actsxiii. 8.) He was 
with the proconsul, Sergius Paulus, who 
sent for Paul and Barnabas, and desired to 
hear the word of God. Bar-jesus resisted 
them, and endeavoured to hinder the pro- 
consul from embracing Christianity. Paul, 
thereford, filled with the Holy Ghost, and 
looking stedfastly at him, said, ' O full of 
all subtilty and all mischief, thou child of 
the devil, thou enemy of all righteous- 
ness, wilt thou not cease to pervert the 
right ways of the Lord ? And now behold 
the hand of the Lord is upon thee, and 
thou shalt be blind, not seeing the sun 
for a season. Immediately he was struck 
blind, and went about seeking some to lead 
him by the hand.' The proconsul saw this 
miracle, and was converted. Origen and 
Chrysostom think, that Elymas or Bar-jesus 
was also converted, and that St. Paul speedily 
restored his sight. 

BARLAAMITES, the followers of Bar- 
laam, in the fourteenth century. Barlaam was 
by birth a Neapolitan, and of the orderof St. 
Basil. He adopted the sentiments and precepts 
of the Stoics with respect to the obligations 
ofmoralityand the duties of life, and digested 
them in a work, which is known by the title 
of Ethica ex Stoicis. The Barlaamites, in op- 
position to the opinion of Gregory Palamas, 
archbishop of Thessalonica, maintained, that 
the light which surrounded Christ upon 



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Mount Tabor, was neither the divine essence, 
nor flowed from it ; and that there is no real 
difference between the attributes and essence 
of God considered in themselves, but only in 
our conceptions respecting them. Mosheim, 
vol. iii. p. 143, 199, &c 

BARLEY. In Palestine, barley was sown 
in autumn, and reaped in spring, that is, at 
the passover. The Rabbins sometimes call- 
ed barley the food of beasts, because with it 
they fed their cattle. (1 Kings iv. 28.) In 
Homer, we findbarley always given to horses. 
Herodotus tells us, that the Egyptians ate 
neither wheat nor barley, instead of which 
they used a particular sort of corn. How- 
ever, the Hebrews frequently used barley- 
bread ; for instance, David's friends brought 
him in his flight, wheat, barley, &c. (2 Sam. 
xvii. 28.) Solomon sent wheat, barley, wine, 
and oil to the servants whom king Hiram had 
furnished him, for the works at Libanus. 
(2Chron. ii. 15.) In the Gospel, Jesus Christ 
and his apostles had for their provision five 
barley-loaves. (John vi. 9.) Elijah received 
a present of twenty barley-loaves, and corn 
in husk, as first fruits. (2 Kings iv. 42.) 

Moses remarks, that when the hail fell in 
Egypt, the flax and the barley were bruised 
and destroyed, because the flax was full 
grown, and the barley forming its green ears ; 
but that the wheat and other grain were not 
injured, because they were only in the blade. 
(Exod. ix. 31.) This happened some days 
before the departure of the Israelites out of 
Egypt, or before the passover. In Egypt, 
barley-harvest does not begin till toward the 
end of April. 

BAR'NABAS, K33-13, Bapvdflag, sig- 
nifies son of the prophet, otherwise, son of 
consolation. Barnabas, a disciple of Jesus 
Christ, and a companion of St. Paul in his 
labours, was a Levite, and a native of the 
isle of Cyprus. He was also called Joseph 
or Joses ; and in some Greek copies, instead 
of Barnabas, he is denominated Barsabas, 
who drew lots with Matthias, to fill the place 
of Judas. (Acts i. 23.) He sold all his tem- 
poral fortune, and laid the price at the apos- 
tles' feet. (Acts iv. 36, 37.) He is said by 
Calmet, but without any apparent authority, 
to have been brought up with Paul at the 
feet of Gamaliel. When that apostle came 
to Jerusalem, three years after his conversion, 
he was introduced by Barnabas to the other 
apostles. (Acts ix. 26, 27.) 

Five years after this, the church'' of Jeru- 
salem being informed of the progress of the 
Gospel at Antioch, sent thither Barnabas, 
who beheld with great joy the wonders of the 
grace of God. (Actsxi. 22.24.) He exhorted 
the faithful to perseverance. Some time after, 
he went to Tarsus to seek Paul, and bring 
him to Antioch, where they dwelt together 
two years, and converted great numbers, and 
where the disciples were first called Christ- 
ians. In the year of our Lord 44, they left An- 
tioch, to convey alms from this church to that 
172 



of Jerusalem. At their return, they hrought 
with them John Mark, cousin of Barnabas. 
Whilst they were at Antioch, the Holy 
Ghost ordered, that they should be sepa- 
rated for those offices, to which he had ap- 
pointed them. After prayer and fasting, 
and imposition of hands, they departed into 
Cyprus ; and at Paphos, a city remarkable 
for the worship of Venus, they converted 
Sergius Paulus the proconsul. 

At Perga in Pamphylia, they preached 
without much success, by reason of the 
obstinacy and malice of the Jews. At 
Iconium they converted many; but the 
Jews stirred up a sedition, and obliged 
them to retire to Derbe and Lystra, in 
Lycaonia. At Lystra, St. Paul curing 
one iEneas, who had been lame from his 
birth, the people considered them as gods, 
and calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul 
Mercury, would have offered to them sa- 
crifices. This the two apostles, with great 
difficulty, prevented ; but, soon afterwards, 
they were persecuted in this very city. 
Having revisited the cities, through which 
they had passed, and in which they had 
preached the Gospel, they returned to An- 
tioch in Syria. 

In the year of our Lord 51, Barnabas, with 
Paul, was sent from Antioch to Jerusalem, 
on account of some disputes concerning the 
observance of legal rites, to which the Jews 
wished to subject the Gentiles. Paul and 
Barnabas were present in the council at Je- 
rusalem, and immediately returned to An- 
tioch. Peter arrived there soon after, and 
as seduced to countenance, in some degree, 
by his example, the observance of the Mosaic 
ceremonies. Barnabas also used the same 
dissimulation ; but Paul reproved Peter and 
Barnabas with great freedom. 

Afterwards, Paul determining to visit the 
churches in the isle of Cyprus and in Asia 
Minor, Barnabas desired they might be ac- 
companied by John Mark ; but Paul object- 
ed, because Mark had left them on the first 
journey. The two apostles, therefore, sepa- 
rated : Paul went towards Asia ; and Barna- 
bas, with Mark, to Cyprus. This is all 
we know with certainty concerning Barna- 
bas. 

There is extant an epistle under the name 
of Barnabas, which has by many been thought 
authentic. The design of it is to prove, that 
the Law is abolished by the Gospel ; that the 
legal ceremonies are useless ; and that the 
incarnation and death of Christ were neces- 
sary. It abounds in figurative explications 
of various passages in Scripture ; in allegory, 
and allusion. Perhaps, it may be esteemed 
a specimen of the manner of Judaizing 
teachers of Christianity ; and if, as we have 
reason to believe, such kind of comments 
were in request among the Jews at that time, 
it fully justifies the allegories used by Paul, 
as a means of gaining the attention of those 
to whom he wrote, and of showing to them 



I 



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his learning in that mode, which they most 
esteemed. If this be fact, that apostle has 
been very sparing in a kind of writing, of 
which, as he was educated at the feet of Ga- 
maliel, he was doubtless fully master. The 
epistle ascribed to Barnabas is quoted by 
Clement of Alexandria, A. n. 194, and by 
Origen, A. d. 230 ; and it is mentioned by Eu- 
sebius, a. d. 315, and by Jerom, a. d. 392, as 
an ancient work in their time, bearing the 
name of Barnabas, and as well known and 
read among Christians, though not account- 
ed a part of Scripture. It purports to have 
been written soon after the destruction of Je- 
rusalem, during the calamities, which follow- 
ed ; and it bears the character of the age, to 
which it professes to belong, and has many 
allusions and expressions to be found in St. 
Matthew's Gospel. Paley's Evidences of 
Christianity, vol. i. p. 74. 

BARNABITES, a religious order found- 
ed in the sixteenth century by three noble- 
men of Milan, who had been advised by a 
celebrated preacher to read carefully the 
epistles of St. Paul. Those of this order 
were called Regular Clerks of St. Paul, from 
having chosen that apostle as their patron ; 
though they are more commonly known by 
the denomination of Barnabites from the 
church of St. Barnabas, at Milan, which was 
given to them in 1545. At first, they were 
obliged to renounce all worldly goods and 
possessions, and to depend for their subsist- 
ence on the spontaneous donations of the li- 
beral. But they soon tired of this precarious 
method of living, and therefore secured to 
their community certain possessions and re- 
venues. Their principal office consists in 
going from one place to another, like the 
apostles, to convert sinners. Mosheim, vol. 
iii. p. 445. 

BAR'SABAS, J?2W-U, Bapoafiag, sig- 
nifies son of returns, or of conversion ; other- 
wise, son of rest ; otherwise, son of swearing ; 
otherwise, son of plenty. Barsabas, or Jo- 
seph Barsabas, surnamed the Just, was an 
early disciple of Jesus Christ, and probably 
one of the seventy. After the ascension 
of our Saviour, while the apostles kept to- 
gether, expecting the descent of the Holy 
Ghost, Peter proposed to fill the place of 
Judas the traitor, by one of those disciples, 
who had been constant eye-witnesses of our 
Saviour's actions. Two persons were select- 
ed, Barsabas, surnamed Justus, and Mat- 
thias ; and lots being drawn, it was deter- 
mined for Matthias. (Acts i. 21, &c.) No- 
thing more is known with certainty con- 
cerning him. 

Barsabas was also the surname of Ju- 
das, one of the principal disciples, men- 
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles, (xv. 22, 
et seq.) He and others were sent from Je- 
rusalem, with Paul and Barnabas, to An- 
tioch, whither they carried a letter con- 
taining the council's decree. Judas, that is 
Barsabas, and Silas, stayed there some time, 
173 



instructing and confirming the brethren, 
and afterwards returned to Jerusalem. 

BARTHOL'OMEW, BapSoXofialoe, sig- 
nifies a son that suspends the waters ; or rather, 
perhaps, son of Thalmai. Bartholomew, 
one of the twelve apostles, (Matt. x. 3.) 
was of Galilee, (Acts i. 11. ; ii. 7-) but where 
born is uncertain. It is thought, that he is 
the same with Nathanael, one of the first 
disciples that came to Christ. The reason 
for this opinion is, because as St. John ne- 
ver mentions Bartholomew in the number 
of the apostles, so the other evangelists 
take no notice of Nathanael ; and as in St. 
John, (i, 45.) Philip and Nathanael are 
joined together in their coming to Christ, so 
in the other evangelists Philip and Bartho- 
lomew are constantly mentioned at the 
same time. What renders this more proba- 
ble is, that Nathanael is particularly men- 
tioned among the apostles, to whom the 
Lord, after his resurrection, appeared at 
the sea of Tiberias, where were present 
Simon Peter, Thomas, and Nathanael of 
Cana, in Galilee, the two sons of Zebedee, 
and two other disciples, who were probably 
Andrew and Philip. (John xxi. 2.) As St. 
Peter was called Bar-jona, that is, the son 
of Jona, so Nathanael might be denominated 
Bartholomew, or Bar-tholmai, that is, the 
son of Tholmai; whence some, on no bet- 
ter foundation than a similitude of names, 
have derived his pedigree from the Ptolomies 
of Egypt. Our Saviour has drawn his 
character in that fine eulogium ; • Behold 
an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile.' 
(John i. 47.) 

It is generally believed that this apostle 
travelled as far as India, to propagate the 
Gospel ; and we are also told, that he preach- 
ed in Arabia Felix and Persia. Nothing is 
known with certainty respecting the time, 
place, or manner of his death. It is, how- 
ever, generally said, that he died in the city 
of Albana, which, perhaps, is Albana, in Al- 
bania, on the Caspian Sea, and on the confines 
of Armenia. This country has been some- 
times included under the name of the In- 
dies. It is believed, that Bartholomew was 
flayed alive by Astyages, brother of Pole- 
mon, king of Armenia, from hatred to the 
Christian religion, which the apostle had pre- 
vailed on Polemon to embrace. A spurious 
Gospel of Bartholomew is mentioned by 
Pope Gelasius. 

St. Bartholomew's day is distinguished in 
history, on account of that horrid and atro- 
cious carnage, called the Parisian massacre. 
This shocking scene of religious frenzy 
was marked with such barbarity as would 
exceed all belief, if it were not attested by 
authentic evidence. In 1572, in the reign 
of Charles IX. numbers of the principal 
Protestants were invited to Paris, under a 
solemn oath of safety, to celebrate the mar- 
riage of the king of Navarre with the 
sister of the French king. The queen-dow- 



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ager of Navarre, a zealous Protestant, 
was poisoned by a pair of gloves, before 
the marriage was solemnized. On the 24th 
of August, being Bartholomew's day, 1572, 
about morning twilight, the massacre com- 
menced on the tolling of a bell of the 
church of St. Germain. The admiral Co- 
ligni was basely murdered in his own house, 
and then thrown out of a window, to gra- 
tify the malice of the duke of Guise. His 
head was afterwards cut off, and sent to the 
king and queen's mother ; and his body, 
after a thousand indignities offered to it, 
was hung up by the feet upon a gibbet. 
The murderers then ravaged the whole city 
of Paris, and put to death more than ten 
thousand persons of all ranks. This, says 
Thuanus, was a horrible scene. The very 
streets and passages resounded with the 
groans of the dying, and of those, who were 
about to be murdered. The bodies of the 
slain were thrown out of the windows, and 
with them the courts and chambers of the 
houses were filled. The dead bodies of 
others were dragged through the streets ; 
and the blood flowed down the channels 
in such torrents, that it seemed to empty 
itself into the neighbouring river. In short, 
an innumerable multitude of men, women 
with child, maidens, and children, were 
involved in one common destruction ; and 
all the gates and entrances of the king's pa- 
lace were besmeared with blood. From 
Paris, the massacre spread throughout the 
kingdom. In the city of Meaux, the Papists 
threw into a gaol more than two hundred 
persons ; and after they had ravished and 
killed a great number of women, and plun- 
dered the houses of the Protestants, they 
executed their fury on those, whom they 
had imprisoned, whom they killed in cold 
blood, and whose bodies were thrown into 
ditches, and into the river Maine. At Or- 
leans, they murdered more than five hun- 
dred men, women, and children, and enrich- 
ed themselves with the plunder. Similar 
cruelties were exercised at Angers, Troyes, 
Bouzages, La Charite, and especially at 
Lyons, where they inhumanly destroyed 
more than eight hundred Protestants, whose 
bodies were dragged through the streets, 
and thrown half-dead into the river. It 
would be endless to mention the butche- 
ries committed at Valence, Romaine, Rouen, 
&c. It is asserted, that, on this dreadful 
occasion more than thirty thousand persons 
were put to death. Gregory's Christ. Church, 
vol. ii. p. 422, 423 ; Mavor's Univ. Hist. 
vol. xxiii. p. 174, 175. 

BARTIM^VUS, BaprifiaLog, signifies 
son of Timceus, and was the name of a blind 
man of Jericho, who sat by the side of 
the public road, and begged, when our 
Saviour passed that way to Jerusalem. 
Mark says, that Jesus coming out of Je- 
richo, with his disciples, and a great crowd, 
Bartimseus, when he heard that Jesus of 
174 



Nazareth was passing, began to cry out, 
Jesus, thou son of David, have mercy on 
me. At his request, Jesus restored his 
sight. (Mark x. 46. 52.) But Matthew, 
relating the same story, says, that two 
blind men, sitting by the way-side, and 
understanding that Jesus was passing, be- 
gan to cry out, &c. and both received 
sight. (Matth. xx. 30.) Mark mentioned 
Bartimaeus only, because he was more 
known, and not improbably, as his name 
is preserved, was born in a superior rank of 
life, and to better hopes, and was therefore 
no common beggar. If his blindness had 
been the cause of reducing him to poverty, 
his neighbours would doubtless mention 
his name, and be interested in his cure. 
Probably his father Timaeus was of note 
in that place, as was generally the case, 
when the father's name was assumed by 
the son ; and perhaps some of the neigh- 
bours, who had known Bartimaeus in bet- 
ter hopes, and who had often pitied, but 
could not relieve him, were the persons 
that encouraged the blind man: Be of 
good comfort I Rise : he calleth thee. This 
does not contradict the supposition, that 
on this occasion, he principally expressed 
his faith and zeal ; that he spake to Jesus 
Christ, and distinguished himself by his 
alacrity, faith, and obedience. 

It is observable, that the cure ot another 
blind man, mentioned in Luke (xviii. 35. 43.) 
is different from this : that was performed 
when Jesus was entering into Jericho ; and 
this, the next day, when he was coming out. 
Euthymius, on the authority of Chrysos- 
tom, conjectures that the blind man in Mark 
was different from the two mentioned by 
Matthew ; and that the one spoken of by Luke 
is different from the one mentioned by Mark. 
For, says he, the one of Mark threw down 
his garment, out of excessive haste, and re- 
ceived the cure without touch; but he in 
Luke, rather as Christ was coming to J ericho, 
and not departing from it, received his cure. 
On these variations, Rosenmuller and 
Kuinoel remark, that they arose from the 
diversity of oral narration, and that such 
trifling discrepancies, which are perpetually 
found in the best historians, are of no mo- 
ment; and that as the credibility of histo- 
rians is not diminished, but rather increas- 
ed by such diversities, so will not that of the 
Evangelists be at all affected. Bloomfield's 
Recensio Synoptica Annotationis Sacra, vol. 
i. p. 282, 283. 

BA'RUCH, -p-n, signifies who is blessed, 
who bends the knee. Baruch, son of 
Neriah, and grandson of Maaseiah, was 
of illustrious birth, of the tribe of Judah. 
Baruch was the faithful disciple of Jere- 
miah the prophet. (Jerem. xxxii.12.) He 
served him as his secretary, and did not 
quit him till his death. In the reign 
of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, Jere- 
miah, who was in prison, received orders 



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BAS 



from the Lord, to write all his prophe- 
cies to that time. (Jerem. xxxvi. 1, 2, 
3, &c.J He sent for Baruch and dic- 
tated them to him by heart. Some time 
after, he directed Baruch to read them 
to the people, then assembled in the tem- 
ple. This happened in the year of the 
world 3399, and before Jesus Christ 605. 
The reading of the prophecies alarmed the 
king's officers, and they reported the mat- 
ter to the king, who, having heard part 
of the book, cut it with a knife, and threw 
it into the fire. 

Afterwards, God commanded Jeremiah 
again to commit his prophecies to writ- 
ing. Baruch wrote them, as he repeated 
them; and the prophet added several 
others, which were not inserted in the 
former book. Baruch's constant adhe- 
rence to Jeremiah drew on him persecu- 
tion. One day, being greatly disheartened, 
and complaining bitterly, God encouraged 
him by the mouth of Jeremiah, (Jerem. 
xlv. 2, 3.) and from that time he became 
more tranquil. In the fourth year of king 
Zedekiah, Baruch went to Babylon, with 
his brother Seraiah, and carried from Je- 
remiah a letter, in which the prophet fore- 
told the misfortunes that should befal Ba- 
bylon, and promised the captives that they 
should one day be set at liberty. Baruch 
read the prophet's letter to king Jehoia- 
kim, and other captives ; and after this, 
he threw it into the Euphrates, as the 
prophet had commanded. The captives 
having heard Jeremiah's letter, were 
touched with compunction, and gave Baruch 
money, with which to offer sacrifices to the 
Lord, in the temple at Jerusalem. They also 
wrote a letter to their brethren of Jerusalem, 
perhaps by Baruch's hand, and it is pretend- 
ed that this letter is contained in the first 
five chapters of the apocryphal book called 
Baruch. 

After his return to Jerusalem, Baruch 
continued his attendance on Jeremiah ; 
and when Jerusalem was besieged by Ne- 
buchadnezzar, and Jeremiah was thrown 
into prison, Baruch was also confined. 
However, after the surrender of the 
city, Nebuzaradan showed him great fa- 
vour, and setting him at liberty, permitted 
him to go with Jeremiah wherever he 
pleased. 

The remains of the people left under 
Gedaliah having resolved to go into 
Egypt, and finding that Jeremiah opposed 
this journey, blamed Baruch, and pre- 
tended that he engaged the prophet to 
this opposition. At length Jeremiah and 
Baruch were obliged to accompany the 
people into Egypt, where J eremiah died ; 
after his death Baruch retired to Babylon, 
where the Rabbins say he died, in the 
twelfth year of the captivity. 

Baruch, book of, in the Apocrypha, is 
not extant in Hebrew, and only in Greek and 
175 



Syriac ; but in what language it was first 
written, or whether one of these be the ori- 
ginal, is impossible to know. It is also un- 
certain, by whom this book was composed, 
and whether it contains any matters histori- 
cally true, or the whole be a fiction. Grotius 
thinks that it is an entire fiction, and that it 
was composed by some Hellenistic Jew, un- 
der the name of Baruch. Jerom speaks of 
it in a manner, which shows that he did not 
esteem it canonical. He says, that he did 
not think proper to comment on Baruch 
(which in the Septuagint is joined with Jere- 
miah), because it was not read among the 
Hebrews, and contains an epistle, which 
falsely bears the name of Jeremiah. This 
epistle is annexed to the book, and, in the 
common division, forms the last chapter. 
The principal subject of the book, indeed, is 
also an epistle, sent, or pretended to be sent, 
by king Jehoiakim and the Jews in capti- 
vity in Babylon, to their brethren the Jews 
in Judah and Jerusalem. Prideaux's Connec- 
tion, Anno 595. 

BARZIL'LAI, ^nn, signifies, made of 
iron ; otherwise, son of contempt. Barzillai, a 
native of Rogelim in Gilead, and an old 
friend to David, whom he assisted, when ex- 
pelled from Jerusalem by Absalom. (2 Sam. 
xvii. 27.) He came to meet the king at 
Mahanaim beyond Jordan, and supplied him 
with provisions whilst David continued at 
that place. After the defeat of Absalom, 
when David returned to Jerusalem, Barzillai 
attended him to the river Jordan. The king, 
in gratitude for his kindness, invited him to 
court ; but Barzillai objected his age and in- 
firmities, and sent, in his stead, Chimham 
his son. This happened in the year of the 
world 2981, and before Jesus Christ 1023. 

BA'SHAN, )ua, signifies in the tooth, or 
£71 the ivory, or in the change, or in sleep, or in 
slumbering, or confusion, or ignominy. Bashan, 
one of the most fertile cantons of Canaan, 
was bounded on the east by the river Jordan, 
on the west by the mountains of Gilead, on 
the south by the brook Jabbok, and on the 
north by the land ofGeshur. The whole 
kingdom, which has since been called 
Batanaea, took its name from the hill of 
Bashan, situated in its centre. It contained 
no less than sixty walled towns, besides vil- 
lages. It was exceedingly commended for 
its rich pastures, stately oaks, and fine cattle, 
and was esteemed one of the most fruitful 
countries in the world. (Psalm Ixviii. 15. 
Isa. ii. 13. Deut. xxxii. 14, &c.) Its capital 
cities were Ashtaroth and Edrei. When 
Moses conquered Bashan, it was possessed by 
Og, king of the Amorites. Great Universal 
History, lib. i. cap. 7 ; Wells's Geography, vol. 
i. p. 284 ; vol. ii. p. 138. 

BASILIAN MONKS, were monks of the 
order of St. Basil, who lived in the fourth cen- 
tury. St. Basil, having retired into a desert 
in the province of Pontus, founded a monas- 
tery for the convenience of himself and his 



BAS 



BAS 



numerous followers ; and for the better re- 
gulation of this new society, it is said that he 
drew up in writing certain rules, which he 
wished them to observe, though some think, 
that he did not compose these rules. This 
new order soon spread over all the East, and 
after some time passed into the West. 

Some authors pretend, that St. Basil saw 
himself the spiritual father of more than 
90,000 monks in the East only ; but this 
order, which flourished during more than 
three centuries, was considerably diminished 
by heresy, schism, and a change of empire. 
They also say, that it has produced 14 popes, 
1805 bishops, 3010 abbots, and 11,085 mar- 
tyrs, besides an infinite number of confes- 
sors and virgins. This order also boasts of 
several emperors, kings, and princes, who 
have embraced its rule. 

BASILIDIANS, a denomination, in the 
second century, from Basilides, chief of the 
Egyptian Gnostics. He acknowledged the 
existence of one Supreme God, perfect in 
goodness and wisdom, who produced from 
his own substance seven beings, or aeons, of 
a most excellent nature. Two of these 
aeons, called Dynamis and Sophia, that is 
power and wisdom, engendered the angels 
of the highest order. These angels formed 
a heaven for their habitation, and produced 
other angelic beings of a nature in some 
respects inferior to their own. Many other 
generations of angels followed these ; new 
heavens were also created ; till the number 
of angelic orders, and of their respective 
heavens, amounted to three hundred and 
sixty-five, and thus equalled the days of 
the year. All these are under the empire 
of an omnipotent Lord, whom Basilides 
called Abraxas, which was an Egyptian 
word containing numerical letters to the 
amount of three hundred and sixty-five. 
The inhabitants of the lowest heavens, which 
touched on the borders of the eternal, ma- 
lignant, and self-animated matter, conceived 
the design of forming a world from that 
confused mass, and of creating an order of 
beings to people it. This design was car- 
ried into execution, and was approved by 
the Supreme God, who to the animal life, 
with which only the inhabitants of this new 
world were at first endowed, added a rea- 
sonable soul, and, at the same time, gave to 
the angels the empire over them. 

These angelic beings, advanced to the 
government of the world, which they had 
created, gradually fell from their original 
purity, and soon manifested the fatal marks 
of their depravity and corruption. They 
not only endeavoured to efface in the minds 
of men the knowledge of the Supreme Be- 
ing, that they might be worshipped in his 
stead, but also began to war against each 
other, with an ambitious view to enlarge 
every one the bounds of his respective do- 
minion. The most arrogant and turbulent 
of all these angelic spirits, was that which 
176 



presided over the Jewish nation Hence 
the Supreme God, beholding with compas- 
sion the miserable state of rational beings, 
who groaned under the contests of these 
jarring powers, sent from heaven his son 
Nus, or Christ, the chief of the eeons, that, 
joined in a substantial union with the man 
Jesus, he might restore the knowledge of 
the Supreme God, destroy the empire of 
those angelic natures, which presided over 
the world, and particularly that of the arro- 
gant leader of the Jewish people. The God 
of the Jews, alarmed at this, sent forth his 
ministers to seize the man Jesus, and put 
him to death. They executed his commands, 
but their cruelty could not extend to Christ, 
against whom their efforts were vain. Those 
souls, who obey the precepts of the Son of 
God, shall, after the dissolution of their 
mortal frame, ascend to the Father, while 
their bodies return to the corrupt mass of 
matter, from which they were formed. Dis- 
obedient spirits, on the contrary, shall pass 
into other bodies. 

Such were the tenets of Basilides. His 
doctrine in point of morals, if we may cre- 
dit the accounts of most ancient writers, 
was favourable to the lusts and passions of 
mankind, and permitted the practice of all 
sorts of wickedness. However, those, 
whose testimonies are most worthy of re- 
gard, represent this teacher as recommend- 
ing the practice of virtue and piety in the 
strongest manner, and as condemning not 
only the actual iniquity, but even every in- 
ward propensity of the mind to a vicious 
conduct. It is true that in his precepts re- 
lating to the conduct of life, were some 
things, which offended all true Christians. 
For he affirmed, that it was lawful for them 
to conceal their religion, to deny Christ 
when their lives were in danger, and to par- 
take of the feasts of the Gentiles, instituted 
in consequence of the sacrifice offered to 
idols. He had adopted an absurd notion, 
that all the calamities of this life were of a 
penal nature, and that men never suffered 
except in consequence of their iniquities. 
This rendered his principles greatly sus- 
pected ; and the irregular lives of some of 
his disciples seemed to justify the unfa- 
vourable opinion entertained concerning 
their master. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. 
i. p. 181 — 184; Lardner's Works, vol. ix. 
p. 271. 

BASTINADO, a punishment used among 
the Greeks and Romans, some instances of 
which we also find among the Hebrews. It 
consisted in beating the criminal with a 
stick, and was likewise denominated tympa- 
num, because the sufferer was beaten like a 
drum. The Romans called it fustigatio, fus- 
Hum admonitio, or fustibus ccedi. It differed 
from the flagellatio, which was performed 
with a rod, or scourge, whilst a stick was 
used in fustigation. Flagellation was a se- 
vere punishment, and reserved for slaves ; 



BAT 



BAT 



fustigation, more light, and inflicted on free- 
men. This punishment still prevails among 
the Turks and other nations of the East. 
The criminal is laid on his belly ; and his 
feet are raised, and tied to a stake, which is 
held fast by officers for that purpose. In 
this posture, he is beaten with a cudgel on 
the soles of his feet, back, chin, &c. and 
sometimes receives one or two hundred 
blows. 

Mr. Harmer thus describes the basti- 
nado in an extract from Irwin's Travels : 
' The prisoner is placed upright on the 
ground, with his hands and feet bound toge- 
ther, while the executioner stands before 
him, and, with a short stick, strikes him 
with a smart motion on the outside of his 
knees. The pain, which arises from these 
strokes, is exquisitely severe, and which no 
constitution can support for any conti- 
nuance.' 

It is related, that old Eleazar was led to 
the torture, and that he was beaten with 
blows till he nearly expired. (2 Mace. vi. 
19.) St. Paul says, that some of the saints 
were tortured (srv[nravi(r2rr]<Tav), that is, 
suffered the torture of the tympanum, 
hoping for a better resurrection. (Heb. xi. 
35.) 

The rvfiiravov was probably in the form 
of a T ; and the criminal had his arms fas- 
tened to the two horns of the post, with his 
head above its top, and his feet bound to 
the lower part, but without reaching the 
ground ; and hence he might be truly said 
icps/za<r3ai. It is obvious how effectually 
this posture would promote the purposes of 
punishment, by rendering it impossible for 
the culprit to shrink from the blows. Bloom- 
field's Recensio Synoptica Annotationis Sacrce, 
vol. viii. p. 541 , 542 ; Harmer's Observations 
on various passages of Scripture, vol. iii. p. 
370, edit. Dr. Ad. Clarke. 

BAT, vesper tilio, a genus of quadrupeds 
of the order of the ferae. In its upper 
jaw are six fore-teeth, acute, and distant 
from each other ; in the lower, six acute, 
but contiguous. The canine teeth are two 
above and two below, on each side. Every 
foot has five toes, and those of the fore-feet 
are connected by a membrane, and expand 
into a sort of wings. This animal has often 
been ranked with birds : but it has the mouth 
of a quadruped, not the beak of a bird ; it 
is covered with hair, not with feathers ; it 
produces its young alive, not from eggs; 
and it greatly resembles a mouse in shape 
and colour. The female has two paps, and 
brings forth two young ones at a birth ; 
while these are incapable of providing for 
themselves, she flies about with them cling- 
ing to her paps, and sometimes hangs them 
against a wall. During winter, bats cover 
themselves with their wings, and hang asleep 
in dry caves or old buildings. In summer 
they hide themselves in the day, and fly 
about in the evening, catching moths and 
177 



other insects. Some bats have tails, and 
others have none. It is said, that in China 
are bats as large as pullets, and as delicate 
eating. Those of Brazil, Madagascar, and 
the Maldives, are very large, and suck the 
blood of men, while they sleep in the night, 
fastening on some uncovered part, which, at 
the same time, they refresh by the fluttering 
of their wings. The bat, which the law of 
Moses classes among birds, is declared an 
unclean animal. (Levit xi. 19. Deut. xiv. 
18.) But according to the Rabbins, the 
Hebrew word hatalaph, which is commonly 
interpreted a bat, signifies a swallow. 

BATH, ra, yoiviZ,, signifies a daughter, 
or a house, and was the name of an Hebrew 
measure, containing seven gallons and four 
pints, liquid measure ; or, three pecks and 
three pints, dry measure. It was the same as 
the ephah. Some have imagined, that there 
was a sacred bath, different from the com- 
mon, and containing a bath and a half of 
the other. This they endeavour to prove 
by what is said in the First Book of Kings, 
(vii. 26.) that Solomon's molten sea con- 
tained 2000 baths, compared with the Se- 
cond Book of Chronicles, (iv. 5.) which 
says, that it held 3000 baths. This differ- 
ence, however, is easily reconciled, by say- 
ing, that the brazen sea itself contained 
2000, and the brim or rim 1000 baths. The 
bath was the tenth part of the homer, in 
liquid measure ; as the ephah was in dry 
measure. (Ezek. xlv. 11.) Arbuthnot's 
Tables, &c. p. 99. 

BATH-KOL, or Bath-Col, Sip-nn, sig- 
nifies daughter of the voice. It is a name, by 
which the Jewish writers distinguish what 
they call a revelation from God, after verbal 
prophecy had ceased in Israel, that is, after 
the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Mala- 
chi. The generality of their traditions and 
customs are founded on this Bath-kol. They 
pretend, that God revealed them to their 
elders, not by prophecy, but by secret in- 
spiration, or tradition ; and this they call the 
daughter of the voice. The Bath-kol, as Dr. 
Prideaux shows, was a fantastical way of 
divination, invented by the Jews, like the 
Sortes Virgilianae among the Heathens. 
With them, the words dipt at in opening 
the works of Virgil, was the oracle, by which 
they prognosticated those future events, of 
which they desired to be informed. In like 
manner also when the Jews appealed to 
Bath-kol, the next words which they heard 
were considered as the desired oracle. The 
Christians, when Christianity began to be 
corrupted, used the Scriptures in the same 
manner as the Heathens employed the works 
of Virgil. Prideaux' s Connect. Partii. Book 5; 
Monthly Mag. No. 193. 

BAT H'SHEBA, yaw-ru, signifies daugh- 
ter of swearing, of satiety ; or, the seventh 
daughter. Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam, 
or Ammiel, was the wife of Uriah, the Hit- 
tile, and dwelt at Jerusalem, not far from 
N 



BAT 



BAX 



David's palace. One day, after sleeping at 
noon, as is customary in warm countries, 
David went up to the terrace roof of his 
palace, whence, in a garden at no great dis- 
tance, he saw Bathsheba bathing. As she 
was a very beautiful woman, David became 
enamoured of her, and sent to inquire who 
she was ; and being informed that she was 
the wife of Uriah, an officer in his own 
army, who was then with Joab at the siege 
of Rabbah, he caused her to be brought to 
him, and with her he committed adultery. 
In a short time, she found herself with child, 
and informed David, requesting him at the 
same time to consult her honour and safety, 
by devising some means of concealment. 
David sent for Uriah, who, he supposed, 
would naturally accompany his wife, when 
at home ; but Uriah spending his nights 
with the king's guards, counteracted the 
king's design. David then sent orders by 
this brave man himself, for his exposure to 
danger, by which he was killed before Rab- 
bah. (2 Sam. xi.) 

Bathsheba, hearing of her husband's death, 
mourned in the usual manner ; and when 
this ceremony was ended, David brought 
her to his house, and married her. Soon 
after this, she was delivered of a son. The 
Lord sent the prophet Nathan to David, to 
reproach him with his sin, by the parable 
of the ewe-lamb, taken by a rich man from 
a poor man, and to threaten his punishment 
by the death of this child. David earnestly 
interceded for his son ; but on the seventh 
day the child died. (2 Sam. xii.) 

After this, David comforted Bathsheba, 
and she conceived a son, who was named 
Solomon, in the year of the world 2971> and 
before Jesus Christ 1033. God afterwards 
appointed that this son should succeed Da- 
vid on the throne ; build a temple to the 
Lord ; and be blessed with wisdom, riches, 
and understanding. Towards the end of 
David's life, Adonijah, his eldest son, formed 
a party, and presumed that he ought to reign 
rather than Solomon. Bathsheba, there- 
fore, went to David, whom she found in his 
chamber, and bowing very respectfully be- 
fore him, informed him of the conduct of 
Adonijah. Nathan the prophet confirming 
her account, David gave immediate orders 
for the inauguration of Solomon. After the 
settlement of Solomon, Adonijah prevailed 
on Bathsheba to request him to give him 
Abishag, the Shunamite, who had been the 
wife of David. Solomon treated his mo- 
ther with the greatest respect, but saw in 
this request a deep policy, which he pu- 
nished by the death of Adonijah. (1 Kings 
ii. 12.) This is the last time Bathsheba is 
mentioned. 

The First Book of Chronicles, (iii. 5.) and 
the Second Book of Samuel, (v. 14.) be- 
sides Solomon, notice other sons of Bath- 
sheba by David ; namely, Shammuah, Sho- 
bab, and Nathan. Some interpreters are 
178 



of opinion, that these three were the sons 
of Uriah ; but the generality maintain, that 
they were the sons of David. The text in 
Samuel is clear for this opinion; and St. 
Luke gives us the genealogy of Nathan, 
the son of David, as one of the Messiah's 
ancestors. The passage in Proverbs, (iv, 3 ; 
in which Solomon says, that he was his fa- 
ther's son, tender and only beloved in the 
sight of his mother,' proves no more than the 
tender affection of David and Bathsheba 
for him. 

The thirty-first chapter of Proverbs has 
been considered as Bathsheba's instruction 
to her son Solomon, which this prince placed 
in the collection of his Proverbs, or maxims 
of morality. But this chapter might really 
be written by Solomon, if designing to do 
honour to his mother, he reduced the in- 
structions, which he received from her, into 
this form, and published them as if she had 
been their author. Besides, king Lemuel, 
like Agur, may be another person, whose 
writings are appended to those of So- 
lomon. 

The original inclines some to think, that 
Bathsheba was a famous beauty, whose re- 
nown, previously to her being seen by Da- 
vid from the terrace, had already reached 
the king's ears. In our version, the trans- 
lators have inserted the word one, but the 
rendering might be more literal, if under- 
stood as follows : And David sent, and in- 
quired after the woman ; and he said to him- 
self, while his inquirers were gone, to obtain 
the intelligence he wanted, Is not this Bath- 
sheba, the daughter of Eliam, the wife oj 
Uriah, the Hittite ? And David sent agents, 
and took her. For it does not appear, that 
the information who Bathsheba was, would 
have had any influence in abating David's 
illicit passion. On the contrary, nothing is 
more natural, than that David should say 
to himself, ' This beauty, whom I see, is 
certainly that Bathsheba, so famous for her 
charms, and I will possess her ;' thus flat- 
tering his vanity, while enhancing the grati- 
fication of his criminal desires. In David's 
promise (perhaps stipulation) to Bathsheba, 
that her son should succeed him, (1 Kings 
i. 13. 17- 30.) ; in Bathsheba's promptitude 
to give notice of her pregnancy ; in the for- 
wardness of Adonijah to assert his natural 
expectation of succeeding to the crown ; in 
the dignity of Bathsheba as the king's mo- 
ther ; and in the influence, which Bathsheba 
hoped to maintain over Solomon, and the 
respect with which Solomon treated her, 
we may discover strong indications, that she 
had ruled over David, who thus experienced 
other punishments of this passionate con- 
nexion. Fragments attached to Calmefs 
Diet. No. exxiv. p. 38. 

BAXTERIANS, those who adopt the 
sentiments of the famous non-conformist, 
Richard Baxter, who was born in the year 
1615, and who was equally celebrated for 






BAX 



BEA 



the acuteness of his controversial talents, 
and the utility of his practical writings. His 
design was to reconcile Arminianism and 
Calvinism ; and for this purpose he formed 
a middle scheme between those systems. 
With Calvin, he taught that God had se- 
lected some, whom he is determined to save, 
without any fore-sight of their good works ; 
and that others, to whom the Gospel is 
preached, have common grace, which if they 
improve, they shall obtain saving grace, ac- 
cording to the doctrines of Arminius. This 
denomination allow, with Calvin, that the 
merits of Christ's death are to be applied to 
believers only ; but they also assert, that all 
men are in a state capable of salvation. Mr. 
Baxter maintains, that there may be a cer- 
tainty of perseverance here ; and yet, he 
doubts whether a man may not possess so 
weak a degree of saving grace, as again to 
lose it. 

To prove that the death of Christ has put 
all in a state capable of salvation, the fol- 
lowing arguments are alleged by this learned 
author : 1. It was the nature of all mankind, 
which Christ assumed at his incarnation ; 
and the sins of all mankind were the occa- 
sion of his suffering. 2. It was to Adam, 
as the common father of lapsed mankind, 
that God made the promise. (Gen. iii. 15.) 
The conditional new covenant equally gives 
Christ, pardon, and life, to all mankind, on 
condition of acceptance. The conditional 
grant is universal : Whosoever believeth shall 
be saved. 3. It is not to the elect only, 
but to all mankind, that Christ has com- 
manded his ministers to proclaim his Gos- 
pel, and offer the benefits, which he has pro- 
cured. 

Mr. Baxter allows, that there are certain 
fruits of Christ's death, which are proper to 
the elect only: 1. Grace eventually worketh 
in them true faith, repentance, conversion, 
and union with Christ, as his living mem- 
bers. 2. The actual forgiveness of sin, 
with respect to the spiritual and eternal 
punishment. 3. Our reconciliation with 
God, and adoption and right to the hea- 
venly inheritance. 4. The Spirit of Christ 
to dwell in us, and sanctify us by a habit of 
Divine love. (Rom. viii. 9 — 13. Gal. v. 
6.) 5. Employment in holy acceptable ser- 
vice, and access in prayer, with a promise 
of being heard through Christ. (Heb. ii. 
5, 6. John xiv. 13.) 6. Well-grounded 
hopes of salvation, peace of conscience, and 
spiritual communion with the church mys- 
tical in heaven and on earth. (Rom. v. 12. 
Heb. xii. 22.) 7. A special interest in 
Christ, and intercession with the Father. 
(Rom. viii. 32, 33.) 8. Resurrection unto 
life, and justification in judgment ; glorifi- 
cation of the soul at death, and of the body 
at the resurrection. (Phil. iii. 20, 21. 2 Cor. 
v. 1, 2, 3.) 

Christ, says Mr. Baxter, has made a con- 
ditional deed of gift of these benefits to all 
179 



mankind ; but they are accepted and pos- 
sessed by the elect only. Hence he infers, 
that though Christ never absolutely intended 
or decreed, that his death should eventually 
put all men in possession of those benefits, 
yet he did intend and decree, that all men 
should have a conditional gift of them by 
his death. 

Among the Baxterians are generally 
ranked both Watts and Doddridge. In the 
scale of religious sentiment, Baxterianism 
seems to be with respect to the subject of 
the Divine favour, what Arianism is with 
respect to the person of Christ. It appears 
to have been considered by some as a safe 
middle way between two extremes. 

Mr. Baxter was an extraordinary charac- 
ter in the religious world. It is said, that 
he wrote about one hundred and twenty 
books, and had more than sixty written 
against him. Of his Call to the Uncon- 
verted, twenty thousand were sold in one 
year. Though he possessed a very meta- 
physical genius, and sometimes made a dis- 
tinction without a difference, yet the great 
object of most of his writings was peace and 
amity. Accordingly, his religious system 
was formed not to inflame the passions, but 
to conciliate the minds of men, and to heal 
those wounds of the Christian church, un- 
der which she had long suffered. Baxter's 
Catholic Theology, p. 51. 53; Evans's Sketch, 
p. 78, 79 ; Adams's View of Religions, p. 
89, 90. 

BDELLIUM, (nV-Q), a. pearl, jasper, or 
some other stone. This precious substance, 
which is naturally hard, white, smooth, and 
glossy, is found in many parts of the world, 
and produced in the shell of the pearl oys- 
ter, with which the Persian Gulf in parti- 
cular abounds. Perhaps the Hebrew name 
is from lb, singular, and m, smooth, as be- 
ing the only gem naturally smooth and po- 
lished. It occurs in Gen. ii. 12, and Numb, 
xi. 7- Compare also Exod. xvi. 31. 

This is a different interpretation from that 
usually affixed to the word, viz. the gum of a 
tree in Arabia, and more probable when 
applied to the passages in which it occurs. 
Parhhurst' s and Bates's Lexicons. 

BEAN, )yn, signifies in affliction. It is 
said, that the children of Bean, were a shame 
and offence to the people of Israel, for whom 
they placed ambushes. (I Mace. v. 4. 5.) 
Some think, that Bean is the name of a city 
beyond Jordan (Numb, xxxii. 3.); some, 
that Bean is put for Batanaea ; and others, 
that it is the name of a man. 

BEAR, ursus, a genus of quadrupeds 
of the order of the ferae, or beasts of 
prey. 

Aristotle and Pliny say, that when bears 
are littered, they are scarcely bigger than 
mice, and are without eyes and hair. Their 
dams go with them about thirty days, and 
generally bring forth i\\c at a time. Du- 
ring the winter they hide themselves and 
N 2 



BEA 



BEA 



sleep. The male continues in this state 
forty clays ; and the female four months ; 
and they sleep so soundly for the first four- 
teen days, that hlows will not awake them. 
During the time they sleep, they eat no- 
thing, and yet, when the period is expired, 
the males are very fat. Though the bear 
seems rough and stupid, yet he is capable of 
discipline, and will leap, dance, and play a 
thousand tricks at command. 

This animal was very common in Pales- 
tine. David says, that he had often fought 
with bears and lions, (1 Sam. xvii. 34. 36.) 
Elisha having prophetically cursed some 
boys of Bethel, for insulting him, two 
she bears issued from a neighbouring fo- 
rest, and wounded forty-two of them. 
(2 Kings ii. 23, 24.) To express the sen- 
sations of a man transported with passion, 
the sacred writers say, He is chafed, 
in his mind, as a bear robbed of her 
whelps, (2 Sam. xvii. 8. Prov. xvii. 12. 
Hos. xiii. 8.) The prophet Isaiah, de- 
scribing the happiness of the Messiah's 
reign, says, that the cow and the bear shall 
feed together, (Isaiah xi. 7-); by the bear 
some think that he denoted the Gentiles, and 
by the cow the Jews. Daniel, (vii. 5.) in his 
description of the four great monarchies, re- 
presents that of the Persians under the figure 
of a bear with three rows of teeth ; by this 
he principally intended Cyrus. In the book 
of Revelation, (xiii. 2.) Antichrist is said to 
have the feet of a bear. 

It is observable, that the bear is generally 
masculine in the Hebrew. The passage in 
which we read, that two she-hears tare forty- 
two children, though it leads to the idea of 
their being females, more strongly than any 
other passage, yet is in the masculine. Might 
not this be an anomaly of language among 
the Hebrews as among ourselves, who fre- 
quently call a cat she, though it be a male, 
and an animal of the canine kind a dog, 
though it be really a bitch ? The current 
idiom of all languages has something of this 
imperfection : and we may still continue 
to reckon the bears of these passages as 
females, if the construction require it, though 
the words be really masculine. Scripture 
Illustrated. 

BEARD, the hair growing on the chin 
and adjacent parts of the face, chiefly of 
adults and males. The Hebrews wore their 
beards on their chin, but had, doubtless, in 
common with other Asiatic nations, several 
fashions in this, as in all other parts of dress. 
Moses forbids them to cut off entirely the 
angle or extremity of the beard, (Levit. xix. 
27.) that is, to avoid the manner of the 
Egyptians, who left only a little tuft of 
beard at the extremity of their chins. In 
some places, the Jews, at this day, suffer 
a little fillet of hair to grow from below the 
ears to the chin ; where, as well as upon their 
lower lips, their beards are pretty long. 
When they mourned, they shaved entirely 
180 



the hair of their heads and beards, and neg- 
lected to trim their beards, to regulate them 
into neat order, or to remove what grew on 
their upper lips and cheeks. (Jer. xli. 5. ; 
xlviii. 37.) Hence we perceive the import 
of Mephibosheth's neglect of his beard, in 
not trimming it. (2 Sam. xix. 24.) In times 
of grief and affliction, they plucked off the 
hair from their heads and beards, a mode of 
expressing sorrow common to other nations 
under great calamities. The dishonour done 
by David to his beard, of permitting his 
spittle to fall on it, seems at once to have con- 
vinced Achish that he was disordered in mind. 
It was as if he had said, no man, in good 
health of body and mind, would thus defile 
what we esteem so honourable, as his beard. 
(1 Sam. xxi. 13.) 

The king of the Ammonites, designing to 
insult David, in the person of his ambassa- 
dors, cut away half of their beards, and half 
of their clothes ; that is, he cut off all their 
beard on one side of their faces. (2 Sam. x. 
4, 5. 1 Chron. xix. 5.) To avoid ridicule, 
David did not permit them to appear at 
court, till their beards were again grown. 

We are told by travellers, that in the East 
men kiss each other's beards, when they sa- 
lute in the streets, or when one of them has 
lately come from a journey. This may lead 
us to discover traces of deeper dissimulation 
in the behaviour of Joab to Amasa, than we 
have hitherto noticed. It is said, that ' J oab 
took Amasa by the beard with the right hand 
to kiss him.' (2 Sam. xx. 9.) It was, there- 
fore, no wonder, that whilst this act of friend- 
ship, of gratulation after a long absence, oc- 
cupied Amasa's attention, he did not perceive 
the sword in Joab's left hand. The action of 
Joab was, indeed, a high compliment, but 
neither suspicious nor unusual, and to this 
compliment Amasa paying attention, and 
doubtless returning it with equal politeness, 
he could not expect the fatal event produced 
by the perfidy of Joab. 

It is not improbable, that the behaviour of 
Judas to Jesus was rather like that of Joab 
to Amasa. Matthew says, ' And forthwith 
he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, master, 
and kissed him.' (Matt. xxvi. 49.) Mark 
says the same, (xiv. 45.) But Luke seems 
to imply, that Judas observed a more re- 
spectful manner, in his salutation. Accord- 
ing to Matthew, Jesus, before he received the 
kiss from Judas, had time to say, ' Friend, 
(in what manner) to what purpose art thou 
come V And whilst Judas was kissing him 
— suppose his beard — Jesus might easily, 
and very aptly express himself as Luke re- 
lates ; ' Judas, betrayest thou the son of man 
with a kiss V 

Niebuhr relates, that ' when the younger 
Turks, after having been shaven, permit 
their beards to grow, they recite a fatha or 
prayer, which is considered as a vow never 
to cut it off; and when any one cuts off 
his beard, he may be very severely pu- 



BEA 



BEA 



nished, and also becomes the laughing-stock 
of those of his faith. It is not, perhaps, im- 
probable, that this fatha or prayer is in some 
degree analogous to the rites of the Nazarite, 
(Numb. vi. 18. Acts xxi. 24.) Fragments 
attached to Calmefs Dictionary, No. xciii. 
p. 151. 153. 

BEAST, an appellation commonly given 
to all four-footed animals fit either for food, 
labour, or sport ; and in this sense it is dis- 
tinguished from birds, fishes, insects, and 
man. However, Calmet, and some others, 
define beast an animal destitute of reason ; 
and in this sense it comprehends the whole 
animal creation, man alone excepted. 

In the beginning, God created the fishes 
of the sea, and the fowls of the air, on the 
fifth day of the world, (Gen. i. 21, 22, 23.); 
on the sixth day, he created the beasts of the 
earth and man, (Ibid. 24. 26. 31.); and, lastly, 
he brought the fowls and the animals to Adam, 
who gave them their names, and who thus 
commenced his exercise of that dominion, in 
which God had placed him over the crea- 
tures. (Ibid. ii. 19.) The Lord blessed man, 
the fowls, fishes, and beasts ; he commanded 
them to multiply, and gave them the fruits 
and herbs of the earth for food. It was not 
till after the deluge, that God granted flesh as 
food to mankind ; and even then he forbade 
the eating of blood, threatening to punish the 
violent shedding of it, and to chastise even 
beasts, which should spill human blood. (Ibid. 
ix. 3, 5.) 

By the law of Moses, every beast, which 
should kill a man, or was abominably pol- 
luted, was punished with death. (Exod. xxi. 
28, 29 ; Levit. xx. 15, 16.) Cities guilty of 
apostasy were devoted, with not only their 
inhabitants, but also their cattle. (Deut. xiii. 
15.) When Noah, with his children, and the 
animals, quitted the ark, God says that he 
made a covenant with Noah, his family, his 
descendants, and the creatures, and promised, 
never to send such a deluge again over the 
earth. (Gen. ix. 9.) God, enjoining rest on 
the Sabbath, declares that cattle as well as 
servants, should enjoy the benefits of this 
repose, (Exod. xx. 10.) God smote in Egypt 
the first-born of men and beasts ; and as a 
memorial of his having spared the Hebrews, 
he commands, that to him the first-born of 
men, and of beasts, should be consecrated. 
(Exod. xxii. xxiii.) 

The Egyptians, among whom the He- 
brews dwelt for so long a time, adored beasts. 
The Israelites, also, worshipped the golden 
calf in the wilderness, and, after the schism 
of Jeroboam, continued to adore the like 
figures of deities. 

The doctrine of Transmigration was 
common throughout the East, and even 
among the Hebrews: and remains of it 
were visible among the Jews of our Savi- 
our's time, and perhaps in the apostles be- 
fore they had received the Holy Ghost. 
This opinion manifestly supposes, that 
181 



beasts are reasonable ; because it supposes, 
that the same souls, which animated the 
wisest and most understanding of men, 
pass successively into the bodies of beasts. 
The doctrine of Transmigration is obser- 
vable, with some variety, in Philo, and in 
the Rabbins. 

Philosophers, indeed, are greatly divided 
in opinion respecting the essential cha- 
racters of beasts or brute animals. The 
Platonists allow them reason and under- 
standing, though in a degree less pure and 
refined than those of men. Lactantius 
allows them every thing, which men possess, 
except a sense of religion ; and some scep- 
tics have ascribed to beasts even sense and 
religion. Several speak as if they consi- 
dered beasts to be moral beings, and under 
obligation to the law of nature. Ulpian 
and other lawyers are supposed to have em- 
braced this opinion, which is said to have 
been first borrowed from the school of the 
Stoics. 

Different faculties and degrees of know- 
ledge are perceptible in different animals. 
Some possess only the motive and sen- 
sitive faculties, as worms ; some have also 
memory; and others, imagination and in- 
vention, as monkeys and elephants. In 
the same species, some exceed others in 
docility and ingenuity; and the climate, 
air, and food, have an influence on beasts, 
as well as on men. They who agree in as- 
cribing reason to brutes, do not ascribe to 
them the same species or degrees of reason. 
Galen allows to beasts internal reason ; Por- 
phyry, enunciative ; Lactantius, practical 
reason or prudence only ; Pythagoras, rea- 
son on the second act, exclusive of the 
first ; and the Stoics allow them speculative 
reason. Hobbes insists, that they are in- 
capable of science from a want only of 
names and signs, by which to denote ab- 
stract ideas; that they have sensitive, but 
not intellectual knowledge ; that they have 
apprehension, but not reflection ; and that 
they are capable of prudence, but not of 
reason, which can be the fruit of evidence 
only. 

Solomon, whether he proposes his own 
thoughts, or those of the philosophers and 
free-thinkers of his time, expresses him- 
self in a manner, which might seem to 
insinuate, that beasts possess understand- 
ing and reasonable souls : • I said in my 
heart, concerning the estate of the sons 
of men, that God might manifest them ; 
and that they might see that they them- 
selves are beasts ; for as the one dieth, so 
dieth the other ; yea, they have all one 
breath, so that a man hath no pre-eminence 
above a beast.' (Eccles. iii. 18, 19, 20.) The 
Scripture, in other places, speaks of the 
death of beasts and men, in nearly the same 
manner: as, ' Thou takest away their breath, 
and they die, and return to their dust ' 
(Psalm civ. 29.) ; and in Job, ' If he gather 



BEA 



BEA 



unto himself his spirit and his breath, all 
flesh shall perish together,' (xxxiv. 14.) 

Calmet observes, that we should widely 
mistake the import of such passages, if 
we infer from them, that beasts are equal 
to man, in reason, or in a capacity of re- 
ligion, of knowing God, of attaining ce- 
lestial felicity, and of acting on spiritual 
principles. The knowledge, reasoning, 
desires, and designs of beasts, are limited 
to the discernment of what may contribute 
to their immediate and instant enjoyments, 
their temporal happiness, and the multi- 
plication of their species. They may, in- 
deed, determine between hot and cold, be- 
tween enjoyment and danger, but not be- 
tween moral good and evil, between just 
and unjust, lawful and unlawful. If any 
one insist, that they are immortal and eter- 
nal, we may grant it ; but this privilege is 
common to them with bodies, and matter, 
the essence of which is indefectible, and 
cannot perish. Matter may be changed 
in its figure or situation ; it may rest, or be 
put in motion ; but it cannot be annihilated, 
unless God cease to preserve it. In this 
sense, also, the angels themselves, and the 
souls of men, have no greater privilege than 
matter. 

It may be asked, what becomes of the 
animating principle of beasts, when sepa- 
rated from matter ? To this we reply, that 
we have no principles, by which we can 
discover it ; neither revelation, nor expe- 
rience, nor reasoning, furnishes light in 
this particular. We know that God created 
all things for his glory; but can beasts 
be capable of an active knowledge and 
love of their Creator ? If not, he must be 
glorified by them, some other way; as, 
doubtless, he is glorified passively by simple 
matter, but surely not in any other sense 
than as showing forth his glory, his power, &c. 

Against the souls of beasts, a great 
objection is borrowed from Austin, that 
' under a just God, no one can be unhappy 
that does not deserve it' Now, if beasts 
have sense and reason, they are unhappy; 
and having deserved to be unhappy, this 
desert must arise from sin. Now, suppos- 
ing that they have sinned, are they not 
then capable of virtue ? of the love and 
knowledge of God ? Let it be granted, 
that they are miserable ; for men kill and 
eat them, subject them to the hardest la- 
bours, beat them, use them shamefully ill, 
and persecute them, without reason. If 
beasts were capable of sense and reason, 
would God have given to sinful man such 
entire dominion over them ? We may reply, 
that God is sovereign over his creatures, 
and may dispose of them as he pleases. 
God created beasts, and has subjected them 
to the dominion of man ; he has permitted 
man to eat, and consequently to kill them. 
Man uses this power; and if we suppose 
that beasts are reasonable, of what then 
182 



can they complain? Of dying? Man dies; 
and in what differs death by slaughter, 
from death by disease ? Will they tell God 
that they are innocent, and yet he subjects 
them to wicked, brutal, foolish men ? And 
are not mankind, the best of mankind, also 
subject to calamities, diseases ? &c. &c. 

Such are the reasonings of Calmet on this 
subject. The preceding passage quoted from 
Ecclesiastes, is thus paraphrased by the late 
Bishop Patrick : ' I could not but think that 
the condition of mankind is very deplorable. 
For, as beasts are subject to many accidents 
of which they have no foreknowledge, so are 
also men. The latter can no more foresee 
several things, which happen to them, than 
the former. If, however, men differ from 
beasts, in defending themselves from some 
evils, which may befal them, yet one 
thing renders both equal, and that is death. 
For men and beasts equally grow old, and 
die alike ; and whilst they live, they breathe 
the same common air. Therefore, when a 
man dies, he is as much an unprofitable piece 
of matter, as a beast ; and in this, he cannot 
pretend to any pre-eminence above other in- 
ferior creatures.' It appears from the con- 
text, that the words of Solomon are not 
spoken in the person of a free-thinker. They 
seem intended to humble the vain opinion of 
those great men, who would tyrannize over 
their inferiors ; by representing to them how 
little they differ from beasts, except only, 
in that, which they do not value or regard, 
namely, their immortal souls. Patrick's Pa- 
raphrase on Ecclesiastes. 

On the subject of beasts, we should recur 
to the distinctions of life ; body, soul, and 
spirit. Body we grant ; soul, that is animal 
life, we also grant them ; this they enjoy up 
to fixed degrees, each possessing that kind, 
degree, power, duration, &c. appropriate to 
its species, and transmitting the same to its 
posterity, without improvement, and without 
variation. In this is the animal life, or soul, 
distinct from reason, which is infinitely vari- 
ous, and capable of unlimited improvements, 
and of stronger desires after still farther ac- 
quisitions. Instinct, then, is a confined, 
contented, satisfied quality ; reason is quite 
the reverse, and strongly characterizes the 
active nature of spirit, which is a higher 
principle of life, and bestowed on man for 
the highest purposes of existence. 

We should also remember, that, how- 
ever the beasts may appear to be subjected 
to human cruelty, yet, in fact, not one in ten 
millions of animals in general suffer in this 
way. In support of this opinion, we may in- 
stance those myriads of wild creatures around 
our dwellings, and those where man has no 
residence ; we may instance birds that fly 
from our power, that swim, that dwell on 
rocks, &c. &c. We may instance the reptile 
tribe, the fishes, and, above all, insects in 
their innumerable species, together with mi- 
croscopic insects ! Surely not one living being 



BED 



BEE 



in a hundred millions, ever comes under the 
power of man. These ideas are distinct from 
the consideration, that beasts, having no 
foreknowledge, are not unhappy ; they have 
no anxious apprehensions, which never en- 
ter into their catalogue of miseries. On the 
contrary, anticipations of evil form the chief 
of human woes, and are the severest of hu- 
man sufferings. This strongly characterizes 
the nature of reason, and manifests its ca- 
pacity for extending its views into futu- 
rity, a futurity not limited by the narrow 
confines of time and of sense. Additions 
to Calmet's Dictionary ; Patrick on Eccle- 
siastes. 

BEATIFICATION, in the Romish 
church, the act by which the Pope declares 
a person happy after death. Beatification 
differs from canonization. In the former the 
Pope does not act as a judge in determining 
the state of the beatified, but only grants a 
privilege to certain persons to honour him 
by a particular religious worship, without 
incurring the penalty of superstitious wor- 
shippers. In canonization, the Pope speaks 
as a judge, and determines ex cathedra, on 
the state of the canonized. 

It is remarkable, that particular orders of 
monks assume to themselves the power of 
beatification. 

BEAUTY. The Hebrew word naveh, 
which signifies beauty, also denotes a dwell- 
ing. The Lord hath loved the beauty of 
Jacob, his temple, his selected abode in Ja- 
cob (Ps. xlvii. 4.). Sion his beauty, (Ps. 1. 2.) 
may be expounded in the same manner. 
The temple of the Lord, and his tabernacle, 
the places of his abode among men, are 
called his habitation. God delivered the 
beauty of the Israelites, the ark of the Lord, 
into the hands of the Philistines. It is ob- 
servable, that the idea of excellence suits all 
these passages. 

Commentators think that the phrase, 
beauty of holiness, (1 Chron. xvi. 29. 2 Chron. 
xx. 21. Ps. xxix. 2. ; xcvi. 9. ; ex. 3.) is ex- 
pressive of the dispositions of the mind re- 
quisite for all the true worshippers of God ; 
but if the expression be carefully attended 
to, it will be found to allude to the Shechi- 
nah, the visible glory of Jehovah, in which 
he appeared to the Old Testament church, 
and in which he dwelt between the cheru- 
bim. The Hebrew word hedar, here ren- 
dered beauty, properly denotes some exter- 
nal splendour or glory, and such as belongs 
only to the object of worship. Leigh's Cri- 
tica Sacra. 

BE'DAN, ]T2, signifies only, or lever; 
otherwise, in the judgment, or according to 
judgment. It is said in the First Book of 
Samuel, (xii. 11.) that the Lord sent several 
deliverers of Israel ; as Jerubbaal, Bedan, 
Jephthah, Samuel. Jerubbaal, we know, is 
Gideon ; but we do no where find Bedan 
among the judges of Israel. The Septua- 
gint, instead of Bedan, reads Barak, and 
183 



some think, that Bedan is Jair, of the tribe 
of Manasseh, who judged Israel twenty- 
two years. (Judg. x. 3.) There was a 
Bedan, great-grandson to Machir, and Jair 
was descended from a daughter of Machir. 
The Chaldee, the Rabbins, and after them 
the generality of commentators, conclude 
that Bedan was Samson of the tribe of 
Dan. Calmet, however, is of opinion that 
Bedan and Jair were the same person. The 
names of Samson and Barak were added 
in many Latin copies, before the correc- 
tions of them by the Roman censors were 
published. Bishop Patrick says, that the 
younger Jair, to distinguish him from his 
elder brother, seems to be called Bedan. 
Comment, on Judges. 

BEE'ROTH, mixa, signifies the wells or 
illuminations ; otherwise, in the lights. Bee- 
roth was a city of the Gibeonites, and after- 
wards belonged to Benjamin. (Josh. ix. 17- 
2 Sam. iv. 2.) Eusebius places this city 
seven miles from Jerusalem, towards Nico- 
polis. Mr. Maundrell, who seems to think 
that it was the same with Beer, whither 
Jotham fled from Abimelech, says, that it 
enjoys a very pleasant situation, on a south- 
ern declivity. At the bottom of the hill is 
a plentiful fountain of excellent water, from 
which the city derives its name. Wells's 
Geography, vol. i. p. 294. 

Beeroth of the children of Jaakan, a 
station whence the Israelites marched to 
Mosera. (Deut. x. 6.) Eusebius places it 
at the distance of ten miles from the city of 
Petra. In Numbers (xxxiii. 31, 32.) it is 
called Bene-jaakan, instead of Beeroth- 
bene-jaakan, or Beeroth of the children of 
Jaakan. The word Beeroth denotes the 
particular place among the children of Jaa- 
kan, where the Israelites encamped. It is, 
indeed, rendered in all the old versions, as 
well as in ours, as a proper name ; but it 
may be taken appellatively to denote wells, 
and imports that the Israelites pitched at 
the wells belonging to the children of Jaa- 
kan. This is the more probable, when we 
consider the value, in which wells or water 
would be held in the desert. Wells's Geo- 
graphy, vol. i. p. 264. 

BEER'SHEBA, ynu>")N2, signifies the 
well or fountain of an oath ; otherwise, the 
seventh well, or the well of satiety. Beer- 
sheba, the well of an oath ; or the well of 
seven, was so denominated, because at 
this place Abraham entered into an alli- 
ance with Abimelech, king of Gerar, and 
gave him seven ewe-lambs, in token of that 
covenant, to which they had sworn. (Gen. 
xxi. 22.) 

Beersheba was at first given to the tribe 
of Judah, and was afterwards ceded to that 
of Simeon. (Josh. xv. 28. ; xix. 2.) The 
limits of the Holy Land are often express* i 
in Scripture, by the terms, 'from Pan even 
to Beersheba.' (2 Sam. wii. 11, &c.) Dan 
being the northern, and Beersheba the 



BEE 



BEG 



southern extremity of the country. Beer- 
sheba was situated twenty miles from He- 
bron, towards the south. Wells's Geography, 
vol. i. p. 104, 165. 

BEES, four- winged insects, which have 
wings entirely membranous, and tails fur- 
nished with a sting. The common or hive- 
bee, is of three sorts : 1. The queen-bee, 
which is rather longer and of a brighter red 
than the rest. Her business consists in 
conducting a new swarm, and depositing 
eggs for another brood ; and her fertility is 
so great, that she frequently brings forth 
several thousands of young in a year. 2. 
The drones, which have no stings, are of a 
darker colour than the rest, and supposed to 
be males. 3. The honey-bees, or working 
bees, which are much more numerous than 
the other two kinds. 

Bees were declared unclean by the law. 
(Levit. xi. 23.) 

BEGGAR, one who asks alms. Moses, 
exhorting the Israelites to alms-giving, 
says, ' Save when there shall be no poor 
among you ; for the Lord shall greatly bless 
you in the land, which the Lord thy God 
giveth thee for an inheritance to possess it.' 
(Deut. xv. 4.) Soon after he adds as fol- 
lows : ' If there be among you a poor man 
of any of thy brethren, within any of thy 
gates, in thy land, which the Lord thy God 
giveth thee, thou shalt not harden thine 
heart, nor shut thine hand from thy poor 
brother.' (Ibid. xv. 7-) The text of this place 
does not speak of begging ; but we know, 
that there were, at all times, poor persons 
and beggars among the Jews, as well as 
other nations. God himself says, the poor 
shall never cease out of the land. (Deut. 
xv. 11.) We see in the Gospels, that there 
were several beggars in Jerusalem, and in 
other places. (Mark x. 46. Luke xvi. 20. ; 
xviii. 35, &c.) The true sense of the pas- 
sage in Moses, is, that God will so plenti- 
fully bless the lands of the Hebrews in the 
sixth year, that, though there be no harvest 
in the sabbatical year, yet there will be no 
poor among them, if they observed his pre- 
cepts ; or, it was his design to recommend 
charity and alms-giving to them in such a 
manner, that there should be among them 
no poor ; as if he had said, ' Be so charita- 
ble and liberal, that there may be no indi- 
gent person in Israel.' Some have thought 
that Jesus Christ and his Apostles were re- 
duced to such a degree of poverty as to beg. 
This, they are of opinion, appears from what 
our Saviour said to Zaccheus at Jericho ; 
' Make haste and come down, for to-day I 
must abide at thy house.' (Luke xix. 5.) 
It is certain, however, that this passage does 
not prove, that Jesus Christ begged on this 
occasion. We know that our Saviour had 
some persons who followed him, and sup- 
plied his wants : 'they ministered unto him 
of their substance.' (Id. viii. 3.) He had a 
common purse, into which was put whatever 
184 



was voluntarily offered : ' Judas had the bag, 
and bare what was put therein.' (John xii. 
6.) Lastly, Jesus Christ, before his preach- 
ing, worked with his father Joseph at the 
trade of a carpenter ; ' Is not this the car- 
penter V (Mark vi. 3.) The apostles also 
exercised trades even during their ministry. 
(Acts xx. 34. 1 Cor. iv. 12. Eph. iv. 2«. 
Acts xviii. 2, 3, &c.) 

BEGHARDS, Beguards, or Beguins, 
certain enthusiasts, who first appeared in 
Germany and the Low Countries, in the 
thirteenth century, and who derived their 
name from an old German word, signifying 
to seek any thing with importunity, zeal, or 
earnestness. The word Beghard soon after 
acquired a new and second signification, 
and was employed to denote a person, who 
prayed with uncommon fervency, and who 
distinguished himself from others by an extra- 
ordinary appearance of piety. Hence a Beg- 
hard signified a devout man. The origin and 
signification of this word will serve as a clue 
to deliver the reader from that labyrinth of 
difficulties, in which the history of the Beg- 
hards has been involved. They will also 
enable him to account for the prodigious 
multitudes of Beghards or Beguins, that 
arose in Europe in the thirteenth century ; 
and they will show how it happened, that 
these denominations were given to above 
thirty sects or orders, which differed widely 
from each other in their opinions, discipline, 
and manner of living. The first and ori- 
ginal signification of the word Beghard was 
that of importunate beggar. When, there- 
fore, the people saw certain persons em- 
bracing not only with resignation, but also 
with the most voluntary choice, and under 
a pretext of devotion, the horrors of poverty, 
begging their bread from door to door, and 
renouncing all their worldly possessions 
and occupations, they called them Beghards, 
without considering the variety of opinions 
and maxims, by which each was distin- 
guished. Afterwards, those who departed 
from the manner of living common among 
their fellow-citizens, and distinguished 
themselves by the gravity of their aspect, 
and the austerity of their conduct, were 
comprehended under the general denomi- 
nations of Beghards in Germany, and of 
Beguins in France. At first, the use of 
these terms was so extensive, that they were 
applied even to the monks themselves ; but 
in process of time, they were confined to 
those who formed a sort of intermediate 
order between the monks and the citizens, 
and who resembled the former in their 
manner of living, without assuming their 
name, or contracting their obligations. 

The Beghards were divided into two 
classes, which derived their different deno- 
minations of perfect and imperfect, from the 
different degrees of austerity in their man- 
ner of living. The perfect lived on alms, 
abstained from wedlock, and had no fixed 



BEG 



BEH 



habitations. On the contrary, the imperfect 
had their houses, wives, and possessions, 
and were engaged in the various affairs of 
life. 

The denomination of Beghards, which 
was at first honourable, gradually lost its 
primitive signification, and became a term 
of infamy and reproach. Among these re- 
ligious beggars, and pretenders to extraordi- 
nary piety, were many, whose piety consist- 
ed only in the most senseless superstition, 
whose austere devotion was accompanied 
with opinions of a corrupt nature, or who, 
under the mask of religion, concealed the 
most abominable principles, and committed 
the most enormous crimes. These were the 
persons who brought the denomination of 
Beghards into disrepute, and rendered it 
both ridiculous and infamous ; and in time, it 
was employed to signify only idiots, here- 
tics, or hypocrites. Madeline's Notes on 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iii. p. 80, &c. 

BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns 
founded either by St. Begge, duchess of 
Brabant, in the seventh century; or by 
Lambert Le Begue, a priest and native of 
Liege, who lived in the twelfth century. 
They were established first at Liege, and 
afterwards at Neville in 1207, or, as some 
say, in 1226. From this last settlement 
sprang the great number of Beguinages, 
which are spread over all Flanders, and 
which have passed from Flanders into Ger- 
many. In the latter country, some of them 
fell into extravagant errors, and persuaded 
themselves that it was possible in the pre- 
sent life to attain to the highest perfection, 
even to impeccability, and a clear view of 
God, and, in short, to so eminent a degree of 
contemplation, that, after this, there was no 
necessity of submitting to the laws of mortal 
men, civil or ecclesiastical. The council of 
Vienna, in 1311, condemned these errors, 
but permitted those who continued in the 
true faith, to live in chastity, and penitence, 
either with or without vows. There still sub- 
sist, or at least subsisted till lately, many 
communities of Beguines in Flanders. Mo- 
sheim, vol. iii. p. 85, &c. ; Broughton's Histori- 
cal Dictionary, vol. i. p. 135. 

BE'HEMOTH, mom, signifies animals, 
or perhaps the animal. In Job, (xl. 15.) is 
described an animal, called Behemoth, the 
particular properties of which are narrated 
at large. Bochart has taken much pains to 
prove that this is the hippopotamus, or 
river-horse ; Sanctius thinks it was an ox ; 
the fathers suppose it was the devil ; but 
Calmet and the generality of interpreters 
arc of opinion, that it is the elephant. That 
it is not the elephant appears from that 
animal being unknown in Egypt, though 
the elephant has been repeatedly and con- 
stantly adopted as a symbol of Africa. 
The most probable opinion is, that it is the 
hippopotamus, which, in thinking and speak- 
ing, was commonly, in ancient times, and in 
185 



the countries of which they were natives, 
united with the crocodile, the leviathan of 
Job. Besides, the description of the behe- 
moth agrees best with the hippopotamus. 

Behemoth, in Hebrew, signifies beasts in 
general, particularly those of the larger 
kind. The Rabbins say, that behemoth is 
the largest four-footed creature which God 
created ; that in the beginning he made 
two, male and female ; that he killed and 
salted the female, and reserved it as an en- 
tertainment for the elect, whenever the 
Messiah shall come ; and that the male is 
still living, but when his time comes, God 
will kill it, and give it to the Israelites, who 
shall then rise from the dead. They are so 
fully convinced of these extravagancies, that 
they often swear by the share which they are 
to have of the behemoth. Harmer's Observa- 
tions, vol. iv. p. 36. 70 Fragments annexed to 
Calmet 's Dictionary, No. lxv. p. 114, 115. 

BEHMENISTS, a name given to those 
mystics, who adopt the explications of the 
mysteries of nature and grace, as given by 
Jacob Behmen. This man was born in the 
year 1575, at Old Seidenburg, near Gorlitz, 
in Upper Lusatia, and was by trade a shoe- 
maker. He is said to have been thoughtful 
and religious from his youth, and to have 
taken peculiar pleasure in frequenting pub- 
lic worship. At length, seriously consider- 
ing with himself that speech of our Saviour, 
' My Father, which is in heaven, will give 
the Holy Spirit to them that ask him,' he 
was by it thoroughly awakened in himself, and 
set forward to desire that promised Com- 
forter. Continuing in that earnestness, he 
was at last, to use his own expression, ' sur- 
rounded with a divine light for seven days, 
and stood in the highest contemplation and 
kingdom of joys!' After this, about the 
year 1600, he was again surrounded by the 
divine light, and replenished with the hea- 
venly knowledge ; and going into the fields, 
and viewing the herbs and grass, by his in- 
ward light he saw into their essences, uses, 
and properties, which were discovered to 
him by their lineaments, figures, and signa- 
tures. In the year 1610, he had a third spe- 
cial illumination, in which were revealed to 
him still farther mysteries. Till the year 
1612, Behmen did did not commit these re- 
velations to writing. His first treatise, 
which is entitled Aurora, was seized on, 
before it was finished, by the senate of Gor- 
litz, who persecuted him at the instigation 
of the primate of that place ; and he never 
afterwards proceeded with it farther than 
by adding some explanatory notes. His 
next production was called The Three Prin- 
ciples ; and in this he more fully illustrates 
the subjects treated of in the former work, 
and supplies what it wants. The contents 
of these two treatises may be divided as 
follows; 1. How all things came from a 
working will of the holy triune incompre- 
hensible God, manifesting himself as Fa- 



BEH 



BEL 



ther, Son, and Holy Spirit, through an 
outward perceptible working triune power 
of fire, light, and spirit, in the kingdom 
of heaven. 2. How and what angels and 
men were in their creation; that they are 
in and from God, his real oiFspring; that 
their life is begun in and from this divine 
fire, which is the Father of Light, generat- 
ing a birth of light in their souls ; and that 
from both these proceeds the Holy Spirit, 
or breath of divine love in the triune crea- 
ture, as it does in the triune Creator. 3. 
How some angels, and all men, are fallen 
from God, and their first state of a divine 
triune life in him ; and what they are in 
their fallen state, and the difference be- 
tween the fall of angels and that of man. 
4. How the earth, stars, and elements, were 
created in consequence of the fall of an- 
gels. 5. Whence exist good and evil in all 
this temporal world, in all its creatures, 
animate and inanimate ; and what is meant 
by the curse, which in it every where dwells. 
6. Of the kingdom of Christ, which op- 
poses and contends with the kingdom of 
hell. 7- How man, through faith in Christ, 
is able to overcome the kingdom of hell, 
and triumph over it in the divine power, 
and by that means obtain eternal salvation ; 
and how, by working in the hellish quality 
or principle, he falls into perdition. 8. 
How and why sin and misery, wrath and 
death, shall reign only for a time, till the 
love, the wisdom, and the power of God, 
in a supernatural manner, as the mystery of 
God made man, shall triumph over sin, 
misery, and death ; and they shall raise fal- 
len man to the glory of angels, and cause 
this material system to shake off its curse, 
and enter into an everlasting union with 
that heaven, from which it was separated. 
By Behmen's Three Principles are to be un- 
derstood the dark world or hell, in which 
the devils live ; the light world, or heaven, 
in which the angels live ; and the external 
and visible world, in which man lives with 
respect to his bodily life. 

The year after, he produced his Threefold 
Life of Man, according to the Three Princi- 
ples. In this work he treats more largely of 
the state of man in this world: 1. That he 
possesses that immortal spark of life, which 
is common to angels and devils. 2. That 
divine life of the Light and Spirit of God, 
which constitutes the essential difference be- 
tween an angel and a devil, the last having 
extinguished this divine life in himself; and 
that man can attain to this heavenly life of 
the second principle only through the new 
birth in Christ Jesus. 3. Of the life of the 
third principle, or of this external and visible 
world. Thus, the life of the first and third 
principles is common to all men ; but the 
life of the third principle belongs only to a 
true Christian, or child of God. 

Behmen mingled what was termed the 
Rosicrucian, or chemical philosophy, with 
18G 



the mysteries of religion. Amongst other 
abstruse doctrines, he taught that the di- 
vine grace operates by the same rules, and 
follows the same methods, that the divine 
providence observes in the natural world; 
and that the minds of men are purged from 
their vices and corruptions in the same 
manner as metals are purified from the 
dross. 

He wrote several other treatises, besides 
the three already mentioned ; but these 
three form the basis of all his other writ- 
ings. His conceptions are often clothed un- 
der allegorical symbols ; and in his latter 
works, he frequently adopted chemical and 
Latin terms to express his ideas. This 
phraseology he borrowed from his conver- 
sation with learned men, for his education 
was very confined and illiberal; but with 
respect to the matter contained in his writ- 
ings, he denied that he borrowed it either 
from men or books. Some have bestowed 
high praises on this enthusiast, on account 
of his piety, integrity, and sincere love of 
truth and virtue ; and we shall not offer to 
contradict these encomiums. He died in 
the year 1624; and his last words were, 
' Now I go hence into Paradise.' Some 
of Behmen's principles were adopted by 
the late William Law, who has clothed them 
in a more modern dress, and in a less obscure 
style, and who, though gloomy and visionary, 
like his master, was certainly an honest and 
a well-meaning man. Behmen's Works, vol. 
i. p. 6 — 20 ; vol. ii. p. 1 ; Okeley's Memoirs of 
Behmen, p. 1 — 8; Mosheim, vol. iv. p. 266. 
476; Adam's View of Religions, p. 90. 98. 

BEL, bl, BrjX, signifies ancient ; other- 
wise, nothing. Bel, or Belus, first king of 
Babylon, who, after his death, received divine 
honours in that city, and throughout Chal- 
daea. It is uncertain, whether Nimrod, or 
Belus, the father of Ninus, or some other 
king, was the first worshipped under this 
name ; or whether it was the Sun, Saturn, or 
Jupiter. See Baal. 

Jeremiah, speaking of the destruction of 
Babylon by the Medes and Persians, says, 
' Babylon is taken, Bel is confounded, Me- 
rodach is broken in pieces.' (Jer. 1. 2.) In 
another place, he says, ' I will punish Bel in 
Babylon, and I will bring forth out of his 
mouth that which he hath swallowed up, and 
the nations shall not flow together any more 
unto him ; yea, the wall of Babylon shall fall.' 
(Ibid. Ii. 44.) This prophecy was fulfilled 
under Cyrus, Darius the son of Hystaspes, 
and the princes, by whom they were suc- 
ceeded. 

The Babylonians worshipped Bel as a 
living god ; they attributed to him the gift 
of healing diseases, and believed that he 
ate and drank like a living person. Baruch 
(vi. 41. Apoc.) says, that a dumb person 
was presented to him, that he might restore 
the use of speech, as though he were able 
to understand. And Daniel., in the apocry • 



BEL 



BEL 



phal book of Bel and the Dragon, relates 
in what manner he discovered the cheat 
of Bel's priests, who came every night 
through private doors, to eat what was 
offered to their deity. 

BEL and the DRAGON, the history of 
an apocryphal book, separated from the 
end of Daniel. This history was always 
rejected by the Jewish church, and is not 
extant either in the Hebrew or the Chal- 
dee language. St. Jerom gives it no better 
title than the fable of Bel and the Dragon. 
Selden thinks, that this little history should 
be considered as a sacred poem, or fiction, 
rather than as a true account. With re- 
spect to the dragon, he observes, that ser- 
pents (dracones) formed a part of the hidden 
mysteries of the pagan religion, as appears 
from Clemens Alexandrinus, Julius Fir- 
micus, Justin Martyr, and others. Aris- 
totle also relates, that in Mesopotamia 
were serpents, which would not injure the 
natives of the country, but strangers only. 
Hence it is thought not improbable, that 
both the Mesopotamians themselves, and 
the neighbouring people, might worship a 
serpent : the latter to avert the evil aris- 
ing from these reptiles; and the former 
from a principle of gratitude. However, 
of this there is no certain proof ; nor is it 
known, that the Babylonians worshipped a 
dragon or serpent. Broughton's Hist. Diet. 
vol. i. p. 137. 

BELIAL, Vybn, Trapavofioq, or (Ssj3t]\og, 
signifies wicked, of no account. Belial is He- 
brew, and plainly denotes a wicked, worth- 
less man ; one resolved to endure no subjec- 
tion ; a rebel ; a disobedient and an un- 
controllable fellow. The inhabitants of 
Gibeah, who abused the Levite's wife, 
have the name of Belial, unrestrainables, 
given them. (Judg. xix. 22.) Hophni and 
Phineas, the high-priest Eli's sons, are also 
called sons of Belial, of uncontrollableness, 
because of their crimes, and their unbecom- 
ing conduct in the temple of the Lord. (1 
Sam. ii. 12.) 

In later writings, Belial denotes the de- 
vil. Paul says, ' What concord hath Christ 
with Belial?' (2 Cor. vi. 15.) Hence we 
infer, that in his time, the Jews, under the 
name of Belial, commonly understood the 
devil, in the Old Testament. 

BELIEF, in its general and natural ac- 
ceptation, denotes a persuasion, or an assent 
of the mind to the truth of any proposition. 
In this sense, belief does not relate to any 
particular kind of means or arguments, 
but may be produced by any means what- 
ever : thus we are said to believe our sense, 
to believe our reason, to believe a witness. 
Belief, in its more restrained sense, denotes 
that kind of assent which is grounded only 
on the authority or testimony of some 
person. In this sense belief stands opposed 
to knowledge and science. We do not say 
that we believe snow to be white, but that 
187 



we know it is white. But when a matter is 
propounded to us, of which we ourselves 
have no knowledge, but which appears to 
us to be true from the testimony of' another, 
this is what we call belief. See Faith. 

BELL. Moses ordered that the lower 
part of the blue robe which the high-priest 
wore in religious ceremonies, should be 
adorned with pomegranates and gold bells 
intermixed, at equal distances. With re- 
spect to the number of bells worn by 
the high-priest, the Scripture says no- 
thing ; and authors are not agreed on this 
subject. The sacred historian, however, 
has informed us of their use and intent, in 
the following words : ' And it shall be 
upon Aaron to minister ; and his sound shall 
be heard when he goeth in unto the holy 
place before the Lord, and when he cometh 
out, that he die not.' (Exod. xxviii. 35.) 
Patrick is of opinion, that the sound of 
the bells, when the high-priest entered 
into the holy place, gave notice to the 
people to pray, whilst Aaron was offering 
incense, which represented their ascending 
to heaven ; and that the sound of the bells, 
when he came out, taught them so to dis- 
pose themselves, that they might be dis- 
missed with his blessing. Comment, on Exod. 

The kings of Persia are said to have had 
the hem of their robes adorned like that 
of the Jewish high-priest, with pomegra- 
nates and gold bells. Calmet thinks it 
was with a design of giving notice that the 
high-priest was passing that he wore little 
bells at the hem of his robe; and that it 
was a kind of public notice, that he was 
about to enter the sanctuary. In the king 
of Persia's court, no one might enter the 
apartments without giving warning not 
by knocking, or speaking, but by the sound 
of something. Thus the high-priest, out 
of respect, did not knock by way of no- 
tice, when he entered the sanctuaiy; but 
by the sound of the little bells, he, in some 
manner desired permission to enter, that 
the sound of the bells might be heard, and 
he be not punished with death for entering 
improperly. 

The figure of these bells is not known. 
The prophet Zechariah speaks of bells hung, 
to war-horses. ' In that day,' says he, ' there 
shall be upon the bells of the horses, holi- 
ness unto the Lord.' (Zech. xiv. 20.) 

Among the ceremonies introduced into 
the church in the tenth century, none was 
more ridiculous than the consecrating and 
baptizing of bells. The first fact of this 
kind on record occurred about the year 
9G8, when pope John XIII. sprinkled a 
large bell, which was cast for the Lateran 
at Rome, with holy water, blessed it, and 
pronounced it sacred. It is said that a 
similar custom still exists in the Romish 
church, and that on the baptizing of bells, 
a prayer of consecration is used, which 
imports, that by its sound the people may 



BEL 



BEL 



be delivered from the assaults of their 
enemies, and the attacks of evil spirits. 
Godfathers and godmothers are also ap- 
pointed to answer questions in the name of 
the bell. Gregory's Hist, of the Christian 
Church, vol. ii. p. 27. 

BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE-LIGHT. 
Between the seventh and the tenth century, 
great solemnities were paid to the sen- 
tence of excommunication. The most im- 
portant was the extinction of lamps or 
candles, by throwing them on the ground, 
with a slight imprecation, that the person 
against whom the imprecation was pro- 
nounced, might be extinguished or de- 
stroyed by the vengeance of God. The 
people were summoned to attend this cere- 
mony by the sound of a bell, and the curses 
accompanying the ceremony were pronoun- 
ced out of a book by the minister, standing 
in a balcony. Hence originated the phrase 
of cursing by bell, book, and candle-light. 
Priestley's History of the Corruptions of Chris- 
tianity, vol. ii. p. 179. 

BELLY is a word often used in Scripture 
as synonymous with gluttony : ' The Cretians 
are always liars, evil beasts, slow bellies.' 
(Tit. i. 12.) ' There are many whose God 
is their belly.' (Philip, iii. 19.) ' They serve 
not the Lord Jesus Christ, but their own 
belly.' (Rom. xvi. 18.) 

Belly is also used for the heart, the bot- 
tom of the soul : ' The words of a tale- 
bearer are as wounds, and they go down 
into the innermost parts of the belly.' 
(Prov. xviii. 8.) ' The spirit of man is 
the candle of the Lord, searching all the 
inward parts of the belly.' (Ibid. xx. 27.) 
* For it is a pleasant thing if thou keep 
them within thee, (in thy belly, marg. 
reading) ; they shall withal be fitted in thy 
lips' (lb. xxii. 18.). 

The belly of hell is the grave, or immi- 
nent danger of death. The author of 
Ecclesiasticus says, that he was delivered 
from the depth of the belly of hell, (li. 5.) ; 
and Jonah, that he cried to the Lord out of 
the belly of hell, (ii. 2.) 

BELSHAZ'ZAR, lyxu-bn, BaKraoap, 
signifies master of the treasure, or who buys 
up treasure in secret. Belshazzar, the last 
king of Babylon, is generally supposed to 
have been the son of Evil-merodach, and 
grandson to Nebuchadnezzar. During 
the time that Babylon was besieged by 
Cyrus, he made for a thousand of his cour- 
tiers an entertainment, at which every one 
drank according to his age. Belshazzar 
ascended the throne of Chaldaea in the year 
of the world 3444 ; and he made this en- 
tertainment in 3449, and therefore reigned 
only four years. (Dan. v. 1, 2, &c.) It is 
computed from Ptolemy's Canon, &c. that 
Belshazzar ascended the throne of Chaldaea 
before Christ 558, and that he reigned five 
years. 

The king, deluded by wine, commanded 
188 



his servants to produce to him the gold 
and silver vessels, which his grandfather 
Nebuchadnezzar had brought from the 
temple at Jerusalem, that he might drink 
out of them, with his wives, his concubines, 
and his court. This was accordingly 
done; and to add to their profaneness, 
in the midst of their cups, they sang songs 
in praise of their idols. Presently there 
was an appearance, as it were, of a man's 
fingers writing on the wall over against 
the candlestick. Belshazzar observing this, 
was greatly astonished, and commanded 
to fetch all the diviners and sages of 
Babylon, that they might explain what 
was written on the wall. It would seem, 
that the writing was upon the plaster, over 
against the central pillar of the court, and 
in the most conspicuous situation which 
the wall afforded. 

Belshazzar promised great honours, but 
the Magi could comprehend nothing of this 
writing, which increased the disorder and 
uneasiness of the king and his court. 
The queen-mother, wife to the late Nebu- 
chadnezzar the Great, came in and told 
Belshazzar of Daniel, and his prophetic 
spirit. The king, therefore, sent for him, 
and promised him the same honours that 
he had offered to the Magi, if he would 
explain the writing. Daniel undertook to 
perform what was required of him, but first 
reproved the king for his ingratitude to God, 
who had raised him to the rank of a sove- 
reign, and for the profanation of the ves- 
sels consecrated to his worship. He then 
proceeded to interpret the words, which 
were Mene, Telcel, Upharsin. Mene, says 
he, signifies number, and imports, that the 
days of both your life and reign are num- 
bered, or that you have only a short time 
to live ; Tekel signifies weight, and inti- 
timates, that you have been weighed in 
the balance of God's justice, and found 
too light ; and Upharsin, or Peres, as it is 
in Daniel, signifies, a fragment, and imports 
that your kingdom shall be divided, and 
given to the Medes and Persians. This 
took place accordingly. That very night, 
in the midst of their feasting and revelling, 
the city was taken by surprise, Belshazzar 
slain, and the kingdom transferred to Cyax- 
ares, whom the Scripture calls Darius the 
Mede. 

The following observations on this sub- 
ject occur in a very respectable work. 

An Eastern palace contains many courts, 
in which a great number of persons might 
be accommodated at a festival. One of 
these courts forms a square area, with pillars 
around it, supporting a gallery, &c. In 
this area, suppose the king and a select 
party of his guests to be entertained ; sup- 
pose the candlestick, giving a great light, 
to be situated in the centre of this area; 
the tables to be placed around it, and 
at the upper end the king to be seated. 



BEL 



BEL 



We may now ask in what part of the court 
did this miracle occur ? and in what did it 
consist ? 

I. In that same hour came forth fingers 
("i di) fitted for — adapted to — according to 
— like unto — as it were of — a human hand 
writing (that is, they wrote) over against — 
in the presence of — that is, near to (not, 
for instance, in the comparatively obscure 
angles of the court ; but in the nearest part 
to) the candlestick, where the principal 
force of the light struck ; in a bright situ- 
ation ; upon the plaster of the wall, skreen, 
inclosure, partition, which surrounded the 
court, ("f di) according to — fit for — adapt- 
ed to — the dignity and custom of a royal 
palace : then the king was terrified, &c. 
verse 24, and sent for Daniel. Then 
from before him was sent away the part 
("i di) according to a hand, that is, like 
unto a hand; and this writing appeared 
to be traced upon the wall. The writing, 
therefore, was upon the plaster, over a 
central pillar in the court, in the most 
conspicuous situation the wall could af- 
ford. 

II. This miracle consisted in tracings, 
marks, or delineations, on this plaster. 
Such might be made by various means : as 
1, by strong lines drawn with a black sub- 
stance on a white ground j or 2, by faint 
lines, so drawn ; or 3, by fissures, cracks, or 
crevices, wrought, as it were, in the plaster; 
or 4, as a finger, or, might write on soft 
plaster, by tracing its course along it, 
thereby forming hollows, little furrows, in- 
cuse marks on its surface, nearly similar to 
those made by the impression of a seal, for 
so the word (crun reshim) is used (chap. vi. 
8.) Now, king, establish the decree and 
sign (mark DU'nn tereshem), mark by 
stamping (a kind of writing) with thy seal, 
as the custom in the East is, for confirma- 
tion, the writing. 

The Chaldaean wise men could not ascer- 
tain the meaning of this writing, because if 
it consisted in incuse tracings, as with a 
finger on soft plaster, there was no disco- 
loration, by which to distinguish them as 
letters from the rest of the plaster, as well- 
drawn, well-formed, letters. At most, they 
saw merely a number of (to them confused) 
lines ; or if the marks were delineated by 
means of cracks, fissures, formed in the 
plaster itself, the effect was much the same 
to the Chaldaeans. They saw certain shapes, 
but could not combine them into true, or 
analogous, figures of letters ; and if they 
could perceive a letter in some places, they 
were not able to associate these into words, 
or separate the mass of them into signifi- 
cant expressions. 

Besides, after Daniel is introduced, and 
applies himself to the reading of these tra- 
cings, the part of the hand disappears — 
vanishes. Did the hand keep moving along 
the writing so as to hide part of it ? Was 
189 



it attended by any thin vapour-like cloud, 
which partly concealed the delineation till 
the right person came to read it '. When 
Daniel inspected this inscription, (1) he 
perceived that it formed letters, and words ; 
(2) he was enabled to combine, and arrange 
them ; (3) to perceive their hidden mean- 
ing and application to persons and things ; 
and (4) he possessed the fortitude to explain 
them to the king, and apply them to him 
personally. 

If it be thought that the letters were clear 
to the eyes of the wise men, as they were to 
Daniel, a question still remains, in what 
character were they written ? Not in the 
Chaldee character, we may suppose, but 
probably in the sacred language, the an- 
cient Hebrew, which at present we call the 
Samaritan. This was a character not likely 
to be thought of by the Chaldaeans; they 
would not readily think of uniting into let- 
ters and words, in this character of the an- 
cient Hebrews, their subjects and slaves, a 
few irregular scrawling fissures or lines. 
That was to them no sacred character ; and 
they were not in the habit of investigating 
it. To Daniel, on the contrary, this de- 
scription of writing had been familiar from 
his youth, in the Holy Scriptures. Whilst, 
therefore, the lines appeared to the Chal- 
daean wise men no better than those random 
veins, which are occasionally observed in 
marble, they were immediately understood 
by the learned Daniel, who read and ex- 
plained them without difficulty. 

From the repeated use of the word s t di, 
which seems to imply similarity, rather than 
the actual existence of the thing itself, to 
which it is referred, it has been suggested as 
a query, whether a real hand be meant by 
the writer, or a general resemblance to a 
hand? whether real fingers, or something 
like them ? and whether real letters, or 
lines approaching to the forms of such ? and 
those not strongly depicted, but only traced, 
as a finger might trace on plaster when soft, 
or as a seal marks the wax or the paper to 
which it is applied. It has been supposed 
that this inscription was combined into a 
cypher. 

Let us consider what remains unexplained 
of the narration. In that same hour there 
came (whence ? from the air, or from the 
plaster? or did they merely appear?) fin- 
gers, that is a projection longer than broad ; 
a kind of styli, pencils (fingers is a secon- 
dary idea of the word) di — sufficient for, 
that is proportionate to a man's hand, in size, 
number, or shape — and these styli marked, 
traced, opposite to the candlestick, in the most 
conspicuous and open part, upon the plaster 
of the inclosure of — which went round tin- 
court, di — like unto a king's, that is, the inte- 
rior, or third, court of the palace, which was 
prohibited to persons not sent for. And the 
king saw the apparent part of the hand, which 
wrote, or traced, the lines. After calling 



BEL 



BEN 



in Daniel, Then from before him went 
away, was sent away, the part di — suffi- 
cient for, proportionate to a man's hand; 
and left these tracings marked. And these 
were the tracings which were di — suffi- 
ciently — proportionately marked, &c. Mene, 
&c. 

It is difficult to reconcile profane his- 
tory with the account of Belshazzar given 
in the sacred writings. It is generally 
thought, that Evil-merodach was succeeded 
hy Neriglissor ; Neriglissor by Laborasoar- 
doch ; and that Belshazzar is the same with 
Nabonidas, or Labynitus. Tins will appear 
more plain, if we consider, first, that Nabo- 
nidas is generally believed to have been the 
last of the Babylonian kings, and therefore 
must be the same with him, who in Scrip- 
ture is called Belshazzar ; for immediately 
after the death of Belshazzar, the kingdom 
was given to the Medes and Persians. Se- 
condly, it appears that he was of the race 
of Nebuchadnezzar; for Daniel frequently 
calls him his son, and it is said in the Chro- 
nicles, that Nebuchadnezzar and his chil- 
dren, or offspring, reigned at Babylon till 
the kingdom of Persia. Thirdly, it also 
appears that, according to the prophecy of 
Jeremiah, the nations of the East were to 
serve Nebuchadnezzar, and his son, and his 
son's son. Nebuchadnezzar, therefore, must 
have been succeeded by a son and a grand- 
son in the throne of Babylon. Evil-mero- 
dach was the son of Nebuchadnezzar ; and 
of all the kings that reigned after Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Belshazzar alone could be his 
grandson. For Neriglissor was only his 
daughter's husband, and Laborasoardoch, 
his daughter's son. Fourthly, Herodotus 
tells us, that the last king of Babylon was 
son to the celebrated queen Nitocris ; and 
it is evident, that only by Evil-merodach 
she could have a son, who was grand- 
son to Nebuchadnezzar. This opinion 
seems to be the least perplexed with diffi- 
culties, and the most consonant to what 
we read both in Scripture and profane his- 
tory. 

But whatever variations may be observed 
in historians, the result of their accounts is 
constant and uniform ; they show, that the 
prophecies against Babylon were literally 
fulfilled. That city was besieged by an 
army of Medes, Elamites, and Armenians, 
according to the predictions of Isaiah, (ch. 
xiii. 17. ; xxi. 2. ; xiv. 23.), and Jeremiah 
(ch. 1. 11. 27. 28, 29, 30. 38. ; li. 36. 39. 57.) 
They foretold that the fords of the river 
should be seized ; that confusion and dis- 
turbance should prevail throughout the 
city ; that the bravest of the inhabitants 
should be disheartened ; that the river 
Euphrates should be made dry; that the 
city should be taken in time of rejoicing ; 
that its princes, sages, and captains, should 
be overwhelmed with drunkenness, and 
pass from a natural to a mortal sleep ; and 
190 



that the city, which was formerly so beau- 
tiful, so powerful, and flourishing, should 
become a dwelling for bitterns and unclean 
birds. These particulars deserve the read- 
er's notice not only in themselves, but also 
in their being delivered in progression. 
They were not all foretold together, nor all 
by the same prophet, but at different times. 
The succeeding prophet added what a for- 
mer had omitted ; and yet all agree in the 
same general issue and description. Uni- 
versal History, vol. iv. ; Prideaux's Connec- 
tion, part i. b. ii ; Fragments annexed to Cal- 
met's Dictionary, No. ccv. p. 24 — 26 ; Hales's 
Analysis, vol. i. p. 281. 

BENAI'AH, in s :n, Baveag, signifies son 
of the Lord ; otherwise, the understanding of 
the Lord. Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, 
captain of David's guard. He slew two 
sons of Ariel of Moab, as it is in the Sep- 
tuagint ; or the two lion-like men of Moab, 
as our translators have rendered the pas- 
sage ; or, as Calmet understands it, he took 
the two cities of Ar or Ariel, or the city Ar 
divided into two parts by the river Arnon. 
Bochart thinks that Ariel was the surname 
of two brave men of Moab, who were thus 
denominated from their great courage and 
strength ; and that the additional word Vk, 
which signifies God, is expressive of their 
bravery, in the manner we read of the 
mountains of God, the cedars of God, &c. 
Bishop Patrick seems to agree in opinion 
with Bochart ; and Le Clerc translates this 
passage the two Ariels. Benaiah also killed 
a lion in a pit, in time of snow. He killed 
a giant, who was five cubits high, and who 
was armed with sword and spear, though he 
himself had only a staff in his hand. ( 2 
Sam. xxiii. 21.) He adhered to Solomon 
against Adonijah, (1 Kings i. 36.) and he 
was sent by Solomon to kill Joab, in whose 
room he was created generalissimo. (1 
Kings ii. 29.) 

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks, 
who professed to follow the rules of St. 
Benedict, and who were established into 
a society in the year 529. They were ob- 
liged to perform their devotions seven times 
in twenty-four hours, and always to walk 
two together. Every day in Lent they 
fasted till six in the evening, and abated of 
their usual time in sleeping, eating, &c. 
Every monk had two coats, two cowls, a 
table-book, a knife, a needle, and a hand- 
kerchief; and the furniture of his bed con- 
sisted of a mat, a blanket, a rug, and a pil- 
low. This order is said to have been brought 
into England about the year 596. To them 
the English owe their conversion from idol- 
atry. They founded the metropolitan 
church of Canterbury, and all the cathedrals 
afterwards erected. This order has pro- 
duced a great number of eminent men. 
Their Alcuinus founded the university of 
Paris ; their Dionysius Exiguus perfected 
the ecclesiastical computation ; their Guido 



BEN 



BEN 



invented the scale of music ; and their Syl- 
vester, the organ. 

However, the followers of St. Benedict 
greatly degenerated from the piety of their 
founder, and lost sight of the duties of their 
station, and the end of their establishment. 
Having acquired immense riches from the 
liberality of the opulent, they became lux- 
urious, intemperate and slothful, abandoned 
themselves to all kinds of vices, extended 
their zeal and attention to worldly affairs, 
insinuated themselves into the cabinets of 
princes, took part in political cabals and 
court factions, greatly augmented supersti- 
tious rites and ceremonies in their order, 
to blind the multitude, and supply the 
place of their expiring virtue, and among 
other meritorious enterprises, ardently la- 
boured to swell the arrogance, by enlarging 
the power and authority of the Roman pon- 
tiff. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 447, 
448. 

BENEDICTION, in a general sense, 
the act of blessing or giving praise to God, 
or returning thanks for his favours. Hence, 
benediction is applied to the act of saying 
grace before or after meals. The ancient 
Jews, as well as Christians, never ate with- 
out a short prayer. The Jews are obliged 
to rehearse, every day, a hundred benedic- 
tions, of which eighty are to be said in 
the morning. Under the name benedic- 
tion, the Hebrews also frequently under- 
stand presents made by one friend to ano- 
ther: in all probability, because such are 
generally attended with blessings or com- 
pliments, both from those who give, and 
those who receive. 

Benediction is also used for an ecclesias- 
tical ceremony, by which a thing is render- 
ed sacred or venerable. The spirit of piety, 
or rather of superstition, has introduced 
into the Romish church benedictions for 
almost every thing. We read of forms of 
benediction for wax candles, boughs, ashes, 
church- vessels, and ornaments ; for flags 
or ensigns, arms, first-fruits, houses, ships, 
paschal eggs, silicium or the hair-cloth 
of penitents, &c. 

BENEFICENCE may be defined active 
goodness, or the practice of good. Every 
benevolent action is, in some measure, its 
own reward. It is always accompanied 
with a reasonable and a moral satisfaction. 
Every instance of victory over our more 
unsocial feelings and desires, is associated 
with a degree of delight, more heartfelt 
and more pure than any other victory. It 
diffuses over us the sweet complacency of 
a virtuous self-approbation, which is greatly 
superior to any of the gross enjoyments 
of selfishness. The more studiously we 
consider the frame of our nature, the 
constitution of the world, and even the 
present tendencies of actions, the more we 
shall find, that we have no greater interest 
in any thing, than in the pursuits of a 
191 



disinterested beneficence. Do we desire 
pleasure ? and what do we desire more ? 
Then, let me ask, what can afford pleasure 
so pure, or so heavenly, as the practice of 
beneficence ? Much do they mistake the 
nature of pleasure who place it in merely 
personal enjoyments. 

It will be found, that those habits, pas- 
sions, and propensities, which are most 
hurtful to the peace and happiness of so- 
ciety, are at the same time, most adverse to 
our own peace and happiness. The greatest 
part of human misery may be ascribed 
to the operations of pride, envy, malice, 
lust, intemperance, avarice, and injustice. 
Yet these are, at the same time, the 
most mischievous to the individual in 
whom they prevail. They harass his 
quiet, vex him with perpetual solicitude, 
waste his mind with care, and his heart with 
anguish. Thus those passions, affections, 
and pursuits, which have the strongest ten- 
dency to render us either unable or un- 
willing to promote the interest of others, 
most forcibly withdraw our attention from 
our own greatest interest. 

The first step towards doing good is to 
abstain from doing evil. To this pitch we 
surely can attain. If we cannot practise a 
disinterested benevolence, we can at least, 
abstain from cruelty, injustice, and oppres- 
sion. But from this negative state of 
charity, which consists in doing no ill to 
others, we shall, if we only cultivate those 
principles of good-will, and those sensa- 
tions of sympathy, which are engrafted in 
our nature, gradually rise to the higher 
degrees of positive beneficence. 

Can that wealth, that honour, those tem- 
poral distinctions, or those corporeal de- 
lights, which sensuality, avarice, and am- 
bition, the abhorred progeny of an irra- 
tional self-love, are so anxious to obtain, in 
any degree equal the heartfelt satisfaction 
of beneficence ? A disinterested beneficence 
diffuses over the whole sensitive frame of 
man sensations of a tranquil and unalloyed 
pleasure, not only in the act, but in the re- 
collection. As far as happiness consists in 
an agreeable state of the sensations, benefi- 
cence will be experienced by all who prac- 
tise it, to be the direct road to the attainment 
of the purest felicity. Since we know that 
this system of things, in which we are living, 
is subject to moral as well as to natural 
laws, and that even here some distinction 
is made between the cruel and the kind, 
the selfish and the beneficent; an imper- 
fect resemblance of that more perfect dis- 
tinction, which will be hereafter ; and since 
we are every moment living under the 
providential government of God, we have 
no reason to dread lest our acts of benefi- 
cence should expose us to want and mise- 
ry. ' He that hath pity upon the poor, 
lendeth unto the Lord ; and that which lie 
hath given, will he pay him again. 1 The 



BEN 



BEN 



beneficent man thus secures an invaluable 
treasure in the divine favour, and ' lays 
up in store for himself a good foundation 
against the time to come.' He may expect 
his recompence, not indeed as earned or de- 
served, but as plainly promised, and faith- 
fully assured. Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol. ii. p. 55, 56, 57, &c. ; Bowden's Sermons, 
Serm. xi. 

BENEVOLENCE is a natural feeling of 
good-will to others, and inculcates a rule of 
action tending to the happiness of our fellow- 
creatures. There seems to be ingenerate in 
our constitution, in which the sensitive and 
the rational natures are so intimately com- 
bined, a natural desire not only for our own 
good, but also for the good of others. The be- 
nevolent Creator has mingled in our frame a 
concern for the good of others, as an antago- 
nist to our selfishness, or more immediate 
concern for our own good. Independently 
of all acquired sensations of ill-will, we are 
naturally so constituted as to delight in the 
good, and to condole with the sufferings of 
our fellow-creatures. This is that ingenerate 
or instinctive feeling of benevolence, which 
the Author of our being has most powerfully 
incited us to cultivate, by rendering its ope- 
rations so conducive to our happiness, and 
so necessary to our well-being. The assiduous 
culture and strenuous exercise of this dispo- 
sition are alone wanting to unite us all by 
ties of sympathetic tenderness, as members 
of one body, or children of the same family, 
notwithstanding the diversity of our talents, 
our tempers, our pursuits, and interests. To 
be affectionate, kind, and sympathizing, to 
study the good of others, to rejoice with the 
happy, and to weep with the unfortunate, is 
to follow the bent of nature, and to obey the 
will of our Creator. 

A benevolent disposition produces a wil- 
lingness to perform, and an alacrity in per- 
forming, all those kind offices, those free and 
unsolicited services, which endear others so 
much to us, which conciliate their esteem, 
their confidence, and affectionate attach- 
ment; and which make them desire our good, 
deprecate our evil, and sympathize with us 
in all the varieties of our fortune. Many, 
indeed, are the temporal advantages of a 
benevolent disposition. Great as may be 
the depravity among men, they are seldom 
so depraved as to be able to resist the attrac- 
tions of goodness, or to remain unmoved by 
the operations of benevolence. For benevo- 
lence always finds something responsive to 
itself, something which excites a reciprocal 
love. Benevolence, while it disarms malig- 
nity, conciliates friendship. It is impossible 
that we can hate those, in whom we know 
there exists a sincere good-will towards us ; 
an earnest desire to promote our happiness, 
and to alleviate our misery. The conscious- 
ness of benevolence in any person naturally 
and strongly attracts our love. Benevolence 
is as agreeable to our unvitiated affections 
192 



and sentiments, as food, or any other grateful 
thing, to the palate. By passion or interest, 
or something congenial in their pursuits, the 
wicked may be leagued in friendship ; but be- 
nevolence, which glows in the heart, and ope- 
rates in the conduct, attracts the most pure, 
and cements the most lasting friendships. 

The genuine heartfelt pleasure, which is 
produced by the operations of true bene- 
volence, does not originate so much in the 
act, as in the benevolent disposition, 
in which the act originates. It is the 
benevolent disposition of the person, 
which chiefly causes the exquisite serenity 
of the joy. Though a man may not have 
a shilling to give in alms, he may possess 
a most benevolent disposition, which wants 
only opportunities for its exercise ; and 
in the consciousness of its possession, he 
will experience as much delight as others 
in more prosperous circumstances can do 
in its active operations. For true bene- 
volence takes pleasure not only in doing 
good, but in seeing good done ; and this, 
perhaps, is one of the best proofs and 
strongest instances of a truly benevolent 
disposition of mind. Fellowes's Body of 
Theology, vol. ii. p. 74, 194, 235, 238, &c. 

BEN 'HAD AD, -nrrp signifies, son of 
Hadad. Benhadad, king of Syria, waged 
war against Ahab, king of Israel, in the year 
of the world 3103, thirty-seven years after 
the war of Benhadad I. against Baasha. 
Benhadad was defeated, and lost all his bag- 
gage. His generals informed him, that the 
God of the Hebrews was a God of the moun- 
tains only, and that he must attack Israel in 
the plain, where the God of Israel had no 
power. The year following, Benhadad pur- 
sued this advice ; but the Israelites killed 
one hundred thousand of his people. To 
avoid falling into the hands of Ahab, Ben- 
hadad concealed himself in an inner cham- 
ber, or, as it is supposed, in the chamber of 
women, or harem, (1 Kings xx. 30.) Ben- 
hadad's servants then advised to beg their 
lives of king Ahab. Therefore, they went 
to Ahab; and Ahab accepted Benhadad's 
conditions of peace, and suffered him to 
depart. 

About twelve years after this, or about the 
year of the world 3115, the same Benhadad 
declared war against Jehoram, the son of 
Ahab; but the prophet Elisha discovered 
the plans of Benhadad to Jehoram, and by 
that means disconcerted them, (2 Kings vi. 
8, et seq.) Benhadad suspected treachery 
in his officers; but being afterwards in- 
formed, that his projects were revealed 
by Elisha, he resolved to seize that pro- 
phet. Understanding, therefore, that Eli- 
sha was at Dothan, he sent thither a de- 
tachment of his best troops to invest the 
city ; but the prophet struck them with 
obscurity of vision, and, before they per- 
ceived it, led them into Samaria. Some 
years after, Benhadad again besieged 



BEN 



BEN 



Samaria, and the famine was extreme in the 
place. However, in the night-time, a panic 
fear struck the Syrian host ; and, imagining 
that Jehoram had procured an army of Hit- 
tites and Egyptians, they thought only of 
saving themselves by flight. The next year, 
Elisha being gone towards Damascus, Ben- 
hadad, who had fallen sick, sent Hazael with 
presents to the man of God, to learn from 
him whether there were hopes of his reco- 
very? The prophet answered, Go, tell him, 
thou mayest certainly recover ; however, the 
Lord hath showed me, that he shall surely 
die. At the same time Elisha foretold to 
Hazael, that he himself would reign at 
Damascus, and would injure Israel greatly. 
Hazael returned to Damascus, and told Ben- 
hadad that his health would be restored ; but 
the next day, he took a thick cloth, which he 
dipped in water, and spread over the face of 
the king, who speedily died. Hazael suc- 
ceeded him, according to the prophecy of 
Elisha. Some have doubted, whether Ha- 
zael, by spreading the wet cloth over the 
king's face, intended Benhadad's death, or 
applied it as a remedy for the king's disorder. 
Fragments attached to Cahnet's Dictionary, 
No. vii. p. 16 ; xxv. p. 48. 

Benhadad, the son of Hazael, of whom 
we have been speaking. Jehoash, king of 
Israel, recovered from Benhadad all that 
Hazael had taken from Jehoahaz, king of 
Israel, his predecessor. (2 Kings xiii. 3, 24, 
25.) Jehoash defeated him three times, and 
compelled him to surrender all the country 
beyond Jordan, that is, the lands belonging 
to Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh, which Ha- 
zael had taken in the foregoing reigns. 

Josephus calls those princes Hadad, who, 
in Scripture, are denominated Benhadad, 
that is, son of Hadad. He adds, that the Sy- 
rians of Damascus paid divine honours to 
the last Hadad, and Hazael, in consideration 
of the benefits of their government, and par- 
ticularly because they adorned the city of 
Damascus with magnificent temples. 

BEN'JAMIN, r»""P) signifies son of the 
right hand, and was the name of the youngest 
son of Jacob and Rachel. Jacob journeying 
from Mesopotamia, southward, with Rachel 
in his company, she was surprised with the 
pains of child-bearing, about a quarter of a 
league from Bethlehem. She died after the 
delivery of a son, whom with her last breath 
she named Benoni, that is, the son of my 
sorrow, but whose name Jacob afterwards 
changed, and called him Benjamin, that is, 
the son of my right hand. (Gen. xxxv. 16, 
17, &c.) 

During the famine which afflicted Canaan, 
Jacob sent his other sons into Egypt to buy 
corn, and kept Benjamin at home, (Ibid. xlii. 
xliii.) Joseph, who well knew his brethren, 
though they did not discover him, perceiving 
that Benjamin was not among them, inquired 
very artfully whether he were living? He 
gave them corn only on condition they would 
193 



bring him into Egypt; and for the better se- 
curity of their promise, he detained Simeon 
till their return. Jacob, after great reluc- 
tance, at length permitted Benjamin to un- 
dertake this journey. 

Joseph, seeing Benjamin with the rest of 
his brethren, carried them to his house, made 
them eat with him, but not at his own table. 
Joseph placed his brethren according to their 
age ; and in the distribution of the meat, 
which he sent them, Benjamin's portion was 
five times larger than that of any other. After 
this, Joseph commanded his steward to fill 
their sacks with corn ; and in the sack be- 
longing to the youngest, he ordered him to 
put the silver cup which he used, and the 
money, which Benjamin had brought to pay 
for his corn, (Ibid, xliv.) When Joseph's 
brethren were gone out of the city, he sent 
after them his steward, who reproached them 
with their robbery, and, after searching all 
the sacks, found the cup in that of Benjamin. 
They returned to Joseph, who, after much 
solicitude on their part, and tears on his, re- 
vealed himself to them, fell on Benjamin's 
neck, and kissed him and all his brethren. 
He invited them to come, with their father, 
and live in Egypt. To each of them he gave 
two suits of raiment ; but to Benjamin he 
gave five suits, with three hundred pieces of 
silver. 

After this, the Scripture does not mention 
Benjamin. Of this tribe Jacob says, ' Ben- 
jamin shall ravin as a wolf: in the morning 
he shall devour the prey, and at night he 
shall divide the spoil.' (Gen. xlix. 270 Of 
Benjamin Moses, in his last song, says, ' The 
beloved of the Lord shall dwell in safety by 
him ; and the Lord shall cover him all the 
day long, and he shall dwell between his 
shoulders.' (Deut. xxxiii. 12.) These words, 
' Benjamin shall ravin as a wolf,' are allusive- 
ly applied to St. Paul, who was of the trihe of 
Benjamin ; but they are much more properly 
applied to the valour of this tribe. On these 
words of Genesis, (xlix. 27.) it has been ob- 
served, that the order of the words rather 
imports, that he shall chase and prey in the 
morning, and again at night, for the wolf 
does not prey during the day. At night, the 
wolf ' sallies forth over the country, keeps 
peering round the villages, carries off such 
animals as are not under protection, attacks 
the sheepfolds, scratches up, and undermines 
the threshold of the doors where they are 
housed, enters furious, and destroys all, be- 
fore he fixes on, and carries off his prey ! 
When these sallies fail he returns to the fo- 
rests, pursues the smaller animals, goes re- 
gularly to work, follows by the scent, opens 
to the view, still keeps following, hopeless 
himself of overtaking the prey, but expect- 
ing that some other wolf will come to his as- 
sistance, and is then content to share the 
spoil with his associate.' The present order 
of the words in the text has been suspected 
by others. Mr. Green wished to trail | 
O 



BER 



BER 



the two periods ; and the Syriac translator 
was led to nearly the same order. It is pro- 
bable, that besides those wolves, which singly 
seek for prey, some may hunt two or more 
together, and others in troops: Benjamin's 
partition of his prey leads to such kinds, 
if such be the character of Eastern wolves. 
The tribe of Benjamin was certainly warlike, 
and probably also cunning. Scripture Illus- 
trated, Expos. Index, p. 34 ; Buffon's Nat. Hist. 

BE'RA, ma, BaX^a, signifies in evil; or, 
in the companion ; otherwise, in crying. Bera, 
king of Sodom, in the time of Abraham, was 
tributary to Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. 
We know not how the king of Elam, who 
was situated so far from Palestine, subdued 
the kings of Pentapolis. Shuckford thinks, 
that, as the transaction we are about to re- 
late, happened four years before the death of 
Ninyas, who then lived in Persia, we may 
infer that this Ninyas was the Chedorlaomer 
of Moses, at that time head of the Assyrian 
monarchy, and that the kings mentioned as 
his confederates were only his deputies. He 
is also of opinion, that it is not absurd in 
Moses to call them kings, since, from what 
Isaiah afterwards hinted, the Assyrian boast- 
ed that his deputy princes were equal to 
royal governors ; ' Are not my princes alto- 
gether kings?' (Isa. x. 8.) Connect, vol. ii. 
1. 6. But, however this might be, certain it 
is, that Bera, and four other kings of neigh- 
bouring cities, supported probably by the 
people around them, rebelled against the 
Elamites. Chedorlaomer, confederating 
with three other kings, came and attacked 
Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and 
Zoar. He took and plundered these cities, 
and carried off the spoil to Hobah, a little 
beyond the springs of Jordan. Abraham 
pursued, overtook, and dispersed them ; re- 
covered the booty, and restored to Bera, and 
to the other kings of Pentapolis, what had 
been taken from them. (Gen. xiv.) This is 
the first war expressly mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, and happened in the year of the world 
2092, and before Jesus Christ 1912. 

BERE'A, or Beroe, Bepoia, signifies 
heavy, and was the name of a city of Mace- 
donia, in which St. Paul preached the Gospel 
with success. The sacred writer, therefore, 
has bestowed a peculiar eulogium on the 
Bereans, who, he tells us, were more noble 
or ingenuous, than the inhabitants of Thes- 
salonica, in that they received the word with 
all readiness of mind, and diligently search- 
ed the Scriptures, whether the things spoken 
by Paul concerning the Messias, or Christ, 
were just or not. (Acts xvii. 10 — 13.) Wells's 
Geography, vol. ii. p. 257- 

BEREANS, a sect of Protestant dissen- 
ters from the church of Scotland, who derive 
their name from, and profess to follow the 
example of the ancient Bereans, in founding 
their system of faith and practice on the 
Scriptures alone, without regard to any hu- 
man authority. 
194 



The Bereans first assembled as a separate 
society of Christians, in the city of Edin- 
burgh, in the autumn of 1773, and soon 
after in the parish of Fettercairn. The op- 
ponents of the Berean doctrines allege, that 
this new system of faith would never have 
been heard of, if Mr. Barclay, its founder had 
not been disappointed of a settlement in the 
church of Scotland. In answer to this 
charge, the Bereans appeal not only to Mr. 
Barclay's doctrine, uniformly preached 
in the church of Fettercairn, and many other 
places in that neighbourhood, for fourteen 
years before that benefice became vacant, but 
also to two different treatises, containing the 
same doctrines, and published by him about 
ten or twelve years preceding that period. 
They admit, indeed, that previously to May, 
1773, when the general assembly, by sustain- 
ing the king's presentation in favour of Mr. 
Foote, excluded Mr. Barclay from succeed- 
ing to the church of Fettercairn, in op- 
position to the almost unanimous desire of 
the parishioners, the Bereans had notleftthe 
established church, nor attempted to erect 
themselves into a distinct society. They 
say, that this separation was by no means 
necessary on their part, till by the assembly's 
decision they were in danger of being not 
only deprived of Mr. Barclay's instructions, 
but of being scattered as sheep without a 
shepherd. They add, that it was Mr. Bar- 
clay's open and public avowal, from both the 
pulpit and the press, of those peculiar senti- 
ments, which now distinguish the Bereans, 
that was the first and principal, if not the 
only cause of the opposition raised against 
his settlement in Fettercairn. 

The Bereans agree with the great majo- 
rity of Christians respecting the doctrine 
of the Trinity, which they hold as a funda- 
mental article. They also agree, in a great 
measure, with the professed principles of 
both our established churches, respecting 
predestination and election, though they al- 
lege that these doctrines are not consistently 
taught in either church. — But they differ 
from the majority of all sects of Christians, 
in various other important particulars. I. 
On the subject of our knowledge of the 
Deity, they say, that the majority of profess- 
ing Christians stumble at the very threshold 
of revelation ; and that, by admitting the doc- 
trine of natural religion, natural conscience, 
natural notices, &c. the cause of Christianity 
is at once given up to the infidels ; who may 
justly argue, as Mr. Paine in fact does in his 
Age of Reason, that no occasion exists for 
any revelation or word of God, if man from 
his works alone can discover his nature and 
perfections. But this the Bereans argue is 
beyond the natural powers of human reason; 
and, therefore, our knowledge of God is de- 
rived from revelation, without which man 
would never have entertained an idea of the 
existence of a Supreme Being. The same, 
however, is believed by most other Christ- 



BER 



BER 



ians. — 2. With respect to faith in Christ, 
and assurance of salvation through his 
merits, the Bereans differ from almost all 
other sects. These they reckon insepa- 
rable, or rather the same, because, say 
they, ' God hath expressly declared, he that 
believeth shall be saved ; and therefore 
it is not only absurd but impious, and in 
a manner calling God a liar, for a man 
to say, I believe the Gospel, yet have 
doubts of my own salvation.' With res- 
pect to the various distinctions and defini- 
tions that have been given of different 
kinds of faith, they argue, that there is 
nothing incomprehensible or obscure in 
the meaning of this word, as used in 
Scripture. They say, that as faith, when 
applied to human testimony, signifies nei- 
ther more nor less than the mere simple 
belief of that testimony as true, upon the 
authority of the testifier ; so, when applied 
to the testimony of God, it signifies pre- 
cisely ' the belief of his testimony, and 
resting on his veracity alone, without any 
kind of collateral support from, or concur- 
rence of, any other evidence or testimony 
whatever.' They also insist, that as this 
faith is the gift of God alone, the person, 
to whom it is given, is as conscious of 
possessing it, as is the being, to whom 
God imparts life, that he is alive ; and, 
therefore, he entertains no doubts either of 
his faith or his consequent salvation through 
the merits of Christ, who died and rose 
again for that purpose. In a word, they 
argue tbat the Gospel would not be, what 
it is said to be, glad tidings of great joy, 
if it did not afford full personal assurance 
of eternal salvation to the believer ; and 
they insist, that this assurance is the pre- 
sent infallible privilege and portion of 
every individual believer of the Gospel. 
3. Consistently with the preceding defini- 
tion of faith, the Bereans say, that the sin 
against the Holy Ghost, which has alarmed 
and puzzled so many in all ages, is only 
unbelief; and that the expression, ' it shall 
not be forgiven, neither in this world, nei- 
ther in the world to come,' means only that 
a person dying in infidelity would not be 
forgiven, neither under the former dispen- 
sation by Moses (at that time the present 
dispensation, kingdom, or government of 
God), nor under the Gospel dispensation, 
which, in respect to the Mosaic, was a 
kind of future world or kingdom to come. 
4. The Bereans interpret a great part of 
the Old Testament prophecies, and in par- 
ticular the whole of the Psalms, excepting 
such as are merely historical or laudatory, 
to be typical or prophetical of Jesus 
Christ, his sufferings, atonement, media- 
tion, and kingdom ; and they consider it 
as a gross perversion of these Psalms and 
prophecies, to apply them to the expe- 
rience of private Christians. In proof of 
this, they not only urge the words of the 
195 



apostle, that no prophecy is of any private 
interpretation, but insist, that the whole 
of the quotations from the ancient prophe- 
cies in the New Testament, and in particu- 
lar those from the Psalms, are expressly 
applied to Christ. With them, in this opi- 
nion, many other classes of Protestants 
agree. 5. Of the absolute all-superintend- 
ing sovereignty of the Almighty, the Bere- 
ans entertain the highest idea, as well as of 
the uninterrupted exertion of that sove- 
reignty over all his works in heaven, earth, 
and hell, however unsearchable by his crea- 
tures. They argue, that God, without elec- 
tion or choice in all his works, is a God 
without existence, a mere idol, a non- en- 
tity; and that to deny God's election, pur- 
pose, and express will in all his works, is to 
render him inferior to ourselves. 

With respect to their practice and disci- 
pline, the Bereans consider infant baptism 
as a Divine ordinance, instituted in the 
room of circumcision ; and they think it 
absurd to suppose, that infants, which all 
agree are admissible to the kingdom of 
God in heaven, should, nevertheless, be in- 
capable of admission into his visible church 
on earth. They commemorate the Lord's 
Supper commonly once a month ; but as the 
words of the institution fix no particular 
time, they sometimes celebrate it oftener, 
and sometimes at more distant periods, as 
may best suit their convenience. In ob- 
serving the Lord's Supper, they have no 
previous days of fasting or preparation, as 
they conceive that such human institutions 
tend only to convert the ordinance into an 
idol, and to occasion erroneous ideas re- 
specting its superior solemnity and import- 
ance. They also consider as unscriptural, 
the popish, episcopal, and presbyterian 
practice of consecrating the elements, or 
setting them apart from a common to a 
holy use ; as they, in like manner, object to 
the setting apart of the water in baptism. 
The words of that ordinance are, 'When he 
had given thanks, he brake it, and said, 
Take, eat,' &c. They insist that the word, 
thanks is incompatible with any notion of 
consecration ; that the Lord, acting the 
part of the Father's servant, did not ad- 
dress the bread or the cup, but his hea- 
venly Father, with thankfulness ; and that 
he has thus left an example to all his 
followers, commemorating the Lord's death, 
to give thanks to their God and Father, for 
his love shown in this ordinance till their 
Lord shall come. They also object to the 
word sacrament, as commonly applied to 
this ordinance and baptism. The term sa- 
crament, as expressed by the Latins, applies 
to the taking of an oath, which, they think, 
is not intended in showing forth the Lout's 
death, more than in prayer and praise. 
They say, that all ordinances appointed by 
God are works of faith, and labours of love, 
while an oath is to put an end to strife. At 
o2 



BER 



BER 



all times, as well as at the Lord's table, they 
recommend holiness in all manner of con- 
versation. 

The washing of feet, and similar prac- 
tices, which some other sects of Christians 
consider as duties, the Bereans think not 
to be obligatory. They argue, that the 
example of our Saviour in washing the feet 
of his disciples, was not the institution of 
an ordinance, but merely a familiar in- 
stance, taken from the custom of the coun- 
try, and intended to teach his followers, 
that they ought to perform to each other 
even the meanest offices of kindness. The 
Bereans meet every Lord's day for the pur- 
pose of preaching, praying, and exhorting 
to love and good works. 

With regard to admission, and exclusion 
of members, their method is very simple : 
when any person, after hearing the Berean 
doctrines, professes his belief and assu- 
rance of the truths of the Gospel, and 
desires to be admitted into their commu- 
nion, he is cheerfully received on his pro- 
fession, whatever may have been his for- 
mer manner of life. If, however, such a 
one should afterwards forsake his good pro- 
fession or practice, they first admonish 
him, and, if that has no effect, they leave 
him to himself. They do not think, that 
they possess any power to deliver a back- 
sliding brother to Satan ; that text, and 
other similar passages, as, ' Whatsoever ye 
shall bind on earth, shall be bound in hea- 
ven,' &.c. are considered by the Bereans 
as restricted to the apostles and to the in- 
spired testimony alone, and not to be ex- 
tended to any church on earth, or to any 
number of churches or of Christians, whe- 
ther decided by a majority of votes, or by 
unanimous consent. Nor do they think 
themselves authorized, as a Christian 
church, to inquire into each other's poli- 
tical opinions, or to examine into each 
other's notions of philosophy. They both 
recommend and practise, as Christian du- 
ties, submission to lawful authority; but 
they do not think that a man, by becoming 
a Christian, or joining their society, is un- 
der any obligation, by the rules of the Gos- 
pel, to renounce his right of private judg- 
ment on matters of public or private im- 
portance. On all such subjects, they allow 
each other to think and act, as each may see 
it his duty ; and they require of the mem- 
bers nothing more than an uniform and 
steady profession of the apostolic faith, and 
a suitable walk and conversation. It is said, 
that the doctrine of the Bereans has found 
converts in various places of Scotland, 
England, and America ; and that they have 
congregations in Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
Paisley, Stirling, Crieff, Dundee, Ar- 
broath, Montrose, Fettercairn, Aberdeen, 
and other towns in Scotland, as well as in 
London, and various parts of England. 
Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. p. 249 — 259. 
196 



BERENGARIANS, a religious sect in 
the eleventh century. They adhered to 
the opinions of Berengarius, who asserted 
that the bread and wine in the Lord's Sup- 
per are not really and essentially, but only 
figuratively, changed into the body and 
blood oi Christ. His followers were divided 
in opinion, with respect to the eucharist. 
They all agreed, that the bread and wine 
were not essentially changed. Some, how- 
ever, allowed that the body and blood of 
Christ were contained in them ; some de- 
nied any change ; some allowed a change in 
part ; and others, an entire change, with this 
restriction, that to those, who communicated 
unworthily, the change of the elements was 
reverted. 

It is observable, that Berengarius, who 
thus strenuously opposed the doctrine of 
transubstantiation and of the real presence, 
lived in the latter part of the eleventh cen- 
tury, a very considerable time before Lu- 
ther. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. ii. p. 253, 
254. 321, &c. 

BERENTCE, Bepviicr], signifies one that 
brings victory. Berenice, was daughter of 
Agrippa the Great, king of the Jews, and 
sister to Agrippa the Younger, who was 
also king of the Jews. She was first be- 
trothed to Mark, son of Alexander Lysi- 
machus, alabarch of Alexandria ; and she 
afterwards married Herod, king of Chalcis, 
her own uncle by the father's side. After 
the death of Herod, she proposed to Pole- 
mon, king of Pontus and part of Cilicia, 
that she would marry him, if he would con- 
sent to be circumcised. Polemon accepted 
this offer, and the match was consummated. 
But with him Berenice did not long con- 
tinue. She returned to her brother Agrippa, 
with whom she lived in such a manner as 
induced the world to speak ill of both. This 
incestuous commerce is noticed by Juvenal, 
(Sat. vi. 156.) Berenice was present with 
her brother Agrippa, and heard the dis- 
course of Paul before Festus, at Caesarea of 
Palestine. (Acts xxv. 13. 23.) Titus, the 
son of Vespasian, had a friendship for Be- 
renice, and Vespasian himself made her 
large presents. Some have said, that Titus 
would have married her, had she not been 
a foreigner, and a queen ; a connection 
which the Roman laws forbade. 

BERESCHITH, rvwoa, 'Ev apxy, sig- 
nifies in the beginning, and is the name 
given by the Jews to the Book of Genesis, 
because in Hebrew it begins with this word. 
Solomon Meir, a celebrated cabbalist, who 
became a convert to Christianity, under- 
took to explain the motives of his conver- 
sion to David, an eminent Jew. He took 
the word bereschith for his text, and in it 
pretended to discover all the mysteries of 
Christianity. 

Bereschith is also a name given to the 
second part of the Cabbala, which includes 
the study and contemplation of this sublu- 



BER 



BET 



nary world ; as the first part, called Mer- 
cava, relates to the knowledge of God's 
perfections, and of heavenly intelligence. 
Maim on. More Nevoch. 

BERO'DACH - BAL'ADAN, -pmn, 
BapioSaic, signifies who creates contrition ; 
otherwise, the son of death ; or of thy va- 
pour ; otherwise, the wheat, or the *purity 
of thy cloud, or of thy vapour. Berodach- 
Baladan was the son of Baladan, king of 
Bahylon. On receiving information that 
Hezekiah, king of Judah, had been sick, 
and was recovered in a miraculous man- 
ner, he sent ambassadors to Hezekiah with 
letters and presents. The king of Judah, 
extremely pleased with the arrival of these 
ambassadors, showed them the riches and 
beauties of his palace. Afterwards, God 
sent Isaiah to inform Hezekiah that every 
thing in his palace, with the sight of which 
he had entertained these foreigners, would 
be carried to Babylon. (2 Kings xx. 1, 2, 
&c.) 

BERYLLIANS,so called from Beryilus, 
an Arabian bishop of Bozrah, who was a 
man of eminent piety and learning, and 
lived in the third century. He taught that 
Christ did not exist before Mary ; but 
that a spirit issuing from God himself, and 
therefore superior to all human souls, as 
being a portion of the divine nature, was 
united to him at the time of his birth. Be- 
ryilus was afterwards refuted by Origen, 
and returned into the church. Mosheim, 
vol. i. p. 248. 

BE'SOR, 11W1, signifies evangelization, or 
incarnation ; otherwise, in the ox, or the wall. 
Besor is a brook (1 Sam. xxx. 9.) which 
falls into the Mediterranean, between Gaza 
and Hhinocorura. This is the river of 
the wilderness (Amos vi. 14), that many 
have unadvisedly taken for the river of 
Egypt, which is mentioned in Scripture, 
and is the eastern branch of the Nile. (Josh, 
xv. 4, 47- ; 2 Chr. vii. 8.) 

BETH AB'ARA, Bn9a(3apa, signifies the 
house of passage; otherwise, in anger; other- 
wise, in the wheat. Bethabara was a place 
beyond Jordan, where John baptized. (John 
i. 28.) It probably was the same as Beth- 
barah. (Judg. vii. 24.) It was doubtless a 
regular passage over the river Jordan ; 
and, as such, it was resorted to by the 
Midianites when discomfited by Gideon. 
Whether it was also the passage adopted 
by the Israelites under Joshua is uncer- 
tain. Wells's Geography, vol. i. p. 341. ; ii. 
p. 154. 

BETH'ANY, B^Oavia, signifies the house 
of obedience, or of afflictions; otherwise, the 
house of songs, or the house of the grace of 
the Lord. Bethany was a considerable 
place situated at the foot of the Mount 
of Olives, about fifteen furlongs, or two 
miles, east from Jerusalem, in the way to 
Jericho. Here Martha and Mary lived 
with their brother Lazarus, whom Jesus 
197 



raised from the dead, (John xi. 18. ;) and 
here Mary poured the perfume on our Savi- 
our's head. 

At present, Bethany is only a small vil- 
lage. At its entrance is an old ruin, which 
is called Lazarus's castle, and is supposed 
to have been the mansion-house in which 
he and his sisters resided. At the bottom 
of a descent, not far from the castle, is 
shown his sepulchre, which the Turks re- 
gard with great veneration, and is used 
for an oratory or place of prayer. De- 
scending into the sepulchre by twenty-five 
steps you come first into a small square 
room, and thence creep into another, which 
is less, and about a yard and a half deep, 
and in which, it is said, the body of La- 
zarus was laid. Not far from hence is the 
place, which, it is pretended, was Mary 
Magdalen's habitation; and, after descend- 
ing a steep hill you come to the fountain 
of the apostles, which is so denominated, 
because, as tradition reports, these holy 
persons were wont to refresh themselves 
here, in their journeys between Jerusalem 
and Jericho. This tradition seems ex- 
tremely probable, as the fountain is close 
to the road, and very inviting to the thirsty 
traveller. Whitby's Tables; Wells's Geo- 
graphy, vol. ii. p. 191, &c. ; Maundrell's 
Journey ; Mariti's Travels. 

BETHA'VEN, pN-rvn, Bairafiev, sig- 
nifies the house of vanity, or of grief; or, 
house of strength, or of iniquity. It is ge- 
nerally supposed, that Bethaven is the 
same as Bethel, and this belief is founded 
on the following circumstance: after Je- 
roboam son of Nebat, had set up his golden 
calves at Bethel, the Hebrews, who ad- 
hered to the house of David, in derision 
called this city Bethaven, that is, the 
house of nothing, or the house of iniquity, 
instead of Bethel, ' the house of God,' 
as it had been formerly named by Jacob. 
(Gen. xxviii. 19.) But as we read that 
Ai was beside Bethaven, on the east 
side of Bethel, (Josh. vii. 2.) it appears 
evident that Bethaven, though not far 
from Bethel, was yet a distinct place. It 
was situated in the north border of the tribe 
of Benjamin, (Josh, xviii. 12.) for in all 
probability, the wilderness of Bethaven was 
so called from this city. Wells's Geogra- 
phy, vol. i. p. 293. 

BETH'EL, bN-rvD, signifies the house of 
God. Bethel was a city west of Ai, on the 
confines of the tribes of Ephraim and Ben- 
jamin. (Gen. xii. 8. ; xxviii. 10.) Here 
Jacob slept, and had a dream, to him of 
great import and consolation. See Jacou. 

Eusebius says, that Bethel was twelve 
miles from Jerusalem, in the way to Sichem. 
Bethel was also called Bethaven, properly, 
perhaps, Bethaun ; where Aun is the same 
deity as is otherwise called On, and pro- 
bably is the Elioun of Sanchoniathon, in 
which appellation both names El and Ann 



BET 



BET 



appear to be united. As Bethel was situa- 
ted within the lot of Ephraim, the son of 
Joseph, it belonged to the kingdom of Is- 
rael, after the revolt of the ten tribes. It 
was taken from the kingdom of Israel by 
Ahijah, and afterwards reckoned a part of 
the kingdom of Judah. 

The Rabbins say, that the stone on 
which Jacob rested his head at Bethel, was 
put into the sanctuary of that temple, 
which was built after the return from the 
Babylonish captivity ; that the ark of the 
covenant was placed on this stone, and 
that, long after the ruin of the temple, the 
Jews were accustomed to lament on it their 
calamities. The Mahometans also believe 
their temple of Mecca to be founded on this 
very stone, and profess for it a great vene- 
ration. Sacred Geography ; Wells's Geogra- 
phy, vol. i. p. 180. 

BE'THER, "inn, "Opt] KoikwuaTuv, sig- 
nifies division ; or in the dove, or in examina- 
tion, or contemplation. In the song of Solo- 
mon (ii. 17. ; viii. 14.) the mountains of 
Bether are mentioned. The word Bether, 
which, in the second chapter of the Can- 
ticles, our translators of the Bible, and the 
author of the Vulgate, have retained, is by 
the Septuagint rendered KotXw/xara. Le 
Clerc does not think proper to follow the 
Septuagint ; and some Latin copies read 
Bethel, instead of Bether. But in the eighth 
chapter of the Canticles, the mountains of 
Bether, as it is in the Hebrew, are rendered 
by our translators, as well as by the Sep- 
tuagint, and the author of the Vulgate 
Bible, mountains of spices. Some suppose 
Bether to be Bethhoron, called Bethen in 
Eusebius, Bithara in Josephus, and Bethra 
in an old itinerary. Bether was taken by 
the emperor Adrian, in the rebellion of 
Barchochebas. Some think, that Bether 
is the same as Betharis, between Caesarea 
and Diospolis, and noticed in the ancient 
itinerary, already mentioned ; some that 
it is Bether, which is reckoned, by the 
Septuagint, among the cities of Judah, (Josh, 
xv. 60.) ; and Calmet is of opinion, that 
it is Upper Bethhoron, or Bethora, between 
Diospolis and Caesarea. Eusebius speaks 
of Betharim, near Diospolis ; and, when he 
mentions Bether, which was taken by Adrian, 
he says, it was in the neighbourhood of Je- 
rusalem. 

BETHES'DA, BnSe<r8a, signifies the 
house of effusion ; or, house of mercy. Be- 
thesda is called in the Greek Ko\vnfii}5pa 
irpofiar tier}, and in the Vulgate Piscina Pro- 
batica, because, according to some, in it 
were washed the sheep intended for the sa- 
crifices. Bethesda is the Hebrew name 
for a pool or public bath, which was sur- 
rounded by five porches, piazzas, or cover- 
ed walks. This bath, on account of its 
singular usefulness, was called Bethesda, 
niDn n-n, Bith Chezda, or the house of mercy, 
because, as Pool observes, the erecting of 
198 



baths was an act of great kindness to the 
common people, whose indispositions in 
hot countries required frequent bathing ; 
or rather, as the generality of expositors 
think, because it evinced God's great good- 
ness to his people, in giving such healing 
virtues to the waters of this pool. Some, 
however, explain Bethesda, rnu/K rvn, the 
sink-house, or drain, because the waters, 
which came from the temple, and where 
the victims were washed, flowed hither. As 
Josephus uses the Greek word Ko\vfi(3ri&pa 
to denote the baths at Jericho, Mr. Mac- 
knight, in his Harmony of the Gospels, con- 
cludes, that the opinions of those are false, 
who affirm that this pool was used for wash- 
ing the sheep designed for sacrifice, be- 
fore they were driven into the temple, and 
the entrails of the beasts there sacrificed. 
He also thinks, that this washing was in- 
compatible with the situation of Bethesda, 
which was near the sheep-gate or market (as 
our translators have rendered the passage,) 
in the south-east wall of the city, or, accord- 
ing to some, in that on the north-east, at a 
great distance from the temple. 

The Gospel informs us, that in the porches 
of this bath, at the time of a certain feast, 
supposed to be the passover, were many 
sick persons waiting to descend into the 
water when it was moved ; for an angel 
came down at certain times, and stirred 
the water. Whoever then first, after the 
troubling or stirring of the water, stepped 
into the pool, was cured, whatever was 
his disease. (John v. 2, 3, &c.) The ma- 
jority of writers have regarded the cures 
wrought at this place as a standing mira- 
cle among the Jews ; and yet they have 
been surprised, that Josephus should omit 
to mention a fact so honourable to his na- 
tion. Dr. Doddridge thinks, that this is 
' the greatest of difficulties in the history of 
the Evangelists, and that in which of all 
others, the learned answerers of Mr. Wool- 
ston had given him the least satisfaction.' 
To obviate some difficulties in the story, 
Mr. Fleming supposed the latter part of 
the third verse, and the whole of the fourth 
to be spurious ; it is wanting in Beza's MS. 
and is added in a later hand to a MS. 
which belonged to the late French king. 
However, it is in all other MSS., in 
the Syriac, and the other versions in the 
Polyglot. 

Dr. Hammond supposed that the blood 
of the great number of sacrifices which 
were washed in this pool, communicated a 
salutary efficacy to the water, on its being 
stirred by a messenger from the high-priest. 
By this unphilosophical suggestion, Dr. 
Pococke was so far carried away, as to seek 
at Jerusalem for the Pool of Bethesda, 
on that side of the city where it is not; 
and where it is, he could not see it, for 
reasons which will be stated presently. 
The following is one of Dr. Doddridge's 



BET 



BET 



notes en this history : ' I imagine this pool 
might have been remarkable for some mi- 
neral virtue attending the water ; which 
is the more probable, as Jerom tells us, it 
was of a very high colour : this, together 
with its being so very near the temple, 
where a bath was so much needed for re- 
ligious purposes, may account for the 
building such stately cloisters round it, 
three of which remain to this day. (See 
MaundrelVs Travels, page 108.) Some 
time before this passover, an extraordinary 
commotion was probably observed in the 
water; and Providence so ordered it, 
that the next person who accidentally 
bathed here, being under some great dis- 
order, found an immediate and unexpected 
cure : the like phenomenon, in some 
other desperate case, was probably ob- 
served on a second commotion ; and these 
commotions and cures might happen peri- 
odically, perhaps every Sabbath (for that 
it was yearly none can prove), for some 
weeks or months. This the Jews would 
naturally ascribe to some angelic power, 
as they did afterwards the voice from Hea- 
ven (John xii. 29.), though 720 angel ap- 
peared: and they, and St. John, had rea- 
son to do it, as it was the Scripture scheme, 
that these benevolent spirits had been, 
and frequently are, the invisible instru- 
ments of good to the children of men. 
(Psalm xxxiv. 7«; xci. 11. Dan. iii. 28.; 
and vi. 22.) On their making so ungrate- 
ful a return to Christ for this miracle, and 
those wrought at the former Passover, and in 
the intermediate space, this celestial visitant, 
probably, from this time, returned no 
more ; and, therefore, it may be observed, 
that though the Evangelist speaks of the 
pool as still at Jerusalem, when he wrote, 
yet he mentions the descent of the angel, 
as a thing which had been, but not as 
still continuing, (compare ver. 2 and 4 ) 
— This may account for the surprising 
silence of Josephus, in a story, which 
made so much for the honour of his na- 
tion. He was himself not born when it 
happened ; and though he might have 
heard the report of it, he would, perhaps, 
(as is the modern way) oppose speculation 
and hypothesis to fact, and have recourse 
to some indigested and unmeaning ha- 
rangues, on the unknown force of ima- 
gination : or, if he secretly suspected it 
to be true, his dread of the marvellous, and 
fear of disgusting his Pagan readers with 
it, might as well lead him to suppress 
this, as to disguise the passage through the 
Red Sea, and the Divine voice from Mount 
Sinai, in so cowardly and ridiculous a 
manner, as it is known he does. And 
the relation, in which this fact stood 
to the history of Jesus, would make 
him peculiarly cautious in touching upon 
it, as it would have been so difficult to 
handle it at once with decency and safety.' 
199 



We shall now analyze the words of the 
Evangelist's history, and endeavour to state 
their true import. 

Now there is, in Jerusalem, over against the 
sheep (-market, or sheep-gate) a pool (or 
place for swimming in, Ko\vp€r)Spa, i. e. 
sufficiently deep in some places for swim- 
ming in) named in Hebrew, Bethesda, having 
five porches (porticos, gateways, cloisters, 
walking-places.) In these lay a multitude 
(enow to fill them) of {aoStvovvruv, 
strengthless, languishing) debilitated per- 
sons, blind, contracted, (i. e. having parts of 
their persons strained, %w\wv, s ^ mt U P) 
wasted (parched as by burning heat, dried 
up, shrunk, shrivelled) waiting for the mov- 
ing of the water; for an angel according to 
the season (at the proper season occasion- 
ally, from time to time, after an interval, 
after a period of time ; the word is not 
Xpovoq, importing a fixed time, but 
Kara. Kaipbv, a season, or opportunity) 
descended into the pool, and troubled the wa- 
ter ; whoever then first went down (into the 
pool) after the r,ioving of the water, was 
cured of whatever disease (i. e. of the nature 
of those above enumerated) had seized 
him. 

I. The words, Now there is, do not deter- 
mine that the evangelist wrote his Gospel 
before the destruction of Jerusalem, as has 
been inferred from them, for remains of 
this pool exist to this very day, and as it is 
sunk in the rock, it may still continue for 
ages. Dr. Doddridge says, that, though 
many have asserted it, he does not find sa- 
tisfactory proof, that the sheep to be sacri- 
ficed were washed here ; or that the blood 
of the sacrifices ran into this pool. Indeed, 
there are no traces, or channels, in the rock 
which forms the ground, if even such a 
thing were possible, that the blood from the 
altar ever ran toward, or into this pool. 
This obliged Pococke, who adopted that 
idea, to seek for the Pool of Bethesda in 
lower ground, on the other side of the 
temple. The error has consisted, in sup- 
posing that the sheep were washed here, 
after they were slain; whereas, they were 
washed in it, as soon as bought in the ad- 
joining market, i. e. they were driven in, 
and swam about, &c. in the pool. In it was 
always a body of water sufficient for that 
purpose ; and, after being washed, they were 
driven into the temple. 

The place now shown for the pool of 
Bethesda, is square : yet it might have had 
five porches ; one on each hand at entering, 
and three on the other sides. It was, pro- 
bably, very simple, and, though near the 
temple, unfit for the purpose of religious 
purifications. 

II. The diseases of these patients were 
of the nervous kind. Perhaps, rv<p\u>i', 
blind, is used in the sense of dim-sighted, 
i. e. so weak in the nerves, &c. serving the 
rye, as to be nearly, yet not hopelessly, 



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blind. The other diseases, mentioned by 
the Evangelist, are evidently such as cold 
bathing might be likely to cure. The angel 
might be any providential agent of God. See 
Angel. 

III. But, perhaps, there were two dis- 
tinct waters : first, the constant body of 
water, the pool, in which the sheep were 
washed, and which was the bath ; secondly, 
an occasional and inconstant issue of wa- 
ter, whose source was on one side of the 
bath, falling from a crevice of the rock, 
into which this bason was sunk, from a 
height of several feet. Perhaps, this last 
was the medicinal water, which was troubled 
at the season. As it, probably, did not 
fall in a very large quantity, the person 
who could first get to it, received the 
full benefit of it, (1) because it was fresh, 
and pure, from the rock, which the water 
in the pool, if supplied from the same 
source, could not be ; (2) because there 
was no superfluity of it, of which others 
might partake ; (3) because such of it as 
fell into the pool, instantly became diluted, 
mingled with the body of water con- 
stantly there, and by that means was de- 
prived of its efficacy, and its concentrated 
virtues ; (4) this mixture was soon com- 
pleted by the number of persons, who 
rushed into the pool, in hopes of being in 
it the first, or, at least, very early. If the 
water fell from above into the pool, it might 
easily be watched by the people, who 
would not fail to rush towards it, when 
they discovered it to be issuing. But if 
the pool itself had been the water that was 
moved, it is probable they would not have 
washed the sheep in it, partly from the 
idea of holiness connected with this pool, 
and partly from an apprehension that 
whilst they were washing, the water might 
be troubled at a moment when no person 
could enjoy its benefit ; if, indeed, its being 
troubled could be distinguished from the 
commotion occasioned by the sheep in it, 
every day. 

Sandys says, ' A little above, we entered 
the city at the gate of St. Stephen, for- 
merly called the port, or gate, of the valley, 
and of the flock ; because at this gate came in 
the cattle, which were to be sacrificed in the 
temple, and were sold in the market adjoining. 
On the left hand is a stone bridge, which 
passeth at the east end of the north wall, into 
the court of the temple of Solomon ; the head 
of the bridge to the pool of Bethesda (under- 
neath which the water of the pool had a con- 
veyance) called also Probaticum, as the sacri- 
fices were washed in it, before they were 
delivered to the priests. Now, it is a great 
square profundity, green and uneven at the 
bottom : into which a barren spring doth drill 
between the stones of the northward tvall ; and 
stealeth away almost undiscovered. The place 
is for a good depth hewn out of the rock ; 
confined above on the north side with a 
200 



steep wall, on the west with high buildings 
(perhaps a part of the castle of Antonia ; 
where are two doors to descend by, now all 
that are, half choked with rubbish), and on 
the south with the wall of the court of the 
temple.' 

Such is the account of Sandys, who was 
there on Good Friday, 1611, and who found 
the spring running, but in small quantities. 
However, when Mr. Maundrell was there 
on Good Friday, 1697, it would seem that 
this stream did not then run ; and, there- 
fore, it is probable, that this spring is still 
intermitting, and to this day runs occasion- 
ally. We have every reason to suppose, 
that the spring was formerly more copious 
and abundant, as well as medicinal ; as the 
rubbish, &c. which now chokes up the pas- 
sages for its waters, may not only diminish 
their quantity, but also injure their quality. 
Fragments attached to Calmet's Diet. No. 
lxvi. p. 117. 120; Doddridge's Family 
Expositor, vol. i. p. 252, edit. 1810; Univ. 
Hist. 

BETH'LEHEM, onb-rvn, signifies the 
house of bread; otherwise, the house of war. 
Bethlehem was a city of Judah, generally 
called Bethlehem of Judah, (Judg. xvii. 
7.) to distinguish it from another of the 
same name in Zebulun. (Josh. xix. 15.) 
It is also called Ephratah, (Mic. v. 2.) or 
Ephrath, (Gen. xlviii. 7.) and Bethlehem 
Ephratah ; and its inhabitants are denomi- 
nated Ephrathites. This city was not con- 
siderable for its extent or riches, but was 
remarkable on account of the Messiah's 
birth. Micah extolling this pre-eminence 
of Bethlehem, says, ' Thou Bethlehem 
Ephratah, though thou be little among 
the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee 
shall he come forth unto me that is to 
be ruler in Israel ; whose goings forth 
have been from of old, from everlasting.' 
(Mic. v. 2.) The words ' ruler in Israel,' 
are translated ' the Messiah,' by the Chal- 
dee paraphrast. The prophet had cer- 
tainly no design of describing David, who 
had been born at Bethlehem many ages 
before he wrote ; but he referred to Christ, 
who was born in this city many ages after- 
wards. 

Several difficulties have been started re- 
lating to this prophecy of Micah, who fore- 
tels the birth of the Messiah at Bethlehem. 
First, Matthew reads, ' And thou Bethle- 
hem of Judah art not the least among the 
princes of Judah,' (Matt. ii. 6.); whereas the 
text of Micah runs, ' And thou Bethlehem, 
though thou be little among the thousands of 
Judah.' It is objected, therefore, that 
a contrariety exists between Matthew and 
Micah, one of whom says, that Bethlehem 
is small among the cities of Judah ; and 
the other, that it is not the least among the 
princes of Judah. To this it is answered, 
that a city, though little, yet may not be 
the least. Matthew also might read the 



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BET 



text of Micah in an interrogative man- 
ner : ' And thou Bethlehem, art thou too 
small to be ranked with the cities of 
Judah?' If so, he gives the true sense 
of the prophet, ' Thou art not the least.' 
Some critics maintain that the Hebrew 
word Zehir, generally translated small, 
signifies also tbe contrary, and they cite 
several passages, in which Zeliir, as the 
Jews agree, denotes heads, principals 
of the people, (See Jer. xlviii. 4. ; xlix. 
20. ; Zech. xiii. 7-) But Jerom and 
others are of opinion, that Matthew pro- 
duced the passage in Micah ironically, 
not as it was written in that prophet, but 
as it had been produced by the priests to 
Herod ; so that he might reprove their igno- 
rance and negligence. However, a city may 
be small in extent yet not the lowest, the 
meanest, the least, but on the contrary, of 
great dignity and consequence by reason of 
other circumstances, such as its being a 
royal seat, or of great antiquity, or illustri- 
ous for learning as an university, &c. or for 
other privileges. Perhaps, the following 
is the sense of the passage : ' Beth- 
lehem, though of narrow extent as a 
city, yet is of great dignity as the ap- 
pointed birth-place of the Messiah.' In 
other words, it is small but honourable. 

Secondly, Micah, in the latter part of 
the passage, says, ' Out of thee (viz. 
Bethlehem) shall he come forth unto me, 
that is to be ruler in Israel ; whose goings 
forth have been from of old-, from ever- 
lasting.' The Jews generally acknow- 
ledge, that the Messiah should come out 
of Bethlehem ; but they maintain, that 
this prophecy of Micah has no reference 
either to Jesus or the Messiah. He 
of whom Micah speaks, say they, shall 
be ' ruler in Israel ;' and in the third 
verse, it is affirmed, ' The remnant of 
his brethren shall be converted, and re- 
united with the children of Israel.' 
Jesus as man never reigned over Israel, 
and if he be God, he can have no brethren 
over whom to reign. Besides, they think, 
that to confine the kingdom of the Messiah 
to Israel, would be to limit it too much. 
The answer is, that Christ as God cer- 
tainly had no brethren ; but as the son of 
Mary, and as born of the Jewish nation, 
Jesus had brethren. In this place, the 
prophet carefully distinguishes his tem- 
poral birth at Jerusalem, from ' his goings 
forth,' which, says he, have been from 
of old, from everlasting. Nor is it dero- 
gatory from the greatness of the Messiah, to 
say, that he will reign over Israel, any more 
than for God to call himself, as he frequently 
does, the God of Israel. 

Bethlehem is situated on the declivity 
of a hill, about two leagues from Jei'usalem. 
It is generally visited by pilgrims, and 
at present is furnished with convents not 
onlv of the Latins, but also of the Greeks, 

" 201 



and Armenians. Here are shown the very 
place, in which our Saviour was born, the 
manger, in which he was laid, and the 
cave or grot, in which Mary hid herself 
and her divine babe, for some time before 
their departure into Egypt. The grot is 
hollowed in a chalky rock ; but this white- 
ness is affirmed by the people not to be 
natural. It was occasioned, they say, 
by some miraculous drops of the blessed 
virgin's milk, which fell from her breast 
as she was suckling the holy infant. 
Indeed, so firmly do the inhabitants 
of Bethlehem believe this opinion, that 
they are also persuaded the chalk of this 
grotto possesses a miraculous virtue, and 
will increase the milk of women. Here 
are the chapel of St. Joseph, the supposed 
father of our Lord, the chapel of the In- 
nocents, and also those of St. Jerom, 
St. Paula, and Eustochium. About half 
a mile east from the town is the field 
in which the shepherds were watching their 
flocks, when they received the glad tidings of 
the birth of Christ. Not far from the field, 
is the village, in which the shepherds dwelt. 
Wells's Geography, vol. ii. p. 144, 145; Cha- 
teaubriand' 's Travels in Greece, Palestine, <yc. 
vol. i. p. 329, &c. 

BETHLEHEMITES, a religious order 
of men, distinguished by a red star with 
five rays, which they wore on their breast, 
in memory of the star that appeared to the 
wise men, and conducted them to Bethle- 
hem. Several authors have mentioned this 
order, but none have told us of their ori- 
gin, or where their convents were situated ; 
if we except Matthew Paris, who says 
that, in 1257, they obtained a settlement 
in England, and resided in Trumpington- 
street, Cambridge. There still subsists in 
the Spanish West Indies another order of 
Bethlehemites, who are habited like ca- 
puchins, except that they wear a leather 
girdle, instead of a cord, and on their right 
side an escutcheon representing the nativity 
of our Saviour. Buck's Theological Dic- 
tionary. 

BETH'-PHAGE, jwsvn, Brj9<payei, sig- 
nifies house of the mouth of the valley, or 
house of the sivelling of the valley, or house 
of fire. Bethphage was a small village at 
the foot of the mount of Olives, between 
Bethany and Jerusalem. Jesus, having come 
from Bethany to Bethphage, commanded his 
disciples to procure an ass for his use, in 
his triumphant entrance into Jerusalem, 
(Matt xxi. 1, &c.) The distance between 
Bethphage and Jerusalem is about fifteen 
furlongs. The Talmudists, indeed, tell 
us, that Bethphage was within the walls 
of Jerusalem, but at their very utmost 
circuit; and it is probable, that there was 
a street or district so called, because it led 
immediately, and adjoined, to the Bethphage 
which produced figs, and was out of the city. 
Sacred Geography. 



BET 



BET 



BETHSA'IDA, BrjOo-aida, signifies the 
house of fruits, or grain, or hunters, or the 
crafty, or, perhaps, rather the temple of Saida, 
or Side. Bethsaida was a city, which is not 
mentioned in the Old, though it frequently 
occurs in the New Testament. The reason 
of this is, that it was only a village, as Jose- 
phus tells us, till Philip the tetrarch enlarged 
it into a magnificent city, and gave it the 
name of Julias, from respect to Julia, the 
daughter of Augustus Caesar. As it belonged 
to the tribe of Naphtali, a country well stock- 
ed with deer, (Gen. xlix. 21.) it was ex- 
tremely well situated for hunting ; and as it 
stood on the north end of the lake Gennesa- 
reth, just at the influx of the river Jordan 
into the lake, it was so commodious for fish- 
ing, that we find Peter and Andrew, who were 
inhabitants of this city, following the occu- 
pation of fishermen. (John i. 44.) Hence 
the name Bethsaida, which imports a place 
of hunting, or fishing, has been thought to 
agree well with its situation. The woe 
denounced against it by our Saviour has 
long overtaken it in some measure. Wells's 
Geography, vol. ii. p. 172. 

BETH'SHAN, i^-n-2, signifies the house 
of the tooth, or of ivory ; otherwise, the house 
of change ; or, the dwelling of sleep ; other- 
wise Beth-shean, which signifies the 
house of tumult. Beth-shan, or Beth-shean, 
was a city belonging to the half tribe of 
Manasseh on the west of Jordan, and not 
far from that river. In the time of Euse- 
bius and St. Jerom, it was a considerable 
city, and was then, as it had long been 
before, called Scythopolis, or the city of 
the Scythians, as the Septuagint read it. 
(Judges i. 27-) It is supposed to have 
taken this name, from some remarkable oc- 
currence here, when the Scythians invaded 
Syria. It is said to be six hundred fur- 
longs from Jerusalem. (2 Mace. xii. 29.) 
After the battle upon mount Gilboa, the 
Philistines having taken the bodies of Saul 
and Jonathan, hanged them upon the walls 
of Bethshan : but the inhabitants of Jabesh 
Gilead, on the other side Jordan, came in 
the night, carried off the dead bodies, and 
interred them honourably under a grove of 
oaks, near that city, (1 Sam. xxxi. 10, &c.) 
— Wells's Geography, vol. ii. p. 20. 

BETH'-SHEMESH, wzurm, signifies 
house of the sun, or house of servitude, or of at- 
tendance. Beth-shemesh, a city, belonging 
to the priests in the tribe of Judah. (1 Sam. 
vi. 12.) In Eusebius, it is placed ten miles 
from Eleutheropolis, east, in the way to Ni- 
copolis, or Emmaus. This Beth-shemesh was 
situated in the north border of Judah, as ap- 
pears fron the book of Joshua, (xv. 10.) 
and not far west from Kirjath-jearim. — 
The Philistines returning the ark of the 
Lord into the land of Israel, it came to 
Beth-shemesh, where some of the people 
looking into it with too much curiosity, the 
Lord smote seventy principal men of the 
202 



city, and fifty thousand of the common 
people. (1 Sam. vi. 19, &c.) As some have 
misunderstood this history, and thought 
that fifty thousand persons perished on this 
occasion, it may be proper to examine the 
expressions of the historian more particu- 
larly. His words are, the Lord smote, — as 
if with his hand — among the people, seventy 
men, and.fifty thousand men ; and the people 
lamented because the Lord had restrained, 
confined, the people with a great restraint. 
Here, then, was no destruction, no morta- 
lity, of the people, for, in that case, they 
could not have lamented. Probably, some 
disorder was epidemical among them, and 
by it many of them were laid up, confined 
to their chambers, &c. for a time. This 
narration is illustrated by the manner in 
which the small-pox sometimes pervades 
one of our towns: it restrains, confines 
the inhabitants, with a great restraint ; yet, 
they recover, and, in due time, may appear 
abroad again. This explanation of the pas- 
sage removes all difficulty with respect to the 
number of persons visited, since the disease 
might spread far beyond Beth-shemesh, or 
its territories. Indeed, this single town can 
scarcely be supposed to have contained so 
great a number of people as the history men- 
tions. Nor does the history say, that the 
country at large was alarmed, or that it sym- 
pathized with this town, &c. or that any but 
the people of Beth-shemesh, lamented, as 
must have been the case, had so many per- 
sons been destroyed. 

It may, however, be very much doubted, 
whether this is the proper interpretation of 
the passage. It appears that three of the 
MSS. of the twelfth century (collated by 
Dr. Kennicott), and Josephus, read simply 
seventy men, and omit 50,000. Seventy is, 
therefore, evidently the true number ; for as 
Beth-shemesh was only a "small village," it 
is improbable that it could contain so many 
as 50,000 inhabitants. Kennicott' s Diss. i. 
p. 532; ii. p. 208; Dr. A. Clarke and Dr. 
Boothroydonl Sam. vi. 19 ; Home's Introduc- 
tion to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the 
Holy Scriptures, vol. ii. p. 505, sixth edition ; 
Additions to Calmet's Dictionary ; Wells's 
Geography, vol. ii. p. 7- 

BETHULI'A, BeTovXia, signifies the vir- 
gin of the Lord, and was a city celebrated for 
its siege by Holofernes, at which he was 
killed by Judith. (Judith vii. 1.) 

Bethulia is a small city, not far from the 
mountain known by the name of the Moun- 
tain of the Beatitudes. It is generally sup- 
posed to be the " city set on a hill." (Matt, 
v. 14.) It stands upon a very eminent 
and conspicuous mountain, and is seen at a 
great distance. At present it is called Saf'et, 
and is a very strong position, and might well 
defy the power of Holofernes and his army. 
It answers exactly to the description given 
in the book of Judith. 

Safet is said to be peopled by about four 



BET 



BEZ 



hundred Jewish families. The prospect 
from this place is very extensive. ' The 
view to the south, and on either side, com- 
prehending about one-third of the circle, 
presents the most surprising assemblage of 
mountains which can be conceived. It is, 
if such an expression may be allowed, one 
vast plain of hills. To a distance of twenty 
or thirty miles toward Nazareth, and nearly 
the same toward Mount Tabor, and Mount 
Hermon, the far spreading country beneath 
is covered with ranges of mountains ; which, 
having passed over them, we knew to be 
ascents and descents far from inconsider- 
able ; but which, from the eminence of 
Safet, appear only as bold undulations of 
the surface of the earth. To the left are the 
inhospitable and unvisited mountains, east- 
ward of the river Jordan. In the centre of 
the distant scene, appears the beautiful lake 
of Tiberias, fully seen from one extremity 
to the other; and in the back ground, 
stretching beyond the utmost power of vi- 
sion, are the mountains of Gilead. On a 
clear day, the view in that direction must 
be more than forty miles.' Jowetfs Re- 
searches in Syria, p. 184 ; Home's Introduc- 
tion, vol. iii. p. 568. 

BETH'-ZUR, Tfirwa* signifies the 
house of the rock, or of strength, or of ho- 
nour, or of reward, or of chains. Beth-zur, 
Beth-zura, or Bethsura, was a city of Ju- 
dah. (Josh. xv. 58.) It was opposite to 
south Edom, and thence defended the pas- 
sages into Judea. We read in the second 
Book of Maccabees, (xi. 5.) that Bethsura 
was only five furlongs from Jerusalem ; but 
this is evidently a mistake. Eusebius places 
it twenty miles, or seven leagues, from 
Jerusalem, in the way towards Hebron. 
This was a place of great strength, parti- 
cularly in the time of the Maccabees. It 
was fortified by Rehoboam, king of Judah. 
(2 Chron. xi. 7-) Lysias, regent of Syria, 
under young Antiochus, the son of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, besieged Beth-zur, with an 
army of sixty thousand foot, and five 
thousand horse. (1 Mace. iv. 28, &c.) 
Judas Maccabaeus marched to succour the 
place, and obliged Lysias to raise the 
siege. (Id. vi. 70 Judas put his army to 
flight, and afterwards, employing well 
the arms and booty found in the enemy's 
camp, the Jews became stronger, and 
more formidable than they had hitherto 
been. 

BEYOND. The Hebrew word iny, 
heber, which is generally translated beyond, 
signifies also on this side. At least we find 
it in many places, in which, by the con- 
text, it appears that we should read, on 
this side. It is said, ' And they came to 
the threshing-floor of Atad, which is be- 
yond Jordan.' (Gen. 1. 10.) The floor of 
Atad was to the west of Jordan. It seems, 
therefore, that with respect to Palestine, in 
which the Jews dwelt, it should be trans- 
203 



lated on this side the river. However, it 
may be said, that Moses, when he wrote 
this, was east of Jordan, and consequently 
with regard to him, Atad was beyond that 
river. In the Septuagint, (Numb. xxii. 1.), 
we read, Ilapd rtjv 'lopddvnv Kara'ltpix^, 
On the other side Jordan, by Jericho ; and 
the Vulgate has it still stronger, Trans Jor- 
danem Jericho fixa est, Jericho is situated 
beyond Jordan, though we know that this 
city lay to the west of the river. This 
example has been produced by Calmet 
from the Vulgate, to prove that this prepo- 
sition is capable of a different meaning, and 
ought to be translated on this side. Our 
translators of the Bible knew that the He- 
brew word admitted of this sense, and 
accordingly have rendered the passage, on 
this side Jordan by Jericho. However, it 
seems impossible to conclude, whether the 
author by this preposition means this or the 
other side, unless the context explain the 
passage. 

BE'ZEK, pn, signifies lightning ; other- 
wise, in the chains or fetters. Bezek was a 
city in the tribe of Judah, whither the men 
of Judah, by the direction of God, marched 
against the Canaanites, and slew of them 
ten thousand men. Here they found Ado- 
ni-bezek, of whose kingdom this city is 
supposed to have been the capital, and on 
whom they retaliated for the cruelty with 
which he had treated others. ( Judg. i. 4 — 7-) 
Saul, before he marched to Jabesh Gilead, 
reviewed his men at Bezek. (1 Sam. xi. 8.) 
Eusebius and St. Jerom say, that in their 
days were two cities of this name, pretty 
near each other, and about seventeen miles 
from Sichem, in the way to Scythopolis or 
Bethshan. Calmet is of opinion, that Bezek 
was situated somewhere near the passage of 
the river Jordan at Bethshan ; and Dr. 
Wells thinks, that there was only one city 
of this name, in the tribe of Judah. Wells's 
Geography, vol. i. p. 333. 

BE'ZER, -|tf3, Bacrap, signifies fortifica- 
tion, or vintage ; otherwise, to cut, to take 
away, to defend, to hinder; otherwise, in 
anguish, or distress. Bezer, or Bozra, or 
Bostra, a city beyond Jordan, given by Mo- 
ses to the tribe of Reuben, (Deut. iv. 43.) 
and designed by Joshua as a city of refuge. 
(Josh. xx. 8.) It was bestowed on the Le- 
vites of Gershon's family. (Id. xxi. 27- 3G.) 
When the Scripture mentions Bezer, it 
adds, in the wilderness, because it was si- 
tuated in Arabia Deserta, and the eastern 
part of Edom, encompassed with deserts. 
Isaiah threatens Bozra with very great 
calamities, (Isa. xxxiv. 6.) and describes a 
conqueror coming from Bozra with his 
garments dyed in blood. (Id. lxiii. 1.) 
Many learned interpreters have supposed, 
that this conqueror was Judas Maccabeus, 
who took this city, which he ravaged, plun- 
dered, and afterwards set on fire. Bishop 
Lowth, however, is of opinion, that the mo- 



BIB 



BIB 



tropolis of the Edomites, and of the country 
thence called Idumea, which Judas took, 
was not Bozra, hut Hebron. (1 Mace. v. 
65.) He thinks, therefore, that the pro- 
phecy has no relation to Judas Maccahaeus ; 
and he knows of no event, to which it can 
refer, unless, perhaps, to the destruction of 
Jerusalem, and the Jewish polity. Jere- 
miah also threatens Bozra in a terrible man- 
ner, (Jer. xlviii. 24, 25. ; xlix. 13. 22, &c.) ; 
and it is believed by some, that this pro- 
phecy was fulfilled, when Nebuchadnezzar 
carried his arms into Edom, and the neigh- 
bouring provinces, five years after the taking 
of Jerusalem. 

Eusebius places Bezer, or Bozra, twenty- 
four miles from Adraa or Edrai. This city 
is sometimes said to belong to Reuben, 
sometimes to Moab, and at other times to 
Edom ; because as it was a frontier town to 
these three provinces, it occasionally be- 
longed to each. It is probable there were 
other cities of this name. 

BIBLE, Bi/3\oc, the Boole, a name given 
by Christians to the collection of the sa- 
cred writings, or the Holy Scriptures of 
the Old and New Testament, by way of 
eminence and distinction. This collection 
is also known by various other appella- 
tions, as the Sacred Books, Holy Writ, 
Inspired Writings, Scriptures, &c. The 
Hebrews call the Bible (that is, the Old 
Testament), r\")pn mikra, lesson, lecture, or 
Scripture. 

This sacred book is that, on which both 
the Jewish and Christian religions are 
founded. The Jews acknowledge only the 
Books of the Old Testament, the collecting 
and publisbing of which are unanimously 
ascribed to Ezra, by both Jews and Christ- 
ians. Some of the ancient fathers, on no 
other foundation than that fabulous and 
apocryphal Book, the Second of Esdras, 
pretend that the Scriptures were lost and 
destroyed during the Babylonish captivity, 
and that Ezra restored them by a Divine 
revelation. But tbe truth is, that, in the 
reign of Josiah, no other book of the law 
was extant, besides that found in the tem- 
ple by Hilkiah. From this original, by 
order of that pious king, copies were trans- 
cribed, and search was made for the other 
parts of the Scriptures ( 2 Kings xxii.) ; 
and by this means copies were multiplied 
among the people, who carried them to 
Babylon. After the return of the Jews 
from tbe Babylonish captivity, Ezra col- 
lected as many copies of the sacred writings 
as he could, and from them prepared a cor- 
rect edition. He disposed the several books 
in their proper order, and settled the canon 
of Scripture for his time. These books he 
divided into three parts: 1. The Law; 2. 
The Prophets; 3. The Hagiographia, or 
Sacred Writings. This division is men- 
tioned by Josephus, who says, • We have 
only twenty-two books, which we believe 
204 



to be of Divine authority, and of which five 
are the books of Moses. — From the death 
of Moses to the reign of Artaxerxes, the 
son of Xerxes, king of Persia, the prophets, 
who succeeded Moses, have written thir- 
teen books. The remaining four contain 
hymns to God, and moral precepts for the 
conduct of life.' This division is as fol- 
lows : — 

I. The Law contains, 1. Genesis, 2. Ex- 
odus, 3. Leviticus, 4. Numbers, and 5. Deu- 
teronomy. 

II. The writings of the Prophets are, — 
1. Joshua, 2. Judges and Ruth, 3. Samuel, 
4. Kings, 5. Isaiah, 6. Jeremiah and his La- 
mentations, 7- Ezekiel, 8. Daniel, 9. The 
twelve Minor Prophets, 10, Job, 11. Ezra, 
12. Nehemiah, and 13. Esther. 

III. The Hagiographia consist of, 1. The 
Psalms, 2. The Proverbs, 3. Ecclesiastes, 
and 4. The Song of Solomon. 

The sacred books were thus divided, that 
they might be reduced to the number of 
letters in the Hebrew alphabet, which 
amount to twenty- two. At present, the 
Jews reckon twenty-four books in their 
canon of Scripture. In this division the 
Law stands as before, and the Prophets 
are distributed into the former and latter 
prophets. The former prophets are Jo- 
shua, Judges, Samuel, Kings ; and the lat- 
ter, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 
twelve Minor Prophets. The Hagiogra- 
phia consist of the Psalms, the Proverbs, 
Job, the Song of Solomon, Ruth, the La- 
mentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, 
Ezra, and the Chronicles. Under the 
name of Ezra, they comprehend Nehe- 
miah. This order has not been always ob- 
served, but the variations from it are un- 
important. 

The five books of the Law are divided 
into fifty-four sections. Many of the Jews 
suppose, that this division was appointed 
by Moses himself; but others, with greater 
probability, ascribe it to Ezra. By this 
division it was intended, that one of these 
sections should be read in their synagogues 
every Sabbath day ; and the number was 
fifty-four, because a month being added to 
the Jewish intercalated years, the Sabbaths 
amounted to fifty-four. In other years, the 
number was reduced to fifty-two, by twice 
uniting two short sections. Till the perse- 
cution of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Jews 
read only the Law ; but the reading of it 
being then prohibited, they substituted in 
its room fifty-four sections from the Pro- 
phets. When the reading of the Law was 
restored by the Maccabees, the section 
which had been read from the Law was 
used for the first, and that from the Pro- 
phets for the second lesson. These sec- 
tions were divided into verses ; and if Ezra 
was not the author of this division, it was 
introduced not long after his death, and 
seems to have been intended for the use of 



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the Targumists, or Chaldee interpreters. 
After the return of the Jews from the Ba- 
bylonish captivity, when the Hebrew lan- 
guage had ceased to be spoken, and the 
Chaldee became the vernacular tongue, it 
was usual to read the law first in the origi- 
nal Hebrew, and afterwards to interpret it 
to the people in the Chaldee language. For 
this purpose, therefore, these shorter sec- 
tions or periods were very convenient. 
Buxtorf, Tiberias, cap. 11. 

The division of the Scriptures into chap- 
ters, as they are at present, is of much 
later date. Some attribute it to Stephen 
Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, in the 
reigns of John and Henry III. But the 
real author of this invention was Hugo de 
Santo Caro, commonly called Hugo Car- 
dinalis, from his being* the first Dominican 
raised to the degree of cardinal. This Hugo 
flourished about the year 1240. He wrote 
a comment on the Scriptures, and pro- 
jected the first concordance, which is that 
of the Latin Vulgate Bible. As the in- 
tention of this work was to render the 
finding of any word or passage in the 
Scriptures more easy, it became necessary 
to divide the book into sections, and the 
sections into subdivisions. These sections 
are the chapters, into which the Bible has 
been divided since that time. But the 
subdivision of the chapters was not then 
into verses, as at present. Hugo subdi- 
vided them by the letters A, B, C, D, E, 
F, G, which were placed in the margin at 
an equal distance from each other, accord- 
ing to the length of the chapters. About 
the year 1445, Mordecai Nathan, a famous 
Jewish Rabbi, improved Hugo's invention, 
and subdivided the chapters into verses, 
in the manner they are at present. — Id. 
P reef at. and Concor. Bib. Heb. 

The order and division of the books of 
the Bible, as well of the Old as the New 
Testament, according to the decree of the 
council of Trent, are as follows : those 
books, to which asterisks are prefixed, are 
rejected by Protestants, as apocryphal : 

The Books of the Old Testament. 
Genesis. 
Exodus. 
Leviticus. 
Numbers. 
Deuteronomy. 
Joshua. 
Judges and Ruth. 

1 Samuel, or 1 Kings. 

2 Samuel, or 2 Kings. 

1 Kings, otherwise called 3 Kings. 

2 Kings, otherwise called 4 Kings. 

1 Esdras (as the Septuagint and Vulgate 

call it), or the book of Ezra. 

2 Esdras, or, as we denominate it, the book 

of Nehemiah. 

* Tobit. 

* Judith. 
Esther. 

205 



Job. 

Psalms. 

Proverbs. 

Ecclesiastes. 

Song of Solomon. 

* The Book of Wisdom. 

* Ecclesiasticus. 
Isaiah. 

Jeremiah and * Baruch. 

Ezekiel. 

Daniel. 

Hosea. 

Joel. 

Amos. 

Obadiah. 

Nahum, which we place immediately after 

Micah, and before Habakkuk. 
Jonah, which we place immediately after 

Obadiah. 
Micah. 
Habakkuk. 
Zephaniah. 
Haggai. 
Zechariah. 
Malachi. 

* 1 Maccabess. 

* 2 Maccabees. 

The Books of the New Testament. 
r St. Mathew. 
The Gospel \ St. Mark, 
of 1 St. Luke. 

t St. John. 
The Acts of the Apostles. 

The Romans. 
The Corinthians I. 
The Corinthians II. 
The Galatians. 
The Ephesians. 
The Philippians. 
The Epistle of/ The Colossians. 
St. Paul to \ The Thessalonians I. 
The Thessalonians II. 
Timothy I. 
Timothy II. 
Titus. 
Philemon. 
The Hebrews. 
St. James. 
St. Peter I. 
St. Peter II. 
St. 
St 
St, 
St 



The general 
Epistle of 



John I. 
John II. 
John III. 
Jude. 

The Revelation of St. John. 
The books of the Old Testament were 
chiefly written in Hebrew ; but some parts 
of Esdras and Daniel, are in Chaldee. 

The books of the New Testament were 
all w r ritten in Greek, except, perhaps, Mat- 
thew, if that was first written in Hebrew, 
that is, in Syriac, the language then spoken 
in Judea. It is, however, disputed, whether 
Mark wrote in Greek or Latin, and whether 
the Epistle to the Hebrews was not lust 
written in Hebrew. 

Books cited in the Old Testament, and 



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supposed to be lost, are the Book of 
the Righteous, or Jasher, (Josh. x. 13. 2 
Sam. i. 18.) ; the Book of the Wars of the 
Lord, (Numb. xxi. 14.) ; and the Annals of 
the Kings of Judah and Israel. The au- 
thors of these annals were the prophets who 
lived at that time. We have also only a 
part of Solomon's three thousand Proverbs, 
and his one thousand and five songs, (L 
Kings iv. 32.) ; and we have none of his 
writings on Natural History. It is ques- 
tioned whether we have the Lamentations, 
which Jeremiah composed on the death of 
Josiah, king of Judah ; because the taking 
of Jerusalem, and the destruction of that 
city by Nebuchadnezzar, seem to form the 
subjects of those which we have of this pro- 
phet. 

< The book of the Wars of the Lord ' is 
cited by Moses (Numb. xxi. 14.) ; and related 
some particulars, which happened when 
the Hebrews passed the brook Arnon. It 
has been inquired what this Book of the 
Wars of the Lord was. Some think, that 
it was a work of greater antiquity than 
Moses, and contained a recital of wars, 
which the Israelites had carried on in 
Egypt, or out of Egypt, before their Exodus 
under Moses. Indeed, it is most natural 
to quote a book, which is more ancient 
than the person who writes, particularly 
in support of any extraordinary and mi- 
raculous fact. Some are of opinion that 
the Book of the Wars of the Lord, is the 
book of Numbers itself, in which this 
passage is cited ; or that of Joshua, or the 
Judges ; and they translate, ' It is said 
in the recital of the wars of the Lord,' 
&c. Some think, that this narration of 
the wars of the Lord is contained in the 
hundred and thirty-fifth, and the hundred 
and thirty-sixth psalms. Others say, that 
the book of the wars of the Lord, and the 
book of Jasher (Josh. x. 13.) are the same. 
It is conjectured by Cornelius a Lapide, 
that this citation is added to the text of 
Moses, and that the Book of the Wars of 
the Lord related the wars of the Israelites, 
under Moses, Joshua, the Judges, &c. 
and, therefore, was later than Moses. Last- 
ly, it may be said, that Moses either wrote 
himself, or procured to be written, a book, 
in which were related all the wars of the 
Lord. This book was continued under the 
Judges, and the Kings, and was called 
Annals ; and from these annals were com- 
posed those sacred books, which contain 
the histories of the Old and New Testament. 
This Book of the wars of the Lord is not 
now extant, though we have no reason to 
dispute its authenticity. 

4 The Book of Jasher, or the Upright,' 
is cited in Scripture, (Josh. x. 13. 2 Sam. 
i. 18.) ; and the same difficulties are pro- 
posed concerning this, as concerning the 
former. ' Is not this written in the book 
of Jasher ? So the sun stood still in the 
206 



midst of heaven, and hasted not to go 
down about a whole day.' A great diver- 
sity of opinions prevails concerning this 
book. Some think, that it is the same 
as that of the Wars of the Lord; some, 
that it is the ' Book of Genesis,' which con- 
tains the lives of the patriarchs and other 
good men ; and others, the ' Books of 
Moses.' But the opinion which seems most 
probable is, that from the very beginning 
were persons among the Hebrews, em- 
ployed in writing the annals and the memo- 
rable events of their nation. These annals 
were deposited in the temple, or tabernacle, 
whither, on occasion, recourse was had to 
them. Therefore, the ' Book of the Wars of 
the Lord,' the ' Book of Days, or Chronicles,' 
and the ' Book of Jasher, or the Righteous,' 
are, properly speaking, the same, though 
differently denominated, according to the 
difference of times. Before kings reigned 
over the Hebrews, these records might be 
entitled the * Book of the Wars of the Lord,' 
or the ' Book of Jasher, or the Upright.' After 
Saul, they might be denominated the ' Book 
of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel 
or Judah.' Grotius thinks, that this book 
was a triumphant song, purposely composed 
to celebrate the success of Joshua, and the 
prodigy, by which it was attended. M. 
Dupin declares for this opinion, as most 
probable, because (1.) the words cited by 
Joshua, are poetical expressions not very 
proper for historical memoirs ; and because 
(2.) a book under the same title is referred 
to in Samuel, when David's song is re- 
peated on the death of Saul and Jonathan. 
(2 Sam. i. 18.) But, if we suppose that this 
book contained a collection of pieces of 
poetry, composed on occasion of remarkable 
events, these opinions may perhaps coin- 
cide. In this view, the appeal to the Book 
of Jasher for a copy of David's Ode, called 
1 The Bow,' is very pertinent. Perhaps, 
it might contain the Songs of Moses, of De- 
borah, &c. ; and, perhaps, Jasher, ' The 
Upright,' may signify the standard authen- 
tic book. Dr. Geddes, in his ' New Trans- 
lation,' will not allow that Josh. x. 13. is a 
quotation, though it clearly appears to be a 
quotation. 

It is disputed, whether the citation from 
the book of Jasher, was inserted by Joshua 
himself, or by those, who digested his me- 
moirs, and arranged his book in its pre- 
sent form. It is credible, that this passage 
might be inserted afterwards ; for we may 
easily observe, that the book of Joshua has 
received some additions. 

It has been lately asserted, that the Book 
of Jasher has been discovered, and that it 
was obtained at a great expense by Alcu- 
rim, the most eminent man of his time, 
from the city of Gazan in Persia, where it 
appears to have been preserved from the 
period of the Jews' return from the Baby- 
lonish captivity, having been taken by 



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Cyrus, into his own country. Additions to 
Calmet's Dictionary. 

1 The Book of Chronicles, or Days,' con- 
tained the annals and journals, written by 
public recorders, in the kingdoms of Israel 
and Judah. These memoirs, or journals, 
are not now extant, but are very frequently 
cited in the books of Kings and Chroni- 
cles, which are abstracts chiefly from such 
old memoirs and records, as, in all pro- 
bability, were subsisting after the return of 
the Jews from the Babylonish captivity. 
The authors were generally prophets. 

The original writers of the Bible. — It is 
very credible that the patriarch Abraham, 
if we should go no higher into antiquity, 
possessed and brought away such informa- 
tion as the books, or records, of Kedem, 
his original country, communicated. Per- 
haps, it would not be improbable, if we 
should consider Noah himself as practising 
the art of writing; but, as great doubts 
have been entertained, whether this art 
be more ancient than the intercourse of 
Moses with the Divinity upon Mount Sinai, 
we shall not insist on this. It appears, 
that the seal of Judah (Gen. xxxviii.) con- 
tained his name, or appropriate mark, en- 
graved on it. But we may discern traces 
of a still more early employment of this 
noble art, in the days of Abraham. In 
Genesis is a passage that has all the appear- 
ance of an abridgment of a title deed, or 
conveyance of an estate, which, indeed, is 
its import : 'And the (1.) field of Ephron, 
(2.) which was in Machpelah, (3. ) which 
was before Mamre, (4.) the field, (5.) and 
the cave, which was therein, (6.) and all the 
trees in the field, (7-) that were in all the 
borders thereof round about, (8.) were made 
sure to Abraham, (9.) for a possession, (10.) 
in the presence of Heth, (11.) before all 
that went in at the gate of the city. (Gen. 
xxiii. 17-) If this be admitted as an in- 
stance of the art of writing, and of that art 
being practised in the days of Abraham, we 
may justly doubt whether this patriarch 
could be its first possessor. If, as the Rab- 
bins say, Abraham himself learned of Shem, 
and, they say decidedly, that ' Isaac went to 
Shem's school,' then, we may hesitate be- 
fore we deny the possibility, at least, that 
Shem had preserved histories of former 
events, and that he communicated these his- 
tories to Abraham, from whom they de- 
scended to Isaac, to Jacob, to Levi, to 
Moses. Some, indeed, have thought that 
a difference of style may be discerned be- 
tween the early parts of the book of Gene- 
sis, and the original writings of Moses. 

It may be considered as certain that the 
just arguments on behalf of the inspiration 
of the Scripture suffer no injury, if we 
suppose that Shem wrote the early history; 
that Abraham wrote family memoirs of what 
concerned himself; Jacob what concerned 
himself, &c. ; and that, at length, Moses 
207 



compiled, arranged, and edited, a copy of 
the holy works extant in his time. In after 
times, a procedure perfectly analogous to 
this was conducted by Ezra, on whose edi- 
tion of the holy Scripture our faith now 
rests, as it rests in like manner on the prior 
edition of Moses, if he was editor of some 
parts, or on his authority, if he was writer 
of the whole. 

Accepting Moses as the writer of the 
Pentateuch, we may nevertheless consider 
Joshua as adding to it some small matters, 
as the history of the death of Moses, &c. ; 
and Ezra in later times, as adding to it 
some other small matters, as various minor 
observations, changes of names, which had 
happened during a lapse of many ages, par- 
ticular directions where such or such objects 
were situated, &c. for the benefit of his 
readers, and, we may add, of remote poste- 
rity, even to ourselves. 

When we come to the days of Moses, we 
have clear evidence, that written docu- 
ments were composed, purposely, to de- 
liver down to posterity the history of past 
events. Moses was not only willing to 
write, but he is specifically directed to 
write, by way of record, and to be espe- 
cially careful for the preservation of these 
records, by placing them in the most sacred 
national repository, and under the imme- 
diate charge of those, who by birth and office 
were most intimately concerned in their 
preservation. 

This custom of composing public re- 
cords, was continued in succeeding ages 
in Israel, under the Judges, and the Kings ; 
and when the schism took place between 
Israel and Judah, each of those kingdoms 
preserved copies of the writings esteemed 
sacred, whether historical or devotional. 
We have, indeed, great reason to rejoice, 
that, besides the Pentateuch preserved by 
the Jews, the Samaritans have also pre- 
served their Pentateuch, which, if it be, 
as many learned men suppose, written in 
the truly ancient Hebrew character, is so 
much the more valuable, as it has had less 
risk and less occasion of error, than a copy 
transcribed into another alphabet. We 
ought also to recollect the natural effects of 
party, in matters of religion, especially 
when heightened by political rancour. We 
may be satisfied, that the Samaritans would 
not suffer their copies to be altered by any 
authority from the Jewish governors ; and 
the Jews, we well know, would have scarcely 
received even a palpable truth from ' that 
foolish people, which dwelt in Samaria.' 
When, therefore, we find the copies pre- 
served by these two opposite people generally 
corresponding, and differing only in some 
few minor matters, we ought to admire the 
providence of God, which has thus ' made 
even the wrath of man to praise him,' by 
transmitting more than one copy of this 
leading portion of holy writ, in a manner 



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more certain, and much less liable to 
doubt, or collusion, or equivocation, than if 
a single copy had been received by us 
through the hands of one set of friends only, 
or had been preserved only by those, whose 
unsupported testimony might have been 
suspected of undue partiality, or of improper 
bias. 

In succeeding ages, the kings of Judah 
were attentive to the arrangement of their 
sacred code. David, without doubt, authen- 
ticated the books of the prophet Samuel ; 
and we read that Hezekiah employed seve- 
ral persons to collect and arrange the Pro- 
verbs of Solomon, and even to add to them 
a number of others, which that prince had 
left behind him. It is generally understood, 
that the Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, 
were added under Hezekiah ; and also the 
book of Job, perhaps, though others think 
Isaiah. 

The prophecies of Jeremiah were pubMc ; 
many of them were read to all the people, 
and before the king ; and, therefore, many 
copies might be transcribed. The same 
may be said of most of the minor prophets ; 
and, in short, of all that were near to the 
days of Ezra and Nehemiah. 

It is very natural to suppose, that those 
chiefs of the J ewish people, after their re- 
turn from captivity, would be very diligent 
in collecting, preserving, and maintaining 
the dignity of all the writings of their sa- 
cred code ; and, indeed, excepting the pro- 
phet Malachi, we may confidently consider 
Ezra, as not only collecting, but collating, 
the copies of former writings, and compos- 
ing additions to the historical narrations, 
not in the books themselves, withheld, per- 
haps, by their prior acknowledged sanctity, 
but in that separate history, which we call 
the Chronicles. 

Here we ought to pause, because here 
our faith rests on Ezra's edition ; and with- 
out any doubt, that ' scribe, well instructed 
in the law,' had not only divine guidance, 
but good reasons for what he did, and for 
his manner of doing it. Some have thought, 
that we have so many instances of Ezra's 
modesty, as there are marginal readings 
in our Hebrew bibles; and these amount 
in all to eight hundred and forty. They 
occur in various places of the works ex- 
tant before Ezra ; but they are not found 
in Malachi, who, for this and other rea- 
sons, has been supposed to be Ezra him- 
self. 

From the time of Ezra, the Hebrew ca- 
non was considered as effectively conclud- 
ed. However, between the times of Ezra 
and Christ, the books of the Jews became 
objects of inquiry among neighbouring na- 
tions ; and translations of them, during this 
interval, being undertaken by those, whose 
language we also study, these translations 
become very important to us. By their 
means we have additional sanction to the 
208 



articles of our inquiry, and additional 
means of answering the purposes to which 
our inquiry is directed. — Additions to Cal- 
met. 

Bibles, Hebrew. The Jews did not 
confine themselves to writing copies of the 
holy word ; they greatly exerted themselves 
to preserve the genuineness and integrity 
of the text. This produced what has been 
termed the Masora, which is the most stu- 
pendous monument of minute and perseve- 
ring labour, in the whole history of lite- 
rature. The persons employed in this 
work were Jewish literati, who afterwards 
received from it the name of Masorites, 
and who flourished after the commence- 
ment of the Christian era. With a re- 
verential, not to say a superstitious atten- 
tion, of which history does not furnish 
an instance to be compared with it, they 
counted all the verses, words, and letters, 
in all the twenty-four books of the Old 
Testament, in each of those twenty-four 
books, in every section of each book, and 
in all its subdivisions. ' The matter of 
the Masora,' says Mr. Lewis, ' consists in 
critical remarks on the verses, words, let- 
ters, and vowel points of the Hebrew text. 
The Masorites were the first, who dis- 
tinguished the books and. sections of books 
into verses, and marked the number of 
the verses, and of the words and letters 
in each verse ; the verses, where they 
thought something was forgot ; the words, 
which they believed to be changed ; the 
letters, which they thought superfluous j 
the repetitions of the same verses ; the 
different readings ; the words, which are 
redundant or defective ; the number of 
times that the same word is found in the 
beginning, middle, or end of a verse ; the 
different significations of the same word ; 
the agreement or conjunction of one word 
with another ; the number of words that 
are printed above ; which letters are pro- 
nounced, and which are turned upside 
down ; and such as hang perpendicular j 
they took the number of each : it was 
they, in short, who invented the vowel 
points, the accents, and made divers cri- 
tical remarks on the punctuation, and 
abundance of other things of equal im- 
portance. A great part of the labour of 
these Jewish doctors consisted in counting 
the letters of the Hebrew text.' Origines 
HebrcEcz, vol. iv. p. 156. At first, the cele- 
brated Masora of the Jews did not accom- 
pany the text. Afterwards, the greatest 
part of it was written in the margin. To 
bring it into the margin, the work itself 
was abridged ; and this abridgment was 
called the Masora Parva. Being found too 
short, a more copious abridgment was in- 
serted ; and this, in contradistinction from 
the other Masora, was called the Masora 
Magna. The omitted parts were added 
to the end of the text : and this was deno- 



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minated the Masora Finalis. In the Jewish 
manuscripts and printed editions, a word is 
often found with a small circle annexed to 
it, or with an asterisk over it, and a word 
written in the margin of the same line. The 
former is called the Ketibh ; the latter, the 
Keri. In these, the Masorites have disco- 
vered much mystery. It is generally thought, 
that they are partly various readings col- 
lected from the time of Esdras, and partly 
critical observations, or, as they have been 
called, insinuations, of the Masorites, to sub- 
stitute proper and regular for improper and 
irregular words, and sometimes decent for 
indecent expressions, in the text. See Ma- 
sora. 

Till the last century, the Hebrew manu- 
scripts of the sacred text were not collated. 
From the differences Lodovicus Capellus ob- 
served between the Hebrew text and the 
version of the Seventy, and between the 
Hebrew and the Samaritan Pentateuch; 
from the manifest and palpable corruptions 
he thought he perceived in the text itself ,• and 
from the many reasons, which induced him 
to suppose the vowel points, and the Masora, 
were both a modern and an useless inven- 
tion, he was led to question the general inte- 
grity of the text. At length, the manuscripts 
themselves were examined, and in them 
were discovered innumerable various read- 
ings. From this time biblical criticism on 
the sacred text took a new turn. The cele- 
brated collation of Dr. Kennicott was begun 
in the year 1760. He undertook to collate all 
the manuscripts of the sacred text in England 
and Ireland ; and, during the time he should 
be employed in this work, which he sup- 
posed might be about ten years, to collate, 
as far as the expense would admit, all the 
Hebrew manuscripts of importance, in 
foreign countries. The first volume was 
printed in 1776 ; and the second in 1780. 
Dr. Kennicott himself collated two hundred 
and fifty manuscripts; and under his direc- 
tion, and at his expense, Mr. Bruns 
collated about three hundred and fifty 
more. The whole number of manuscripts 
collated on this occasion, was, therefore, 
about six hundred. In the opinion of Dr. 
Kennicott, fifty-one of the manuscripts 
collated for his edition were from 600 to 
800 years old; and one hundred and se- 
venty-four, from 480 to 580. Since that 
time, four quarto volumes of various read- 
ings have been published by De Rossi of 
Parma, from more than four hundred 
manuscripts, some of which are said to be 
of the seventh or eighth century, as well as 
from a considerable number of rare and 
unnoticed editions. They appeared under 
the title of Far ice Lectiones Veteris Tesia- 
vicnti, ex immensd manuscriptorum editorum- 
qve codicum congerie, haustee et examinatce. 
Parma, 1796. From these extensive colla- 
tions, a general opinion among the learned 
has been formed, 1st, that all manuscript 
209 



copies of the Hebrew Scriptures now ex- 
tant may, in some sort, be denominated 
Masoretic copies, since none of them have 
entirely escaped the rude hands of the 
Masorites ; 2dly, that the most valuable 
manuscripts, generally speaking, are 
those which are oldest, written at first 
without points or accents, containing the 
greatest number of real vowel, or matres 
lectionis, exhibiting marks of accurate 
transcription, conforming most to the an- 
cient versions, and with regard to the 
Pentateuch, conforming most to the Sama- 
ritan exemplar, and the Greek uninterpo- 
lated version ; 3dly, that the Masoretic 
copies often disagree, and that the earlier 
they are, the greater is their disagreement 
from the present printed copy ; and 4thly, 
that the synagogue rolls disagree the least 
from the printed copies, and are, there- 
fore, of little value in ascertaining the 
text. From this combination of circum- 
stances they conclude, that the surest 
sources of emendation are a collation of 
manuscripts and parallel places ; a compa- 
rison of the text with the ancient versions, 
and of these with one another ; gramma- 
tical analogy; and, where all fail, even 
conjectural criticism. On the other hand, 
the advocates of the ancient opinions 
contend, that a collation of Hebrew ma- 
nuscripts may be valued more highly than 
it deserves ; that, when manuscripts of an 
earlier date than the Masora are sought 
for, we should remember, that the Maso- 
rites had those manuscripts, when they 
settled the text ; that it is not to be sup- 
posed a Christian, at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century, will be able to make a 
better use of those manuscripts than the Ma- 
soretic literati ; that where it can be shown 
the text of the Masora is corrupt, the ge- 
nuineness of the Bible reading may be 
doubted ; but that where there is no reason 
to impeach the Masora, the text is fixed be- 
yond controversy. 

The printed editions, which appear to 
deserve particular attention, are, that of 
Soncino in 1488, from its being the first 
printed edition of the whole Bible ; that at 
Brescia, in 1494, from its being the edi- 
tion used by Luther, in his translation ; 
and that printed in 1517, without the name 
of any place. These three editions were 
called the Soncinates, because they were 
printed at Soncino, a town in Lombardy, 
betwen Cremona and Brescia, by Jews, 
whose family came originally from Ger- 
many. They were the first Hebrew printers. 
The edition of Bomberg was printed five 
times, and is distinguished by the beauty of 
its type; but as it is not divided into chapters 
and verses, it is unfit for general use. His 
editions were all printed at Venice ; the first 
appeared in 1517, and the last in 1545. They 
were all in quarto. The 16mo. edition of 
Robert Stephens is most elegantly printed. 
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It is in seven volumes, and was printed at 
Paris 1544 — 1546. He had printed a quarto 
edition at Paris, in four volumes, 1539 — 
1544. The celebrated edition of Athias, a 
Jew printer at Amsterdam, was published in 
that city, first in 1661, and afterwards in 
1667 : it is the first edition in Hebrew, in 
which the verses are numbered. It was beau- 
tifully re-printed in two volumes octavo, 
1705, by Everardhus Van der Hooght. This 
edition has the general reputation of accu- 
racy. His text was adopted by Dr. Kenni- 
cott in his edition. The Plantinian editions 
are remarkable for their neatness and accu- 
racy. The edition of Nunes Torres, with the 
notes by Rasche, begun in 1700, and printed 
in 1705, was the favourite edition of the 
Jews. Most of the former editions were 
surpassed by that of Michaelis in 1720. 
Raphael Chajim Basilas, a Jew at Mantua, 
published a critical edition in four parts, 
1742—1744. In 1806, Professor Jahn printed 
at Vienna the Hebrew Bible, in four octavo 
volumes, in which the Masoretic notes are 
retained, with the exception of a very few 
that relate to the accents, and mark the mid- 
dle of a book. Professor Jahn, who has long 
been distinguished for his successful cultiva- 
tion of oriental literature, has adopted chiefly 
the text of Van der Hooght, to which he has 
subjoined the most important various read- 
ings, taken from the collations of Bishop 
Walton, Grabe, Montfaucon, Dr. Kennicott, 
De Rossi, and Dr. Holmes.— In 1816, Dr. 
Boothroyd published at Pontefract and in 
London, in two volumes quarto, Biblia He- 
braica, or the Hebrew Scriptures of the Old 
Testament, without points, after the text of 
Kennicott, with the chief various readings, 
selected from his collation of Hebrew manu- 
scripts, from that of De Rossi, and from 
the ancient versions; accompanied with 
English notes, critical, philological, and ex- 
planatory, selected from the most approved 
ancient and modern English and Foreign 
biblical critics. This is perhaps the cheapest 
Hebrew Bible, with critical apparatus, that 
is extant. It is peculiarly interesting to the 
Hebrew scholar and critic, as it contains the 
substance of the most valuable and expensive 
works ; and it furnishes the student with in- 
teresting extracts, which are calculated to as- 
sist him as well in interpreting as in obtain- 
ing a critical acquaintance with the original 
text. — In 1822, Mr. D'Allemand published 
in London a stereotyped edition, in octavo, 
of the Hebrew Bible, after Van der Hooght's 
text, in which he stated that he discovered 
not fewer than two hundred errata. 

The most celebrated edition of the Hebrew, 
with a Latin translation, was that of Sebas- 
tian Munster, who was the first separatist 
from the see of Rome that published a Latin 
translation of the Bible.— The first volume 
of the first edition was printed in 1534, and 
the second in 1535 ; and the second edition 
was printed in 1546. S antes Paginus was 
210 



the first Catholic who made an entirely new 
Latin translation. It was published at Lyons 
in 1528, and has been often re-published. 
It is an accurate and faithful translation ; 
but the Latinity is barbarous, on account of 
the author wishing to frame a verbal transla- 
tion, in the strictest and most literal sense of 
the word. The Rev. Charles Francis Hou- 
bigant, of the Oratoire at Paris, published in 
1 753, his celebrated edition in four volumes 
folio, with a Latin version and prolegomena. 
The merit of this edition is celebrated by all, 
who are not advocates for the Masora. By 
them it is spoken of in the harshest terms. 
Prior to Houbigant's edition was that of Rei- 
neccius at Leipsic, in 1725, and reprinted 
there in 1739. Of it a new edition was print- 
ed in 1793, under the inspection of Dr. Doe- 
derlein and Professor Meisner. It contains 
the most important of the various readings 
collected by Dr. Kennicott and De Rossi, 
printed under the text : and for the purpose 
of common use, it is an excellent edition, 
and supplies the want of the splendid but 
expensive editions and collations of Houbi- 
gant, Kennicott, and De Rossi. — Additions 
to Caltnet ; — Marsh's Lectures, Lect. x. xi. ; 
— Home's Introduction, vol. ii. Appendix, 
p. 8, 9. 

Bibles, Greek. — Dupin observes, that it 
is a matter of dispute among authors, whe- 
ther there was a Greek version of the Old 
Testament more ancient than the Septuagint. 
It appears certain, however, that before the 
time of our Saviour there existed no other 
Greek version than that called the Septua- 
gint. After the establishment of Christianity, 
some persons undertook new translations, 
that they might render them, as they said, 
more conformable to the Hebrew text. 
Aquila, a Jewish proselyte, of the city of 
Synope in Pontus, was the first who per- 
formed this design, which he executed, a.d. 
128, and in the twelfth year of the emperor 
Adrian. St. Epiphanius says, that Aquila 
was excommunicated after his conversion, for 
addicting himself to judicial astrology, and 
that he undertook this version from hatred to 
the Christians, and with an intention of cor- 
rupting the prophecies relating to Jesus 
Christ. St. Jerom says, his translation is 
rendered word for word, and with too scru- 
pulous a nicety. 

The second Greek version after the Sep- 
tuagint, is that of Symmachus, who was a 
Samaritan by birth, and first became a Jew, 
then a Christian, and at last an Ebionite, 
Epiphanius says, that he translated it in the 
reign of the emperor Severus. His version 
was more free than the rest, for he observed 
chiefly the sense, without translating word 
for word; and his work, therefore, ap- 
proaches nearer to the Septuagint than that 
of Aquila. 

The third Greek version is that of Theo- 
dotion of Ephesus, who was a disciple of 
Marcion, and afterwards became a Jew. This 



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version was the best of the three, because 
he observed a medium between Aquila and 
Symmachus: Theodotion did not confine 
himself so servilely to the letter as the first, 
nor allow himself so much liberty as the 
second. 

Besides these were three other Greek 
versions, the authors of which are unknown. 
For an account of the Septuagint, see Sep- 
tuagint. 

There exist a great number of printed 
editions of the Bible in Greek ; but they 
may be all reduced to the four following: 
that of Complutum, or Alcala de Henares ; 
that of Venice; that of Rome; and that of 
Oxford. The first was published in 1515 
by Cardinal Ximenes, and inserted in the 
Polyglott Bible, usually called the Complu- 
tensian Bible. This edition is not exactly 
the Greek of the Septuagint, being altered 
in many places according to the Hebrew 
text. However, it has been reprinted in 
the Polyglott Bible of Antwerp, in that of 
Paris, and in the quarto Bible, commonly 
called Vatablus's Bible. 

The second Greek Bible is that of Venice, 
printed by Aldus in 1518. The Greek text 
of the Septuagint is re-printed from the ma- 
nuscript, which abounds with the faults of 
copyists, though easily amended. This edi- 
tion was re-printed at Strasburg in 152C, at 
Basil in 1545, at Frankfort, in 1597, and 
other places, with some alterations to bring 
it nearer to the Hebrew. — The most commo- 
dious is that of Frankfort, to which are add- 
ed little scholia, that show the different in- 
terpretations of the old Greek translators. 

The third Greek Bible is that of Rome, 
or the Vatican, in 1 587, with Greek scholia, 
collected from the manuscripts in the Roman 
libraries by Peter Morin. It was begun by 
Cardinal Montalto, afterwards Pope Sixtus 
V. This fine edition was reprinted at Paris 
in 1628, by J. Morin, of the Oratoire, who 
added to it the Latin translation, which in 
the Roman was printed separately with 
scholia. The Greek edition of Rome was 
printed in the Polyglott Bible of London, 
and to it are added at the bottom the vari- 
ous readings of the Alexandrian manuscript. 
It has been also reprinted in England, in 
4to. and 12mo. with alterations. It was 
again published at Francker, in 1709, by 
Bos, who added to it all the various readings 
he could find. 

The fourth Greek Bible is that printed 
from the Alexandrian manuscript, and was 
begun at Oxford by Grabe, in 1707- In 
this, the Alexandrian manuscript is not 
printed as it is, but as it was supposed it 
should be, that is, it is altered where there 
appeared any fault of the copyists, or any 
word inserted from some particular dialect ; 
this is considered by some as an excellence, 
and by others as a fault. 

The principal Greek manuscripts now 
extant are the Codex Alexandrinus, in the 
211 



British Museum ; the Codex Cantabrigien- 
sis, or Codex Bezae ; and the Codex Vati- 
canus. The Codex Alexandrinus consists 
of four volumes: the first three comprise 
the Old Testament ; and the fourth contains 
the New Testament, together with the first 
epistle of St. Clement to the Corinthians, 
and a fragment of the second. The Codex 
Cantabrigiensis, or Codex Bezse, is a Greek 
and Latin manuscript of the four Gospels, 
and the Acts of the Apostles. The Codex 
Vaticanus originally contained the whole 
Greek Bible. After a profound investiga- 
tion, Dr. Woide places the age of the Codex 
Alexandrinus between the middle and the 
end of the fourth century. After a similar 
investigation, Dr. Kipling places the Codex 
Cantabrigiensis in the second century ; but 
Bishop Marsh, in his notes to Michaelis, 
seems to proved that it was not written 
earlier than the fifth century. By Mont- 
faucon and Blanchini, the Codex Vaticanus 
is referred to the fifth century. Dr. Woide 
published in London, in 1786, a fac-simile 
edition of the New Testament in the Codex 
Alexandrinus. Dr. Kipling published, in 
1793, at Cambridge, at the expense of the 
University, a fac-simile edition of the Codex 
Cantabrigiensis, or Codex Bezae. These 
editions exhibit their respective prototypes, 
page for page, line for line, word for word, 
contraction for contraction, rasure for re- 
sure, to a degree of similarity scarcely cre- 
dible. The types were cast for the purpose, 
in alphabets of various forms, that they 
might be varied with the manuscript, and 
represent it more exactly. 

The first edition of the New Testament 
in Greek, in point of time, was that of 
Erasmus, who published five editions of 
it, in 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, and 1535. 
That of 1 51 9 is most esteemed. — The next 
edition of the New Testament in Greek, is 
that inserted in the Complutensian Poly- 
glott. The editors have been charged with 
sometimes altering the Greek text, to ren- 
der it conformable to the Latin ; but against 
this charge they have been defended by 
Goeze, and, to a certain extent, by Gries- 
bach. — The editions of Robert Stephens, 
for exquisite beauty and delicacy of type, 
elegance and proper disposition of contrac- 
tions, smoothness and softness of paper, li- 
quid clearness of ink, and evenness of lines 
and letters, have never been surpassed, and 
in the opinion of many, never equalled. — 
He published four editions, in 1546, 1549, 
1550 and 1551 ; and his son published a 
fifth edition in 1569. That in 1546 is the 
most correct. — Beza printed an edition of 
the New Testament in Greek, in 1565; and 
in it he principally followed the third edi- 
tion of Robert Stephens. He printed other 
editions in 1582, 1589, and 1598. In his 
choice of readings, he is accused of bring 
influenced by his Calvinism. — The cele- 
brated edition of the Elzevirs was first 
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printed at Leyden, in 1624, from the third 
edition of Robert Stephens : and where it 
varies from that edition, it follows, gene- 
rally, the edition of Beza. By this edition, 
the text, which, in the preceding editions, 
had fluctuated, acquired a consistency. It 
was generally followed in subsequent edi- 
tions, and has deservedly, therefore, ob- 
tained the appellation of Editio recepta. The 
editors of it are unknown. 

The principal editions of the New Tes- 
tament in Greek, with various readings, are 
the following : the celebrated edition of the 
Rev. John Mill was published at Oxford in 
1707, after an assiduous labour of thirty 
years. The whole of the various readings 
collected by him are said to amount to thirty 
thousand ; and he has enriched his work 
with most learned prolegomena, and a clear 
and accurate description of his manuscripts. 
He followed the third edition of Stephens. 
— John Albert Bengel, abbot of Alspirsbach, 
in the duchy of Wurtemburg, published his 
edition in 1734. To it he prefixed his ' In- 
troductio in Crisin Novi Testamenti,' and 
subjoined his ' Apparatus Criticus et Epi- 
logus.' He altered the text, where he 
thought it might be improved ; but, except 
in the Apocalypse, he studiously avoided 
inserting in it any reading, which was not in 
some printed edition. Under the text he 
placed some select readings, and reserved 
the whole collection of various readings, and 
his own sentiments respecting them, for his 
Apparatus Criticus. — All former editions of 
the Greek Testament were surpassed by 
that of John James Wetstein, which was 
published at Amsterdam, in 1751, in two 
volumes folio. He adopted for his text the 
editio recepta of the Elzevirs. His collec- 
tion of various readings far surpasses that 
of Mill or Bengel ; and his notes are parti- 
cularly valuable for copious extracts from 
the Rabbinical writers. These greatly ex- 
plained the idiom and turn of expression 
used by the apostolic writers and Evangel- 
ists. — Dr. John James Griesbach published 
the first edition of his New Testament, at 
Halle, in 1775 — 1777, in two volumes oc- 
tavo. In 1796, the first volume was re- 
printed under the patronage, and at the 
expense, of the Duke of Grafton. It has 
extracts from two hundred manuscripts, in 
addition to those quoted in the former edi- 
tion. He has collated all the Latin ver- 
sions published by Sabatier and Blanchini. 
His object was to give a select and choice 
collection of the various readings, produced 
by Mill, Bengel, and Wetstein, and of his 
own extracts, omitting such as are trifling 
in themselves, supported by little authority, 
or evidently only errata. — Michaelis's Intro- 
duction, vols. ii. iii. edit. 1802; Marsh's 
Lectures, Lect. v. vi. vii. viii. ; Additions to 
Calmet. 

Bibles, Latin. See Vulgate. 
Bibles, Arabic. In 1516, Aug. Justi- 
212 



nian, bishop of Nebio, printed at Genoa, an 
Arabic version of the Psalter, with the 
Hebrew text and Chaldee paraphrase, and 
added Latin interpretations. Arabic ver- 
sions of the whole Scripture are inserted in 
the Polyglotts of London and Paris. We 
have also an edition of the Old Testament 
entire, printed at Rome in 1671, by order 
of the congregation De propaganda fide ; 
but as it has been altered agreeably to the 
Vulgate edition, it is of little esteem. The 
Arabic Bibles among us are not the same 
as those used by the Christians in the 
East. 

Some learned men think, that the Arabic 
version of the Old Testament, printed in the 
Polyglotts, is that of Saadias, who lived about 
a.d. 900. Their reason for this opinion is, 
that Aben Ezra, a great antagonist of Saa- 
dias, quotes some passages of his version, 
which are the same as those in the Arabic 
version of the Polyglotts. Others, however, 
think, that the version of Saadias is not now 
extant. In 1642, Erpenius printed an 
Arabic Pentateuch, called also the Penta- 
teuch of Mauritania, from its being com- 
posed by the Jews of Barbary, for their own 
use. This version is extremely literal, and 
esteemed very exact. The four Gospels 
have also been published in Arabic, with a 
Latin version, at Rome, in 1591, folio. 
They have been reprinted since in the Po- 
lyglotts of London and Paris, with some lit- 
tle alterations of Gabriel Sionita. In 1616, 
Erpenius published, at Leyden, an Arabic 
New Testament entire, such as he found it 
in his manuscript copy, which he supposes, 
from the subscription, to have been written 
in 1342. Some other Arabic versions are 
mentioned by Walton, in his Prolegomena, 
particularly a version of the Psalms pre- 
served at Sion College, London, and 
another of the prophets, at Oxford ; but 
neither of these has been published. 

It is observed by Dr. Marsh, that the 
Arabic versions of the New Testament may 
be divided into four classes : 1. those taken 
immediately from the Syriac ; 2. from the 
Coptic ; 3. from the Greek ; 4. from the 
Latin. The same writer is of opinion, that 
Christianity was never the established reli- 
gion of Arabia ; and that, therefore, a trans- 
lation of the Bible into Arabic was wholly 
unnecessary before the conquests of the Sa- 
racens, when the Arabic became the verna- 
cular language of Christian countries. 

In 1811, the Holy Bible, containing the 
Old and New Testaments in the Arabic lan- 
guage, was printed at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
in quarto. This edition was superintended 
by the late Rev. Joseph Dacre Carlyle, B.D. 
chancellor of the diocese of Carlisle, and 
professor of Arabic in the university of 
Cambridge. The death of this learned and 
truly excellent man was a serious loss to the 
republic of letters. 

Though the ancient Arabic version is 



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highly valued by some oriental scholars for 
its general accuracy and fidelity, yet it has 
become antiquated in its dialect, and conse- 
quently unacceptable to tbe learned Ara- 
bians. On this account, in the East, a new 
translation of the Scriptures, in elegant mo- 
dern Arabic, was commenced by Sabat, an 
eminent Arabian scholar, under the superin- 
tendence of the Rev. T. Thomason, M.A. In 
1816, the New Testament was completed 
and published at the expense of the British 
and Foreign Bible Society. In 182G, a se- 
cond edition of the New Testament, much 
revised and improved, was printed at the 
press belonging to the Bishop's College, 
Calcutta. In 1822, an edition of the Arabic 
New Testament, in Syriac characters, was 
printed at Paris, at the expense of the Bible 
Society. Home's Introduction to the Critical 
Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, 
vol. ii. p. 95, 31 7, sixth edition ; Buchanan's 
Christian Researches in Asia, p. 195 — 199 ; 
Bishop Marsh's Notes to Michaelis's Introduc- 
tion to the New Testament, vol. iii. p. 59/, 
598, second edition. 

Bible, Samaritan. The Samaritan Bible 
is the most ancient of all the versions. Some 
learned men think, that it is written in the 
ancient Hebrew character. It contains only 
the five books of Moses, and is printed in 
the Polyglotts of London and Paris. 

The Samaritans, besides the Pentateuch 
in the original Hebrew, have it also trans- 
lated into the language which they com- 
monly spoke. This is also published, toge- 
ther with the original, in the Paris Polyglott, 
and is so exactly literal, that Morinus was 
of opinion one Latin translation would serve 
for both. Bishop Walton followed the same 
method in his Polyglott, except that when 
a variation occurred, he marked it at the 
bottom of the page. This Samaritan Pen- 
tateuch has some additions, variations, and 
transpositions, by which it differs from the 
present Jewish copies. — That there should 
be some differences is not so much to be 
wondered at, as that there are not more. 
They who adhered to the one, and those 
who used the other, were at variance up- 
wards of two thousand years ; for such a 
length of time had passed from the apostasy 
of Manasseh to these copies being first 
brought into Europe. In so many ages, 
many differences might happen through the 
errors of transcribers ; and the differences 
between those two copies are chiefly of this 
sort. 

In 1790, Dr. Blayney printed at Oxford, in 
octavo, a neat edition of the Hebraeo-Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch, in Hebrew characters. In 
this edition, the text of the Hebroeo- Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch, printed in Bishop Wal- 
ton's Polyglott, was adopted as the basis of 
the work; to which were added various 
readings from Dr. Kennicott's edition of the 
Hebrew Bible. Florae's Introduction, vol. ii. 
part i p. 94, part ii. p. 10. ; Brett's Disscrta- 
213 



tion on the ancient versions of the Bible in 
Watson's Theolog. Tracts, vol. iii. p. 46. ; Pri- 
deaux's Connect, vol. ii. p. 600, 601. 

Bibles, Syriac. Of the Syriac versions, 
the most celebrated is the Peschito or Lite- 
ral (Versio Simplex,) as it is usually called, 
on account of its very close adherence to the 
Hebrew and the Greek texts, from which it 
has been immediately made. Bishop Wal- 
ton, Carpzov, Leusden, Lowth, and Kenni- 
cott, fix its date to the first century of the 
Christian era. The most probable opinion 
is that of Michaelis, who ascribes the 
Syriac version of both Testaments to the 
close of the first, or to the earlier part of the 
second century. The Syriac version of the 
New Testament must certainly have been 
executed previously to the third century, 
because the text which it follows, according 
to Professor Hug, does not harmonize with 
the recension adopted by the churches of 
Palestine and Syria, subsequently to the 
third century. It is independent, and be- 
longs to no family ; and it sometimes pre- 
sents the ancient and peculiar readings of 
the vetus Itala, or Old Italic version, or 
those occurring in the Codex Cantabrigien- 
sis. — The Old Testament has been evidently 
translated from the original Hebrew, to which 
it most closely and literally adheres, with 
the exception of a few passages, which ap- 
pear to bear some affinity to the Septuagint. 
Dr. Boothroyd considers this version to be 
as ancient, and in many respects as valuable, 
as the Chaldee Paraphrase ; and in the notes 
to his edition of the Hebrew Bible, he has 
shown that this version has retained nume- 
rous and important various readings. To 
its general fidelity almost every critic of 
note has given unqualified approbation, 
though it is not every where equal. It is 
remarkably clear in those passages, which 
attribute characters of deity to the Messiah. 
The late Rev. Dr. Buchanan, in his progress 
among the Syrian churches and Jews in 
India, discovered and obtained numerous 
ancient manuscripts of the Scriptures, which 
he deposited in the public library at Cam- 
bridge. One of these, which was discovered 
in a remote Syrian church near the moun- 
tains, is particularly valuable. It contains 
the Old and New Testaments, engrossed on 
strong vellum, in large folio, having three 
columns in a page ; and it is written with 
beautiful accuracy. The character is Estran- 
gelo Syriac, or Old Syriac ; and the words 
of every book are numbered. The Syrian 
church assigns a high date to this manu- 
script, which, in the opinion of Mr. Yeates, 
who has published a collation of the Penta- 
teuch, was written about the seventh cen- 
tury. The first edition of the Syriac version 
of the Old Testament appeared in the Paris 
Polyglott; but being taken from an imperfect 
manuscript, its deficiencies were supplied 
by a translation from the Latin Vulgate of the 
passages wanting. This text was reprinted 



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in Bishop Walton's Polyglott, with the addi- 
tion of some apocryphal books. Of parti- 
cular parts of the Syriac Old Testament 
there have been numerous editions ; and the 
Syriac New Testament has been frequently 
printed. 

The Philoxenian or Syro-Philoxenian ver- 
sion derives its name from Philoxenus, or 
Xenayas, bishop of Hierapolis or Mabug in 
Syria, A. D. 488 — 508, who employed his 
rural bishop Polycarp in translating the 
Greek New Testament into Syriac. This 
version was finished in the year 508, and 
was afterwards revised by Thomas of Harkel, 
or Heraclea, A. D. 616. This version was 
not known in Europe till the middle of the 
eighteenth century, when (in 1761) the 
Rev. Dr. Gloucester Ridley published a 
■Dissertation on the Syriac versions of the 
New Testament, three manuscripts of which 
he had received thirty years before from 
Amida in Mesopotamia. After acquiring a 
knowledge of the Syriac language, Dr. Rid- 
ley employed himself at intervals in tran- 
scribing the Four Gospels. These being put 
into the hands of the late Professor White, 
were published by him with a literal Latin 
translation in 1778, in two volumes quarto, 
at the expense of the delegates of the Claren- 
don Press at Oxford. In 1779, Professor 
White published from the same press the 
Acts of the Apostles and the Catholic epis- 
tles ; and in 1804, the Epistles of Saint 
Paul, also in quarto, and accompanied with 
a Latin translation. — The Philoxenian ver- 
sion, though made immediately from the 
Greek, is greatly inferior to the Peschito, 
both in the accuracy of the execution, and 
also in its style. 

The Syro-Estrangelo version is a transla- 
tion of Origen's Hexaplar edition of the Greek 
Septuagint : it was executed in the seventh 
century, but its author is unknown. This 
version corresponds exactly with the text 
of the Septuagint, especially in those pas- 
sages in which the latter differs from the 
Hebrew. From this version M. Norberg 
edited the prophecies of Jeremiah and Eze- 
kiel in 1787, 4to. Londini, Gothorum ; and 
M. Bugati, the Book of Daniel, at Milan, 
1788, 4to. 

The Palsestino- Syriac, or Syriac transla- 
tion of Jerusalem, was discovered in the 
Vatican library at Rome, by M. Alder, in a 
manuscript of the eleventh century. It is 
not an entire translation of the New Testa- 
ment, but only a lectionarium, or collection 
of detached portions, appointed to be read 
in the services of the Church on Sundays 
and festivals. It is written in the Sy- 
riac or Chaldee dialect of Jerusalem, and 
was evidently made in a Roman province. 
Home's Introduction, vol. ii. part i. p. 56 — ■ 
61 . ; Buchanan's Christian Researches in Asia, 
p. 138. 

Bibles, Chaldee, are only the glosses 
or expositions made by the Jews at the 
214 



time they spoke the Chaldee language. 
These they call by the name of targums or 
paraphrases, as not being any strict version 
of the Scripture. They have been inserted 
entire in the large Hebrew Bibles of Venice 
and Bazil ; but they are read more commo- 
diously in the Polyglotts, in which they are 
accompanied with a Latin translation. See 
Targum. 

Bibles, Ethiopic. The Ethiopians have 
translated the Bible into their language. — 
The Psalms, Canticles, some chapters oi 
Genesis, Ruth, Joel, Jonah, Zephaniah, 
Malachi, and the New Testament, have 
been printed separately; and all of them 
have been since reprinted in the Poly- 
glott of London. The Ethiopic New Testa- 
ment, which was first printed at Rome, in 
1548, is a very inaccurate work, and has 
been reprinted in the English Polyglott with 
all its faults. The Ethiopians ascribe this 
version to Frumentius, the apostle of Ethi- 
opia, who was sent thither by Athanasius, 
bishop of Alexandria. 

Mr. Bruce relates, that he brought with 
him from Abyssinia a copy of the Ethiopic 
version of the Old Testament, but it is not 
known in whose possession the MS. now is ; 
and it does not appear that he brought a 
copy of any part of the version of the New 
Testament. He says, that copies of the 
whole New Testament are in that country 
extremely scarce, that except in the churches 
he had never seen a single manuscript, which 
comprehended all the parts of it, and that 
even the transcripts of the Gospels were in 
the hands only of men of the first distinc- 
tion. 

There is reason, however, to expect, that 
in no long time, the gift of the entire Ethi- 
opic Scriptures will be imparted to Abyssi- 
nia. A manuscript copy of this version, in 
fine preservation, has been purchased by the 
Committee of the Church Missionary Soci- 
ety. From a memoir on this manuscript by 
Professor Lee, we learn, that it contains the 
first eight books of the Old Testament, writ- 
ten on vellum, in a bold and masterly hand, 
in two columns on each page. On the first 
page is written, in Ethiopic, the invocation 
usually found in the books of the Eastern 
Christians : "In the name of the Father, 
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." 
This valuable manuscript, which is probably 
about 300 years old, has been carefully tran- 
scribed, and is now printing with a fount of 
types, cast at the expense of the British and 
Foreign Bible Society, from the matrices 
(preserved at Frankfort,) of the celebrated 
Ethiopic scholar John Ludolph. It appears 
that the book was written at Axuma, the 
ancient capital of Ethiopia. Home's Intro- 
duction, vol. ii. part i. pp. 64 — 67 ; Bruce' s 
Travels, vol. i. b. ii. c. 7, P- 493. 

Bibles, Persian. In the Persian lan- 
guage are several versions of the Bible, 
most of which are in manuscript. The Per- 



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sian Pentateuch, printed in the London 
Polyglott, is the work of rabbi Jacob, a 
Persian Jew, and was published at Con- 
stantinople, in 1551. Walton has also pub- 
lished, in the London Polyglott, the Gospels 
translated by one Simeon, a Christian of 
Persia, who lived in the year 1341. Another 
version was begun to be printed in London, 
by Wheelor, in 1652, and after his death was 
finished by Pierson, in 1657- There are 
also two Persian versions of the Psalms, 
translated from the vulgar Latin. Michael. 
Introduction, vol. ii. p. 105. 

Bibles, Coptic. There are several manu- 
script copies of the Coptic Bible, in some 
of the great libraries, especially in that of 
the king of the French. Dr. Wilkins pub- 
lished the Coptic New Testament, in quarto, 
in 1 716, and the Pentateuch, also in quarto, 
in 1731, with Latin translations. He fixes 
the age of these versions at the end of the 
second, or the beginning of the third cen- 
tury ; but this great antiquity is doubted by 
many. Michael. Introduction, vol. ii. p. 77' 
Bibles, Polyglott. See Polyglott. 
Bibles, English. It would be difficult to 
ascertain every English translator, or when 
the Scriptures were first translated into 
the language of this country. Certain, 
however, it is, that the Saxons read the 
Bible in their own language ; as some parts 
at least were translated by Adelm, bishop 
of Sherborne, Eadfrid (or Ecbert) bishop 
of Lindisferne, the venerable Bede, and 
king Alfred. iElfric, abbot of Malmes- 
bury, translated the Pentateuch, Judges, 
and Job, which were published at Oxford 
in 1699. The four Gospels were also print- 
ed from an ancient Saxon MS. now in the 
Bodleian Library, in 1571, under the care 
of the martyrologist John Fox, assisted 
and encouraged by Matthew Parker, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. Several parts of the 
Scriptures had been from time to time trans- 
lated by different persons. Proofs of this, if 
not the very translations themselves, exist in 
different libraries of this kingdom. In par- 
ticular, in the year 1349, the Psalms were 
translated by Richard Rolle, an hermit of 
Hampole, in Yorkshire ; and in the Har- 
leian, and the king's libraries, are specimens 
of other and different versions. 

Soon after this, John Wiclif, or Wickliffe, 
translated the New Testament He was 
born about the beginning of the four- 
teenth century, at Wiclif, in Yorkshire, and 
was sent to Queen's College, Oxford, from 
which he removed to Merton College. He 
gained considerable reputation by defend- 
ing the interests of the University against the 
encroachments of the begging friars, and 
was chosen master of Baliol College, and 
presented to the rectory of Fylingham, in 
Lincolnshire, which he afterwards exchang- 
ed for that of Lotegarshall. December 14, 
1365, he was nominated warden of Can- 
terbury College, incorporated into Christ 
215 



Church, in Oxford, by archbishop Islip, the 
founder ; but at the death of the archbishop, 
he and three secular fellows were, in 1367, 
ejected thence, and on appeal the sentence 
was confirmed by the Pope's bull in 1370. 
After his ejectment, he read lectures in divi- 
nity in that University with such applause, 
that almost every thing he said was received 
as an oracle. In 1374, king Edward III. no- 
minated him, with the Bishop of Bangor and 
others, to treat with the Pope's nuncio con- 
cerning the provisions of ecclesiastical bene- 
fices in England, claimed by the Pope, and 
long complained of by our Parliaments as 
very injurious to the rights of the English 
church. As a reward for this service, the 
king gave him the prebend of Aust, in the 
county of Gloucester, and then in the dio- 
cese of Worcester, with the rectory of Lut- 
terworth, in Leicestershire. But having 
shown himself a defender of the king's supre- 
macy, and freely exposed the artifices and 
encroachments of the papal power, the Pope, 
in 1377; dispatched three bulls to the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury and Bishop of London. 
By the first of these bulls, they were directed 
to cause John Wiclif to be apprehended, 
imprisoned, and put in irons. This would 
probably have terminated in the doctor's 
death, if he had not been protected by the 
Duke of Lancaster, uncle to Richard II. who 
was then king. About this time, he began 
to translate the whole Bible into English 
from the Latin ; as he was probably not suf- 
ficiently skilled in Hebrew and Greek to 
translate from the original languages. He 
died December 31, 1384. In the year 1731, 
the New Testament with a glossary, was 
printed in folio, under the care of the Rev. 
John Lewis, minister of Margate, and chap- 
lain to Lord Malton. 

In the year 1526, William Tyndal printed 
the first edition of his New Testament. Wil- 
liam Tyndal, Tindale, or Tyndall, otherwise 
Hitchins, was a native of Wales, and was sent 
to Magdalen-Hall, in Oxford. Here he took 
his degrees, and was esteemed a man of a 
most virtuous disposition and an unspotted 
life. Wood says, that he was expelled for 
his Lutheran tenets. From Oxford he re- 
moved to Cambridge, whence, after some 
stay, he went to London. Here he was sup- 
ported by Mr. Humphry Monmouth, a draper 
and alderman, and a favourer of Luther's 
opinions. Tindal studied night and day, and 
bent his thoughts towards a translation of 
the New Testament into English ; but sensi- 
ble of the great hazard he would incur, by 
printing it in England, he resolved to go into 
Germany, as a place of greater security and 
more liberty. This he was the better ena- 
bled to do by the assistance of his friend Mr. 
Monmouth, who gave him an annuity of ten 
pounds. At his first leaving England Ik- 
went as far as Saxony, and conferred with 
Luther and other eminent reformers. Thence 
he returned, and settled at Antwerp, where 



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he immediately commenced his favourite 
work, an English translation of the New 
Testament. This work was printed in 1526, 
in octavo, without a name. This edition is 
very scarce. The Bishop of London, who was 
then at Antwerp, procured all the copies that 
remained unsold to be bought up ; and on 
the bishop's return, they were burned, says 
Fox, at Paul's Cross. Dr. Jortin thinks 
that this was done by the bishop to serve 
Tyndal. In 1 534, Tyndal published another 
edition. Besides purchasing the copies at 
Antwerp, other means were tried : his bro- 
ther John Tyndal was prosecuted, and sen- 
tenced to do penance ; and his patron, Al- 
derman Monmouth, was imprisoned, and al- 
most ruined. In 1535, King Henry VIII. 
ordered all the books containing several er- 
rors, &c. with the translation of the Scrip- 
tures corrupted by William Tyndal, as well in 
the Old Testament as in the New, to be ut- 
terly expelled, rejected and put away out of 
the hands of his people. Tyndal's transla- 
tion of the Pentateuch was printed the year 
before, and that of Jonah this year. Hall 
and Bale, his contemporaries, say, that he 
also translated Joshua, &c. to Nehemiah. 
The king, thinking much good might follow 
the people's reading the New Testament, 
commanded the bishops to cause a new trans- 
lation to be made ; but as the people still 
continued to read and study Tyndal's trans- 
lation, the king and council employed one 
Henry Phillips, who induced the procurator- 
general of the emperor's court to seize on 
Tyndal. After an imprisonment of one 
year and a-half at Antwerp, Tyndal was 
tried, and condemned by virtue of the empe- 
ror's decree in the assembly at Augsburgh, 
1536. He was first strangled, and then 
burnt. Thus died William Tyndal, with 
this testimony to his character, given him by 
the procurator-general, his adversary, that 
he was, ' Homo doctus, pius, et bonus ;' 
which Fox translates, a ( learned, good, and 
godly man.' 

The first English Bible, or complete trans- 
lation of the Scriptures printed, was that by 
Myles Coverdale, the first edition of which 
is dated 1535, and dedicated to King Henry 
VIII. This edition is printed in folio, and 
the title is ornamented with an emblematical 
title cut in wood. He seems to have been 
extremely careful in the language of his 
translation. To him and other translators 
of the Scriptures, especially of our present 
Bible, our language owes perhaps more than 
to all the authors who have written since. 
Myles Coverdale was born in Yorkshire, 
about the year 1484, and being educated 
in the Romish religion, became an Au- 
gustine monk. But afterwards embracing 
the reformation, he entered into holy or- 
ders. In the year 1551, on the death of 
Dr. John Harman, he was promoted to 
the see of Exeter, on account of his 
singular knowledge in divinity, and his 
216 



unblemished character. Under the change 
of religion in the reign of Queen Mary, 
our bishop was like others ejected from 
his see, and thrown into prison, but was 
afterwards permitted to go into banish- 
ment. He retired to Geneva, where he 
engaged with some Protestant refugees in 
a new version of the Scriptures, which was 
effected from the Hebrew and Greek lan- 
guages with notes, and which, from the 
place, was called the Geneva Bible. After 
the death of queen Mary, he returned to 
England, and was collated by the Bishop of 
London to the living of St. Magnus. He 
died at the age of 81 ; but he did not submit 
altogether to the uniformity required, though 
he lived a quiet and peaceable life. 

At the convocation in 1536, probably, the 
clergy petitioned the king, that he would 
grant to the laity the reading of the Bible in 
the English tongue, and that a new transla- 
tion might be made for that purpose. The 
king, therefore, ordered, that a book of the 
whole Bible both in Latin and English, 
should be provided and placed in the choir 
of every parish church, that every one might 
read it. 

In the year 1537 was printed the first 
edition of *the Bible generally known as Mat- 
thew's. It is said, the name of Thomas Mat- 
thew was fictitious, and used by the real editor 
John Rogers from motives of prudence or 
fear ; for though no clamour was raised 
against Myles Coverdale on account of his 
translation, yet the name of Tyndal had be- 
come exceedingly odious. Matthew's Bible 
was composed partly from Tyndal's, and 
partly from Coverdale's translations, with 
some alterations. John Rogers was a native 
of Lancashire, and educated at Cambridge, 
where he took the degree of bachelor of arts 
in 1525. In the reign of Edward VI. he 
was preferred to the vicarage of St. Sepul- 
chre's, in London, and had a prebend in the 
church of St. Paul. He was the first martyr 
that suffered in the reign of Queen Mary, 
and was burnt at Smithfield, February 4, 
1555. 

Archbishop Cranmer's Bible was printed 
in the year 1539. It was perhaps first pro- 
posed in convocation six years before ; but 
the proposal, at that time, proved abortive. 
In this Bible, the translations of Coverdale 
and Matthew seem to be corrected. The 
Psalms are those now used in the liturgy. In 
1538, Grafton and Whitchurch had obtained 
permission from King Henry VIII. to print 
the Bible at Paris ; but when the work was 
nearly finished, by an order of the inquisi- 
tion, the printers were forbidden to proceed. 
It was, therefore, resumed in London, and 
finished in 1539. It was called Cranmer's 
Bible, from the preface being written by the 
archbishop. Thomas Cranmer was born at 
Arslacton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1489. He 
was educated at Cambridge, and admitted a 
fellow of Jesus College. His preferment was 



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occasioned by his opinion concerning the 
king's divorce, ' That it might be decided from 
the Scriptures, by learned men in England, 
as well as at Rome.' After this he rose ra- 
pidly, till at length he was promoted to the 
See of Canterbury, and consecrated in 1533. 
In 1545-6, he procured a repeal of the six 
articles, the establishment of the communion 
in both kinds, a public liturgy, &c. On King 
Edward's death, he appeared in the party of 
Lady Jane Grey, For this he was attainted 
in the ensuing Parliament, and found guilty 
of high treason ; but his treason being par- 
doned, he was next tried at Oxford as a he- 
retic, and burned, March 21, 1555-6, in the 
sixty-seventh year of his age. 

In 1539, was printed Taverner's Bible. 
Mr. Lewis says, that it is neither a bare re- 
visal, nor a correct edition of the English 
Bible, nor yet strictly a new version. It is 
what may be called a correction of Matthew's 
Bible, wherever the editor thought it neces- 
sary. He adopts a great part of Matthew's 
marginal notes, but omits several, and inserts 
others of his own. Richard Taverner was 
born at Brisley, in Norfolk, in 1505, and 
educated first at Cambridge, and afterwards 
at Oxford. Thence he removed to Staire- 
Inn, or Strond-Inn, and after that to the 
Inner-Temple, for the purpose of studying 
the law. In 1534, he went to court, and was 
taken into the service of Sir Thomas Crom- 
well. In 1537, he was appointed one of the 
signet in ordinary ; and in this situation he 
made this recognition of the Bible, which 
was authorized by government to be read in 
churches. He died at Woodeaton, in Ox- 
fordshire, July 1575. 

On the accession of Edward VI. the 
reformation was encouraged, and the acts, 
which prohibited the translation of the Scrip- 
tures, were repealed. It was also enjoined, 
that within three months, a Bible of the 
larger volume in English, and within twelve 
months Erasmus's Paraphrase on the Gospels, 
should be provided, and conveniently placed in 
the churches, that the people might read them. 

The same year, 1549, was printed the 
Book of Common Prayer, compiled by Cran- 
mer, archbishop of Canterbury ; Day, Bishop 
of Chichester ; Goodrich, Bishop of Ely ; 
Skip, Bishop of Hereford ; Holbeach, Bishop 
of Lincoln ; Ridley, Bishop of Rochester ; 
Thyrleby, Bishop of Winchester; Dr. May, 
Dean of St. Paul's ; Dr. Taylor, Dean of 
Lincoln ; Dr. Haines, Dean of Exeter ; Dr. 
Robertson, Dean of Durham ; Dr. Redman, 
Master of Trinity College, Cambridge ; and 
Dr. Cox, almoner to the king. 

The reign of Queen Mary was too unfa- 
vourable for any translation of the Scriptures 
to be printed in England ; and, except the 
Geneva Testament, we meet with only a 
quarto primer, Latin and English, after the 
use of Sarum, with the Epistles and Gospels 
in English, printed by John Kingston, and 
Henry Sutton, 1557. 
217 



On the accession of queen Elizabeth, she 
ordered, that within three months, a Bible 
of the largest volume in English, and, within 
twelve months, the Paraphrase of Erasmus, 
should be provided for every parish. An act 
was also passed for the uniformity of common 
prayer, and service in the church, &c. The 
following year, 1559, the liturgy was review- 
ed, and altered in some passages ; and being 
presented to Parliament, was by them re- 
ceived and established. 

In 1568, was printed in folio the Bishops' 
Bible, which was translated under the in- 
spection of Archbishop Parker. This work 
was divided into several parts, and assigned 
to several learned men. Most of the divisions 
are marked with great initial letters, which 
denote either the titles or names of the per- 
sons employed. To William Ally, bishop 
of Exeter, was given the Pentateuch, at the 
end of which are the letters, W. E. The rest 
of the portions were marked in the same 
manner. Archbishop Parker oversaw, di- 
rected, examined, and finished the whole. 
In the Psalms of this translation, the word 
Er-nbN is translated Lord, and mrr God, con- 
trary to general, if not (otherwise) universal 
custom. This circumstance, probably, pre- 
vented the Bishops' Psalms from being read 
in the church service, in which the Psalms 
of Archbishop Cranmer's Bible were used, 
and are continued to this day. Cranmer's 
Psalms are often printed in the Bishops' 
Bible, and sometimes in that of Geneva, 
either by themselves, or with the proper 
Psalms of those translations in opposite 
columns. — Matthew Parker was born at 
Norwich in 1504, and was sent to Cam- 
bridge, where he was first a Bible clerk of 
Corpus Christi College, and afterwards a 
fellow. His first preferment was the deanery 
of Stoke. By Henry VIII. he was promoted 
to a prebend of Ely, and the mastership of 
Corpus Christi. Edward VI. gave him the 
deanery of Lincoln, with the prebend of 
Coldingham, which he enjoyed till the time 
of Queen Mary, when he was deprived, and 
lived in poverty during her reign. On the 
accession of Queen Elizabeth, he was ap- 
pointed to the vacant see of Canterbury, and 
was consecrated Dec. 17, 1559. He died 
May 17, 1575, in the seventy-second year of 
his age. 

A translation of the New Testament by 
Lawrence Tonson, under-secretary to Sir 
Francis Walsingham, was printed in 1576. 
This was afterwards frequently reprinted in 
the Geneva Bible, instead of the former 
translation. 

These labours of the Protestants had 
their effect on the Catholics. In 1582, 
was printed the New Testament, translated 
by the English college at Rheims. Twenty- 
seven years after, in 1609, appeared the first 
volume, and, in 1610, the second volume of 
the Old Testament and Apocrypha, printed 
at Douay, and thence called the Douay Bi- 



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ble. Both these have been reprinted seve- 
ral times ; but an edition in five volumes 
12mo. 1750, is much improved in point of 
language from the Douay, which in many 
instances is very obscure. 

At a convocation in 1603, soon after the 
accession of James I., it was complained that 
many and great faults existed in the transla- 
tion authorized to be read ; and Fuller says, 
that one of the best things produced by the 
Hampton-court conference was a resolution 
of the king, that there should be a new 
translation of the Bible. For this office his 
majesty appointed fifty-four learned persons, 
as appears by his letter to the archbishops 
and bishops, in 1604. But as this letter was 
written three years before the commence- 
ment of the translation, it is probable that 
seven of the persons nominated for this per- 
formance died in the interval, or that so 
many might have been employed in revising 
the translation ; for Fuller's list of the trans- 
lators amounts only to forty- seven. This 
number ranged under six divisions, entered 
on the work in the spring of 1607- After 
the work was translated, three copies of the 
Bible were sent to London. One from Cam- 
bridge, another from Oxford, and the third 
from Westminster. Two persons were then 
chosen out of each company, twelve in all, to 
review the work, and to extract from the 
three copies one which should be printed. 
Lastly, Bilson, Bishop of Winchester, and 
Dr. Myles Smith, who had taken an active 
part in the work, revised the whole, and 
prefixed arguments to each book. Dr. 
Smith, who was soon after appointed to the 
see of Gloucester, wrote a preface, which is 
now printed in the folio editions of this 
Bible. This translation was first printed on 
a black type in 1611, as Fuller says, or in 
1612, according to Dr. Durell. 

In 1612, a quarto edition of this Bible was 
printed on Roman type, with an engraved 
title copied from the folio, by Jasper Isaac. 

After the publication of this Bible, which 
was commonly called King James's Bible, 
all the other versions fell into disuse, except 
the Epistles and Gospels in the Common 
Prayer-book, which were still continued ac- 
cording to the Bishops' translation, till the 
alteration in the liturgy, in 1661 ; and the 
Psalms and Hymns, which are to this day 
continued as in the old version. 

We have now seen with what difficulties 
the translation of the Bible had to struggle, 
before it could be accomplished. The per- 
severance of its friends is entitled to our 
most grateful acknowledgments. Their la- 
bours have transmitted their names to reli- 
gious posterity, and to the world at large, 
with immortal honour. To say that their 
translation is free from faults, would be to de- 
scribe them as angels rather than men ; but let 
no one despise their performance, till he has 
qualified himself for undertaking such ano- 
ther, and then he will soon be sensible of the 
218 



advantages we receive from those, who sus- 
tained that labour before us. It is not, how- 
ever, to be denied, that a translation of the 
Holy Scriptures, if undertaken by authority 
in the present day, would possess many ad- 
vantages superior to those, which attended 
King James's translation. The state of know- 
ledge is much improved by the labours of 
many learned men, in the succeeding interval 
of time. Geographical knowledge is now much 
more correct, as well as more extensive. The 
knowledge of natural history, and natural 
philosophy, of the customs, manners, modes 
of thinking, and turns of expression, among 
the Orientals, as well as many other requi- 
sites, are better understood at present than 
formerly. — These are always of consequence, 
and, occasionally, are of the utmost im- 
portance, for conveying the true meaning of 
many passages of Scripture. We ought also 
to remark, that in the course of two centu- 
ries, our language has undergone some 
changes, which have varied it from being 
precisely the same as when our translators 
wrote. 

It is undoubtedly much more easy to no- 
tice the obstacles to perfection, in our pub- 
lic version, than to prevent them, or to 
provide against them in a future work. — But 
whether the difficulty of entirely removing 
them be sufficient to justify the suspension 
of every attempt to correct them, we shall 
not determine. Our present version is suffi- 
cient to all purposes of piety ; and these ob- 
servations refer to the finishing of the al- 
ready extant superstructure, rather than to 
the foundation of a new edifice ; or, perhaps, 
they rather refer to the removal of some go- 
thic protuberances, which deface or disfigure 
the appearance of the edifice, and which are 
cumbersome and unpleasant to beholders, 
though they be not dangerous to the stabi- 
lity of the building. 

There have been various English Bibles 
with marginal references by Canne, Hayes, 
Scattergood, Barker, Field, Tennison, Lloyd, 
Blaney, Wilson, &c. Additions to Calmet's 
Dictionary ; Johnson's Historical Account of 
the several English translations of the Bible. 

BIBLICISTS, certain doctors of the 
twelfth century, who expounded the sacred 
writings in their public schools, illustrated 
the doctrines of Christianity without deriving 
any assistance from reason or philosophy, and 
confirmed their opinions by the united testi- 
monies of Scripture and tradition. Mosheim, 
vol. ii. p. 427. 

BIBLIOTHECA, a library. The Scrip- 
ture, (Ezra v. 17; vi. 1.) mentions a library 
of the kings of Persia, which some think 
consisted of the histories of that nation, and 
of memoirs of the affairs of state, but which 
appears to have been rather a depository of 
laws, charters, and ordinances of the king. 
We do not read, that there were any libraries 
formed among the ancient Hebrews before 
the time of Nehemiah and Judas Maccabaeus. 



BID 



BIN 



Calmer, however, thinks, that the annals of 
the kings of Judah and Israel, which v are 
mentioned in so brief a manner, in the books 
of Kings and Chronicles, may be considered 
as so many libraries. Others are of opinion, 
that public libraries were established previ- 
ously to that period. 

Solomon complained in his time, that 
there was no end of composing books. He 
himself had written very many, (Eccles. xii. 
12. 1 Kings iv. 32, 33.) ; and it is probable 
that he formed a large and royal library. It 
Ss particularly remarked in the second book 
of the Maccabees, (ii. 13.) that in Jerusalem 
Nehemiah founded a large library, composed 
of the acts of the kings, the prophets, and of 
David, and the epistles of the kings concern- 
ing the holy gifts. Judas Maccabaeus, (Id. 
ibid.) imitated the diligence of Nehemiah. 
He collected what the war with Antiochus 
Epiphanes had dispersed, and repaired what 
it bad destroyed. 

BIDDELIANS, so called from John 
Biddle, who, in the year 1644, formed an 
independent congregation in London. He 
taught that Jesus Christ, to the intent that 
he might be our brother, and have a fellow- 
feeling of our infirmities, and thus become 
the more ready to help us, has no other than 
a human nature ; and therefore that in this 
very nature, he is not only a person, since 
none except a human person can be our bro- 
ther, but he is also our Lord and God. 

It is observable, that Biddle, as well as 
Socinus and other Unitarians before and 
since, scrupled not to call Christ God, 
though they believed him to be a human 
creature, only on account of the divine so- 
vereignty, with which he was invested. — 
Lindseys View of the Unitarian Doctrine and 
Worship, p. 28-9. 

BIDDING PRAYER. It formed a part 
of the office of deacons in the primitive 
church, to admonish and direct the people 
in their public devotions in the church. — 
For this purpose, they used certain known 
forms of words, to give notice when each part 
of the service commenced. Agreeable to 
this ancient practice is the form. ' Let us 
pray,' repeated before several of the prayers 
in the English liturgy. Bishop Burnet, in 
his History of the Reformation, has preserv- 
ed the form used before that period, which 
was as follows. After the preacher had 
named and opened his text, he called on the 
people to go to their prayers, and told them 
for what they should pray. Ye shall pray, 
says he, for the king, the pope, &c. After 
this, all the people said their beads in a ge- 
neral silence ; and the minister also kneeled 
down, and said his. They were to say a 
Pater-noster an Ave-maria, &c. and then the 
sermon proceeded. Burnet's His tort/ of the 
Reformation, vol. ii. p. 20. 

BIGOTRY consists in being obstinately 
and perversely attached to our own opinions; 
or, as some have defined it, ' a tenacious ad- 
219 



herence to a system adopted without inves- 
tigation, and defended without argument, 
accompanied with a malignant intolerant 
spirit towards all who differ.' Bigotry is a 
kind of prejudice, combined with a certain 
degree of malignity. It is thus exemplified 
and distinguished by a sensible writer : 
' When Jesus preached, Prejudice cried, Can 
any good thing come out of Nazareth ? Cru- 
cify him, crucify him, said Bigotry. Why ? 
what evil hath he done ? replied Candour.' 
Buck's Theological Dictionary, -p. 124. 

BIND. To bind and loose is a figurative 
expression, derived from carrying burdens, 
that is, confirming or removing a burden of 
the mind. It is taken in Scripture for con- 
demning and absolving: ' I will give unto 
thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and 
whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, shall be 
bound in heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt 
loose on earth, shall be loosed in heaven.' 
(Matt. xvi. 19.) Binding and loosing, in 
the language of the Jews, expressed permit- 
ting, ox forbidding, or judicially declaring any 
thing to be permitted, or forbidden. In the 
promotion of their doctors, they put keys 
into their hands, with the following words : 
' Receive the power of binding and loosing.' 
Hence the allusion, ' Ye have taken away 
the key of knowledge.' (Luke xi- 52.) 

To bind is used for putting in bonds, and 
in prison. ' We are come to bind Samson,' 
(Judges xv. 10.) ; that is, ' to make him our 
prisoner.' 

' To bind the law upon one's hand for a 
sign,' (Deut. vi. 8.) was probably meant 
figuratively, and implied an intimate ac- 
quaintance with its precepts ; but the Jews 
understood it literally, and bound parts of 
the law upon their wrists. See Phylac- 
tery. ' Bind my commandments upon 
thine heart, and tie them about thy neck.' 
(Prov. vi. 21.) ' Bind my commandments 
upon thy fingers, and write them upon the 
table of thy heart,' (Id. vii. 3.) 'Bind up 
the testimony, seal the law,' (Isa. viii. 16.) is 
to be understood in another sense. ' Seal 
what thou hast been writing, bind it about 
with thread or ribband, and set upon it thy 
seal ; for closure and confirmation of its 
contents, and to witness thy confidence in 
its veracity, and thy expectation of its com- 
pletion.' 

It is said, that Daniel was the most learn- 
ed of the magi, interpreters of dreams, &c. 
for showing, that is, explaining hard sen- 
tences, and dissolving doubts, or, as it is in 
the original, ' untying knots.' (Dan. v. 
16.) ' Loosing things which were bound,' is 
used as expressing the explanation of things 
concealed. It appears, that superintendents 
of provinces are described in Persia, as 
unticrs of knots ; and as Daniel is thus de- 
scribed, he was, or had been, a superin- 
tendent. Perhaps, this may apply to the pas- 
sage above quoted, ( Matt. xvi. 19.) ' What- 
soever ye shall bind on earth,' &c. as regents, 



BIR 



BIR 



deputy -governors, delegates, superinten- 
dents, &c. in your respective provinces, shall 
be confirmed at court, in heaven. Frag- 
ments attached to Calmet's Diet. No. clxxiv. 
p. 175. 

BIRDS. The general character of birds 
is, that they are feathered, two-legged, two- 
winged, have a hard bony bill, and that the 
females are oviparous. Their internal 
structure is wholly dissimilar to that of man. 
Formed chiefly to move or float in air, all 
their parts are wonderfully adapted to their 
destination. Light and sharp before, they 
cleave that fluid element with the greatest 
facility ; and swelling gradually in the mid- 
dle, they again terminate in expansive tails, 
which preserve the buoyancy and direction 
of the body, while the fore parts are cutting 
their way. Hence they have been com- 
pared to a vessel in the sea ; the trunk of the 
animal's body answering to the hold, the 
head to the prow, the tail to the rudder, and 
the wings to the oars. 

The external apparatus of birds is not 
less the object of just admiration, than 
their shape and figure. The position of 
their feathers, which tend backwards, and 
regularly lie over each other, produces 
warmth, celerity of motion, and security. 
Next to their skin is a soft down, to pro- 
tect them from the cold ; while the exterior 
plumage is arrayed in double beards, dis- 
posed and inserted in the most perfect and 
regular lines, such as no ingenuity of man 
can imitate. To secure them from the in- 
jury of violent attrition, or wet, birds are 
furnished with glands near the rump, dis- 
tilling a kind of oil, which they occasionally 
press out with their bills, and spread over 
the ruffled feathers. This fluid, which is 
peculiar to the winged tribes, varies in 
quantity, according to their habitudes and 
necessities. Aquatic fowls possess it in 
the greatest abundance ; and, though it 
improves their plumage, it communicates a 
rank flavour to the flesh, which renders 
some species disagreeable, and others wholly 
unfit for food. Linnaeus has divided birds 
into six orders : 1. Accipitres, or the rapa- 
cious kind, the beaks of which are hooked ; 
2. Picse, or the pye kind, which have beaks 
in some degree resembling a wedge, and 
formed for cleaving; 3. Anseres, or the 
duck kind, which have smooth bills, covered 
with skin, and nervous at the points, serv- 
ing as strainers to their food ; 4. Grallae, or 
the crane kind, which have bills formed for 
the purpose of searching and examining the 
bottom of pools ; 5. Galling, or the poultry 
kind, the bills of which are a little convex, 
for the purpose of gathering their food, and 
the upper beak projects over the lower ; 6. 
Passeres, or the sparrow kind, which com- 
prehend all the beautiful and vocal tribes 
of birds, and the bills of which resemble a 
forceps. 

No particular characters are given in 
220 



Scripture for distinguishing birds by classes, 
as clean or unclean ; but a list of exceptions 
is tendered, and these are forbidden, with- 
out enumerating those, which are allowed. 
However, it will be found, on consideration, 
that those, which live on grain are not pro- 
hibited. As these are the domesticated 
kinds, we might almost express it in other 
words, that birds of prey generally are re- 
jected ; that is, such as have crooked beaks, 
and strong talons, whether they prey on 
lesser fowls or animals, or on fish ; whilst 
those, which eat vegetables, are admitted as 
lawful. The number of birds prohibited in 
Scripture is twenty. For the sake of show- 
ing the correct natural order, in which Moses 
has placed them, we shall range them sys- 
tematically ; as it will prove that the system 
of Moses was the system of nature. Those 
also are distinguished, which are supposed 
to be correctly rendered: — 

BIRDS OF THE AIR. 

Eagle Eagle. 

Ossifrage Vulture. 

Ospray Black Eagle. 

Vulture Hawk. 

Kite Kite. 

Raven Raven. 

BIRDS OF THE LAND. 

Owl Ostrich. 

Night Hawk Night Owl. 

Cuckow Saf-saf. 

Hawk Ancient Ibis. 

BIRDS OF THE WATER. 

Little Owl Sea-Gull. 

Cormorant Cormorant. 

Great Owl Ibis Ardea. 

Swan Wild Goose. 

Pelican Pelican. 

Gier Eagle Alcyone. 

Stork Stork. 

Heron Long-Neck. 

Lapwing Hoopoe. 

Bat Bat. 

By tracing the order and distinctions of 
these birds, the reader will be able to judge 
of what nature they are, by that of their 
associates. 

Birds were offered in sacrifice on many 
occasions : in the sacrifices for sin, he who 
had not a lamb or a kid, might offer two 
turtles, or two young pigeons; one for a 
sin-offering, the other for a burnt-offering. 
These he presented to the priest, who of- 
fere that first, which was for the sin-offer- 
ing, and wrung off the head from the neck, 
but did not divide it asunder ; the other he 
was to offer for a burnt-offering, according 
to the manner. (Levit. v. 7> 8» &«•) I" 
another place, Moses relates more at length 
the manner of sacrificing fowls. The priest 
took that which was appointed for the burnt- 



BIR 



BIR 



offering, brought it unto the altar, wrung off 
its head, and burnt it on the altar ; the 
blood of it he wrung out at the side of the 
altar. He plucked away his crop with his 
feathers, and cast it beside the altar, on the 
east part, by the place of the ashes ; and he 
clave it with the wings thereof, but did not 
divide it asunder ; and he burnt it on the 
altar, on the wood that was upon the fire. 
(Levit i. 14, 15, 16.) Some interpreters 
insist, that the head of the bird was pulled 
off, (Id. ib. 15.) ; others that there was only 
an opening made with the larger finger- 
nails, between the head and the throat, 
without entirely separating the head from 
the body. The text does not intimate what 
was done with the body, if it was separated. 
It is observed, that when Abraham offered 
birds for a burnt-offering, he did not divide 
them, but placed them entire upon the other 
victims. (Gen. xv. 10.) In other places, 
where Moses speaks of the sacrifice of birds, 
he does not command the head to be plucked 
off. (See Levit. v. 7, 8.) When a man, who 
had been smitten with a leprosy, was healed, 
he came to the entrance of the camp of 
Israel, and the priest went out to inspect 
him, whether he were entirely cured. 
(Levit. xiv. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.) After this in- 
spection, the leprous person came to the 
door of the tabernacle, and offered two 
living sparrows, or two pure birds, of which 
it was lawful to eat ; he made a wisp with 
branches of cedar and hyssop, tied together 
with a thread, or scarlet ribbon ; he filled an 
earthen pot with running water, that with 
it the blood of the bird might be mingled. 
Then the priest, dipping the bunch of hys- 
sop and cedar into the water, sprinkled with 
it the leper, who was healed; and, after- 
wards, he let loose the living sparrow (or 
bird), to fly where it would. 

In Palestine, dead bodies were sometimes 
left exposed to birds of prey, as appears 
from Scripture; but, generally, they were 
buried in the evening ; and even criminals 
were taken down from the gallows. 

Moses, to inspire the Israelites with hu- 
manity, orders, if they find a bird's nest, 
not to take the dam with the young, but to 
suffer the old one to fly away, and to take 
the young only ; that, says he, ' it may be 
well with thee, and that thou mayest pro- 
long thy days.' (Deut. xxii. 6, 7-) 

The prophets often speak of birds of pas- 
sage, the swallow, and the stork, which re- 
turn to their habitation. God says that he 
will recall his captive people like a bird 
from a far country. 

The Lord speaking of his people, says, 
■ Mine heritage is unto me as a speckled 
bird ; the birds round about are against her ; 
come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field, 
come to devour.' (Jer. xii. 9.) A speckled 
or striped bird, that, is, unnaturally speckled 
or striped, as if having been dyed ; for it is 
very conformable to the nature of birds, that 
221 



such an appearance should draw together 
the neighbouring birds, as an owl does by 
day-light, and that they should molest, and 
often fatally injure the sufferer. Calmet, 
however, takes the idea directly contrary, 
and says, that a Chaldee word nearly related 
signifies to dip, or stain, as if the idea im- 
ported a bird stained, sprinkled with her 
own blood. The Hebrew may be trans- 
lated, ' Is not mine heritage as a speckled 
bird ? is it not with respect to me as a bird 
shut up (one of the most beautiful birds for 
a cage) ? Yet, have I not given it to the 
beasts of prey?' Some translate the pas- 
sage, ' Is not mine heritage become like an 
hyaena against me ? Is not all mine heri- 
tage filled with wild beasts V This is the 
translation of Bochart, and of the Septua- 
gint. Bochart justly observes, that the 
original will bear the sense of a striped wild 
beast, or fierce hyaena. The Hebrew, ta-y, 
oith, may signify simply ' the rusher,' or 
who rushes fiercely forward, and may apply 
either to bird, or wild beast. In confirma- 
tion of this rendering, it is remarked, that 
it agrees well with the foregoing verse, in 
which the heritage is compared to a yelling 
lion. May it not, however, be said, that 
the prophet having taken one metaphor 
from wild beasts, now selects another from 
birds ? It is notorious, that an owl by day- 
light is followed and provoked by numbers, 
even of smaller birds. May not then this 
expression signify a bird streaked, wounded, 
and sprinkled with its own blood, surrounded 
by enemies, who, unable themselves com- 
pletely to devour her, call on the beasts of 
the field to finish their purpose ? Additions 
to Calmet; Scripture Illustrated, Expository 
Index, p. 53. 56, 57. 

BIRTH-RIGHT, or primogeniture, 
was the right of the first-born, or eldest son 
or child. To birth-right or primogeniture, 
many privileges were annexed by the He- 
brews. The first-born was consecrated to 
the Lord, (Exod. xxii. 29.) ; possessed a 
double portion of the estate, (Deut xxi. 17.) ; 
a dignity and authority over his brethren, 
(Gen. xlix. 3.) ; succeeded in the government 
of the family or kingdom, (2Chron. xxi. 3.); 
and also as some think to the priesthood. 
These prerogatives were not confined to his 
person only, but descended to his latest pos- 
terity, if they conducted themselves in such 
a manner as to deserve them. Esau sold his 
birth-right to Jacob, (Gen. xxv. 29, &c); 
and, therefore, Jacob had a right to the 
particular blessing of his dying parent, on 
account of the covenant, which God made 
with Abraham, that from his loins should 
come Jesus Christ Reuben forfeited his 
birth-right, by his incest with his father's 
concubine. His tribe, therefore, continued 
always in obscurity; and the priesthood 
was conferred on Levi, the government 
on Judah, and the double portion on Jo- 
seph, to descend to their posterity. (Gen. 



BIS 



BIT 



xlix. 1, &c.) Pool's Annot. ; Le Clew's 
Comment. 

BISHOP, TpS) peJcid, kiriaKo-KOQ, signifies 
an overseer, or one who has the inspection 
and direction of any thing. Nehemiah 
speaks of the overseer of the Levites at 
Jerusalem. (Neh. xi. 22.) The most com- 
mon acceptation of the word bishop, is that 
in Acts xx. 28, and in St. Paul's Epistles, 
(Philip, i. 1.) where it signifies the pastor of 
a church, with others under him. St. Peter 
calls Jesus Christ ' the Shepherd and Bi- 
shop of our souls/ (1 Pet. ii. 25.) ; and St. 
Paul describes the qualities requisite in a 
bishop. (1 Tim. iii. Tit. i.5, 6, 7, &c) It 
is not improbable, that the overseers of 
Christ's church are in the New Testament 
called £7ri(7K07roi, from the following pas- 
sage in Isaiah : ' I will also make thy 
officers peace, and thine exactors (knia- 
kottovq, overseers) righteousness.' (Isaiah 
lx. 17.) 

Besides two archbishops, there are in 
England twenty-four bishops, exclusive of 
the bishop of Sodor and Man. All of 
them, except the bishop of Man, are peers 
of the realm, and sit and vote in the house 
of lords. The bishops of London, Dur- 
ham, and Winchester, take precedence 
of the other bishops, who rank after them 
according to the seniority of their conse- 
cration. 

A bishop of England is also a baron in 
a three-fold manner, namely, feudal, with 
respect to the temporaries annexed to his 
bishoprick ; by writ, as being summoned 
by writ to parliament ; and by patent and 
creation. Accordingly he has the prece- 
dence of all other barons, and votes as 
baron and bishop. But though the peer- 
age of bishops was never denied, yet it 
has been contested whether they have a 
right to vote in criminal matters. This 
right was disputed as early as the reign of 
Henry II. ; and we find that by the deci- 
sion of this controversy, archbishops, bi- 
shops, &c. as well as the rest of the barons, 
ought to be present at the judgment in the 
king's courts, till it came to diminution of 
members, or death. The reason given, why 
bishops should not be present in cases of 
blood, is that by this means they contract 
an irregularity. Yet Archbishop Cranmer, 
who was one of the privy council to Ed- 
ward VI. signed the warrant for the ex- 
ecution of Thomas Seymour, lord high ad- 
miral of England. At present, the bishops 
vote in the trial and arraignment of a peer ; 
but, before sentence of death is passed, they 
withdraw, and vote by proxy. 

The jurisdiction of a bishop in England 
consists in collating to benefices ; granting 
institutions on the presentations of other 
patrons ; commanding induction ; taking 
care of the profits of vacant benefices, for 
the use of the successors ; visiting his dio- 
cese once in three years ; in suspending, 
222 



depriving, degrading, and excommunieat 
ing; in granting administrations, and su- 
perintending the probate of wills. These 
parts of his function depend on the eccle- 
siastical law. By the common law, he is 
to certify the judges respecting legitimate 
and illegitimate births,, and marriages ; 
and to this jurisdiction, by the statute law, 
belongs the licensing of physicians, chi- 
rurgeons, and schoolmasters, and the unit- 
ing of small parishes. This last privilege 
is now peculiar to the Bishop of Norwich. 
The bishop's courts possess this privilege 
above the civil courts, that writs are issued 
from the former in the name of the bishop 
himself, and not in that of the king. The 
judge of the bishop's court is his chancellor, 
anciently called Ecclesice causidicus, the 
Church lawyer. Hurd on Religious Rites, 
&c. p. 631, 632; Parkhurst's Greek and 
English Lexicon. 

BITHYN'IA, BiSvvia, signifies violent 
precipitation. Bithynia was a country 
bounded by the Euxine Sea on the north, 
by the river Parthenias on the east, by 
mount Olympus and the Rhyndacus on the 
south, and by the Bosphorus Thracius on 
the west. It is one of the countries, to 
whose inhabitants St. Peter addresses his 
first Epistle. (1 Pet. i. 1.) Since the times 
of the New Testament, it has been rendered 
famous for the first general council held at 
Nice, a city of Bithynia, against the Ari- 
ans, by command of Constantine the Great ; 
and for the fourth general council at Chal- 
cedon, another city of Bithynia, against the 
Nestorians, by order of the emperor Mar- 
tianus. Though Paul proposed to go into 
Bithynia, yet the Spirit did not suffer him. 
(Acts xvi. 7> 6.) Bithynia formerly con- 
tained several handsome cities, was watered 
by fertilizing streams, and abounded with 
most of the necessaries of life. At pre- 
sent, its largest cities are either laid in 
ruins, or dwindled into contemptible vil- 
lages; and the greatest part of its once 
fertile soil is totally destitute of cultivation. 
Wells's Geography, vol. ii. p. 254; Univ. 
Hist. 

BIT'TERN, a bird of the heron kind, 
and distinguished from all others by its 
dismal hollow note, of which it is impossi- 
ble to convey any adequate idea to such 
as have never heard it. This note is not 
unlike the uninterrupted bellowing of a 
bull, but more continued and hollow, and 
might be supposed to proceed from some 
formidable animal resident at the bottom 
of deep waters. The bird, however, that 
utters this terrific noise, which may be 
heard at the distance of a mile, is not so 
large as a heron. It has a short pendant 
crest of a black colour ; and the plumage 
in general is of a pale dull yellow, spotted 
and barred with black. The bittern is 
a solitary bird: it conceals itself in the 
sedge by day, and begins its call before 



BLA 



BLA 



evening, booming six or eight times ; and 
after a silence of some minutes, it renews 
its cries. It is chiefly heard from the com- 
mencement of spring till the end of autumn ; 
and, however its sound may startle or alarm 
those, who are ignorant whence it proceeds, 
there is every reason to suppose it the call of 
courtship, or the expression of pleasure. 

Isaiah, foretelling the destruction of Baby- 
lon, says, that the Lord will make it a pos- 
session for the bittern, (Isa. xiv. 23.) ; and 
Zephaniah, prophesying against Nineveh, 
says, that in it shall lodge the cormorant and 
the bittern. (Zeph. ii. 14.) Some interpre- 
ters, however, render the Hebrew word an 
owl, an ospray, a tortoise, a beaver; and 
Bochart supposes it to signify a hedge-hog. 
Scripture Illustrated. 

BLASPHEMY. A man is guilty of 
blasphemy, when he speaks injuriously of 
God, or his attributes ; when he ascribes to 
him such qualities as do not belong to him, 
or deprives him of those which do. The law 
of Moses sentenced blasphemers to death, 
(Lev. xxiv. 16.) Whoever heard ano- 
ther blaspheme, and witnessed his offence, 
laid his hand upon the criminal's head, to 
express that he was to bear the whole blame 
and punishment of his crime. The guilty 
person was led out of the city, and stoned. 

It has been much controverted, what the 
blasphemy is against the Holy Ghost, which 
is pronounced to be unpardonable. (Matt. 
xii. 31.) Some have thought, that it was 
lapsing into idolatry ; some denying Christ ; 
some opposing the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost ; and others, attributing the miraculous 
works of the Holy Ghost to the operations of 
the devil. If we consider, (says Mr. Brough- 
ton) the Scripture account of that sin, no- 
thing can be plainer, than that it is to be 
understood of the Pharisees imputing the 
miracles, wrought by the power of the Holy 
Ghost, to the power of the devil. Our Lord 
had just healed one possessed of a devil ; and 
the Pharisees said, ' This fellow doth not 
cast out devils but by Beelzebub, the prince 
of the devils.' The Pharisees, therefore, were 
the persons charged with this sin ; and the sin 
itself consisted in ascribing to the agency of 
the devil that which was done by the power 
of God. The reason why our Lord pro- 
nounced this sin unpardonable, was, because 
the Jews, by opposing the evidence of mira- 
cles, resisted the strongest means of their 
conviction. The crime (says Wetstein) is 
that of men, who, though they see a miracle 
achieved by the power of the Holy Ghost, 
yet maliciously pronounce it to have been 
effected by the evil spirit. (Mark iii. 29. 
Heb. x. 29.) He who shall repent may now 
obtain pardon of all, even sins of the deepest 
dye, ( Acts xiii. 38, 39.) except blasphemy of 
the Spirit. For he who rails against so many 
and great miracles, such as could not have 
been effected except by divine power, is in- 
corrigible and cannot be reformed. For by 
223 



what other method can he be brought to 
reason 1 He who blinks even at the solar ray, 
will have still less power of vision in the dark, 
or by the light of the moon, or by that of a 
candle. Having therefore rejected the last 
mode that can be resorted to for his cure, his 
disorder is irremediable. Some sins are pu- 
nished in this world only, others only in the 
world to come. A sin, which is not remitted 
in the present, nor in the future state, is pu- 
nished in both. He who believes not in 
Christ, either because he sees not his mighty 
works, or because he stumbles at the humi- 
lity of his appearance, or because he is alien- 
ated by the authority of his teacher, is yet 
not past cure, and may, by the view, or the 
report of miracles, acknowledge his error. 
But he, who to contempt joins calumny, and 
knowingly and wilfully refers the miracles 
wrought before his own eyes to diabolical 
agency, is altogether incurable and cannot 
be reformed. This interpretation is con- 
firmed by Chrysostom, Grotius, &c. and 
seems the most correct. 

To speak irreverently of things sacred is 
to blaspheme ; and this is a species of blas- 
phemy, which is not very uncommon in the 
world, and is often held in high repute by 
those who wish to be accounted wits, and 
persons of superior discernment. Of all 
things, religion is the most essential to the 
well-being of man, and to the good of society. 
It is that which supplies morality with its 
sanctions, and without which no sense of 
moral obligation would long exist. It is that 
which operates where the terrors of human 
laws are ineffectual, in the shades of solitude, 
and in the secret chambers of the heart. 
Human laws may act as a preventive to 
crimes ; but it is religion, or a thorough be- 
lief in a Being, infinite in wisdom, in power 
and goodness, which most effectually ope- 
rates as a direct incentive to virtue. The 
inward intentions of man, when manifested 
in their consequences, are subject to civil 
punishment; but it is religion, which so 
powerfully favours the growth of good, and 
the exclusion of all bad intentions. To re- 
vile, therefore, what is so eminently useful, 
is to show a criminal indifference to the hap- 
piness of mankind. Even though any one, 
disregarding the strongest evidence, and 
slighting the most irrefragable testimony, 
should really disbelieve the truth of the 
Christian religion, it seems in him the height 
of cruelty to attempt to subvert in others a 
belief, which is so conducive to their comfort 
and the public good. 

Some persons delight in speaking with le- 
vity on the most sacred subjects. Having, 
or feeling, no serious impressions them- 
selves, they appear anxious to erase theni 
from the minds of others. Hence, they often 
associate the most trifling, with the most se- 
rious subjects; images that are ludicrous, 
with others that are sacred. Thus they dis- 
sever those pious associations of ideas, 



BLE 



BLI 



which previously existed in the mind, and 
which formed no inconsiderable barrier 
against vice. The hardiest infidel cannot 
pretend to prove the impossibility of our fu- 
ture existence ; and the consequent possibi- 
lity of a state of retribution demonstrates 
the folly of the blasphemer and profane 
scoffer. If, indeed, there be no regions that 
lie beyond the grave, no future tribunal, to 
which we shall be summoned ; if we are to 
lose our existence in death, and become as if 
we had never been; the religious and the 
wicked will be both alike, and they shall lie 
undistinguished, in equal insensibility. But 
if there shall be, as there certainly will be, 
another scene, in which we are to appear 
again, and live for ever ; if there be a God, 
who will judge the world ; if there will be a 
day when men shall rise again, and give an 
account of their works ; how widely different 
will be their situation ! Where then shall the 
blasphemer and the wicked appear 1 Fel- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. p. 252 — 
258. ; Sermons by George Carr, Sermon iv. ; 
Bishop Stillingfleet's Sermons; Bloomfield's 
Recensio Synoptica, vol. i. p. 160, 161 ; 
Broughton's Dictionary. 

BLESS. BLESSING is an action re- 
ferred first to God, and secondly to man. 
Without doubt, the inferior is blessed by the 
superior. When God blesses, he bestows 
that virtue, that power, which renders his 
blessing effectual. His blessings are either 
temporal or spiritual, bodily or mental ; but 
in every thing they are productive of that 
which they import. On the contrary, the 
blessings of men are only good wishes, and, as 
it were, a peculiar kind of prayer to the Au- 
thor of all good. God's blessings extend into 
the future life ; but no gift of one man to ano- 
ther, as of a parent to his child, can exceed 
the limits of the present state. 

Blessing was an act of thanksgiving to God 
for his mercies, or rather for that special 
mercy, which, at the time, occasioned the act 
of blessing. 

Those predictions of the ancient patri- 
archs, which are usually called blessings, 
are much rather hints, suggestions, respect- 
ing the future character, disposition, or cir- 
cumstances of those, to whom they referred. 
They were probably grounded, in some de- 
gree, on observations made respecting the 
temper and conduct of the party himself, 
who immediately received them. For in- 
stance, if Benjamin, the son of Jacob, was 
himself personally sharp, wolf-like, bold, 
predatory, his nature might be expected to 
descend in his posterity. But, often, the 
spirit of prophecy prompted the mind of the 
speaker (or writer, perhaps composer), to 
utter sentiments, which, in the event, were to 
be fulfilled strictly, literally, or verbally, yet 
in a manner different from what was most 
prominent on the mind of the speaker. 
When Jacob says of Simeon and Levi, ' I 
will disperse them in Jacob, and scatter them 



in Israel,' he meant this dispersion by way of 
degradation and punishment, and it is not 
likely that he foresaw that one tribe should 
furnish men of letters, writers in the future 
kingdom of his descendants, and that the 
other should be invested with the priesthood, 
and by that means, both be allotted into vari- 
ous districts, and cities, throughout the land 
of Israel. However, the fact was so, and pro- 
vidence accomplished his prophecy, in dis- 
persing and scattering these tribes, after a 
manner, which, in all probability, did not 
occur to the mind of the dying patriarch, 
when he uttered the prediction. 

When Isaac foretold the different natures 
and properties of the countries, which should 
be possessed by Jacob, and by Esau, he did 
not confer on the persons of his sons any 
real possession : he merely divided to them, 
by prediction, the places of the future 
habitations of their posterity ; and these 
places he described prophetically, and pro- 
phetically referred to the nations, rather than 
to the persons of Jacob and Esau. 

Blessing is sometimes put for salvation ; 
for consecration ; for a promise of future 
good ; for the reception of a good ; for a 
gift or present ; for praise ; for alms ; for 
adoration ; for a man's blessing himself: 
in short, it implies, a felicity either ex- 
pected, promised, or bestowed. In the 
Mosaic law, the manner of blessing is ap- 
pointed by the lifting up of hands. Our 
Lord lifted up his hands, and blessed his 
disciples. It is probable, that this action 
was constantly used on this subject. The 
palm of the hand held up was precatory ; 
and the palm turned outwards, or down- 
wards, was benedictory. Additions to 
Calmet's Dictionary. 

BLINDNESS is sometimes taken for a 
real privation of sight, and sometimes for 
dimness of sight. Thus, the blindness of 
the man in the Gospel, who was born 
blind, was real. The men of Sodom, who 
endeavoured in vain to find Lot's door, 
(Gen. xix. 11); and Paul, during the first 
three days that he was at Damascus, (Acts 
ix. 9.) lost the use of their sight only for 
a time The Septuagint well represents 
the situation of the inhabitants of Sodom, 
by saying they were struck with an in- 
ability of seeing. Ignorance is a kind of 
blindness, frequently no less fatal, than a 
deprivation of sight ; and partial, or de- 
fective information, is little better than 
ignorance. Moses says to Hobab, ■ Leave 
us not, I pray thee ; forasmuch as thou 
knowest how we ought to encamp in the 
wilderness, and thou mayest be to us in- 
stead of eyes.' (Numb. x. 31.) 

Moses says, 'Thou shalt not put a 
stumbling-block before the blind.' (Levit. 
xix. 14.) This maybe understood figura- 
tively, as well as literally ; as if Moses re- 
commended, that charity and instruction 
should be shown to those, who want light 



BLI 



BLO 



and counsel, or to those who are in danger 
of going wrong, to instruct the ignorant, 
&c. Moses also says, ' Cursed be he who 
maketh the blind to wander out of the way.' 
(Deut xxvii. 18.) This may be taken in 
the same manner. 

The Jebusites, to insult David, who be- 
sieged Jerusalem, mocked him, saying, 
' Except thou take away the blind and the 
lame, thou shalt not come in hither.' (2 
Sam. v. 6.) By this they seemed to signify, 
that they desired only the blind and the 
lame to defend their city ; and, as if to 
render their insult greater, they had placed 
persons of this condition on the walls, 
Jerusalem, however, was taken, and David 
punished those blind and lame people, who 
had insulted him : ' He smote the lame and 
the blind that were hated of David's soul.' 
Job says, that he had been eyes to the 
blind, (xxix. 15.) had given good advice 
to those who needed it, that is, had taken 
pains to set those right, who, through want 
of light and understanding, had gone astray. 
In nearly the same sense, our Saviour says, 
that if the blind lead the blind, they shall 
both fall into the ditch. (Matt. xv. 14.) He 
designed to describe the presumption of the 
Pharisees, who, blind as they were in the 
ways of God, pretended to lead others. He 
tells them, that he came into the world, 
1 That they, who see not, might see ; and that 
they, who see, might be made blind.' (John 
ix. 39, 40, 41.) The Pharisees, perceiv- 
ing that this alluded to them, replied, ' Are 
we blind also ?' He answered them, ' If 
ye were blind (naturally, or inevitably, or 
did you acknowledge your ignorance) ye 
should have no sin, but now ye say, we see, 
therefore your sin remaineth.' 

A principal character of the Messiah pre- 
dicted in the prophets, is, that by him the 
blind should be enlightened. (Isaiah xxix. 
[8.; xxxv. 5.; xlii. 16.) Thisf therefore, 
Jesus Christ proposed to the observation of 
John's disciples, who came from their 
master, to inquire whether he were the 
person they expected ? ' Tell John,' says 
he, ' the blind see,' &c. (Matt. xi. 5.) The 
evangelists have preserved the memory of 
several miraculous cures wrought by our 
Saviour on the blind. 

Blindness of heart in the obdurate Jews, 

particularly noticed in the New Testa- 
ment (Mark iii. 5.) It was foretold by 
Isaiah : ' See ye indeed, but perceive not.' 
' Make the heart of this people fat, and 
make their ears heavy, and shut their eyes.' 
(Isa. vi. 9, 10.) In the spirit of prophecy, 
Isaiah tells them, that they will be blind 
and obdurate, that they shall neither see, 
nor understand, what is designed for their 
salvation. It is generally understood, that 
the phrase, ' Make the heart of this people 
fat,' alludes to the effect of full feeding, and 
of sensual gratification of the appetite, by 
which a quantity of fat seats itself on the 
225 



heart, where it increases till it overburden* 
that important source of activity. God 
gives, but the sinner abuses his gifts to the 
injury of both his body and mind. Pervert- 
ing the goodness of God, and getting over- 
fat with food, and intoxicated with drink, 
they may be said to make their heart fat, 
and to shut their eyes. Fragments attached 
to Calmet's Dictionary, No. cxc. p. 188. 

BLOOD, a red liquor, circulating through 
the arteries, veins, and other vessels of 
animal bodies, and serving for the support 
of life, and nourishment of all the parts. 
God from the beginning forbade the eating 
of blood alone, or mixed with flesh, that is, 
creatures suffocated, or killed without dis- 
charging their blood from them, because the 
life of the creature is in its blood. (Gen. ix. 
4—6. Lev. xvii. 10—14. Deut. xii. 23— 
25.) Animal life so depends on blood, that 
without it no creature can live. Hence 
proceed several acceptations of the word 
blood : 1. It is taken for life. ( God will 
require the blood of man ;' he will punish 
murder in what manner soever committed. 
' His blood be upon us ;' to us let them 
impute his death. ' The voice of Abel's 
blood crieth ;' the murder committed on 
him crieth for vengeance. The avenger 
of blood is he, who is to avenge the mur- 
der of his relation. (Numb. xxxv. 24 — 27.) 
2. Blood means relation. (John i. 13.) 3. 
Blood is taken for what commonly happens 
to women. (Lev. xx. 18. ; xv. 24. ; xii. 4.) 
4- Flesh and blood are placed in opposi- 
tion to sense and reason. ' Flesh and 
blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but 
my Father which is in heaven.' (Matt xvi. 
17-) ' Flesh and blood cannot inherit the 
kingdom of God,' &c. (1 Cor. xv. 50.) 5. 
Wine is called the ' Pure blood of the grape ;' 
(Deut xxxii. 14.) and it is said, 'Judah 
shall wash his garment in the blood of 
grapes.' (Gen. xlix. 11.) 6. God esta- 
blished the priests to judge between leper 
and leper, between blood and blood ; to 
determine, in criminal matters, whether the 
murder be casual or voluntary, and whether it 
deserves death or remission. 7- David said, 
he would not drink the blood of his heroes, 
who had exposed their lives to bring him 
water from the well of Bethlehem (1 
Chron. xi. 19.); that is, he would not drink 
that water which had so nearly cost them 
their lives. 8. God reserved to himself the 
blood of all sacrifices, as being absolute 
master of life and death. The blood of 
animals was poured upon his altar, or 
at the foot of his altar, according to 
the nature of the sacrifice ; and if the 
temple was too remote, it was poured on 
the ground, and covered with dust This 
blood of the sacrifices, in the Old Testa- 
ment, was figurative of that blood, which 
Jesus Christ shed for us, for the forgiveness 
of sins. 9. Zipporah, when she had cir- 
cumcised her son, called her husband, 



BOA 



BOA 



Moses, a husband of blood, (Exod. iv. 25, 
26.) because he was the cause of the effu- 
sion of his son's blood. 

The word blood is also used in various 
other significations : ' To build a town with 
blood ;' (Hab. ii. 12.) that is, with oppres- 
sion, and the blood of the unhappy. ' To 
wash one's feet in blood;' (Ps. lviii. 10.) 
that is, to obtain a signal and bloody victory. 
4 The moon shall be changed into blood' 
(Joel ii. 31.) ; that is, it shall appear red like 
blood. ' I said unto thee, even when thou 
wast in thy blood, live' (Ezek. xvi. 6.); that 
is, I saw thee polluted with the blood of thy 
birtb, and, notwithstanding this impurity, I 
gave thee life. ' I will visit the blood of 
Jezreel ;' that is, 1 will avenge the blood 
which Jezebel hath there shed. ' His blood 
crieth from the ground;' 'The land is 
drunken with blood;' ' Blood is in any 
one's hands, upon any one's head,' &c. j are 
expressions better understood by their own 
particular energy, than by any comments. 

The blood of Jesus Christ is the price 
of our salvation ; his blood has purchased 
his church. (Acts xx. 28.) ' We are jus- 
tified by his blood.' (Rom. v. 9.) 'We 
have redemption through his blood.' (Eph. 
i. 7- Colos. i. 14.) By his blood he hath 
pacified all things in heaven and earth. 
(Colos. i. 20.) ' By his own blood he en- 
tered in once into the holy place, having 
obtained eternal redemption for us.' (Heb. 
ix. 1.2.) 

BOANER'GES, sons of thunder. It was 
a name given by our Saviour to the sons of 
Zebedee, James and John, (Mark iii. 1?.) 
on the occasion, probably, of their request, 
that he would call fire from heaven, and 
destroy a certain village of the Samaritans, 
which had refused to entertain them. (Luke 
ix. 53, 54.) Boanerges is neither Hebrew 
nor Syriac. Some think, that the Greek 
transcribers, instead of Bane-regem, son of 
thunder, or Bane-reges, son of tempest, wrote 
Boanerges; or that it was a corrupt way 
of pronouncing Bane-reges, used by the 
Galileans. 

BO'AZ jyi, signifies in strength, or in the 
goat. Boaz was the son of Salmon and 
Rahab. Salmon of the tribe of Judah, 
married Rahab, a Canaanitess of Jericho, 
who bare to him Boaz, one of our Saviour's 
ancestors according to the flesh. Some 
say, there were three of this name, the 
son, grandson, and great-grandson, of 
Salmon; the last Boaz was husband of 
Ruth, and father of Obed. They pretend 
that the Scripture cannot be rendered 
reconcileable with itself any other way, 
since it reckons 366 years between Salmon's 
marriage and the birth of David, and yet 
mentions only three persons between 
Salmon and David, namely, Boaz, Obed, 
and Jesse. But Le Clerc observes, that 
this cannot be the case, since neither the 
genealogy of David, (1 Chron. ii. 11, 12.) 
226 



nor that of Jesus Christ, (Matt. i. 5.) 
reckons any more. Besides, if any name 
was omitted in this genealogy, it must 
have been so omitted before the time of 
the writer of the Chronicles, when the 
Jews were in captivity, as it is improbable 
but that, while the kingdom of Judah con- 
tinued, an accurate genealogical table of the 
princes was preserved. Calmet remarks, 
that though it be difficult to fill so great a 
space with four persons, from father to son, 
succeeding one another, and though it be 
uncommon to see four persons in the same 
family successively living very long, and 
having children when far advanced in age, 
yet there is nothing in it absolutely impos- 
sible, particularly at that time, in which 
many persons lived above a hundred years. 
We may suppose that Salmon, at the age of 
120, might beget Boaz; that Boaz, at a 
hundred, might beget Obed, who, at some- 
thing more or less, might have Jesse ; and 
that Jesse, when a hundred years old might 
have David. This, indeed, is only supposi- 
tion ; but it shows, that there is no contra- 
diction or impossibility in the Scripture 
account. 

The Targum on Ruth says, that Salmon 
is styled Salmon the Just. His works and 
the works of his children were very excel- 
lent. Boaz was a righteous person, by 
whose righteousness the people of Israel 
were delivered from the hands of their ene- 
mies, &c. It is, therefore, thought, that 
God might vouchsafe to men of such ex- 
traordinary piety a longer life than common. 
There were only 366 years from the first of 
Joshua to the birth of David ; for from the 
Exodus to the building of the temple were 
480 years. If we add to 366 the forty 
years' wandering in the wilderness, the life 
of David seventy years, and four years of 
Solomon, the total will be 480 years. Sal- 
mon migtn* beget Boaz when he was ninety- 
six years old ; Boaz, at ninety years old, 
Obed ; Obed, at ninety, Jesse ; and Jesse, 
at eighty-five, David. Vide Whitby on 
Matt. i. 1. 

Boaz, the name of one of those two 
brazen pillars erected by Solomon in the 
porch of the temple. (1 Kings vii. 21.) 
Boaz was on the left hand of the entrance 
and the other called Jachin on the right. 
Tjnn Boaz signifies strength, firmness. To- 
gether they were thirty-five cubits high, 
(2. Chron. iii. 15.) ; that is, each was sepa- 
rately seventeen cubits and a-half. In other 
parts of Scripture, each is said to be eigh- 
teen cubits, in round numbers, (1 Kings vii. 
15. Jerem. Iii. 21.) Jeremiah says, that 
the thickness of these columns was 
four fingers, for they were hollow ; that the 
circumference of them was twelve cubits, 
or four cubits in diameter; and that the 
chapiter of each was in all five cubits 
high. (Jerem. Iii. 21. 1 Kings vii. 16.) 
In different parts of Scripture, these cha- 



BOD 



BON 



piters are said to be of different heights, of 
three, four, or five cubits; because they 
were composed of different ornaments, or 
members, which were sometimes consider- 
ed as omitted, and sometimes as included. 
The body of the chapiter was of three cu- 
bits; the ornaments, with which it was 
joined to the shaft of the pillar, were of 
one cubit ; and the row, which was at the 
top of the chapiter, was also of one cubit. 
These make in all five cubits. From the 
different accounts in Scripture of the height 
of these pillars, some have thought that 
there were two different cubits. See Cubit. 

Mr. Hutchinson has attempted to show, 
that upon these columns was represented 
the system of this world, which he insists 
was given in writing by God to David, and 
by David to Solomon, and wrought upon 
the pillars by Hiram. Hutchinson's Works, 
vol. xi. 

BODY. An assembly or community is 
called a body. ' We being many are one 
bread, and one body.' (1 Cor. x. 17-) James 
says, (iii. 6.) that the tongue pollutes the 
whole body, or influences the other mem- 
bers of the body. Our Saviour says, * If 
thine eye be single, thy whole body shall be 
full of light,' (Matt. vi. 22.); if thy intentions 
are upright, thy general conduct will be 
agreeable to that character ; or, if ' thine 
eye be single,' if thou art liberal and bene- 
ficent, all thy actions will be good ; at least, 
thou wilt avoid many sins, which attend 
avarice. 

St. Paul speaks of a spiritual, in opposi- 
tion to the natural body, (1 Cor. xv. 44.) 
The body which we animate, and which re- 
turns to the earth, is an animal body ; but 
that which will rise hereafter, will be spiri- 
tual, neither gross, heavy, frail, &c. nor sub- 
ject to the wants, which oppress the present 
body. 

Body is opposed to shadow or figure : ' A 
shadow of things to come, but the body is of 
Christ.' (Colos. ii. 17-) The ceremonies of 
the law, the sacred festivals, &c. are figures 
and shadows realized in Christ and the 
Christian religion. For instance, the Jewish 
passover is a figure of the Christian passover ; 
the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, a shadow of 
the sacrifice of Christ. In Jesus Christ, the 
fulness of the Godhead resides bodily. ' For 
in him dwelleth all the fulness of the God- 
head bodily,' (Colos. ii. 9.); that is, really and 
essentially, and not allegorically, figuratively, 
and cursorily. The ' body of death,' signi- 
fies either our mortal body, or the body, 
which violently engages us in sin by concu- 
piscence, and which domineers in our mem- 
bers. 

BOGOMILES, a sect of heretics, which 
arose about the year 1170. Their founder 
was Basilius, a monk, who was burnt at 
Constantinople, in the reign of Alexius 
Comnenus. He maintained that the world 
and all animal bodies were formed not by 
227 



the Deity, but by an evil demon, who had 
been cast down from heaven by the Su- 
preme Being. Hence he concluded, that 
the body was only the prison of the immor- 
tal spirit, and that it was to be enervated 
by fasting, contemplation, and other exer- 
cises, that the soul might be gradually re- 
stored to its primitive liberty. For this 
purpose, marriage was to be avoided. Ba- 
silius also denied the reality of Christ's body, 
which he considered only as a phantom, 
rejected the law of Moses, and maintained 
that the body, on its separation by death, 
returned to the malignant mass of matter, 
without either the prospect orpossibility of a 
future resurrection to life and felicity. The 
name of this sect was derived from the divine 
mercy, which its members are said to have 
incessantly implored. Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 
441. 

BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a sect of 
Christian reformers, which arose in Bohemia, 
in the year 1467- They considered the pope 
as antichrist, and the church of Rome as 
the whore mentioned in the book of Reve- 
lations. They rejected the sacraments of 
the Romish church, and chose laymen for 
their ministers. They held the Scriptures 
as the only rule of faith, and rejected the 
popish ceremonies in the celebration of the 
mass. They used no other prayer than 
the Lord's prayer. They consecrated lea- 
vened bread. They allowed adoration only 
to Jesus Christ in the communion. They 
re-baptized all those who joined themselves 
to their congregation. They abhorred the 
worship of saints and images, prayers for 
the dead, celibacies, vows, and fasts ; and 
they observed only the festivals of Christ- 
mas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. 

In 1504, they were accused by the Catho- 
lics to King Ladislaus II. who published 
against them an edict, in which he forbade 
them to hold any public or private meetings. 
When Luther declared himself against the 
church of Rome, the Bohemian Brethren 
endeavoured to join his party. — At first, 
that reformer showed an aversion to them ; 
but the Bohemians sending their deputies 
to him in 1522, with a full account of their 
tenets, he acknowledged them to be a so- 
ciety of Christians, whose doctrine ap- 
proached nearest to the purity of the Gos- 
pel. In 1535, this sect published another 
confession of faith, and renounced anabap- 
tism, which they at first practised. On 
this, a union was concluded with the Lu- 
therans, and afterwards with the Zuinglians, 
whose opinions after that they continued to 
follow. Mosheim, vol. iv. p. 102. 

BONNET, a covering for the head, 
worn by the Jewish priests, (Exod. xxviii. 
40.) The Hebrew word ri22vo misncpheth, 
which is translated mitre, and rvyzian mi/g- 
baoth, translated bonnet, are said by the 
Rabbins to be the same. According to 
them, the bonnet generally used by the 
Q 2 



BOO 



BOO 



priests was made of a piece of linen cloth, 
which was sixteen yards in length, and 
which covered their heads like a helmet or 
turban, and they allow no other difference 
between the high priest's bonnet and that 
of the other priests, than that the former is 
flatter, and made in the form of a turban, 
whilst the latter rises more into a point. 
Josephus says, that the bonnet worn by 
private priests was composed of many folds 
of linen cloth sewed together, in the form 
of a thick woven crown of linen. The 
whole was covered with a piece of linen 
cloth, which descended to the forehead, 
that the seams might be concealed. He 
also says, „fchat the high-priest's bonnet was 
the same, except that another piece of 
cloth of a violet colour covered the back 
part of the head, and the temples, and was 
encompassed with a triple crown of gold, 
in which were small buttons of henbane 
flowers. This circle of flowers was inter- 
rupted in the forepart of the tiara by the 
plate of gold, upon which the name of God 
was engraven. 

BOOK, a writing composed on some 
subject of knowledge, for the instruction 
or amusement of the reader. With respect 
to the origin of books, we have nothing 
certain. The books of Moses are doubtless 
the oldest that are extant ; but there were 
other books besides those of Moses, who 
cites several. 

Several sorts of materials were anciently 
used in making books. Plates of lead or 
copper, barks of trees, bricks, stone, and 
wood, were originally employed for en- 
graving such things and monuments upon, 
as men desired to transmit to posterity. 
Josephus speaks of two columns, one of 
stone, the other of brick, upon which the 
children of Seth wrote their inventions 
and astronomical discoveries. Hesiod's 
works were at first written on tablets of 
lead. God's laws were written on stone; 
and Solon's laws, on wooden planks. Tablets 
of wood, box, and ivory, were common 
among the ancients. 

Afterwards, instead of wooden planks, the 
ancients used the leaves of the palm-tree ; 
and the finest and thinnest bark of trees, 
such as the lime, the ash, the maple, the 
elm. Hence the word liber, which signifies 
the inner bark of trees, denotes also a book. 
As these barks were rolled up, the more 
easily to be carried about, these rolls were 
•called volumen, a volume ; a name given also 
to rolls of paper or parchments. 

Paper, papyrus, is a kind of reed, which 
grows in the Nile. The trunk of this plant 
is composed of several coatings, which lie 
on each other, and are taken off" with a 
needle. They are afterwards spread on a 
table, of which so much is moistened as is 
equal to the intended size of the papyrus. 
This first bed of leaves is covered with a 
layer of fine paste, or with the muddy water 
228 



of the Nile warmed ; then a second bed of 
paper leaves is laid upon this paste, and the 
whole is left to dry in the sun. Such was 
the Egyptian papyrus, from which our 
paper derives its name, though very dif- 
ferent in its composition. Varro observes, 
and Pliny from him, that the use of writ- 
ing on the papyrus was first discovered in 
Egypt, at the time Alexander built Alex- 
andria. The kings of Egypt having col- 
lected a great library at Alexandria, the 
kings of Pergamus proposed to imitate 
their example ; but the Egyptian monarchs, 
either from envy, or some other reason, 
prohibited the exportation of paper out of 
their dominions. This obliged the kings of 
Pergamus to invent, or rather to improve, 
the manufacture of parchment, thence 
called pergamenum, or membrana, because 
made of the skins, with which beasts and 
their members are covered. Of these leaves 
of vellum or parchment, two sorts of books 
were made. One sort was rolls, composed 
of many leaves of vellum, sewed or glewed 
together at the end. These books were 
written on one side only, and they were 
unrolled before they could be read. The 
other sort were like our books at present, 
and were composed of many leaves fastened 
to each other ; were written on both sides ; 
and opened like our books. The Jews still 
use rolls in their synagogues. 

The ancients wrote also on linen. Pliny 
says, that the Parthians, even in his time, 
wrote on their clothes ; and Livy speaks 
of certain books made of linen, on which 
the names of magistrates, and the history 
of the Roman commonwealth, were written. 

The paper used at present is made of 
worn-out rags beaten small, and reduced 
to a pulp. With the origin of it we are 
not acquainted. We see no book written 
on this paper which is above five hundred 
years old; and, perhaps, the most ancient 
author, who mentions it, is Peter the Vene- 
rable. Montfaucon has also treated of 
cotton paper, which he shows to have been 
used above six hundred years ago. The 
origin of this paper is not very well known ; 
but it is certainly of cotton, and has been 
commonly used since the tenth century. 
Dr. Prideaux says, that this invention 
seems to have been brought into Europe 
from the East. Most of the old manu- 
scripts in Arabic and other Oriental lan- 
guages, which are thence received, are 
written on this kind of paper; and some 
of them are certainly much more ancient 
than the times mentioned respecting this 
matter. However, we often find them 
written on paper made from a paste of 
silk as well as of linen. It is most likely, 
that the Saracens of Spain first brought it 
from the East into that country, whence 
it might be carried into Germany. Prid. 
Connect, part i. book vii. 

Book of Life, Book of the Living, or Book 



BOO 



BOO 



of the Lord. Calmet thinks it probable, 
that these descriptive phrases, which are 
frequent in Scripture, are derived from 
the custom observed generally in the courts 
of princes, of keeping a list of persons 
in their service, of the provinces, which 
they govern, of the officers of their armies, 
of the number of their troops, and some- 
times even of the names of their soldiers. 
Thus, when Moses desires God rather to 
blot him out of his book, than to reject 
Israel, it is almost the same as St. Paul's 
expression, in some sort to be accursed, 
(Rom. ix. 3.) separated from the company 
of the saints, and struck out of the Book 
of the Lord, to procure the salvation of 
his people. See Anathema. Neither 
Moses, nor St. Paul, could wish to go to 
eternal perdition, to save tbeir countrymen ; 
but the expression means, that they were 
ready to lay down their lives for their bre- 
thren. Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on Exod. 
xxxii. 32. 

When it is said, that any one is written 
in the Book of Life, it means that he par- 
ticularly belongs to God, is enrolled among 
the number of his friends and servants. 
When it is said, ' blotted out of the Book 
of Life,' it signifies erased from the list of 
God's friends and servants, as those guilty 
of treachery are struck off the roll of offi- 
cers belonging to a prince. The same is 
also the opinion of Le Clerc on this sub- 
ject. In a more exalted sense, the Book 
of Life signifies the register of those, who, 
through grace, have persevered to eternal 
life. 

Book of Judgment. Daniel speaking of 
God's judgment, says, ' the judgment was 
set, and the books were opened.' (Dan. vii. 
10.) This is an allusion to what is prac- 
tised, when a prince calls his servants to 
account. The accounts are produced, and 
examined. It is possible he might al- 
lude also to a custom of the Persians, 
among whom it was a constant practice 
every day to write down what had hap- 
pened, the services rendered to the king, 
and the rewards given to those, who had per- 
formed them. Of this we see an instance 
in the history of Ahasuerus and Mordecai. 
(Esth. ii. 23. vi. 2.) When, therefore, the 
king sits in judgment, the books are open- 
ed : he obliges all his servants to reckon 
with him ; he punishes those, who have fail- 
ed in their duty ; he compels those to pay 
who are indebted to him ; and he rewards 
those, who have done him services. A simi- 
lar proceeding will take place at the day of 
God's final judgment. 

Book is sometimes put for letters, me- 
moirs, an edict, or contract. In short, 
the word book, in Hebrew, sepher, is much 
more extensive than the Latin liber. The 
letters, which Rabshakeh delivered from 
Sennacherib to Hezekiah, are called a 
book. The English translation, indeed, 
229 



reads letter, but the Septuagint reads 
(3if3\iov, and the Hebrew text onsDn, hese- 
pherim. The contract, confirmed by Jere- 
miah for the purchase of a field, is called 
by the same name (Jer. xxxii. 12.); and 
the edict of Ahasuerus in favour of the 
Jews, (Esth. ix. 20.) though our transla- 
tors have called it letters. Job wishes, 
that his judge or his adversary would him- 
self write his sentence, his book. (Job 
xxxi. 35.) The writing, which a man 
gave to his wife when he divorced her, 
was denominated, in Hebrew, a book of 
divorce. (Dent, xxiv.) 

The book sealed, mentioned by Isaiah, 
(xxix. 11.) and the book sealed with seven 
seals in the Revelations, (v. 1,«, 3.) are 
the prophecies of Isaiah and of John, and 
were written in a book or roll, after the 
manner of the ancients. They were sealed, 
that is, were unknown, enigmatical, ob- 
scure, mysterious ; they had respect to 
times remote, and future events, and there- 
fore no knowledge could be derived from 
them, till after that which was foretold 
should happen, and the seals were taken 
off. In old times, letters, and other writ- 
ings that were to be sealed, were first wrap- 
ped round with thread or flax, and then the 
seal was applied. To read them, it was 
necessary to cut the thread or flax, and to 
break the seals. 

The Book, or flying roll, spoken of in Ze- 
chariah, (v. 1, 2.) as being twenty cubits 
long and ten wide, was one of those old 
rolls, composed of many skins or parch- 
ments, and glued or sewed together at the 
end. Though some of these rolls were 
very long, yet, probably, none was evet 
so large as this. It contained the curses 
and calamities which should befal the Jews ; 
and its extreme length and breadth show 
the excessive enormity of their sins, and the 
extent of their punishment. 

We read of the book of the generations of 
Adam, (Gen. v. 1.) of Noah, and of Jesus 
Christ ; that is, the history of the life of 
Adam, of Noah, and of Jesus Christ. Isaiah, 
describing the effects of God's wrath, says, 
' The heavens shall be rolled together as a 
scroll.' (Isaiah xxxiv. 4.) He alludes to 
the ancient manner of rolling up books, 
when they were intended to be closed. A 
volume of several feet in length was sud- 
denly rolled up into a very small compass. 
Thus, the heavens should shrink into them- 
selves, and disappear, as it were, from the 
eyes of God, when his wrath should be 
kindled. This is a figurative and very ener- 
getic manner of speaking. 

We read, ' In the volume of the book it 
is written of me, I delight to do thv will, 
O my God.' (Psalm xl. 7.) St. Paul has 
left no room to doubt the sense of this pas- 
sage, since he applies it to the incarnation 
of Jesus Christ. 

Books eaten. It has been said, that olhur 



BOO 



BOT 



nations had their learning in their books, 
but the Tartars had eaten their books, 
and had their wisdom in their breasts, whence 
they could draw it out as they had occasion, 
as divine oracles. This may lead us to the 
true idea of the prophets, &c. when they 
mention the eating of Books presented to 
them. The phrase imports, that the know- 
ledge they had received should be commu- 
nicated to others, from time to time, as 
wanted: they were treasures of wisdom 
and knowledge, not for themselves, but for 
others. Additions to Calmet's Diet. ; Busbe- 
quius's Trav. 

For the sacred or canonical books, see 
Bible, and the names of the several books. 

BOOTY, spoils taken in war. Moses 
appointed in the law, that booty taken 
from the enemy, should be divided equally 
between those, who were in the battle, and 
the rest of the people, (Numb. xxxi. 270 » 
that is, that the whole booty should be di- 
vided into two parts, of which the first, 
was for those, who had been in the action, 
and the other for the people, who continued 
in the camp. The law further requires, 
that out of that part of the spoils, which 
was assigned to the fighting men, the Lord's 
share should be separated; and that for 
every five hundred men, oxen, asses, sheep, 
&c. one was to be taken for the high-priest, 
as being the Lord's first-fruits. With res- 
pect to the other moiety, belonging to the 
children of Israel, who did not fight, out of 
every fifty men, oxen, asses, sheep, or other 
animals, they were to give one to the Le- 
vites, who had the charge of the tabernacle 
of the Lord. 

The Rabbins pretend, that under the 
kings of Israel, another rule was followed 
in distributing the spoil. First, to the 
king was given every thing which belonged 
to the conquered king ; his tent, his slaves, 
his cattle, his spoils, his treasure. After 
this, the remainder of the booty was divided 
into two equal parts, of which, the king had 
one moiety, and the soldiers the other. 
This last part was distributed equally be- 
tween the soldiers, who had been in the 
action, and those, who continued behind to 
guard the camp. They assert that these 
rules had been established ever since the 
time of Abraham. It is difficult, indeed, 
to prove it; but we know that Abraham 
offered to the Lord the tenth of what he 
had taken from the five kings, and pre- 
sented this tithe to Melchizedek. (Gen. xiv. 
20.) 

BORRELLISTS, a Christian sect in 
Holland, which derive their name from 
their founder, Borrel, a man of great learn- 
ing in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin 
tongues. They are a sort of Anabaptists, 
but entertain some very singular opinions. 
They reject the use of churches, of the 
sacraments, public prayer, and all other 
external acts of worship. They assert, 
230 



that all Christian churches in the world 
have degenerated from the pure apostolic 
doctrines, because they have suffered the 
word of God, which is infallible, to be ex- 
pounded, or rather corrupted, by doctors 
who are fallible. They lead a very austere 
life, and employ a great part of their goods 
in alms, Broughton's Hist. Diet. vol. i. 
p. 170. 

BOSOM. The wife of thy bosom, or 
she who rests in thy bosom, is an expres- 
sion frequently used in Scripture, and sig- 
nifies a lawful wife. Lazarus was carried 
into Abraham's bosom, (Luke xvi. 22, 23.) 
as a favorite child is received into the arms 
and bosom of his father. St. John, describ- 
ing the perfect union of Jesus Christ with 
God, tells us, that the Son of God is in the 
bosom of the Father. (John i. 18.) The be- 
loved apostle reclined his head on our Sa- 
viour's bosom, at the last supper of Jesus 
with his apostles. (John xiii. 23.) 

BOTTLE, a keg made of goat's skin, 
with the hair on the inside, well pitched 
and sewed together, and used for preserv- 
ing oil and other liquors. The mouth of 
such a bottle is through one of the animal's 
paws. Bottles are frequently mentioned 
in Scripture. When Abraham dismissed 
Hagar, he gave her and her son bread, and 
water in a bottle, for their journey. (Gen. 
xxi. 14, 15.) It has been observed, that, 
in this passage, the Hebrew word non 
chemet, signifies rather an earthen pitcher, 
which it appears was used for carrying 
water, (Mark xiv. 13. Luke xxii. 10.) 
and also for drinking. (Hab. ii. 15.) If, 
however, as some think, this prophecy re- 
ferred to the king of Egypt, it was per- 
haps, in particular, an Egyptian kind of 
vessel. The Gibeonites, the more effec- 
tually to deceive Joshua, and the elders of 
Israel, showed them their old bottles, and 
told them, they had brought them new 
from home, hoping by that means to con- 
vince them, that they came from a remote 
country. 

The bottle of wine, which Samuel's mo- 
ther brought to Eli (1 Sam. i. 24.) is called 
bn3 nebel, and was also rather an earthen 
jar or jug, but yet sufficiently distinct from 
that of Egypt, and not a skin bottle. 

A very different name is used to signify 
the vessel, out of which Jael gave milk to 
Sisera : she opened a bottle of milk, and 
gave him drink. (Judg. iv. 19.) This is 
called T)N3 naud, which refers to something 
supple, moist, oozing, or perhaps, imports 
moistened into pliancy, as that skin must be, 
which is kept constantly filled with milk. 
This kind is usually made of goat skins. 
This word is also used to denote the bottle, 
in which Jesse sent wine by David to Saul. 
(1 Sam. xvi. 20.) It is likewise employed 
to express that bottle, into which the Psalmist 
desires his tears may be collected, (Psalm 
Ivi. 8. ) ; and that to which he resembles 



BOU 



BOW 



himself, and which he calls a bottle in the 
smoke, (Psalm cxix. 83.) that is, a bottle, 
dried, blackened, shrivelled. This then may 
be considered as equivalent to ' The shep- 
herd's bottle,' or ' The tent bottle.' 

Besides the words already considered, 
another (rroK aabut,) in the plural, is used. 
(Job xxxii. ; 19.) Aub signifies, in general, 
to swell, or distend. On receiving the 
liquor poured into it, a skin bottle must be 
greatly swelled, and distended ; and it must 
be swelled still farther by the fermentation 
of the liquor within it, as that advances to 
ripeness. In this state, if no vent be given 
to the liquor, it may overpower the strength 
of the bottle ; or it may penetrate by some 
secret crevice, or weaker part. Hence 
arises the propriety of putting new wine into 
new bottles, which, being strong, may resist 
the expansion, the internal pressure of their 
contents, and preserve the wine to due ma- 
turity ; while old bottles may, without dan- 
ger, contain old wine, whose fermentation 
is already past. (Matt. ix. 17- Luke v. 38.) 
It is thought, that aub or ob is the larger 
kind of bottle made of skin. 

Bottles of skins, therefore, are propor- 
tioned to the size of the animal which yields 
them ; kid skins, goat skins, ox skins. Per- 
haps the two former are expressed by the 
word naud, and the latter is denoted by aub. 
Fragments attached to Calmet's Diet. No. lviii. 
p. 105— 107. 

BOURIGNONISTS, the followers of 
Antoinette Bourignon, a lady in France, 
who pretended to particular inspirations. 
She was born at Lisle, in 1616. At her 
birth she was so deformed, that it was de- 
bated some days in the family whether it 
was not proper to stifle her as a monster ; 
but her deformity diminishing she was 
spared, and afterwards obtained such a 
degree of beauty, that she had her ad- 
mirers. From her childhood to her old age, 
she possessed an extraordinary turn of 
mind. She pretended to be divinely in- 
spired, and set apart, by a particular inter- 
position of Heaven, to revive the true spirit 
of Christianity, which had been extinguished 
by theological animosities and dissensions. 
This female enthusiast, whose religious feel- 
ings were accompanied with an unparalleled 
vivacity and ardour, and whose fancy was 
very exuberant, joined to these qualities, a 
volubility of tongue, much adapted to se- 
duce the unwary. Furnished with these 
talents, she began to propagate her theolo- 
gical system ; and her enthusiastical notions 
spread through Flanders, Holland, and some 
parts of Germany. It was not only the 
ignorant multitude that believed her vision- 
ary doctrines ; but several learned and inge- 
nious men were persuaded of their truth, 
and caught the contagion of her fanaticism. 
After experiencing various turns of fortune, 
and suffering great vexation, on account of 
her religious opinions, she died at Franeker, 
231 



in the province of Friesland, in the year 
1680. Her writings were voluminous ; but 
it would be impossible to draw from them 
an accurate and consistent scheme of reli- 
gion. The greatest part of her effusions 
were borrowed from the productions of the 
Mystics; and by the intemperance of her 
imagination, she has given an additional air 
of extravagance and absurdity to the tenets 
derived from these enthusiasts. Her pre- 
dominant principle was, that the Christian 
religion consists neither in knowledge, nor 
in practice, but in a certain internal feeling, 
or divine impulse, which arises immediately 
from communion with the Deity. Among 
many extravagant notions, she asserted, that 
Adam, before the fall, possessed the princi- 
ples of both sexes ; that in an ecstasy God 
represented Adam to her mind in his ori- 
ginal state ; that she also beheld the beauty 
of the first world, and the manner, in which 
it had been formed from the chaos. Dufres- 
noy's Chron. Tables, vol. ii. p. 253 ; Mosheim, 
vol. v. p. 64 ; Light of the World, p. 27— 
430. 

BOW, a weapon of war well known. 
Among the Israelites were many very ex- 
pert archers. When the Scriptures men- 
tion bending the bow, to tread under foot 
is generally added ; because it was their 
custom to put their feet upon the bow to 
bend it. David thanks God for giving him 
the strength of a brazen bow in his arms. 
(Ps. xviii. 34.) The bows of the Hebrews 
were commonly of wood. When they de- 
signed to signify, that God would destroy 
the power of any people, they said, God 
will break their bow. (Hosea i. 5.) A de- 
ceitful bow, (Id. vii. 16.) denotes one that 
is not well strung, or does not cany straight 
to the mark. 

It is conjectured, that additional strength 
was procured to the bow by composition ia 
the time of David, and still more anciently 
in the days of Job ; and hence it has been 
thought, that this conjecture might be also 
applied to Jacob's description of his son Jo- 
seph : ' But his bow abode in strength, and 
the arms of his hands were made strong by 
the hands of the mighty God of Jacob.' 
(Gen. xlix. 24.) Perhaps this passage may 
be thus paraphrased: But his bow remained, 
continued in, retained, its strength, its elas- 
ticity, and fitness for action, its spring, and 
the anns of its hands, or its handles, were 
strengthened by the power of the mighty God 
of Jacob. Fragments attached to Calmet's 
Diet. No. cexxi. 

BOWELS. The bowels are the seat of 
mercy, tenderness, and compassion. Jo- 
seph's bowels were moved at the sight of 
his brother Benjamin ; he felt himself soft- 
ened and affected. The true mother of 
the child, which Solomon commanded to 
be divided, felt her bowels move, and con- 
sented that it should be given to the wo- 
man, who was not its real mother. (1 King! 



BOY 



BRE 



iii. 26.) St. Paul reproaches, as it Were, 
the Corinthians in a friendly manner : ' Ye 
are not straitened in us, but ye are 
straitened in your own bowels.' (2 Cor. 
vi. 12.) 

The Hebrews also sometimes place wis- 
dom and understanding in the bowels. ' Who 
hath put wisdom in the inner parts V (Job 
xxxviii. 36.) The Psalmist says, 'Thy law 
is in the midst of my bowels,' (Psalm xl. 8.) 
or within my heart. 

BOYLE'S LECTURES, a course of 
eight sermons, preached annually in de- 
fence of natural and revealed religion, and 
instituted by the Honourable Robert Boyle. 
By a codicil annexed to his will, in 1691, 
Mr. Boyle expressed it to be his design that 
these sermons should be preached to prove 
the truth of the Christian religion against 
infidels, without descending to any contro- 
versies among Christians, and to answer 
new difficulties, scruples, &c. For the 
support of this lecture, he assigned the rent 
of his house in Crooked Lane to some 
learned divine within the bills of mortality, 
to be elected for a term, not exceeding three 
years. But the fund proving precarious, 
the salary was ill paid ; to remedy this in- 
convenience, archbishop Tennison procured 
a yearly stipend of 507. for ever, to be paid 
quarterly, charged on a farm in the parish 
of Brill, in the county of Bucks. The dis- 
courses, which have been delivered, in con- 
sequence of this admirable institution, have 
been always published ; and they form, at 
this day, a large and important collection, 
which is known throughout Europe, and 
has rendered eminent service to the cause 
of religion and virtue. Buck's Theol. Diet. 
p. 133. 

BRANCH, a name sometimes applied by 
the prophets to the Messiah. ' Behold the 
man, whose name is the Branch.' (Zech. vi. 
12.) ' Behold I will bring forth my ser- 
vant, the Branch.' (Id. iii. 8.) The Mes- 
siah is also called by this name in Isaiah, 
(iv. 2.) and Jeremiah, (xxiii. 5.; xxxiii. 15.) 
as being a branch of the house of David, 
and as a prophecy of his miraculous birth of 
a virgin. 

BREAD, in Scripture, is taken for food 
in general. ' In the sweat of thy face shalt 
thou eat bread.' (Gen. iii. 19.) ' I will 
fetch a morsel of bread,' (Gen. xviii. 5.) 
says Abraham. ' If God will give me bread 
to eat,' (Gen. xxviii. 20.) said Jacob at 
BetheL i Call him that he may eat bread,' 
(Exod. ii. 20.) that is, invite him to come 
and eat with us. Manna is denominated 
bread from heaven. (Exod. xvi. 15.) 

The ancient Hebrews had several ways 
of baking bread. They often baked it un- 
der the ashes. Abraham Served the three 
angels, whom he received into his tent, 
with cakes baked on the hearth. (Gen. 
xviii. 6.) The Hebrew huggoth signifies 
loaves, or little cakes, much like our muf- 
232 



fins, or crumpets, or other broad thin cake$, 
which are baked under the ashes, or upon 
round copper-plates, or in pans, or stoves 
made on purpose. The Hebrews, at their 
departure out of Egypt, baked some of 
these unleavened loaves for their journey. 
(Exod. xii. 39.) Elijah, when he fled from 
Jezebel, found at his head a cruse of wa- 
ter, and a cake, which had been baked on 
the coals. (I Kings xix. 6.) The same 
Elijah desired the widow of Zarephath 
to make for him a cake. (1 Kiner3 xvii. 
13.) 

The Arabians and other eastern people, 
among whom wood is scarce, often bake 
their bread between two fires made of 
cow-dung, which burns slowly, and bakes 
the bread very leisurely. The crumb of 
it is very good, if it be eaten the same day ; 
but the crust is black, and burnt, and 
smells of the fuel with which it is baked. 
Le Bruyn says, that in Persia they use 
turf made of camel's dung, cow dung, 
sheep's dung, horse dung, and ass dung, 
and that even human dung is applied in the 
same way. He observes, that this turf is 
used more particularly for heating ovens, 
in which they bake most of their meats^ 
This explains a passage in Ezekiel, (iv. 9, 
10. 12, 15.) which is extremely shocking 
to the generality of readers. The Lord 
commands this prophet to take wheat, bar- 
ley, beans, lentils, millet, and fitches, and 
put them in one vessel, and of them to make 
a loaf, and to bake it with human ex- 
crements in the sight of all the people. 
The prophet expressing extreme reluctance 
to this, God permitted him to bake it 
with cow dung, instead of human dung. 
We are not to imagine, that God intended 
that the prophet should eat man's dung; 
but he only enjoined him to bake his bread 
with such excrements, although he after- 
wards permitted him to bake it with cow 
dung. 

The Hebrews, and other eastern people, 
have at this day a kind of oven, called 
taanourt which is like a large pitcher, of 
grey stone, open at the top, and in which 
they make a fire. When it is well heated, 
they mingle flour in water. This paste 
they apply to the outside of the pitcher ; 
it is baked in an instant, and being dried, 
is taken, off in thin fine pieces like GUI' 
wafers. 

The orientals believe, that Eve's oven 
was of this kind, that it was left to Noah, 
and that the boiling water which ran over 
from it occasioned the deluge. This is a 
strange extravagance, but it may be meta- 
phorical of the extensive spread and effects 
of her sin. 

A third sort of bread, used by the people 
of the East, is baked in a great pitcher half 
full of certain little flints, which are white 
and glistering, and on which they cast the 
paste in the form of little flat cakes. This 






BRE 



BRE 



bread is white, and smells well, but is good 
only for the day on which it is baked, un- 
less it be mingled with leaven to preserve 
it. This is the most common way in Pa- 
lestine. 

Moses enjoined the Israelites on their 
arrival in the promised land, to offer up a 
cake of the first of their dough, for a heave 
offering in their generations. These first- 
fruits of bread, or dough, were given to the 
priest, or Levite, who dwelt in the place 
where the bread was baked ; and if no priest 
or Levite dwelt there, that part of the dough 
designed for the Lord, or his minister, was 
thrown into the fire or the oven. The quan- 
tity of bread to be given for first-fruits was 
not fixed by the law ; but Jerom says, that 
custom and tradition had determined it to 
be between at most the fortieth part of the 
whole mass, and at least the sixtieth part 
of the mass. Philo remarks, that, when- 
ever they kneaded, something was set apart 
for the priest, but how much he does not 
say. 

Leo of Modena tells us, that the modern 
custom of the Jews is, when the bread is 
kneaded, and a piece of dough formed of 
the size of forty eggs, to take from it a 
small part, of which a cake is made, in- 
stead of the first-fruits appointed by the 
law. It had been customary to give this 
cake to the priest ; but at present, it is 
thrown into the fire, in which it is con- 
sumed. This is one of the three precepts 
to be observed by the women, as they ge- 
nerally make the bread. The prayer to 
be recited by them, when they throw this 
little portion of dough into the oven, is as 
follows : ' Blessed art thou, O Lord our 
God, the king of the world, who hast 
sanctified us by thy precepts, and hast 
commanded us to separate a cake of our 
dough.' 

Shew-bread, or, according to the He- 
brews, the bread of faces, was bread offered 
every Sabbath-day upon the golden table, 
in the holy place. (Exod. xxv. 30.) The 
Hebrews affirm, that these loaves were 
square, and had four sides, and were co- 
vered with leaves of gold. They were 
twelve in number, according to the num- 
ber of the twelve tribes, in whose names 
they were offered. Every loaf was com- 
posed of two assarions of flour, which make 
about five pints and one-tenth. These 
loaves were unleavened. They were pre- 
sented hot every Sabbath-day, the old 
ones being taken away, and eaten by the 
priests only. This offering was accom- 
panied with salt and frankincense, and 
even with wine, according to some com- 
mentators. The Scripture mentions only 
salt and incense, but it is presumed that 
wine was added, because it was not want- 
ing in other sacrifices and offerings. It is 
believed that these loaves were placed one 
upon another, in two piles, of six each ; 
233 



and that between every loaf were two thin 
plates of gold, folded back in a semicircle, 
the whole length of them, to admit air, 
and to prevent the loaves from growing 
mouldy. These golden plates thus turned 
in, were supported at their extremities by 
two golden forks, which rested on the 
ground. The twelve loaves, because they 
stood before the Lord, were called onb 
D H 35n, " kproi 7rpo%screu)g, the bread of setting 
before (the bread of faces), and are therefore 
denominated in our English translation the 
shew-bread. 

It has been remarked, that the shew- 
bread was eaten by priests only. David, 
however, having received some of these 
loaves from the high priest Abimelech, ate 
of them without scruple, in his necessity, 
(1 Sam. xxi. 3, 4.) ; and our Saviour urges 
his example to justify the apostles, who had 
bruised ears of corn, and were eating them 
on the Sabbath-day. (Matt. xii. 4.) 

It appears from several places of Scrip- 
ture, that there stood constantly near the 
altar a basket full of bread, to be offered 
with the ordinary sacrifices. (Exod. xxix. 
32. Numb. vi. 15.) 

Moses forbids the priests to receive from 
the hands of strangers bread, or any other 
thing that they proposed to give, because 
all such gifts are corrupted. (Lev. xxii. 25.) 
Different opinions prevail concerning the 
intention of this law. Some, as Tostatus, 
Cajetan, and others, pretend that under the 
name of bread, we should understand all 
sorts of sacrifices and offerings, because the 
victims that were slain, are in Scripture 
sometimes called the bread of God. Some 
think, that God forbids the receiving sacri- 
fices of any kind, or any real offering im- 
mediately from the hand of infidel people, 
but permits the reception of money, with 
which to purchase offerings and victims. Le 
Clerc, however, observes, that this opinion 
has been confuted by Selden. Some explain 
it literally of offerings of flour, bread, or 
cakes ; that none of these were to be re- 
ceived in the temple from the hands of 
idolaters or infidels. Lastly, bishop Pa- 
trick and some others think, that this pro- 
hibition relates only to sacrifices, which had 
such blemishes as were mentioned in the 
preceding verses. 

God threatens to break the staff of bread, 
(Lev. xxvi. 26, &c.) that is, to send famine 
among the Israelites. 

' Man doth not live by bread only, but by 
every word, thatproceedeth out of the mouth 
of the Lord, doth man live.' (Deut. viii. 3.) 
By this is meant, that God can sustain us 
not only with bread, or ordinary food, but 
with any other thing, if he thinks fit to com- 
municate to it a nourishing virtue. Thus, 
he fed the Israelites in the wilderness with 
manna ; and thus, five thousand men were 
fed with five loaves, distributed by the hands 
of Jesus Christ and his apostles. 



ERE 



ERE 



Bread and water are used for suste- 
nance in general. (Deut. ix. 9, 18.) God 
complains of the Moabites and Ammonites, 
that they did not meet the Israelites with 
bread and water. (Deut. xxiii. 4.) Nabal, 
in answer to David's message, says, 'Shall 
I take my bread and my water, and give 
them to men whom I know not V Oba- 
diah, the governor of king Ahab's house, fed 
a hundred prophets of the Lord with bread 
and water. (1 Kings xviii. 13.) 

Bread of affliction, and water of afflic- 
tion, (1 Kings xxii. 27.) are the same as a 
little bread and a little water, or prison 
allowance. 

As the Hebrews generally made their 
bread very thin, and in the form of little 
flat cakes or wafers, they did not cut it 
with a knife, but broke it. This gave rise 
to that expression, so usual in Scripture, of 
breaking bread, to signify eating or sitting 
down at table. 

In the institution of the Eucharist, our 
Saviour broke the bread, which he had 
consecrated; and hence to break bread, 
and breaking of bread, in the New Testa- 
ment, are also used for celebrating the Eu- 
charist. 

By the bread of tears, (Psalm xlii. 3 ; 
Ixxx. 5.) and the bread of sorrow, (cxxvii. 
2.) the Psalmist means continual sorrows 
and tears, which are instead of food, or 
which make us lose the desire of eating 
and drinking ; or, that we mingle our 
food with tears. 

By the bread of wickedness, (Prov. iv. 17.) 
and bread of deceit, (Id. xx.. 17.) are meant 
bread acquired by criminal and fraudulent 
practices. 

' Cast thy bread upon the waters, for thou 
shaltfind it after many days,'(Eccles. xi. 1.) ; 
that is, be liberal of thine alms, and thou 
shalt receive a reward suitable to the extent 
of thy charity. Lightfoot ; Le Bruyn's Tra- 
vels, p. 228; Fragments attached to Calmet's 
Dictionary, No. ccxxviii. p. 120, cvi. p. 
9, 10. - 

BREAST-PLATE, or breast-plate of 
Judgment, called also Pectoral, and Ra- 
tional, was one part of the priest's vest- 
ments, and was anciently worn by the 
Jewish high-priests. It was about ten 
inches square, (Exod. xxviii. 15 — 30.) and 
consisted of a folded piece of the same 
rich embroidered stuff, of which the ephod 
was made. It was worn on the high-priest's 
breast, and was set with twelve precious 
stones, on each of which was engraven the 
name of one of the twelve tribes. These 
stones were placed in four rows, three in 
each row, and were divided from each 
other by the little golden squares in which 
they were set. The names of the stones, 
and of the tribes engraven on them, and 
the manner in which they were disposed on 
the breast-plate, were as follows : — 
234 



Sardius, 
Reuben. 




Topaz, 
Simeon. 




Carbuncle, 
Levi. 












Emerald, 
Judah. 




Sapphire, 
Dan. 




Diamond. 
Naphtali. 












Ligure, 
Gad. 




Agate. 
Asher. 




Amethyst, 
Issachar. 












1 Beryl, 
Zebulun. 




Onyx, 
Joseph. 




Jasper. 
Benjamin. 



This breast-plate was fastened upon the 
ephod by rings of gold at the four cor- 
ners, the two upper rings being hung upon, 
or fastened to, the shoulder-pieces with 
golden chains, and the two lower rings 
tied to the girdle of the ephod with blue 
strings or ribands. This ornament was 
called the memorial, to remind the priest 
how much he ought to esteem those tribes, 
whose names he wore on his breast. It 
was also denominated the breast-plate of 
judgment, because to it was annexed the di- 
vine oracle of Urim and Thummim. Brough- 
ton's Dictionary, vol. i. p. 175. 

BRETHREN and SISTERS of the 
FREE SPIRIT, an appellation assumed 
by a sect, which arose towards the close of 
the thirteenth century, and gained many 
adherents in Italy, France, and Germany. 
They took their denomination from the 
words of St. Paul, (Rom. viii. 2 — 14.) and 
maintained that the children of God were 
invested with full and perfect freedom from 
the jurisdiction of the law. They adopted 
a certain rigid system of Mystic theology. 
They held that all things flowed by ema- 
nation from God, and were finally to 
return to their divine source ; that ra- 
tional souls were portions of the Deity; 
that the universe was God; that every 
man, by the power of contemplation, 
might be united to the Deity in an in- 
effable manner, and become one with the 
Source and Parent of all things ; and that 
they who, by long and assiduous medita- 
tion, had plunged, as it were, into the 
abyss of the divinity, had acquired by 
that means a glorious and sublime liberty 
not only from the violence of sinful lusts, 
but also from the common instincts of na- 
ture. Hence they concluded, that the 
person, who had ascended to God, in this 
manner, became a part of the godhead, 
was the son of God, as well as Christ, 
and was raised to a glorious freedom from 
the obligation of all laws human and di- 
vine. They despised the ordinances of 
the Gospel, and every external act of reli- 



BRE 



BRO 



gious worship, which they considered as use- 
less to the perfect man. Against them many 
edicts were published ; but they continued 
till about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
Mosheim, vol. iii. p. 122. 

BRETHREN and CLERKS of the 
COMMON LIFE, a denomination as- 
sumed by a religious fraternity towards 
the end of the fifteenth century. They 
lived under the rule of St. Augustin, and 
were eminently useful in promoting the 
cause of religion and learning. They 
were divided into two classes, the Let- 
tered Brethren or Clerks, and the Illi- 
terate. The former applied themselves to 
the study of polite literature, and to the 
education of youth. The latter were em- 
ployed in manual labour, and exercised 
with success the mechanic arts. Neither 
of the two classes were under the re- 
straint of religious vows. The Sisters of 
this virtuous society employed themselves 
much in the same manner as the Brethren. 
Mosheim, vol. iii. p. 253. 

BRETHREN, WHITE, the foUowers 
of a priest from the Alps, about the be- 
ginning of the fifteenth century. They 
and their leader were arrayed in white 
garments. They followed a cross, which 
their leader had erected as a standard, 
and, by the appearance of their sanctity 
and devotion, induced peisons of all 
ranks to augment their number. The new 
chief practised many acts of mortification, 
and endeavoured to persuade the European 
nations to renew the war against the 
Turks in Palestine ; and he pretended, 
that he was favoured with divine visions, 
which instructed him in the will and the 
secrets of Heaven. Boniface IX. thinking 
that this enthusiast or impostor entertained 
ambitious designs, caused him to be seized 
and committed to the flames. On his 
death, his followers dispersed. Mosheim, 
vol. iii. p. 275. 

BRIDGETINS, or Brigittins, or 
Birgittins. a religious order denomi- 
nated from St. Bridget, or Birgit, a Swe- 
dish lady, in the fourteenth century. Their 
rule is nearly the same as that of Augustin. 
They profess great mortification, poverty, 
and self-denial ; and they are not to pos- 
sess any thing they can call their own, not so 
much as a half penny, nor to touch money 
on any account. This order spread much 
through Sweden, Germany, and the Ne- 
therlands. Vie read of only one monastery 
of Brigittins in England. This was built by 
Henry V. in 1415, opposite to Richmond, 
now called Sion House ; and since the dis- 
solution, the ancient inhabitants of this 
monastery settled at Lisbon. 

BROOK is distinguished from a river: 
the former flows at some times only, as 
after great rains, or the melting of snow; 
/ but the latter, at all times. As the He- 
brew word bro nachal signifies a valley as 
235 



well as a brook, the one is sometimes used 
for the other in different translations. 
Thus, that which the Septuagint translate 
the brook of cords, (Joel iii. 18.} and the 
authors of the Vulgate the brook of thorns, 
is rendered in our English Bible the valley 
of Shittim, and is thought to be the brook 
Kedron, which runs between the city of 
Jerusalem and the mount of Olives, and 
discharges itself into the Dead Sea. 

It is rather unfortunate that, in the 
English language, the word torrent should 
signify a powerful stream, rather than a 
current, which runs only after rain. This 
latter kind of stream being very common 
in Arabia, and frequently alluded to in 
the book of Job, deprives our translation, 
in some places, not only of emphasis and 
poetry, but also of correctness, if not of 
meaning. 

The distinction between a brook and a 
river is not always observed in Scripture, 
and the one is often taken for the other, by 
giving great rivers, such as the Euphrates, 
the Nile, the Jordan, and others, the 
name of brooks. Thus, the Euphrates is 
called the brook of willows. (Isaiah xv. 7-) 

BROTHER, is taken in Scripture not 
only in the common and literal signification 
of the word, but also for a relation, a man 
of the same country, or of the same nation, 
for our neighbour, and for a man in ge- 
neral. 

It is probable that James, Joses, Judas, 
and Simon, (Mark vi. 3.) though called 
brethren of Jesus, were not strictly his 
natural brothers, but, at the nearest, cou- 
sins to Jesus ; for it was the custom of the 
Hebrews, to extend names of affection 
from the proper kin, to which they accurately 
applied, to more distant relatives. James 
and Joses were sons of Mary, but certainly 
not of the Virgin, (Matt, xxvii. 56.) James 
and Judas were sons of Alpheus, (Luke vi. 
15, 16.) ; and it is very probable, that Al- 
pheus is the same as Cleophas, the husband 
of Mary, sister to the Virgin. (John 
xix. 25.) 

Brother is one of the same nation, (Rom. 
ix. 3, &c.) ; of the same faith. (1 John ii. 9.) ; 
of the same nature, (Heb. ii. 17.) Additions 
to Calmet's Dictionary. 

Brother is used sometimes for one, who 
resembles another in any qualities either 
good or bad : ' He that is slothful in his 
work is brother to him that is a great 
waster.' (Prov. xviii. 9.) Job complains, 
' I am a brother %o dragons (serpents), 
and a companion to owls,' that is, I have 
imitated them in their doleful cries, and in 
their flying from mankind, (xxx. 29.) 

Brother is also understood for friend, 
or husband, as sister is for wife : ' O that 
thou wert as my brother, that sucked the 
breasts of my mother.' (Cant. viii. 1.) 
' Thou hast ravished my heart, my sister, 
my spouse.' (Id. iv. 9.) Job says, ' I said 



BRO 



BRO 



to the worm, Thou art my mother, and my 
sister.' (Job xvii. 14.) 

By the law, the brother of a man who 
died without children, was obliged to 
marry the widow of the deceased, to raise 
up children to him, that his name and me- 
mory might not be extinct. (Deut. xxv. 7-) 
See Widow. 

BROTHERS, LAY, among the Ro- 
manists, are illiterate persons, who devote 
themselves in some convent to the service of 
the monks. 

BROWNISTS, the name given for 
some time to those, who were afterwards 
known in England and Holland under the 
denomination of Independents. It arose 
from a Mr. Robert Brown, whose parents 
resided in Rutlandshire, though he is 
said to have been born at Northampton, 
and who was educated at Cambridge, 
and was a man of good parts, and some 
learning. He began to inveigh openly 
against the ceremonies of the church, 
at Norwich, in 1589 ; but, being much 
opposed, he and his congregation left 
England, and settled at Middleburgh, in 
Zealand, where they obtained leave to 
worship God in their own way, and to 
form a church according to their own mo- 
del. However, they soon began to dis- 
agree among themselves ; and Brown, 
becoming weary of his office, returned 
to England in 1589, renounced his princi- 
ples of separation, and was preferred to 
the rectory of a church in Northampton- 
shire. He died in prison in 1630. The 
revolt of Brown was attended with the 
dissolution of the church at Middleburgh ; 
but the seeds of Brownism, which he had 
sown in England, were so far from being 
destroyed, that Sir Walter Raleigh, in a 
speech in 1592, computes no less than 
twenty thousand of this sect. 

The articles of their faith seem to be 
nearly the same as those of the church of 
England. The occasion of their separation 
was not, therefore, any fault which they 
found with the faith, but only with the 
discipline and form of government of the 
churches in England. They equally charg- 
ed corruption on the episcopal and pres- 
byterian forms ; nor would they join with 
any other reformed church, because they 
were not assured of the sanctity and re- 
generation of the members that composed 
it. They condemned the solemn celebra- 
tion of marriages in the church, main- 
taining that matrimony being a political 
contract, the confirmation of it ought to 
be by the civil magistrate. They would 
not allow the children of such as were not 
members of the church to be baptized. 
They rejected all forms of prayer, and 
held that the Lord' s Prayer was not to be 
recited as a prayer, being only given for 
a rule or model, by which all our prayers 
are to be formed. Their form of church 
236 



government was nearly as follows. When 
a church was to be gathered, such as 
desired to be members of it made a con- 
fession of their faith in the presence of 
each other, and signed a covenant, by 
which they obliged themselves to walk 
together in the order of the Gospel. The 
whole power of admitting and excluding 
members, with the decision of all contro- 
versies, was vested in the brotherhood. 
Their church officers were chosen among 
themselves, and separated to their seve- 
ral offices by fasting, prayer, and im- 
position of hands. But they did not 
allow the priesthood to be any dis- 
tinct order. As the vote of the brethren 
constituted a man a minister, so the same 
power could discharge him from his of- 
fice, and reduce him to a mere layman ; 
and as they maintained the bounds of a 
church to be no greater than what could 
meet together in one place, and join in 
one communion, so the power of these 
officers was prescribed within the same 
limits. The minister of one church could 
not administer the Lord's Supper to ano- 
ther, nor baptize the children of any but 
those of his own society. Any lay bro- 
ther was allowed the liberty of exhorting 
the people ; and it was usual for some of 
them after sermon, to ask questions, and 
reason upon the doctrines that had been 
preached. In a word, every church on 
their model is a body corporate, having 
full power to do every thing in themselves, 
without being accountable to any class, 
synod, convocation, or other jurisdiction 
whatever. The reader will judge how 
near the independent churches are allied 
to this form of government. See Inde- 
pendents. 

The laws were executed with great 
severity on the Brownists; their books 
were prohibited by Queen Elizabeth, 
their persons imprisoned, and some of 
them hanged. Brown himself declared, 
on his death-bed, that he had been in 
thirty- two different prisons, in some of 
which he could not see his hand at noon- 
day. At length, they resolved to quit 
the country. Accordingly, many retired, 
and settled at Amsterdam, where they 
formed a church, and chose Mr. Johnson 
their pastor, and after him Mr. Ains- 
worth, author of the learned Commentary 
on the Pentateuch. Their church flourish- 
ed nearly one hundred years. It is only 
justice to state, that the zeal, with which 
Mr. Brown and his associates maintained 
and propagated their notions, was highly 
intemperate and extravagant. He affirm- 
ed that all communion was to be dissolved 
with every religious society founded on 
a different plan from his, and in particu- 
lar treated the church of England as 
spurious church, whose ministers were 
Unlawfully ordained, whose discipline was 



BUC 



BUR 



Popish and antichristian, and whose sacra- 
ments and institutions were void of efficacy. 
It is, therefore, no wonder, that his opposi- 
tion to the established form of religious dis- 
cipline, should draw down upon him and 
his followers some severity from a govern- 
ment, not distinguished by its mildness and 
indulgence. 

It is said that Brown, in his new prefer- 
ment, after his return to England, forgot 
not only the rigour of his principles, but 
also the gravity of his former morals, and 
that he led a very idle and dissolute life. 
NeaVs History of the Puritans; Mosheim, vol. 
iv. p. 98. 100. 529. 

BUCHANITES, a sect of enthusiasts 
that arose in the west of Scotland, about the 
year 1783. They took their name from a 
Mrs. Buchan, of Glasgow, who said, that 
she was the woman mentioned in the Reve- 
lations, and that all who believed in her 
should inherit heaven without tasting death, 
as the end of the world was near. They 
never increased much ; and the death of 
their leader within a year or two afterwards, 
occasioned their dispersion, by terminating 
their hopes of reaching the new Jerusalem 
without death. Buck's Theol. Dictionary, 
p. 136. 

BUDN^EANS, a sect in Poland, that 
took their name from Simon Budnaeus, a 
man of considerable abilities. Budnaeus 
denied all worship to Jesus Christ, who, he 
asserted, was not begotten by an extraor- 
dinary act of Divine power, but was born, 
like other men, in a natural way. This doc- 
trine gave great offence to most of those 
who professed Socinianism ; and Budnaeus 
who had gained a great number of prose- 
lytes in Lithuania and Russian Poland, was 
publicly excommunicated, with all his dis- 
ciples, in 1584. It is said, however, that he 
afterwards abandoned his offensive senti- 
ments, and was re-admitted to the commu- 
nion of the Socinian sect. Mosheim, vol. iv. 
p. 199. 

BUILD. Besides the proper and lite- 
ral signification of this word, denoting 
the construction of dwellings, it is used to 
signify the producing of children and a 
numerous posterity. Thus, the prophet 
Nathan promises David from God, to 
build for him his house, (2 Sam. vii. 27-) ; 
that is, to give him children and succes- 
sors. 

BUL, Vn, Bov\, signifies old age, perish- 
ing. Bui, the eighth month in the Hebrew 
calendar, was afterwards called Marchesvan 
and answered partly to our October. It 
was the second month of the civil, and 
the eighth of the ecclesiastical year, and 
consisted of twenty-nine days. The sixth 
day of this month was a fast, because on 
that day Nebuchadnezzar slew the children 
of Zedekiah in the presence of their un- 
happy father, whose eyes, after they had 
witnessed this sad spectacle, he ordered to 
237 



be put out. (2 Kings xxv. 7-) We find th« 
name of this month mentioned only once in 
Scripture. (1 Kings vi. 38.) 

BULL. By this word we generally un- 
derstand the male of the ox kind, which be- 
ing castrated, we call an ox or bullock. But 
as the ancient Hebrews never cut or muti- 
lated any creature, in those passages, in which 
we read ox, we are to understand a bull. 
(Levit. xxii. 24.) The beauty of Joseph is 
compared to that of a bullock. (Deut. xxxiii. 
17-) The Egyptians had a particular vene- 
ration for this animal ; and it is thought that 
the Jews imitated them in their worship of 
the golden calves. 

A bull in a figurative and allegorical sense 
signifies powerful, fierce, and insolent ene- 
mies. ' Many bulls have compassed me, 
strong bulls of Bashan have beset me round,' 
says the Psalmist, (xxii. 12.) 'Rebuke the 
company of spearmen, the multitude of the 
bulls.' (Psalm lxviii. 30.) 

Bulls, Popish, are letters called apos- 
tolic by the Canonists, strengthened with a 
leaden seal (bulla), and containing the de- 
crees and commandments of the Pope. 

BURIAL. The Hebrews, at all times, 
were very careful in the burial of their 
dead; and to be deprived of burial, was 
thought one of the greatest dishonours or 
misfortunes that could befal any man. 
This last duty was denied to none, not even 
to enemies ; but it was withheld from self- 
murderers, till after sun-set, and the souls 
of such persons were believed to be plunged 
into hell. This concern for burial pro- 
ceeded from a persuasion of the soul's im- 
mortality. 

The Scripture threatens the wicked with 
a deprivation of burial, as if this were 
among the greatest calamities that could 
happen. ' If a man beget an hundred 
children, and live many years, so that the 
days of his years be many, and his soul be 
not filled with good, and also that he have 
no burial ; I say, that an untimely birth is 
better than he.' (Eccles. vi. 3.) Jeremiah 
threatens the kings, priests, and false pro- 
phets, who had adored idols, that tbeir 
bones should be cast out of their graves, 
and thrown like dung on the earth. (Jer. 
viii. 2.) The same prophet foretold, that 
Jehoiakim, king of Judah, who built his 
house by unrighteousness, and who aban- 
doned himself to avarice, violence, and all 
manner of vice, among other severe pu- 
nishments, should be buried with the burial 
of an ass ; that he should be cast out of the 
gates of Jerusalem into the common sewer. 
(Jer. xxii. 18, 19.) 

The law determined nothing particularly 
as to the place of burying the dead. There 
were graves in town and country, by the 
highways, in gardens, and upon mountains. 
Those belonging to the kings of Judah 
were in Jerusalem, and the king's gardens. 
Ezekiel intimates, that they were dug under 



BUR 



BUR 



the mountain, upon which the temple stood ; 
since God says, that in future his holy 
mountain should not be polluted with the 
dead bodies of their kings. The sepulchre, 
which Joseph of Arimathea had provided 
for himself, and in which he placed our 
Saviour's body, was in his garden ; that 
of Rachel was adjacent to the highway 
from Jerusalem to Bethlehem. That of 
the Maccabees was at Modin, upon an 
eminence ; and hence it was visible at 
a great distance both by sea and land. 
The kings of Israel had their burying 
places in Samaria. Samuel was interred 
in his own house ; Moses, Aaron, Eleazar, 
and Joshua, were buried upon mountains ; 
King Saul, Deborah, and Rebekah's nurse, 
under the shade of trees, [t is affirmed, 
that the sepulchres of the inhabitants of 
Jerusalem were in the valley of Kedron. 
Here also were the burying-places for fo- 
reigners. * 

Leo of Modena says, that what we call 
a church-yard or cemetery, is denomi- 
nated by the Jews the house of the living, 
to show their belief of the immortality of 
the soul, and of the resurrection of the 
body. Buxtorf tells us, that when they 
come thither bearing a corpse, they address 
themselves to those, who are buried there, 
as if they were still alive, and say, ' Bless- 
ed be the Lord, who hath created you, 
fed you, brought you up, and, at last, in 
his justice taken you out of the world. 
He knoweth the number of you all, and will 
in time revive you. Blessed be the Lord 
who causeth death, and restoreth life.' 
Their respect for sepulchres is so great, 
that they build synagogues and oratories 
near those of great men and prophets. 
The Rabbins teach, that it is not lawful to 
demolish tombs, nor to disturb the repose 
of the dead, by burying another corpse in 
the same grave ; even after a long time : 
nor to carry an aqueduct, or a highway 
across the common place of burial ; nor to 
gather wood there ; nor suffer cattle there 
to feed. 

When the Jews come with a funeral to 
a burying-place, they repeat the blessing 
directed to the dead, as above-mentioned ; 
the body is placed on the ground, and if it 
be a person of consideration, they speak 
over it a kind of funeral oration and en- 
comium. Then they walk round the grave, 
and recite a pretty long prayer, which they 
call the righteousness of judgment, because 
in it they return thanks to God for having 
pronounced an equitable judgment on the 
life and person of the deceased. It begins 
with those words, ' He is the rock, his 
work is perfect,' &c. (Deut. xxxii. 4.) 
After this, a little sack full of earth is 
placed under the dead person's head, and 
the coffin is nailed down and closed. If 
the corpse be a man, ten persons go ten 
times round him, and say a prayer for his 
238 



soul ; the nearest relation tears off a cor- 
ner of his clothes ; the dead body is let 
down into the grave, with his face towards 
heaven ; and they cry to him, Go in 
peace, or rather, according to the Talmu- 
dists, Go to peace. The nearest rela- 
tions first throw earth on the body ; 
after them, all present do the same, with 
their hands or with shovels. This being 
done, they retire, walking backwards ; and 
before they have left the burying-ground, 
they pluck blades of grass three times, and 
cast them behind their backs, saying, 
' They shall flourish like grass of the earth.' 
(Psalm lxxii. 16.) 

Monuments were erected in memory of 
kings, heroes, prophets, or warriors ; but 
it does not appear, that there were any 
epitaphs on the tombs of the ancient He- 
brews. However, we find that king Josiah, 
when he destroyed the tombs of the false 
prophets of Baal, observed a sepulchral 
inscription ; for he said, ' What title is that I 
see V It is, therefore, probable, that tombs 
had inscriptions, distinguishing the party 
they contained. 

The form of epitaphs used by the Jews, 
is as follows : ' This stone is placed at the 
head of N. the son of N. who was bu- 
ried on such a day, in the year N. May 
he rest in the garden of Eden, with all 
the righteous, who have been there from 
the beginning. Amen, amen, selah.' Or, 
' Let his soul be buried in the garden of 
Eden. Amen, amen, selah.' Or, • This 
monument, or this pillar, is erected near 
the head of the most illustrious, most 
holy, and most pure virgin Rebekah, the 
daughter of Samuel the Levite, who died 
in good reputation, such a day of the 
month N. in the year N. May her soul 
be buried in the garden of Eden. Amen, 
amen, amen, selah.' But these forms are 
neither ancient nor uniform. 

BURNING- BUSH, in which the Lord 
appeared to Moses, at the foot of Mount 
Horeb. (Exod. iii. 2.) See Moses. 

As to the person, who appeared in the 
bush, the Scripture calls him by the name 
of God, (Exod. iii. 2. 6. 13, 14, &c.) He 
denominates himself the Lord God, the 
God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; the 
God, who was to deliver his people from 
their bondage in Egypt. Moses blessing 
Joseph, desireth that the good-will of him, 
who dwelt in the bush, may come on Jo- 
seph. (Deut. xxxiii. 16.) In the place of 
Exodus, which we are examining, instead 
of the Lord appeared to him, the Hebrew 
and the Septuagint import, the angel 
of the Lord appeared to him. Stephen, in 
the Acts, reads it in the same manner. 
It was, probably, an angel, agent, mes- 
senger, who represented the Lord, and 
spoke in his name. The ancients gene- 
rally thought the Son of God to be the 
person, who appeared in the bush; and 



BUT 



BYS 



this is veiy probable, oshe is called by the 
prophet Malachi, the angel of the covenant. 
Poole's Annotat. ; Dr. Adam Clarke's Com- 
ment, on Exod. iii. 2. 

BUTTER is understood in Scripture, as 
it is generally in the East, for cream or li- 
quid butter. Bochart shows that children 
were fed with butter and honey (Isaiah vii. 
15. 22.) ; that is, with milk diet, with cream 
and honey, which was very common in Pa- 
lestine. We read, that honey and butter, 
with other refreshments, were brought to 
king David, • because the people were weary, 
hungry, and thirsty.' (2 Sam. xvii. 29.) 
Considering the list of articles, there seems 
to be nothing adapted to moderate thirst, 
except this butter and honey ; for it is to be 
observed, that in the East, cream or fresh 
butter is mixed in a mess of honey. That 
this mixture of butter and honey was a deli- 
cious liquid, appears from the maledictory 
denunciation of Zophar : The wicked man 
' shall not see the rivers, the floods, the 
brooks (rather torrents) of honey and but- 
ter.' (Job xx. 17.) Honey alone can 
scarcely be esteemed so flowing as to be 
compared to rivers and torrents. Cream, 
in such abundance, is much more fluid ; and 
mixed with honey, it may dilute and thin it, 
into a state more proper for running, poeti- 
cally speaking, as freely as water. ' Honey 
and milk are under thy tongue,' says the 
spouse. (Cant. iv. 11.) Perhaps, this dish 
was not merely a refreshment, but an ele- 
gant refreshment. This heightens the in- 
ference from the predictions of Isaiah, and 
the description of Zophar, who speak of its 
abundance ; and it also increases the respect 
paid to David, by his faithful and loyal sub- 
jects at Mahanaim, &rc. Fragments attached 
to Calmet' s Diet. No. clxxxiii. p. 181. 

BUZ, pa, Bot»£, signifies despised, or 
plundered. Buz, the son of Nahor and Mil- 
cah, and brother to Huz. (Gen. xxii. 21.) 
Elihu, one of Job's friends, was descended 
from Buz, the son of Nahor. (Job xxxii. 2.) 
The Scripture calls him the Buzite of the 
kindred of Ram, Ram being put for Aram. 
The prophet Jeremiah threatens the Buzites 
with God's wrath. (Jer. xxv. 23.) They 
dwelt in Arabia Deserta. 

Buz was also the name of the son of Ab- 
diel, and father of Jahdo, of the tribe of 
Judah (1 Chron. v. 14.) ' 

BYSSUS, yia Butz, Bixjgoq, a word which 
frequently occurs in the Old and New Test- 



aments, and which the translators of our 
English Bible, as well as some others, have 
constantly rendered fine linen. But by this 
word is generally understood a fine sort of 
threaden matter, which was produced in 
India, Egypt, Judea, and about Elis in 
Achaia, and of which the richest apparel 
was anciently made, especially that worn by 
the priests, both Jewish and Egyptian. 
Pollux, in his Onomasticon says, (ivaaog of 
Egypt in his time, that is, in the second cen- 
tury, was composed of flax and cotton, cotton 
threads being the warp, and flaxen the woof of 
the cloth. Calvin's and the Spanish Bible, 
printed at Venice in 1556, explain the word 
by silk, though it is evident from ancient 
writers, that byssus must have been very 
different from our silk. M. Simon renders 
the word by fine linen, and says, there was 
a kind of fine linen, which was very dear, 
and which only the great lords wore in this 
country, as well as in Egypt. Hesychius 
and Bochart observe, that the byssus was a 
finer kind of linen, which was frequently 
dyed a purple colour. 

Calmet says, that we ought carefully to 
distinguish three kinds of commodities, 
which are generally confounded, and com- 
prehended under the name of linen : 1. the 
Hebrew na bad, which signifies linen ; 2. 
WW schesch, which signifies cotton ; and 3. 
Via butz, which is commonly called byssus, 
and is the silk growing under a certain 
shell-fish, called pinna. He also observes, 
that the name butz or buz, is not in the text 
of Moses, though the Greek and Latin use 
the word byssris, to signify the fine linen of 
certain habits belonging to the priests. The 
word buz occurs only in the first of Chroni- 
cles, (xv. 27.) ; in Ezekiel, (xxvii. 16.) ; and 
in Esther, (i. 6.) In the Chronicles, David, 
with the singers and Levites, is dressed in a 
mantle of buz. Solomon uses buz in the 
veils of the temple and sanctuary. The 
tents of Ahasuerus were upheld by cords of 
buz, and Mordecai was clothed with a man- 
tle of purple and buz, when Ahasuerus ho- 
noured him with the first employment in his 
kingdom. Lastly, it is observed, that there 
was a manufacture of buz in the city of 
Beersheba, in Palestine. Hence Calmet 
concludes, that this buz must have been dif- 
ferent from common linen, since in the 
same pktce, in which it is said David wore a 
mantle of buz, we also read, that he had on 
a linen ephod. 



239 



CAB 



CAB 



C. 



C 



'AB, or Kab, a Hebrew measure of ca- 
pacity, containing the sixth part of a seah, 
or an eighteenth of an ephah. The cab of 
wine contained two English pints ; and of 
corn, 2 5-6th pints corn measure. At the 
siege of Samaria, the famine was so great 
that the fourth part of a cab of pigeons' 
dung, or rather, as Bochart translates the 
Hebrew, of a particular kind of pulse of the 
nature of chick peas, was sold for five pieces 
of silver. (2 Kings vi. 25.) Arbuthnofs 
Tables, p. 102. 

CABBALA signifies tradition, and is a 
mysterious kind of science, said to have 
been delivered by revelation to the ancient 
Jews ; for the Rabbins tell us, that the 
secrets of the Cabbala were discovered 
to Moses upon Mount Sinai, and have 
been delivered from father to son without 
interruption, and without the use of let- 
ters. Indeed, to write them is reckoned 
unlawful. The Cabbala is, therefore, pro- 
perly the oral law of the Jews. When 
God delivered the law to Moses, it is pre- 
tended that he delivered also the expla- 
nation, which was not committed to writ- 
ing, but transmitted by word of mouth 
from father to son. It is to these inter- 
pretations of the written law, that our 
Saviour's censure is to be applied, when 
he reproves the Jews for ' making the com- 
mands of God of none effect, through their 
traditions.' (Mark vii. 13.) The manner 
in which Maimonides explains the cab- 
bala or traditions of the Jews is as follows : 
' God not only delivered the law to Moses 
upon Mount Sinai, but also the expla- 
nation of it. When Moses came down 
from the Mount, and entered into his 
tent, Aaron went to visit him ; and Moses 
acquainted Aaron with the laws he had 
received from God, and the explanation 
of them. After this, Aaron placed himself 
at the right h^nd of Moses, and Eleazar 
and Ithamar the sons of Aaron were ad- 
mitted, and to them Moses repeated what 
he had just before told Aaron. These 
being seated, the one on the right, the 
other on the left hand of Moses, the 
seventy elders of Israel, who composed 
the Sanhedrim, entered. Moses again de- 
clared to them the same laws, with the in- 
terpretation of them, as he had done before 
to Aaron and his sons. Lastly, all who 
pleased of the common people were invited 
to enter, and Moses instructed them also in 
the same manner as the rest. Aaron, there- 
fore, heard four times what Moses had been 
240 



taught by God upon Mount Sinai ; Eleazar 
and Ithamar, three times; the seventy 
elders, twice; and the people, once. Moses 
afterwards reduced the laws, which he had 
received, into writing, but not the explan- 
ations of them ; these he thought it suffi- 
cient to trust to the memories of the above- 
mentioned persons, who, being perfectly 
instructed in them, delivered them to their 
children, and these again to their's, from 
age to age.' 

Cabbala, artificial, consists in search- 
ing for abstruse and mysterious signifi- 
cations of a word, or words, in Scripture. 
Hence the Rabbins borrow, or rather force, 
explanations, by combining the letters, which 
compose it. This Cabbala is of three kinds ; 
the Gematry, the Notaricon, and the The- 
murah, or change. 

Cabbala Gematry consists in taking the 
letters of a Hebrew word for arithmetical 
numbers, and explaining every word by the 
arithmetical value of the letters, of which it 
is composed. Thus, the Hebrew letters of 
n^w NH S Jabo-shiloh, Shiloh shall come, 
(Gen. xlix. 10.) when reckoned arithme- 
tically, form the same number as those 
of the word rrwo Messiah ; and hence the 
Rabbins infer, that Shiloh signifies the 
Messiah. 

Cabbala Notaricon consists in taking each 
letter of a word for an entire diction. Thus, 
of Bereschith, the first word of Genesis, 
composed of B. R. A. Sch. I. T. the Rab- 
bins make Bara-Rakia-Arez-Scha-maim- 
lam-Tehomath ; that is, he created the fir- 
mament, the earth, the heavens, the sea, 
and the deep. This cabbala is varied by 
taking, on the contrary, the first letters of a 
sentence to form one diction. Thus, Atah- 
Gibbor-~Leholam-Adonai ; that is, ' Thou art 
strong for ever, O Lord.' They unite the 
first letters of this sentence, A. G. L. A. 
and form Agla, which may signify, ' I will 
reveal,' or ' a drop of dew.' 

Cabbala Themurah, or change, consists 
in transpositions of letters, placing one 
for another, or one before another. In 
nearly the same manner as anagrams. 

' The Talmudists,' says Mercier, ' are of 
opinion, that Hezekiah and his company 
wrote the books denoted by the symbolical 
word piro- JiMShoK, viz. Isaiah, Proverbs, 
Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. Into this 
opinion they seem to have been led by its 
being said, ' These are also proverbs of 
Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, king 
of Judah, copied out.' (Prov. xxv. 1.) 



CAB 



CM 



Every letter in the word IMSK, or Jim- 
shok, as they pronounce it witli the points, 
is put to denote a particular book, the title 
of which begins with that letter, viz. as it is 
here explained, Isaiah, Meshalim, Shir-ka- 
shirim, and Koheleth ; the Hebrew names of 
the four books, Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of 
Songs, and Ecclesiastes. 

These Talmudical doctors, then, had an 
obscure tradition delivered down to them 
of something done in Hezekiah's time re- 
lating to these books of Scripture. But 
they evidently mistook the meaning of it, 
if they supposed the books to have been 
written by Hezekiah and his men ; instead 
of being then collected, and revised, or 
solemnly approved, and added to the sa- 
cred canon. For this, no doubt, was the 
truth of the case : and such a tradition 
might have been conveyed down from re- 
mote times, in the very symbol here speci- 
fied. For it appears that the use of these 
symbols was very ancient with this people. 

The use of these symbols, then, being very 
ancient, if the first letter, in this word Jim- 
shok, stand for Isaiah, it seems to intimate 
to us the part, which this great prophet had, 
in the revising and fixing the authority of 
these books of Solomon. But it appears 
more probable, that the book of Job might 
be here meant by the first letter of the word 
Jimshok. 

It has been said that Shiloh nb s u>, in old 
Jacob's celebrated prophecy of the Messiah, 
(Gen. xlix. 10.) should be pronounced 
Shilah, and signifies her child; and it appears 
that this is the most probable meaning of 
the word. And so says D. Kimchi, the 
completest master of the Hebrew language, 
perhaps, of all the Rabbins. Both Jews and 
Christians acknowledge the Messiah to be 
here intended ; but how to explain the 
name is the difficulty. 

The Chaldee paraphrast, Onkelos, cer- 
tainly took it for one of those symbolical 
words that are made up of initial letters ; 
for he explains it of the Messiah, dedeliah 
hi malcutha, whose is the kingdom. This 
turned into Hebrew will be thus, exactly an- 
swering to the word Shilah, rOlbarrYj-B^'tt', 
She-Jesh-Lo-Hammelucah, literally, who to 
him is the kingdom. For this is the usual 
turn of the Hebrew phrase. The inter- 
pretation here given of the word may be 
nearly as old as the first use of the Chaldee 
paraphrasing ; which commenced of course 
soon after the return from the Babylonish 
captivity. 

That it was older than the Septuagint 
translation seems plain from hence, that 
these translators give it to us curtailed, 
omitting the last word hammeliicah ; lest, 
perhaps, that living in Egypt and amongst 
their Gentile masters, the word kingdom 
might create a jealousy that would turn to 
their disadvantage. At least, this is the 
best reason that can be given why they 
241 



should turn the word Shilah by tp dtro- 
kutcli, for whom it is reserved, or rd diroKBi- 
fitva avroj, which are reserved for him, 
answering to She-Lo, or She-Jesh-Lo, and 
thus leave the thing itself, (viz. hammelucah, 
the kingdom,) to be understood, or to re- 
main a secret with themselves. Peters on Job, 
preface ; Additions to Calmet's Dictionary. 

CABBALISTS, a name given to the 
Rabbinical doctors among the Jews. They 
receive not only the texts of Scripture ; 
but also the explanations of the Talmud, 
and the Jewish traditions. They also study 
to discover mysterious and concealed mean- 
ings in the words, the letters, and their 
arrangement in Scripture ; for they hold 
the opinion, that every word, letter, or 
accent in the law, includes some mystery. 

The Cabbalists, says Dr. Jennings, were 
a sort of mystical doctors, who discovered 
great mystery in the letters of the sacred 
text, either by considering their numeral 
power, or by changing and transposing 
them, in different ways, according to the 
rules of their art. By these means they 
extracted senses from the sacred oracles 
very different from those, which the ex- 
pression seemed naturally to import, or 
which were ever intended by the authors. 
They are supposed to have arisen soon 
after the time of Ezra. Jennings's Jewish 
Antiq. b. i. ch. vi. ; Prideaux's Connect, part 
i. book v. p. 507- 

CA'BUL bina, Xo/3w\, signifies which is 
bound; otherwise, which grows old, and 
which decays. Cabul was the name given 
by Hiram, king of Tyre, to the twenty cities 
which Solomon presented to him, as an 
acknowledgment for his great services in 
building the temple. (1 Kings ix. 13.) 
These cities not pleasing Hiram, when 
he came to see them, he called them the 
land of Cabul ; the word Cabul in the He- 
brew language denoting, as some think, 
displeasure or dirty. It is very probable 
that these cities were situated near to Tyre, 
of which Hiram was king. 

Grotius is of opinion, that the cities, 
which Pharaoh had conquered from the 
Philistines, and yielded to Solomon, were 
among the cities of Cabul. Most commen- 
tators think, that the city of Cabul (Josh. 
xix. 27.) was one of them; and that it was 
on this occasion that Hiram gave this name 
to the other cities ceded to him by Solo- 
mon. Wells's Geography, vol. ii. p. 58. 

C^E'SAR, Kalo-ap, a Latin word from 
ccedo, I cut, because the subject of it was 
cut out of his mother's womb at the time 
of her delivery ; or, from caesaries, a head 
of hair ; otherwise, one that has blue eyes. 
Caesar was a name given to all the Roman 
emperors after Julius Caesar. In the New 
Testament, the reigning emperor is gene- 
rally denominated Caesar, without mention- 
ing any other name that belonged to him. 
Jesus Christ calls the emperor Tiberius 
R 



CMS 



CAI 



simply, Caesar : ' Render unto Caesar the 
things that are Caesar's.' (Matt. xxii. 21.) 
St. Paul mentions Nero hy the same name : 
' I appeal unto Caesar,' (Acts xxv. 11.) that 
is, to Nero, who then reigned. It is pro- 
bable, however, that this title rather de- 
noted the political power than the person 
of the emperor. Festus, a Roman officer, 
seems to use a different phraseology. (Acts 
xxv. 25.) 

CiESARE'A, a city built hy Herod 
the Great, in honour of Augustus, and for- 
merly called the Tower of Strato. This 
city was situated on the sea- side, on the 
coast of Phoenicia, and was very convenient 
for trade, except that it had a bad harbour. 
To remedy this, Herod ordered a mole to 
be made in the form of a half-moon, and 
large enough for containing a royal navy. 
The buildings of this town, as well private 
houses as palaces, were all of marble- This 
city, which was six hundred furlongs from 
Jerusalem, is often mentioned in the New 
Testament. Here Herod Antipas was 
smitten by the Lord, for neglecting to give 
God the glory, when the people were so 
liberal to him of their flattery. (Acts xii. 
23.) Cornelius the centurion, who was 
baptized by St. Peter, lived at Csesarea. 
(Acts x. 1, &c.) Here also resided Philip 
the Deacon, with his four maiden daughters. 
(Ibid. viii. 40. ; xxi. 8, 9.) At Caesarea, the 
prophet A gabus foretold to the apostle Paul, 
that he would be bound at Jerusalem. (Ibid. 
xxi. 10, 11.) Paul continued two years a 
prisoner at Caesarea, till he could be con- 
veniently conducted to Rome, because he 
had appealed to Nero. (Ibid, xxiii. xxiv. 
xxv.) 

Caesarea now retains nothing of its former 
splendour. ' The remains of this city,' 
says Dr. Clarke, ' although still consider- 
able, have long been resorted to as a 
quarry, whenever building materials are 
required at Acre. The place at present is 
inhabited only by jackals and beasts of prey. 
Perhaps there has not been in the history 
of the world an example of any city, that in 
so short a space of time rose to such an 
extraordinary height of splendour as did 
this of Caesarea ; or that exhibits a more 
awful contrast to its former magnificence, 
by the present desolate appearance of its 
ruins. Not a single inhabitant remains. 
Its theatres, once resounding with the shouts 
of multitudes, echo no other sound than the 
nightly cries of animals roaming for their 
prey. Of its gorgeous palaces and temples, 
enriched with the choicest works of art, and 
decorated with the most precious marbles, 
scarcely a trace can be discerned.' Clarke's 
Travels in the Holy Land, vol. iv. pp. 446 — 
448 ; Wells's Geography, vol. ii. p. 284. 

C^sarea Philippi was the name of a 
city formerly called Paneas, which was situ- 
ated near the springs of the river Jordan. 
It was first called Laish or Lechem, (Judg. 
242 



xviii. 7-) and after it was subdued by some 
Israelites of the tribe of Dan, it received 
the name of Dan. Caesarea was situated a 
day's journey from Sidon ; and a day and a 
half from Damascus. It was built, or at 
least embellished and enlarged by Philip the 
Tetrarch, who named it Caesarea in honour 
of Tiberius ; and it was afterwards called 
Neronias, in compliment to Nero. The 
woman, who was troubled with an issue of 
blood, and healed by our Saviour, (Matt. 
ix. 20. Luke viii. 43.) is said to have been 
of Caesarea Philippi. The present town of 
Paneas is small ; and the ground, on which 
it stands, is of a triangular form. From 
this compressed situation the ancient city 
could not have been of great extent. Irby's 
and Mangles' s Travels, p. 289 ; Home's In- 
troduction, vol. iii. p. 569. 

CAI'APHAS, TLdla^aq, signifies he that 
seeks with diligence ; otherwise, vomit. Ca- 
iaphas, or Caiphas, or Joseph Caiphas, was 
high-priest of the Jews, and succeeded 
Simon, the son of Camith ; and after pos- 
sessing the dignity nine years, he was suc- 
ceeded by Jonathan, the son of Ananas, or 
Annas. Caiaphas was high-priest in the year 
of Jesus Christ's death. Macknight is of 
opinion, that he enjoyed the sacerdotal dig- 
nity during the whole of Pilate's govern- 
ment in Judea ; for he was advanced by 
Valerius Gratus, Pilate's predecessor, and 
divested of his office by Vitellius, governor 
of Syria, after Pilate had been deposed from 
the procuratorship. Caiaphas married a 
daughter of Annas, who, in the Gospel, is 
also called high-priest, because he had long 
enjoyed that dignity. 

When the priests deliberated on the 
seizure and death of Jesus Christ, Caiaphas 
told them, that it was expedient for one 
man to die for the people, that the whole 
nation might not perish. (John xi. 49, 50.) 
It has been observed, that this sentiment 
was a kind of prophecy, which God suffered 
to proceed from the mouth of the high- 
priest on this occasion, and which imported, 
though contrary to the intention of Caia- 
phas, that the death of Jesus would be the 
salvation of the world. When Judas had 
betrayed Jesus, he was first taken before 
Annas ; and Annas, after asking him some 
questions, sent him to his son-in-law, Caia- 
phas. (John xviii. 24.) The priests and 
doctors of the law assembled to judge and 
condemn Jesus. It is not probable, that 
they met in the residence of the high- 
priest. The accounts of the evangelists 
evidently imply, that the examination of 
Jesus was in the regular and usual mode 
before the sanhedrim ; and certainly at the 
house of Caiaphas, the sanhedrim, &c. 
could not regularly assemble for the pur- 
poses of judgment. It is, therefore, obvious 
that they met in the official hall, where 
the high-priest sat at the head of the 
sanhedrim. 



CAI 



CAI 



The depositions of certain false witnesses 
not being sufficient to justify a sentence of 
death against Jesus ; and Jesus continuing 
silent, Caiaphas, as high-priest, said to 
him, ' I adjure thee, by the living God, that 
thou tell us whether thou be the Christ, 
the Son of God !' To this adjuration, thus 
solemnly made by this superior judge, Jesus 
answered, ' Thou hast said : nevertheless I 
say unto you, hereafter shall ye see the 
Son of man sitting on the right hand of 
power, and coming in the clouds of heaven !' 
On hearing these words, Caiaphas rent 
his clothes, saying, ' What further need 
have we of witnesses ? Behold, now ye 
have heard his blasphemy. What think 
ye ?' They answered, ' He is guilty of 
death.' As the power of life and death 
was not at this time in their hands, but 
was reserved to the Romans, they conduct- 
ed him to Pilate the governor, that he 
might confirm their sentence, and order 
his execution. This, at length, they ex- 
torted from Pilate. 

Two years after, that is, in the year of 
our Lord 38, Vitellius, governor of Syria, 
deposed the high-priest Caiaphas. What 
was the end of Caiaphas, and when he died, 
history does not relate. Fragments annexed 
to Calmet's Dictionary, No. cxxxvii. p. 69. 

CAIN, ]*p, signifies possession, or possess- 
ed. Cain, the eldest son of Adam and 
Eve, was born towards the end of the first 
year of the world. Some believe, that Eve 
at the same time brought forth a daughter ; 
respecting this, however, the Scripture is 
silent. About a year after, his brother 
Abel was born. 

Cain applied himself to agriculture, and 
his brother Abel to the feeding of flocks. 
(Gen. iv. 2, &c.) Cain offered the first- 
fruits of his ground to the Lord, but Abel 
offered the fat of his flock. God showed, 
that Abel's offerings were agreeable to him, 
and that Cain's were not. This so enraged 
Cain, that his countenance was entirely 
changed. The Lord, therefore, said to him, 
1 Why art thou wroth ? and why is thy 
countenance fallen?' 

Cain, unrestrained by this admonition, 
and suffering evil passions to mislead him, 
killed his brother Abel. The Lord in- 
quired into this murder, and for it punish- 
ed Cain, who became an exile and a vaga- 
bond. Yet, he received an assurance, 
that he himself should not be murdered. 
Of this God gave to Cain a token ; for so the 
words may be understood, though they are 
commonly considered as expressing a mark 
of guilt, strongly imprinted on his person. 

Cain quitted the presence of the Lord, 
and retired to the land of Nod, east of 
Eden. Here he had a son, whom he called 
Enoch, and in memory of whom he built a 
city of the same name. Lightfoot, Heideg- 
ger, and Le Clerc, seem to think, that 
what is rendered in our translation of the 
243 



Bible, ' The presence of the Lord,' was 
the proper name of the place, in which 
Adam dwelt, after his expulsion from Para- 
dise. Accordingly, that part of the coun- 
try, which is contiguous to what is supposed 
by some to be the situation of Paradise, is 
called by Strabo, (lib. xvi.) Upoaujirov 
Qeov. Some, however, are of opinion that 
the expression, ' presence of the Lord,' de- 
notes that happy converse with the Deity, 
which was enjoyed by good men in the first 
ages of the world. 

Respecting Cain, several questions are 
proposed ; as, What was his pretence or 
motive for killing his brother Abel ? What 
instrument he used? Whose resentment 
and revenge he dreaded ? To what country 
he retired ? What was the mark, which God 
fixed upon him, or appointed to him ? And 
what death he died ? There has also been 
much debate on the proper rendering of 
the sentence, ' If thou doest well, shalt thou 
not be accepted ? and if thou doest not well, 
sin lieth at the door,' (Gen. iv. 7-) ; that is, 
if thou doest not w r ell, S sin,' a sin-offering, 
' lieth,' croucheth ' at the door.' Perhaps, 
the true import of the expression is to this 
effect: If thou hast done well, thou shalt 
have praise, but if not, lay a sin-offering at 
the door, by way of sacrifice ; at the door 
either of the garden of Paradise, or at the 
door of a place for worship. This render- 
ing takes the word lie, crouch, actively, in- 
stead of passively, and literally signifies, at 
the opening, the sin-offering crouching 
shall be thy atonement. Additions to Cal- 
mefs Diet. 

Josephus says, that Cain having settled 
at Nod, instead of being reformed by his 
punishment and exile, became more wicked 
and violent, and headed a band of thieves, 
whom he taught to enrich themselves at the 
expense of others. He entirely changed 
the simplicity and honesty of the world into 
fraud and deceit. He invented weights 
and measures, and was the first, who set 
bounds to fields, and who built and fortified 
a city. 

CAI'NAN, p»p, signifies possessor, or 
purchaser ; otherwise, one that laments. 

Cainan, the son of Enos, was born in the 
year of the world 325, when Enos was 
ninety years old. (Gen. v. 9.) At the age 
of seventy, he begat Mahalaleel, and died 
aged 910, in the year of the world 1235, 
and before Jesus Christ 2769. 

Cainan, the son of Arphaxad and father 
of Salah, is mentioned in the Septuagint 
version of the Bible. (Gen. x. 21.; xi. 12.) 
He is also mentioned by St. Luke, who 
places him between Salah and Arphaxad: 
' Which was the son of Salah, which was 
the son of Cainan, which was the son of 
Arphaxad.' (Luke iii. 36.) Cainan, how- 
ever, is not to be found in the Hebrew 
text, the Samaritan, or the Vulgate. Some 
have suggested, that the Jews expunged 
K 2 



CAI 



CAK 



the name of Cainan from their copies, with 
a design of rendering the Septuagint and 
St. Luke suspected. Some, that Moses 
omitted Cainan, from a desire of reckoning 
ten generations only from Adam to Noah, 
and from Noah to Abraham. Some, that 
Arphaxad was father of both Cainan and 
Salah ; of Salah naturally, of Cainan legally. 
Others, that Cainan and Salah were the 
same person under two names; this they 
allege in support of that opinion, which 
maintains Cainan to he really the son of 
Arphaxad, and father of Salah. They who 
assert, that Cainan was surreptitiously in- 
serted into the Septuagint, and thence 
transcribed by St. Luke, observe, that the 
authority of the Hebrew, Vulgate, Chaldee, 
and Syriac is superior to that of the Sep- 
tuagint ; that Luke having copied only the 
Septuagint, his text in this place rests on 
their authority ; that the changes, which ap- 
pear in the years of the patriarchs, destroy 
their authority, wherever they contradict the 
Hebrew; and that the additions of the Sep- 
tuagint do not agree with each other. Some, 
however affirm, that the name of Cainan is 
an insertion into the text of the Septuagint, 
and that it was not read there by the most 
ancient fathers ; and, indeed, neither Jose- 
phus nor Philo knew any thing of a Cainan, 
the son of Arphaxad. Many learned men 
believe, that this name was not originally 
in the text of Luke, but has been added 
by inadvertent transcribers, who observed 
it in some copies of the Septuagint. The 
authors of the Universal History, in par- 
ticular, think it probable, that this name 
may have been inserted in St. Luke, by 
being added from some erroneous copies of 
the Septuagint, and being first placed in 
the margin, it has since crept into the text. 
This, indeed, seems to be the most pro- 
bable opinion, and that which is generally 
adopted. Univ. Hist. vol. i. pp. 258, 290 ; 
Doddridge's Family Expos, vol. i. p. 60; 
Dr. Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. 
i. p. 90; Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on 
Gen. x. 24. 

CAINITES, heretics, who lived in the 
second century after Christ, and who be- 
lieved that Cain was produced by some 
greater power than Abel, and for that 
reason Cain prevailed over Abel. On the 
same principle, they honoured those per- 
sons, who are recorded in Scripture as the 
worst of mankind : such as the inhabitants 
of Sodom ; Korah, Dathan, and Abiram ; 
and, in particular, the traitor Judas, who, 
they said, knowing that the salvation of 
mankind was to be procured by the death 
of Jesus Christ, delivered him to his ene- 
mies to be executed, notwithstanding the 
resistance of certain powers, that wished 
ill to our happiness and would have pre- 
vented him. The Cainites adopted what- 
ever was most impure and ignominious 
among the Gnostics and other heretics. 
244 



Epiphan. Heresy, 38; Tertul. de Praserip. 
cap. xlvii. 

CAKES. The Hebrews had several sorts 
of cakes, which they offered in the temple. 
They were made of meal, of wheat, or of 
barley ; and they were kneaded sometimes 
with oil, sometimes with honey, and some- 
times only rubbed over with oil when 
baked, or fried with oil in a pan. At 
Aaron's consecration, they offered un- 
leavened bread, and cakes unleavened, tem- 
pered with oil ; and wafers unleavened, 
anointed with oil ; the whole being made of 
fine wheaten flour. (Exod. xxix. 1, 2.) 

All offerings made of grain, flour, paste, 
bread, or cakes, are denominated in the 
Hebrew nn:a mincha. These offerings were 
either alone, or with other things. Some- 
times fine flour was offered, (Levit. ii. 1.) ; 
or cakes, or other things baked, (Id. ib. 4.); 
or cakes baked in a frying-pan, (Id. ib. 5.) ; 
or in a frying pan with holes, or upon a 
gridiron. (Id. ib. 7-) Ears of corn were 
sometimes offered, in order to be roasted, 
and the corn separated from them. 

These offerings of corn, cakes, &c. were 
instituted principally in favour of the poor. 
This, however, is to be understood of volun- 
tary offerings, not appointed by the law ; 
for, with respect to certain sacrifices, the 
law, instead of two lambs and an ewe, per- 
mits the poor to offer only one lamb and 
two young pigeons. 

These cakes offered in sacrifice were salted 
and unleavened ; for nothing not salted or 
having leaven in it, might be offered to 
God, though leavened or common loaves 
might be given to the priest as presents, 
for food. If, therefore, the cakes, which 
were offered, were baked in an oven, and 
sprinkled or kneaded with oil, the whole 
was presented to the priest, who waved the 
offering before the Lord ; and then taking 
so much of it as was to be burned on the 
altar, he threw that into the fire, and kept 
the rest himself. (Levit. ii. 9.) If the offer- 
ing was a cake kneaded with oil, and baked 
in a frying-pan, it was broken, and oil was 
poured on it; and it was then presented 
to the priest, who took of it a handful, 
which he threw on the fire of the altar, and 
reserved the rest for himself. It is observ- 
able, that in the East oil answers the pur- 
pose of butter. 

Cakes or loaves offered with sacrifices of 
beasts, as was customary, were kneaded with 
oil. The wine and oil were not poured 
upon the head of the animal about to be 
sacrificed, but on the fire, in which the vic- 
tim was consumed. (Numb, xxviii. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) The law regulated the quantity of 
meal, wine, and oil, for each kind of victim. 
To the sacrifice of a bullock, were added three 
assarions of flour, kneaded with half-a-hin of 
oil, and as much wine ; to a ram, two assa- 
rions, or two-tenths of an ephah of flour, with 
the third of a hin of oil, and as much wine ; 



CAL 



CAL 



to a goat, or ewe, of lambs or kids, one 
tenth deal of flour kneaded with one fourth 
part of a hin of oil, and another of wine. 

CA'LAH, n^D, Xa\&x, signifies favour- 
able, opportunity ; otherwise, as the verdure, 
or green fruit ; otherwise, humility; other- 
wise, a table, a floor. Calah was a city of 
Assyria, built by Ashur, or by Nimrod, 
(Gen. x. 12.) ; for some suppose the phrase, 
in which the founding of this city is men- 
tioned, to be ambiguous. It is observed, 
that whoever founded it, it was distant from 
Nineveh, and that the city Resen was situ- 
ated between Calah and Nineveh. 

Since we find in Strabo a country about 
the head of the river Lycus, called Calachene, 
it is very probable that this country took 
its name from Calach, which was once 
its capital. To this city and country it 
was, in all probability, that Shalmaneser 
carried some of the ten tribes of Israel. 
(2 Kings xvii. 6.) For though the word in 
that place seems rather differently spelt, yet 
the two letters, in which the difference con- 
sists, are frequently used for each other ; 
and what in this passage is written in our 
Bible, Halah, may be written, agreeably to 
the Hebrew, Chalah, or Chalach, and there- 
fore little differing from Calah or Calach. 
Bochart also thinks, that this is the same 
city as is called Halah. Cellarius under- 
stands it to be Holwan, a famous town under 
the caliphs, in the Syriac spoken dialect 
called Hhulon, but in the Syriac documents 
written Hhalach. However, the different 
initial letter militates against this change. 
Ephraim, the Syrian, understands Hatra, 
a city in the region of the Zab, which falls 
into the Tigris. The Arab Geographer 
calls this city Aklah, which certainly differs 
in some respects from the Hebrew Calach, 
and from the Syriac Hhalach ; yet this last 
word not only approaches it as it stands, 
but, by transposition of the syllables, forms 
the name Ach-lahh. Sacred Geography ; 
fVells's Geography, vol. i. p. 120. 

CAL'AMUS, as it is termed in Canti- 
cles, (iv. 14.) and Ezekiel, (xxvii. 19.) or 
Sweet Calamus, as it is denominated in 
Exodus, (xxx. 23.) or Sweet Cane, as 
it is rendered in Isaiah, (xliii. 24.) and 
Jeremiah, (vi. 20.) is the Calamus Aroma- 
ticus in the Materia Medica of the ancients. 
It consists of the stalk, not the root, as Cal- 
met thinks, of a plant of the reed kind, 
found in pieces of ten or twelve inches 
long, from the thickness of a goose- quill 
to that of a wheaten straw. It is full of 
knots or joints in the manner of our com- 
mon reed, and has an agreeable aromatic 
smell, when fresh broken. It grows very 
common in many places in the East In3ies, 
where the inhabitants use it in their sau- 
ces, and esteem it as a cordial and sto- 
machic. It is said to be a diuretic, and 
the fume of it, burnt with turpentine, is 
recommended for diseases of the breast. 
245 



Among the moderns it is known only as an 
ingredient in the theriaca. In Scripture, 
it is mentioned among the particular drugs, 
of which the sacred perfumes were com- 
pounded. 

CA'LEB, n"?D signifies a dog, or a crow, or 
a basket ; otherwise, as the heart. Caleb, the 
son of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Judah, was 
sent with Joshua and others of Israel, to 
view the land of Canaan. (Numb. xiii. 2, 
&c.) They went through the country, 
and brought with them some of its finest 
fruits, as specimens of its productions ; but, 
after this report of the beauty and good- 
ness of the country, some of the spies 
added, ' The inhabitants are of extraordi- 
nary strength, and the cities are large, and 
enclosed with prodigiously high walls.' 
This raised a murmuring among the people ; 
but Joshua and Caleb said to them, ' The 
country is excellent, let us go boldly, and 
take possession.' But the other deputies 
told the people, that they could never make 
themselves masters of it, because the inha- 
bitants, who possessed it, were giants, in 
comparison of whom, they said, we appeared 
only as grasshoppers. This happened in 
the year of the world 2514, and before Jesus 
Christ 1490 ; when Caleb was forty years of 
age. 

The people, therefore, openly declared 
against this expedition. Joshua and Caleb 
encouraged the undertaking ; but the peo- 
ple would have stoned them, if the glory 
of the Lord had not appeared, and sen- 
tenced the whole multitude to die in the 
desert, except Joshua and Caleb. (Numb, 
xiv.) 

When Joshua had invaded and con- 
quered a great part of Canaan, Caleb with 
his tribe came to Gilgal to see him. Caleb 
said to Joshua, Thou knowest what the 
Lord said to Moses in my favour : I was 
forty years old when Moses sent me to 
view this country. I made my report 
with truth, and repressed, as far as I was 
able, the murmurs of the people. I am 
now above fourscore ; and my health and 
my strength are not impaired. Give me, 
I pray thee, this mountain, in which the 
Anakim dwell, that I may possess it. 
Joshua bestowed on him many blessings, 
and granted his request. (Josh. xiv. 6, &c.) 

Caleb, therefore, in the year of the 
world 2559, marched with his tribe against 
the city of Arba, afterwards called Hebron, 
(Id. xv. 13, 14.); and having taken it, he 
killed three giants of the race of Anak, viz. 
Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. Thence he 
went to Debir, otherwise Kirjath-sepher ; 
but as this place was extremely strong, 
Caleb promised his daughter Achsah in 
marriage to the man, by whom it was taken. 
Othniel, the son of Kenaz, took it, and 
married Caleb's daughter. It is thought 
that Caleb survived Joshua ; but the time of 
his death is unknown. 



CAL 



CAL 



Caleb, (1 Chron. ii. 18.) or Chelubai, 
(Id. ib. 9.) was the son of Hezron, who first 
married Azubah, and afterwards Ephrath. 
(Id. ib. 18, 19.) In the twenty-fourth 
verse of this chapter is a difficulty in the 
Hebrew text. By our translators it is ren- 
dered, ' And after that Hezron was dead in 
Caleb-Ephratah', which is supposed by Le 
Clerc and others to be the name of a place 
so denominated from Caleb and his wife. 
In the Septuagint it is ^XSe Xa\ej3 eig 
'E(ppaBa, and in the Vulgate Ingressus est 
Chaleb ad Ephrata ; but Le Clerc is of opi- 
nion, that the translation in our Bible is the 
best. 

CALF, the young of the ox kind. The 
Scripture frequently mentions calves, be- 
cause they were commonly used in sacri- 
fices. Sometimes the word calf is put for 
a heifer, and sometimes in oppositiou to a 
sucking calf under the care of its dam. 
The fatted calf, mentioned in several places 
of Scripture, (1 Sam. xxviii. 24. Luke xv. 
23.) was fattened for some certain festival, 
or extraordinary sacrifice. It is said in 
Hosea, 'We will render the calves of our 
lips.' (Hos. xiv. 2.) By the calves of the 
lips, in this passage, we are to understand 
sacrifices of praise, prayers which the cap- 
tives of Babylon addressed to God, when 
they could not offer sacrifices in his temple. 
The Septuagint read ' the fruit of our lips ;' 
and their reading is followed by the Syriac, 
and by the apostle in his Epistle to the He- 
brews, (xiii. 15.) 

Jeremiah mentions a remarkable cere- 
mony, which is scarcely noticed in the his- 
torical books of Scripture. The Lord 
says, ' I will give the men that have trans- 
gressed my covenant, that have not per- 
formed the words of the covenant, which 
they had made before me, when they 
cut the calf in twain, and passed between 
the parts thereof,' &c. (Jerem. xxxiv. 18.) 
When, or on what occasion, this covenant 
was sworn to, is unknown. It is, how- 
ever, probable, that it was not a long 
time preceding, as the men, who had sworn 
to observe this covenant, were still living. 
The custom of cutting a victim in two, of 
putting the several parts on two different 
altars, and obliging those, who contracted 
any covenant, to pass between them, is 
well known in Scripture and profane au- 
thors. See Genesis xv. 9, 10. 17- 

Calf, Golden, which the Israelites wor- 
shipped at the foot of mount Sinai. (Exod. 
xxxii. 4, &c.) When the people saw that 
Moses delayed to come down from the 
mount, they assembled around Aaron, and 
said, Up, make us gods, which shall go be- 
fore us. Aaron demanded their ear-rings, 
which were melted and cast into the form 
of a calf. When this was about to be con- 
secrated, Moses being informed of it by 
God, came down from the mount, and call- 
ing on all, who detested this sin, the sons 
246 



of Levi armed themselves, and slew of the 
people, who were utterly unprovided to 
resist an enemy, about twenty-three thousand 
men. It is, however, to be observed, that 
the Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee, Septua- 
gint, and the greatest part of the old Greek 
and Latin fathers, instead of twenty- three 
thousand, read three thousand men ; and it 
is scarcely probable, that more than three 
thousand could be put to death in so short a 
time. Our English translation gives three 
thousand as the number slain. 

Our version of the Bible says, that 
Aaron formed this calf with a graving-tool, 
after he had cast it in a mould; and the 
Geneva translation, still worse, that he 
first engraved, and afterwards cast it. But 
it is thought, that the verse is more pro- 
perly rendered in the following manner: 
' And Aaron received them (the golden ear- 
rings) and tied them up in a bag, and got 
them cast into a molten calf.' 

In the history of the golden calf we may 
observe, first, that Aaron calls his calf in 
the plural, 'gods:' ' these are thy gods — 
they who brought thee out of Egypt,' &c. ; 
and the people say, ' Make us gods,' though 
only one image was made. 

Secondly, the second commandment for- 
bids the making to thyself of any graven 
image. However, in the instance of the 
cherubim, graven images were made, though 
not to thyself, that is, to any private indivi- 
dual, nor for the purpose of visible worship, 
but for interior emblems, in the most holy 
place, never seen by the people. 

Thirdly, Aaron did not make his calf with 
his own hands, most probably, but com- 
mitted it to some sculptor, who wrought not 
openly in the midst of the camp, but in his 
workshop. The Jews say, that the image 
was formed into a calf by some evil spirits, 
who accompanied the Israelites from Egypt ; 
and if they mean evil human spirits, it is 
probable that they are right. The sacred 
writers in succeeding ages plainly speak of 
the golden calf as a very great sin. ( Psalm 
cvi. 19, 20. Acts vii. 41. Deut. ix. 21.) 

Fourthly, Aaron though greatly misled, 
must have meant by this worship something 
more than the mere worship of Apis, for 
in what sense had Apis ' brought Israel 
out of the land of Egypt V He would ra- 
ther have kept them there than have thence 
liberated them. Jeroboam uses the same 
language. (1 Kings xii. 28.) It is strange, 
that Jeroboam, so long after the Exodus, 
should so strongly allude to that event, if 
Apis had been the object of his calves. 
Were his idols exposed to public view, so 
that whereas the cherubim at Jerusalem 
were unseen by worshippers, those at Dan, 
or at Bethel, were open to the inspection 
of all comers ? It is hence usually thought, 
that the Hebrews, on this occasion, imi- 
tated the worship of the god Apis, whom 
they had seen adored in Egypt under the 



CAT, 



CAL 



figure of a living bull, or of a bull made by 
art ; or of a man with a bull's head ; for se- 
veral of the fathers, speaking of the golden 
calf, express themselves as if this figure 
had possessed only the head of a calf or bull. 

Monceau, in his Aaron Purgatus, has 
endeavoured to show that the golden calf 
made by Aaron resembled the cherubim, 
upon which, as he supposes, the Lord sat, 
when he appeared to Moses on mount 
Sinai. By his account, these cherubim 
were winged oxen, such as Moses after- 
wards made to the mercy-seat. He adds, 
that the sin of Aaron did not consist so 
much in making the golden calf, as in 
giving the people an opportunity of a su- 
perstitious and an idolatrous worship, and 
of transferring to a figure the worship due 
to God alone. 

Though Aaron was blameably active in 
this matter, yet he seems more to have 
suffered and tolerated, than to have pro- 
moted the evil. The expression is re- 
markable : ' The Lord plagued the peo- 
ple, because THEY made the calf, which 
Aaron made.' (Exod. xxxii. 35.) Though 
he received the ear-rings from the people, 
yet whether the calf was made by his own 
hands, or even under his express direction, 
may be reasonably doubted. It would seem, 
that Aaron had given the gold, of which he 
had the custody, to a workman appointed 
by the people ; that he followed the people 
in every part of this transaction ; and that 
he endeavoured to guide, perhaps to oppose 
their opinion, in varying and appointing to 
the honour of Jehovah, what many, at 
least, the mixed multitude, would refer to 
the honour of the gods they had seen in 
Egypt. In this view, his expression de- 
serves notice : — ' to-morrow is a solemnity 
to Jehovah ;' not to Apis, or to any other 
god, but to Jehovah. Such was the sen- 
timent of Aaron, whatever sentiments some 
of the people might entertain ; and his con- 
fession to Moses may be so taken : ' I cast 
it, that is, I gave it to be cast.' This making 
of the calf was certainly a work of time. 
It was not cast in a moment, nor in the 
midst of the camp, but in a proper work- 
shop, or some other convenient place ; and 
it was perhaps even forwarded more briskly 
than Aaron knew, or wished. It is proba- 
ble, that he used all means of delay, though 
he sinfully yielded at last to a prevarica- 
tion, or to a worship of Jehovah by an 
image, an impure medium of worship, 
forbidden by the second commandment. 
Perhaps the people fancied, that in refer- 
ring this image to God, they avoided the 
sin of idolatry ; and it is not improbable, 
that Aaron might entertain the same opi- 
nion. They might not understand the 
commandment already given as a prohibi- 
tion of worshipping God by mediatorial re- 
presentations, or public symbols of his pre- 
sence. 
247 



Calves, golden, of Jeroboam, the son 
of Nebat. This prince having been ac- 
knowledged king by Israel, to separate 
the ten tribes more effectually from the 
house of David, he provided for them 
new gods, whom they might worship in 
their own country, without going to the 
temple at Jerusalem. ' He made two 
calves of gold, and said unto the people, 
Behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought 
thee up out of the land of Egypt. Then 
he set up the one in Bethel, and the other 
in Dan, at the two extremities of his 
kingdom. And this thing became a sin : 
for the people went to worship before 
these calves even unto Dan and Bethel.' 
(1 Kings xii. 28, 29, 30.) 

Monceau thought, that these golden 
calves of Jeroboam were imitations of 
the cherubim, and that they occasioned 
rather a schismatic than an idolatrous 
worship ; and it is confessed, that all 
Israel did not renounce the worship of 
the Lord by adopting that of the golden 
calves, and by ceasing to go up to Jeru- 
salem. God did not altogether abandon 
Israel ; but he sent them prophets, and pre- 
served a great number of faithful worship- 
pers. 

It is certain that Jeroboam's calves were 
not images of Baal, (1 Kings xvi. 31, 32. 
2 Kings x. 28. 31.) Most commentators 
think, that Jeroboam designed by his 
golden calves to imitate the worship of Apis, 
which he had seen in Egypt. (1 Kings xi. 
40.) The Scripture frequently reproaches 
him with having made Israel to sin ; and 
when it would describe a bad prince, it 
says, that he imitated the sins of Jero- 
boam. The prophets every where bitterly 
exclaim against the worship of these golden 
calves. ' The inhabitants of Samaria 
shall fear,' says Hosea, ' because of the 
calves of Bethaven.' (Hos. x. 5.) The 
Assyrians having taken Samaria, carried 
off the golden calves, with their worship- 
pers. Additions to Calmefs Dictionary ; 
Ancient Universal History, lib. i. cap. 7- 

CALIXTINES, a branch of the Hus- 
sites in Bohemia and Moravia, in the fif- 
teenth century. They obtained their de- 
nomination from their insisting to be 
allowed the use of the cup or chalice, in 
the celebration of the eucharist. They 
were temperate in their proceedings, and 
showed no disposition to overturn the 
ancient system of church-government. 
They demanded, that the word of God 
should be explained to the people in a 
plain and perspicuous manner, without any 
superstitious comments or inventions; that 
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper should 
be administered /';/. both hinds; that the 
clergy, instead of employing all their 
attention in acquiring riches and power, 
should turn their thoughts to objects mere 
suitable to their profession, and endeavour 



CAL 



CAL 



to live and act as became the successors of 
the apostles ; and that transgressions of a 
heinous kind should be severely punished. 

Calixtines was also a name given to 
those among the Lutherans, who followed 
the opinion of George Calixtus, a cele- 
brated divine in the seventeenth century. 
Calixtus endeavoured to unite the Romish, 
Lutheran, and Calvinistic churches, in the 
bonds of charity and mutual benevolence. 
He maintained, first, that the fundamental 
doctrines of Christianity, by which he 
meant those elementary principles, whence 
all its truths flow, were preserved pure in 
all the three communions, and were con- 
tained in that ancient form of doctrine 
commonly known by the Apostles' Creed ; 
and, secondly, that the tenets and opi- 
nions, which had been constantly received 
by the ancient doctors, during the first five 
centuries, were to be considered as of 
equal truth and authority with the express 
declarations and doctrines of Scripture. 
The freedom and plainness, with which he 
delivered his sentiments, drew upon him a 
host of enemies ; but in the year 1656, 
death terminated his labours, and re- 
moved him from scenes of dissension and 
tumult into the regions of peace and con- 
cord. Mosheim, vol. iv. p. 450, 451 ; Brough- 
ton, vol. i. p. 192. 

CALL frequently signifies to be ; but, 
perhaps, it includes the idea of admitted 
to be, acknowledged to be, well known to 
be, the thing called ; since men do not 
commonly call a thing otherwise than what 
they conclude it is. ' His name shall be 
called Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty 
God, the everlasting Father, the Prince 
of Peace,' (Isaiah ix. 6.) ; that is, he shall 
possess all these qualities, and shall be truly 
the wonderful, the mighty God, &c. ' He 
shall be called the Son of God,' (Luke i. 
35.) ; that is, he shall be truly the Son of 
God. Of John the Baptist it is said, he 
shall be called the prophet of the Highest ; 
that is, he shall be acknowledged under that 
character. 

To call, in the sense of a vocation, to 
an employment; to the Christian religion. 
Paul says, he was called to the apostleship, 
(Rom. i. 1.) Jesus Christ says, ' Many are 
called, but few are chosen.' (Matt. xx. 16.) 
We are exhorted to live in a manner worthy 
of the vocation wherewith we are called. 

To call any thing by its name ; to affix a 
name to it, is an act of authoriy. The 
father names his son ; and the master, his 
servant, ' God calleth the stars by their 
names.' (Psalm cxlvii. 4.) 

To call on the name of God, signifies to 
call him to our assistance, to intreat him 
in our necessities. ' Then began men to 
call on the name of the Lord,' (Gen. iv. 
26.) ; but some translate it, to profane the 
name of the Lord. See Enos. 

To call on God, sometimes signifies all 
248 



the acts of religion, the whole public 
worship of God. ' Whosoever shall call 
on the name of the Lord ;' that is, whoso- 
ever shall believe, trust, love, pray, &c. 
as he ought, ' shall be saved.' (Rom. x. 13.) 
God, in some sort, receives it as an honour 
that we should call on him ; he is, in some 
sort, jealous of our adoration, and requires, 
that we should call on no other god be- 
sides himself. ' Call upon me in the day of 
trouble : I will deliver thee, and thou shalt 
glorify me.' (Psalm 1. 15.) 

CAL'NEH, n^D, signifies our consum- 
mation ; or, all we; or, as murmuring; 
otherwise, he that abodes or sojourns. Cal- 
neh was a city in the land of Shinaar, built 
by Nimrod, and formerly the seat of his 
empire. (Gen. x. 10.) It is supposed to be 
the Calno of Isaiah, (x. 9.) and the 
Canneh of Ezekiel, (xxvii. 23.) It is ob- 
served, that Calneh must have been situ- 
ated in Mesopotamia, since these prophets 
join it with Haran, Eden, Assyria, and 
Chilmad, which traded with Tyre. It is said 
by the Chaldee interpreters, and also by Eu- 
sebius and Jerom, to be the same as Ctesi- 
phon, which was situated on the Tigris, 
about three miles from Seleucia, and that it 
was for some time the capital city of the 
Parthians. 

In the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of 
France, it is said, that ' the name of Calneh 
(which is construed habitaculum perfectum), 
the fourth city founded by Nimrod, seems to 
be found in that of Chalonite, a district of Ba- 
bylonia on the east of the Tigris. This in- 
duces a very general opinion that Calneh is 
Ctesiphon, originally the capital of that pro- 
vince, and since the metropolis of all the 
Parthian empire, and the winter residence of 
their kings.' Memoires de VAcademie Royale, 
tome xxvii. p. 31 ; Buckingham's Travels in 
Mesopotamia, vol. ii. p. 463; Wells's Geogra- 
phy, vol. i. p. 113. 

CAL'VARY, or Golgotha, signifies 
the place of a skull, and is supposed to be 
so called by reason of its similitude to the 
figure of a skull. It was a small hill north 
of Mount Sion; and being appropriated to 
the execution of malefactors, it was ex- 
cluded the walls of the city, as an execrable 
and a polluted place. But since our Sa- 
viour suffered upon it, it has been resorted 
to with such devotion by Christians, that 
it has become the centre of the new city of 
Jerusalem, and a great part of the hill of Sion 
has been excluded for the admission of 
Mount Calvary. See Jerusalem. 

This mount is also honoured with a 
church, called the Church of the Sepulchre, 
from its being built over the place where was 
our Lord's sepulchre. 

CALVINISTS, those who embrace the 
doctrine and sentiments of Calvin, the 
celebrated reformer of the Christian 
church from Romish superstition and doc- 
trinal errors. 






CAL 



CAL 



John Calvin was born at Noyon, in Pi- 
cardy, in 1509. He received his educa- 
tion at Paris and other places, where dif- 
ferent branches of literature were taught 
with celebrity. Discovering early marks 
of piety, he was designed by his father 
for the church, and was accordingly pre- 
sented to a living near Noyon, the place 
of his nativity. But conceiving a dis- 
like to the corruptions of popery, he 
quitted the church, and turned his atten- 
tion to the law. Visiting Paris, he made 
himself known to those, who had privately 
embraced the reformation. A persecu- 
tion arising against the reformers, he went 
to Basle, where he published his famous 
work, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, 
which spread abroad his fame, though, it 
is said, he was then desirous of living in 
obscurity. Not long after this, he became 
minister and professor of divinity at Ge- 
neva. In this department he acquitted 
himself with great ability, and was inde- 
fatigable in promoting the reformation. 
He continued to discharge the duties of his 
station with fidelity, till his death, which 
happened in- the year 1564. Calvin was 
a man, whose extensive genius, flowing 
eloquence, immense learning, extraordi- 
nary penetration, indefatigable industry, 
and fervent piety, placed him at the head 
of the reformers ; all of whom he surpassed 
in learning and ability, and most of them 
in obstinacy, asperity, and turbulence. 
His burning Servetus, a Spanish physi- 
cian, for writing against the doctrine of 
the Trinity, has left an indelible stain on his 
memory. 

At first, the name of Calvinists was 
given to those, who embraced not merely 
the doctrine, but the church- government 
and discipline established at Geneva, and 
was intended to distinguish them from 
the Lutherans. But since the meeting of 
the synod of Dort. this appellation has 
been applied chiefly to those, who embrace 
his leading views of the Gospel, and is in- 
tended to distinguish them from the Armi- 
nians. 

The leading principles of Calvin were 
the same as those of Augustin. The prin- 
cipal doctrines, by which those called Cal- 
vinists are distinguished from the Armi- 
nians, are reduced to five articles, 
which, from their being the chief points 
discussed at the synod of Dort, have since 
been denominated the five points. These 
are, predestination, particular redemption, 
total depravity, effectual calling, and the 
certain perseverance of the saints. 

1. The Calvinists maintain, that God 
hath chosen unto eternal glory a certain 
number of the fallen race of Adam in 
Christ, before the foundation of the world, 
according to his immutable purpose, and 
of his free grace and love, without the 
least foresight of faith, good works, or anv 
249 



conditions performed by the creature ; and 
that he was pleased to pass by, and ordain to 
dishonour and wrath, the rest of mankind, 
for their sins, to the praise of his vindictive 
justice. 

In proof of this, they adduce, among 
many other Scripture passages, the follow- 
ing : ' According as he hath chosen us 
in him before the foundation of the world, 
that we should be holy, and without 
blame before him in love.' God saith to 
Moses, ' I will have mercy on whom I 
will have mercy, and I will have com- 
passion on whom I will have compassion. 
So, then, it is not of him that willeth, 
nor of him that runneth, but of God, 
that showeth mercy. Thou wilt say 
then, Why doth he yet find fault ; for who 
hath resisted his will ? Nay, but, O man ! 
who art thou that repliest against God? 
Shall the thing formed say to him that 
formed it, why hast thou made me thus ? 
Hath not the potter power over the clay, of 
the same lump, to make one vessel unto 
honour, and another unto dishonour V (Rom. 
ix. 15—21. ; xi. 1—6. ; viii. 29, 30. 2 Thess. 
ii. 13.) The Calvinists, however, do not con- 
sider predestination as affecting the agency 
or accountableness of the creature, or as 
being to him any rule of conduct. On the 
contrary, they suppose him to act as freely, 
and to be as much the proper subject of 
calls, warnings, exhortations, promises, and 
threatenings, as if no decree existed. 

2. They maintain, that though the death 
of Christ be a most perfect sacrifice, and 
satisfaction for sins, of infinite value, and 
abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins 
of the whole world; and though on this 
ground the Gospel is to be preached to all 
mankind indiscriminately; yet it was the 
will of God, that Christ, by the blood of the 
cross, should efficaciously redeem those 
only, who from eternity were elected to sal- 
vation, and given to him by the Father. 

In proof of this doctrine, they adduce, 
among others, the following Scripture pas- 
sages : ' Thou hast given him power over 
all flesh, that he should give eternal life 
to as many as thou hast given him.' — ' The 
good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep.' 
— ' He died not for that nation only, but 
that he might gather together in one the 
children of God that are scattered abroad.' 

3. The Calvinists maintain, that man- 
kind are totally depraved, in consequence 
of the fall of the first man, the sin of 
whom, as their public head, involved the 
corruption of all his posterity; and that 
this corruption extends over the whole 
soul, and renders it unable to turn to God, or 
to do any thing truly good, and exposes it to 
his righteous displeasure, both in this world 
and in that which is to come. 

In proof of this doctrine, they adduce 
the following passages from Scripture, 
besides many others : ' Uv one man sin 



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CAL 



entered into the world, and death by sin ; 
and so death passed upon all men, for 
that all have sinned.' — ' By one man's dis- 
obedience many were made sinners.' — 
' I was born in sin and shapen in iniquity.' 
— 'God looked down from heaven upon 
the children of men, to see if there were 
any that did understand, that did seek, 
God. Every one of them is gone back ; 
they are altogether become filthy ; there 
is none that doeth good, no not one.' — 
' And you hath he quickened, who were 
dead in trespasses and sins. Wherein in 
time past ye walked according to the 
course of this world, among whom also 
we all had our conversation in times past, 
in the lusts of our flesh, fulfilling the desires 
of the flesh and of the mind ; and were 
by nature the children of wrath, even as others' 
4. The Calvinists maintain, that all, 
whom God hath predestinated unto life, 
he is pleased, in his appointed time, effec- 
tually to call by his Word and Spirit out 
of that state of sin and death, in which 
they are by nature, to grace and salvation by 
Jesus Christ. 

They admit that the Holy Spirit, as call- 
ing men by the ministry of the Gospel, 
may be resisted, and that where this is the 
case, the fault is not in the Gospel, nor 
in Christ offered by the Gospel, nor in God 
calling by the Gospel, and also conferring 
various gifts upon them, but in those who 
are called. Yet, they contend, that when 
men are converted, it is not to be ascribed 
to themselves, as though by their own free 
will they made themselves to differ, but 
merely to him, who delivers them from the 
power of darkness, and translates them 
into the kingdom of his dear Son, and 
whose regenerating influence is certain 
and efficacious. In proof of this doctrine 
they adduce, among others, the following 
passages of Scripture : ' Whom he did pre- 
destinate, them he also called ; and whom 
he called, them he also glorified.' — ' That 
ye may know what is the exceeding 
greatness of his power to us-ward who 
believe, according to the working of his 
mighty power, which he wrought in Christ 
when he raised him from the dead.'' — ' We are 
his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto 
good works.' 

5. Lastly, the Calvinists maintain, that 
those, whom God has effectually called and 
sanctified by his Spirit, shall never finally 
fall from a state of grace. They admit that 
true believers may fall partially, and would 
fall totally and finally, unless it were for 
the mercy and faithfulness of God, who 
keepeth the feet of his saints ; that he, who 
bestoweth the grace of perseverance, be- 
stoweth it by means of reading and hear- 
ing the word, of meditation, exhortations, 
threatenings, and promises ; but that none 
of these things imply the possibility of a 
believer's falling from a state of justification. 
250 



In proof of this doctrine, they adduce, 
among others, the following passages of 
Scripture: 'I will put my fear in their 
hearts, and they shall not depart from me.' 
1 He that believeth, and is baptized, shall be 
saved.' ' The water that I shall give him 
shall be in him a well of water springing up 
into everlasting life.' ' This is the Father's 
will, that of all which he hath given me I should 
lose nothing.' 

Such were the doctrines of the Old Cal- 
vinists, and such in substance are those 
of the present time. In this, however, as 
in every other denomination, are consider- 
able shades of difference. Some, who 
are called Moderate Calvinists, are of opi- 
nion, that Calvin, though principally right, 
has yet carried matters too far. Others, 
who are denominated High Calvinists, think 
that he did not go far enough. 

It is necessary to add, that the Calvin- 
istic system includes in it the doctrine of 
three co-ordinate persons in the Godhead, 
in one nature ; and of two natures in Jesus 
Christ, forming one person. Justification 
by faith alone, or justification by the im- 
puted righteousness of Christ, constitutes 
also an essential part of this system. The 
Calvinists suppose, that on the one hand 
our sins are imputed to Christ, and on the 
other, that we are justified by the imputa- 
tion of Christ's righteousness to us ; that is, 
Christ, the innocent, was treated by God as 
if he were guilty, that we, the guilty, might, 
from regard to what he did and suffered, 
be treated as if we were innocent and righ- 
teous. 

Calvin considered every church as a se- 
parate and an independent body, invested 
with the power of legislation for itself. He 
proposed that it should be governed by 
presbyteries and synods, composed of clergy 
and laity, without bishops, or any clerical 
subordination ; and he maintained, that the 
province of the civil magistrate extended 
only to its protection and outward accom- 
modation. He acknowledged a real, though 
spiritual, presence of Christ in the eucha- 
rist ; and he confined the privilege of com- 
munion to pious and regenerate believers. 
These sentiments, however, are not imbibed 
by all, who are called Calvinists. 

Calvinism originally subsisted in its great- 
est purity in the city of Geneva. From 
this place, the doctrine and discipline of 
the reformed church, as modelled by Cal- 
vin, were propagated, first, in Germany, 
where they were established in a perma- 
nent manner. At first, the French Pro- 
testants were uniform only in their antipa- 
thy to the church of Rome ; but afterwards 
they entered into communion with the 
church of Geneva. By the edict of Nantes 
in 1598, Henry IV. allowed them the li- 
berty of serving God according to their 
consciences. The church of Scotland ac- 
knowledges as its founder John Knox, the 



CAM 



CAM 



disciple of Calvin ; and, accordingly, from its 
first reformation, it adopted the doctrine, 
rites, and form of ecclesiastical govern- 
ment, established at Geneva. To these it 
has always adhered, and maintained them 
with the greatest jealousy and zeal. A dif- 
ferent constitution of things is observable 
in the church of England, which refused 
entirely to comply with the ecclesiastical 
laws of Geneva, and which retained only for 
a short time even those, which it adopted. 
In the reign of Edward VI., Geneva was 
acknowledged as a sister-church ; and the 
theological system established by Calvin, 
was adopted, "and rendered the public rule 
of faith in England. However, no change 
took place in the form of episcopal govern- 
ment, which was entirely different from that 
of Geneva ; and several rites and ceremo- 
nies, which were considered as superstitious 
by some of the reformed, were retained. 
This difference between the two churches 
afterwards proved a source of many cala- 
mities and dissensions, which were highly 
detrimental to the civil and ecclesiastical 
constitution of Great Britain. Ever since 
1571, Calvinism has been the prevailing 
religion in the United Provinces. Adam's 
Religious World, vol. ii. p. 220, &c. ; Evans's 
Sketch, p. 68, &c. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. iv. p. 70, &c. ; Adam's View of Religions, 
Art. Calvin. 

CAMALDOLITES, an order founded in 
1023, upon the Apennines, by St. Romuald, 
an Italian fanatic. The manner of life he 
enjoined his disciples to observe was as fol- 
lows : They dwelt in separate cells, and met 
together only at the time of prayer. Some 
of them during the two Lents in the year, 
and others for the space of a hundred days, 
observed an inviolable silence. On Sun- 
days and Thursdays they fed on herbs ; and 
the rest of the week on bread and water 
only. Moshe'un, vol. ii. p. 306. 

CAMEL, in the Linnsean system, a ge- 
nus of quadrupeds of the order of the pe- 
cora, or those which have cutting teeth in 
their under, but none in their upper jaw, 
and only five molar teeth in both. There 
are two varieties of this very useful animal : 
one, which is called more peculiarly the 
camel, has two protuberances upon its back ; 
the other, which obtains the name of dro- 
medary, has only one, and is neither so 
large nor so strong as the former. Both 
races intermix. The camel has a small 
head, short ears, and a long bending neck. 
Its height to the top of the dorsal protube- 
rance, is about six feet and a-balf. The 
colour of the hair on the protuberances is 
dusky, and that on the other parts is reddish 
ash. It has a long tail ; small hoofs ; and 
flat feet, divided above, but not separated. 
On the legs are six callosities ; and besides 
the four stomachs, which all ruminating 
quadrupeds possess, it has a fifth, which 
serves as a reservoir for carrying a supply 
251 



of water in the sandy parched deserts, that 
it is obliged to traverse. 

Moses ranks the camel among unclean 
animals, (Deut. xiv. 7- Levit. xi. 4.) be- 
cause it does not * divide the division of the 
hoof,' the characteristic mark required in 
a clean beast. However, every part of it is 
now applied to some beneficial purpose. 
The flesh, milk, hair, urine, and even dung 
of this animal, are all turned to advantage. 
But its chief utility consists in its being a 
beast of burden in countries where no other 
quadruped could live and perform that 
office. By means of this useful creature, 
the trade of Turkey, Arabia, Persia, Bar- 
bary, and Egypt, is principally carried on. 
It is qualified not only to carry heavy bur- 
dens, but to support extreme abstinence, 
and to travel with great expedition ; and 
it is, therefore, essentially serviceable to 
the natives in the parched deserts of Africa, 
Arabia, and other tropical countries. Scrip- 
ture Illustrated, Expos. Ind. p. 51. 

CAMELEON, a species of lizard. This 
animal has a crooked cylindrical tail, and, 
including this appendage, measures about 
a foot in length. Its thickness varies at 
different seasons, as it possesses the faculty 
of contracting or expanding itself at plea- 
sure. The skin is very unequal, but soft. 
When the creature is at rest, the eminences 
on its surface appear of a bluish grey, and 
the spaces between them of a pale red and 
yellow ; but when viewed in different lights, 
it assumes every tint of colouring, and no 
two individuals can agree as to the exact 
shades it presents to the eye. Hence, in 
all ages, it has been alluded to as the em- 
blem of a fickle unsettled mind, which varies 
with every turn of opinion, and is constant 
in nothing but perpetual change. It feeds 
on flies and other insects, which it catches 
with its tongue. The flesh of this creature, 
was forbidden by the law of Moses. (Levit. 
xi. 30.) 

It has been questioned whether the He- 
brew word ron hecoch, be truly a cameleon. 
Bochart is of opinion, that hecoch signifies 
a large lizard, which is found in Arabia, and 
which attacks serpents in their holes, and 
kills them. By the Arabians it is called 
aluarlo. 

CAMERONIANS, or Cameronites, 
the denomination of a party of Calvinists 
in France, who asserted that the will of 
man is determined only by the practical 
judgment of the mind; that the cause of 
men's doing good or evil proceeds from the 
knowledge, which God infuses into them ; 
and that God does not move the will phy- 
sically, but only morally, in virtue of its 
dependence on the judgment. They ob- 
tained this name from John Cameron, who 
was born at Glasgow, in 1580, and who was 
professor there, and afterwards at lumr- 
deaux, Sedan, and Saumur. The synod o( 
Dort was severe against them ; yet it seems 



CAM 



CAM 



the only difference was as follows: — The 
synod had defined that God not only illu- 
minates the understanding, but gives mo- 
tion to the will, by causing in it an internal 
change. Cameron admitted only the illu- 
mination, by which the mind is morally 
moved; and he explained the sentiment of 
the synod of Dort, so as to render the two 
opinions consistent. Adam's View of Reli- 
gions, p. 114. 

Cameronians, is a name sometimes 
given to the old Presbyterian dissenters of 
Scotland, from the Rev. Richard Cameron, 
who fell at Airmoss, in Kyle, in 1680, by 
the sword of his bloody persecutors. They 
have been also called Whigs, a term often 
applied to the friends of civil and religious 
liberty ; Mountain-men, on account of their 
adhering to the same cause with those, who 
preached the Gospel upon the mountains 
and moors of Scotland, during the persecu- 
tion ; and McMillans, from the name of the 
first minister, who espoused their cause, after 
the revolution. But they have assumed to 
themselves the appellation of Old Presbyte- 
rian Dissenters, on account of the part, which 
their forefathers acted at the revolution in 
1688-9, in openly and candidly dissenting 
from the public deeds of those, who acted 
as the nation's representatives, in both 
church and state ; and because they are of a 
longer standing, as a distinct body, than any 
other denomination of Presbyterians, that 
have separated from the established church. 

The Old Dissenters contend only for the 
same opinions, which were generally received 
by all ranks of men in the purest time of 
the reformation, between 1638 and 1649. 
During the usurpation of Cromwell, from 
1651 till 1660, and the succeeding twenty- 
eight years of bloody persecution, from 
the restoration of Charles II. in 1660 till 
the revolution in 1688, was a gradual and 
most alarming defection from the princi- 
ples of the reformation. However, in 
these days of trouble, rebuke, and blas- 
phemy, were some faithful witnesses for 
Christ and his cause. The last ordained 
minister, who openly espoused their opi- 
nions, previously to the revolution, was the 
Rev. James Renwick, who suffered at the 
grass market of Edinburgh, Feb. 17, 1688. 
When the general assembly met at Edin- 
burgh, in 1689, three ministers, who had suc- 
ceeded Mr. Renwick, deserted their flock, 
and acceded to the judicatories of the revo- 
lution church. Thus the people, who wished 
closely to adhere to the attainments of the 
reformation, were left as sheep without a 
shepherd. In this trying situation, they 
continued to have praying societies, into 
which they had formed themselves for some 
time before ; and they stedfastly retained 
the same principles, which had been openly 
espoused, and solemnly ratified, by the 
covenanted church of Scotland, in the times 
of her purest reformation. In 1706, the 
252 



Rev. John M'Millan, who had been minis- 
ter of Balmaghie, in Galloway, but pre- 
viously to this had separated from the 
judicatories of the revolution church, ac- 
ceded to them, and espoused their cause. 
Having received an unanimous call to be 
their minister, he took the pastoral charge 
of them, and laboured successfully amongst 
them for many years. After some time, he 
was joined by the Rev. Thomas Nairn, 
who had been in connection with the seces- 
sion church, but dissented from them, for 
reasons, which were published to the world. 
Mr. M'Millan and he, with some ruling 
elders, who had been regularly ordained 
before, and held the same principles, con- 
stituted a presbytery, in the name of 
Christ the sole head of his church, on the 
first of August, 1743, under the title of the 
reformed presbytery. This title it still bears, 
for the reason that it is at least the honest 
intention of this people, faithfully to adhere 
to all the attainments of the reformation, 
in both church and state. On this account, 
they think that they may be justly called 
the reformed, or reformation-presbytery ; 
whilst, in another point of view, they 
might, with equal propriety, be denomi- 
nated the dissenting presbytery. Mr. Alex- 
ander Marshall, who had studied divinity 
for a competent number of years, was ap- 
proved by the reformed presbytery, and 
licensed by them to preach the Gospel, in 
April 1744. Soon after, he received a call, 
was regularly ordained, and took his seat 
with the other two, as co-presbyter. After 
this, the reformed presbytery gradually in- 
creased in the number of both ministers and 
people. 

The Old Dissenters are so far from being 
unfriendly to civil government as some 
have supposed, that they have uniformly 
and strenuously contended, that it is a va- 
luable ordinance, instituted by the Creator 
of heaven and earth, and made known in 
the revelations of his will, for his own glory, 
the external protection of his church, and 
the good of mankind. They find no fault 
with the particular kind of government 
established in this country. They object 
only to the terms, or fundamental condi- 
tions, on which persons are admitted into 
places of power, and trust in the nation. 
If they thought these agreeable to the 
revealed will of God, and consistent with 
the fundamental laws of the kingdom, in 
the purest times of that reformation, to 
which they wish still to adhere, they would 
feel a pleasure in concurring with the other 
inhabitants of Britain, in an acknowledg- 
ment of the civil powers. But believing 
that the present terms of advancement to 
power are of a different nature, and espe- 
cially perceiving that an unwarranted su- 
premacy over the church of Christ forms an 
essential part of the constitution, and the 
support of it the positively fixed and indis- 



CAM 



CAM 



pensable condition, upon which persons are 
admitted into places of trust, the Old Dis- 
senters cannot in judgment approve of 
these terms. On the contrary, they find 
themselves under the disagreeable neces- 
sity of openly entering their protest against 
national backsliding, in both church and 
state. In acting thus, they consider 
themselves as proceeding on the great and 
generally admitted principle, that human 
society is formed by mutual consent, and 
not by compulsion. The Old Dissenters, 
therefore, cannot consistently be refused 
the privilege of openly avowing their satis- 
faction with the fundamental laws of that 
great national society, to which, in the 
persons of their worthy ancestors, they 
heartily gave their consent, and to which 
they still consent in their own persons. 
Nor can they be justly blamed, after using 
the best means of information in their 
power, for following the dictates of their 
own minds, in dissenting from the acts of 
those, who, in their opinion, receded at the 
revolution from the former laudable attain- 
ments, and re-organized the society on 
principles entirely different. But after 
publicly entering their dissent from the 
government of church and state, as settled 
at the revolution, and candidly assigning 
their reasons for that dissent, it ever has 
been, and they trust, it ever will be, their 
study to live peaceably and inoffensively. 
They sincerely wish, by every consistent 
means in their power, to promote the 
peace and happiness of human society, 
wherever Providence orders their lot. They 
are strenuous advocates for the binding 
obligation of the national covenant of Scot- 
land, and of the solemn league and cove- 
nant of the three kingdoms, Scotland, Eng- 
land, and Ireland. Believing that the holy 
Scriptures warrant public vowing, or cove- 
nanting unto the Lord ; and that either the 
church, a whole nation, or any other orga- 
nized body of professing Christians, may, 
as well as the individual, bind their own 
souls by solemn covenant to serve God, and 
keep his commandments ; they conclude 
that such acts, when regulated by the re- 
vealed will of God, must be of perpetual 
obligation, and that such a society becomes 
a permanent society, which is not dissolved 
by the death of those, who compose it, but 
continues with their posterity. 

The Old Dissenters are strict presbyte- 
rians : they consider the Scriptures as their 
infallible standard ; and in subordination to 
them, they adopt the form of presbyterian 
church-government, agreed on by the as- 
sembly at Westminster. They receive the 
form of sound words, delivered by Christ 
himself in the sacred oracles, as the rule 
of their doctrine. Subordinate to this, they 
adopt the Westminster Confession of Faith, 
with the larger and shorter Catechisms ; 
which they consider as a well-digested sum- 
253 



mary of what ought to be taught in the 
church. Public prayers, with the heart and 
the understanding, and in a known tongue, 
but not in written or humanly prescribed 
forms ; singing psalms of divine inspiration 
only ; reading and expounding the Scrip- 
tures ; preaching and hearing the word ; 
administering and receiving the sacraments 
of Baptism and the Lord's Supper ; together 
with public fasting and thanksgiving, as ^he 
circumstances of the church require ; all 
these are considered by them as the divinely 
appointed ordinances of religious worship. 
At the same time, they reject all rites and 
ceremonies of human invention. They also 
follow in substance, as a subordinate rule, 
the Westminster Directory for Public Wor- 
ship. For regulating their discipline, they 
wish carefully to attend to what the Spirit 
saith to the churches, especially in the 
New Testament. In conformity with this, 
they obtain what aid they can from the an- 
cient books of discipline, of public authori- 
ty, in the Church of Scotland, together with 
the acts and decisions of the Assembly, in 
the time of the reformation. With respect 
to the mode of proceeding in these matters, 
they observe nearly the same forms of 
process as the other presbyterian churches 
of Scotland. 

The Old Dissenters have not been accus- 
tomed to take any particular notice of their 
eminent men ; but they hope that there are 
amongst them those, who have endeavour- 
ed honestly to declare the counsel of God. 
They cannot boast of the numbers of either 
their ministers or their people ; and they 
adopt the language of the Psalmist, that 
they are ' small and despised.' In 1810 the 
Reformed Presbytery in Scotland formed it- 
self into a synod of three presbyteries, which 
is called the Reformed Presbyterian Synod 
of Scotland. It has under its charge twenty- 
six congregations, of which sixteen have 
fixed pastors. Nearly about the same pe- 
riod, the Reformed Presbytery in Ireland 
constituted itself into the Reformed Pres- 
byterian Synod of Ireland ; including four 
presbyteries, in which are twenty-one con- 
gregations. Of these fifteen have fixed 
pastors. In America also there is now a 
Reformed Presbyterian Synod, which in 
1 819 comprehended four presbyteries. There 
were then twenty congregations in America 
with fixed pastors. 

In Scotland the number of ministers is 
increasing, while the members continue 
nearly the same. They have now, more- 
over, a Professor of Theology, under whose 
charge candidates for the ministry are placed 
for four years' preparation. 

The Judicial Testimony of the Old Dis- 
senters, together with its several defences ; 
their Terms of Communion, accompanied with 
an explanation and defence ; and A Short 
Account of the Old Presbyterian Dissenters, 
published by authority of the Reformed 



CAM 



CAN 



Presbytery, in 1806; are before the public. 
Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. p. 157, &c. 

CAMPHIRE, or Camphor-tree, the 
tree, from which a well-known drug of the 
same name is prepared. It is a species of 
laurel. The drug is neither a resin, a 
volatile salt, an oil, a juice, a bitumen, nor 
a gum; but it is a mixed substance, dry, 
white, transparent, and brittle, and is of 
a strong and penetrating fragrant smell. 
Every part of the tree, which produces 
camphire, abounds with it ; yet it is not col- 
lected from the tree in the manner of other 
resins, but by a sort of chemical process. 
The Indians distinguish two kinds of cam- 
phire, a finer and a coarser : the finer is 
produced in Borneo and Sumatra, is very 
rare, and never imported into Europe ; the 
coarser, in Japan, and is common both in 
India and Europe. The spouse in the 
Canticles observes, ' My beloved is unto me 
as a cluster of camphire in the vineyards of 
Engedi,' (i. 14.); and it is said, 'Thy plants 
are an orchard of pomegrantes, with pleasant 
fruits, camphire with spikenard.' ( Ibid. iv. 1 3. ) 

CA'NA, n3p, signifies zeal, ox jealousy, or 
possession, or grief ; or Ms nest ; or cane, that 
is, a reed. Cana, in Galilee, is a small 
town, in which Jesus performed his first 
miracle. (John ii. 2, &c.) It is said to be 
situated between Sephoris and Nazareth, 
six miles west from Sephoris. Nathanael, 
whom our Lord received as a disciple, was 
of this place. (John xxi. 2.) It is called 
Cana of Galilee, to distinguish it from Cana, 
or Kana, which is mentioned in Joshua, 
(xix. 28.) and which belonged to the tribe 
of Asher, and was situated not far from 
Sidon. Cana of Galilee was in the tribe of 
Zebulun. 

Cana, in Galilee, says D'Arvieux, was 
formerly a city, but is now a village almost 
deserted. Here is a church built by Helena, 
in the place where the marriage feast (John 
ii. 1.) was held. It is a building of wrought 
stones, now very old, and is divided by a 
great court. Sacred Geography ; Wells's 
Geog. vol. ii. p. 155. 

CA'NAAN, ]y33, signifies, merchant, 
trafficker, or negotiant; otherwise, contrite, 
or broken ; otherwise, rightly answering, or 
rightly afflicting. Some think it denotes ' a 
deep humiliation ;' that is, either of his 
mother when pregnant, or of the enemy, or 
of strangers. But as the word seems to 
imply to lay low, to lay on the ground, it is 
probable that Canaan himself, at his birth, 
was, by some incident, laid on the ground, and 
derived his name from such an occurrence. 

Canaan, the son of Ham. The Hebrews 
believe, that Canaan having first discovered 
Noah's nakedness, told his father Ham ; 
and that Noah, when he awoke, having un- 
derstood what had passed, cursed Canaan, 
the first author of his indecency. Others 
are of opinion, that Noah, knowing nothing 
more displeasing to Ham than cursing 
254 



Canaan, resolved to punish him in his son. 
(Gen. ix. 25.) 

Interpreters have invented several other 
reasons why the curse, which properly be- 
longed to Ham, was inflicted on his son 
Canaan. 1. When Canaan is mentioned, 
Ham is not exempted from the malediction. 
On the contrary, he suffers more for it ; 
for parents are more affected with their 
children's misfortunes than with their own, 
especially if the evils have been inflicted 
through some fault or folly of theirs. 2. God 
having blessed the three sons of Noah, when 
they went out of the ark, it was not proper 
that Noah's curse should interfere with the 
divine blessing, but very proper that it 
should be transferred to Canaan, with 
respect to the future extirpation of the 
people, that were to descend from him. 3. 
Some imagine, that in this place is an 
ellipsis of the word father, since such rela- 
tive words are frequently omitted or under- 
stood in Scripture. Thus James of Zebedee, 
(Matt. iv. 21.) for the son of Zebedee ; Mary 
of Cleophas, (John xix. 25.) for the wife of 
Cleophas ; and Emmor of Sychem, (Acts vii. 
16.) for the father of Sychem, which is pro- 
perly supplied in our translation. In like 
manner, Canaan may be put for the father 
of Canaan, that is, Ham, as it is rendered in 
the Arabic and Septuagint translations. 
Though Ham had more sons, yet he may in 
this place be designated by his relation to 
Canaan, in whom the curse was more fixed 
and dreadful, and extended to his utter 
extirpation, whilst the rest of Ham's pos- 
terity, in succeeding ages, were blessed with 
the knowledge of the Gospel. In the Indian 
history of Noah, as given in the Asiatic 
Researches, Satyavarman (Noah) is said to 
have cursed Charma (Ham.) 

The posterity of Canaan were numerous. 
His eldest son Sidon founded the city of 
Sidon, and was father of the Sidonians and 
Phoenicians. Canaan had ten other sons, 
who were fathers of as many tribes, dwell- 
ing in Palestine and Syria ; viz. the Hittites, 
the Jebusites, the Amorites, the Girgasites, 
the Hivites, the Arkites, the Sinites, the 
Arvadites, the Zemarites, and the Hama- 
thites. It is believed that Canaan lived and 
died in Palestine, which from him was 
called the land of Canaan. His tomb, 
twenty-five feet in length, was shown in a 
cave upon the Mountain of Leopards, not 
far from Jerusalem. Asiatic Researches, 
vol. iii. p. 263; Poole's Annotations. 

Canaan, land of, the country so de- 
nominated from Canaan, the son of Ham. 
The land of Canaan is situated between 
the Mediterranean Sea and the mountains 
of Arabia, and extends from Egypt to 
Phoenicia. It is bounded on the east, by 
the mountains of Arabia; on the south, 
by the wilderness of Paran, Idumsea, and 
Egypt ; on the west, by the Mediterranean, 
called in Hebrew the Great Sea ; and on 



CAN 



CAN 



the north, by the mountains of Libanus. 
Its length from the city of Dan, since 
called Caesarea Philippi, or Paneas, to 
Beersheba, is about seventy leagues ; and 
its breadth from the Mediterranean Sea to 
its eastern border, is in some places thirty 
leagues. Moses seems to intimate what 
was the original extent of the land of 
Canaan. ' The border,' says he, ' of the 
Canaanites was from Sidon, as thou comest 
to Gerar, unto Gaza ; and as thou goest 
unto Sodom, and Gomorrah, and Admah, 
and Zeboim, even unto Lasha.' (Gen. x. 
19.) By this sentence Moses accurately 
describes the four angles, in which the 
four borders of the land of Canaan met, 
as may be represented by the following 
diagram. 

North. 
Sidon. — — Lasha. 



W 



Sodom. 



South. 

In process of time, we find some of the 
families of Canaan seated without these 
bounds, especially to the north ; where in 
the sequel of the sacred history we meet 
with the Arvadites, the Hamathites, and 
other Canaanitish families. This seems also 
to be intimated by Moses, who says, ' And 
afterwards were the families of the Canaan- 
ites spread abroad.' (Gen. x. 18.) 

This country, which was first called 
Canaan from the son of Ham, was after- 
wards denominated Palestine, from the 
Philistines. It had also the name of the 
Land of Promise, from the promise made 
by God to Abraham, that it should be 
given to him ; of the Land of Israel, from 
the Israelites, who rendered themselves 
masters of it ; the Land of Judah, from the 
tribe of Judah, which was the most con- 
siderable of the twelve; and of the Holy 
Land, which it retains to this day, and 
which it obtained from being sanctified by 
the presence, actions, miracles, and death 
of Jesus Christ. In modern writers, how- 
ever, all distinction is frequently lost in the 
general name of Syria, which is given to 
the whole country east of the Mediterranean, 
between the sea and the desert. 

The first inhabitants of this land were 
the Canaanites, descended from Canaan. 
Here they multiplied extremely. Trade 
and war were their principal occupations ; 
and by these they gained great riches, 
and settled colonies in almost all the 
islands, &c. of the Mediterranean. When 
the measure of their idolatries and abomi- 
nations was completed, God delivered their 
country into the hands of the Israelites, 
who conquered it under Joshua. Joshua 
destroyed great numbers, and obliged the 
rest to flee, some into Africa, and others 
into Greece. Some however, think, that 
255 



many of them emigrated into Germany and 
Sclavonia, and that others retired into 
America. In the time of Athanasius, the 
Africans continued to say, that they were 
descended from the Canaanites ; and when 
asked their origin they answered Canani. 
It is agreed, that the Punic tongue was 
nearly the same as the Canaanitish and 
Hebrew. 

The colonies, which Cadmus carried to 
Thebes in Bceotia, and his brother Cilix 
into Cilicia, were from the stock of Canaan. 
Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus, Corfu, 
Majorca and Minorca, Gades and Ebusus, 
are thought to have been peopled by Canaan- 
ites. Bochart, in his Canaan, has set this 
matter in a good light. 

Jacob and Moses, at the approach of 
their deaths, foretold the very soil and situ- 
tion of every particular country, that 
should fall to the lot of each tribe. The 
division happened according to their pro- 
phecies. To the tribe of Judah was al- 
lowed a country abounding with vines and 
pasture ground, (Gen. xlix. 11.); to that of 
Asher, one plenteous in oil, iron, and brass, 
(Deut. xxxiii. 24, 25.) ; to that of Naphtali, 
one rich and fertile, (Id. ib. 23.) ; to that 
of Benjamin, one in which the temple was 
afterwards built, (Id. ib. 12.); to that of 
Zebulun, such territories as had many sea- 
ports, (Gen. xlix. 13.) ; to that of Issachar, 
a territory pleasant and fruitful, (Ibid. 15.) ; 
to those of Ephraim and Manasseh, such 
as were remarkable for precious fruits, 
(Deut. xxxiii. 14.) ; and to those of Simeon 
and Levi, no particular lands, the former ob- 
taining a portion with Judah, and the latter 
being interspersed among the several tribes. 
Since, therefore, each particular lot cor- 
responded so exactly with each prediction, 
it would be the height of stupidity not to 
acknowledge in these predictions the divine 
inspiration, and in these lots the divine 
direction. 

Many of the ancient inhabitants in the 
north-west of the land of Canaan, par- 
ticularly in the coast of Tyre and Sidon, 
were not expelled by the Israelites, and 
hence this tract seems to have retained the 
name of Canaan long after the other parts 
of the country, which were better inha- 
bited by the Israelites, had lost that ap- 
pellation. The Greeks called this tract 
inhabited by the old Canaanites, on the 
coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Phoenicia, 
and the more inland parts, which were 
inhabited partly by Canaanites, and partly 
by Syrians, Syro-Phoenicia. Hence, the 
woman, whose daughter Jesus cured, is said 
by St. Matthew to be a woman of Canaan, 
(Matt. xv. 22.) ; and by St. Mark, as she 
was a Greek by religion and language, a 
Syro- Phoenician bynation. (Mark vii. 26.) 
Wells 1 s Geography, vol. ii. p. 100. 

We read in the life of Abraham (Gen. 
xii. 6; xiii. 7-) that the Canaanites were 



CAN 



CAN 



then in the land. This signifies that the 
sojourning of Abraham was prior to the 
seizure of the land of Canaan by a horde 
of foreigners, the same as afterwards over- 
ran Egypt; for the primary settlers, the 
true descendants of Canaan, were actually 
at this time in the land. It appears also, 
that Esau took to wife two Canaanite 
women, (Gen. xxxvi. 2.) ; which implies 
that the parents and relations of these 
women were Canaanites, as Anah and Zi- 
beon, (lb. 24, 25.) though of Hittite or 
, Hivite families. We may, therefore, safely 
make a distinction between the truly ancient 
Canaanites, who first inhabited this coun- 
try, and those Canaanites, who were de- 
stroyed, or expelled, by Joshua. In fact, 
the latter were late interlopers, and of the 
same Eastern origin as the Egyptian 
kings, of that newly introduced race, which 
' knew not Joseph.' It is probable, that 
there was a considerable indisposition in 
the minds of the descendants of the old 
Canaanites towards their recent masters, 
which was no disadvantage to the arms of 
Joshua. It is most likely, that Rahab was 
not the only one of the old race, who was 
desirous of seeing the country revert to 
those, to whom it had been originally 
allotted. 

It does not appear that the Israelites 
restricted themselves to this country ; and 
in the time of the kings, their power ex- 
tended over distant districts. 

When the Israelites returned from Baby- 
lon, they did not regain the whole land, 
nor even the whole of what was marked 
by the boundary line of Moses. The dis- 
trict south of Gaza, and of a line drawn 
from Gaza to Kadesh Barnea, was excluded 
from the national territory. 

During the Babylonish captivity, the 
Idumaeans had also encroached, and set- 
tled themselves in many towns on the south 
of Judah. Idumaea, therefore, was con- 
sidered as divided into the greater and the 
less, or the upper and the lower ; but these 
being subdued by Hyrcanus, the inhabitants 
embraced Judaism, and were afterwards 
reckoned 'as Jews. Palestine, says Pom- 
ponius Mela, was divided into five coun- 
tries ; Idumsea, Judea, Samaria, Galilee, 
and beyond Jordan. 

The land of Canaan was supposed by the 
Jews to be peculiarly holy, as it furnished 
holy offerings for the temple ; but not all 
parts of it indiscriminately. They also sup- 
posed, that neither the Shechinah, nor the 
sacred Spirit, dwelt on any person, even a 
prophet, out of this land. 

As Moses draws a line from Sidon to 
Lasha, and from Sidon to Gaza, in like 
manner, the Rabbins draw a line ' from the 
mountains of Amana to the river of Egypt : 
whatever is within that line, belongs to 
the land of Egypt ; but whatever is without 
that line, is without the land.' They mean, 
256 



that the islands in the Mediterranean, as 
Arvad, Tyre, &c. were never occupied by 
the Hebrew nation. These appear to have 
been strongly fortified, and not only inha- 
bited by a hardy race of people, but capable 
of being supplied by sea, with reinforce- 
ments, and necessaries of all kinds. They 
resisted the power of the Israelites ; and 
the conquest of them is particularly boasted 
of, by a subsequent invader. (2 Kings xviii. 
34.; xix. 13.) Sacred Geography; Wells's 
Geography, vol. i. p. 127 ; Tomline's Elem. 
of Christ. Theology, vol. i. p. 242 ; Lamy's 
Introduction. 

CANDA'CE, Kavdaicri, signifies who pos- 
sesses contrition ; or, according to the 
Hebrew and the Syriac, pure possession. 
Candace was an Ethiopian queen, whose 
eunuch having been at Jerusalem to wor- 
ship, was met, converted, and baptized by 
Philip the Deacon, near Bethsura, in the 
way to Gaza, as he was returning to his 
own country. (Acts viii. 27-) See Philip. 

Some think that the word Candace sig- 
nifies royal authority, and that this was the 
name of all those queens, who reigned in 
the island or peninsula of Meroe, which is 
the country here called Ethiopia, and which 
is situated .in Africa, below Egypt. Of this 
particular queen it is said, that she was con- 
verted by her eunuch. Whitby's Annot. 

1 There is a tradition at Chendi, that a 
woman whose name was Hendaque, once 
governed all that country, whence we might 
imagine, that this was part of the kingdom 
of Candace ; for writing this name in Greek 
letters, it will come to no other than Hen- 
daque, the native or mistress of Chendi, or 
Chandi. However this may be, Chendi 
was once a townjof great resort.' Bruce 's 
Travels, vol. iv. pf 529. 

CANON, is a Greek word signifying 
rule. It is used in the ecclesiastical lan- 
guage, to signify a rule concerning faith, 
discipline, or manners; and also to dis- 
tinguish those books of Scripture, which 
are received as inspired, and indisputable, 
from profane, apocryphal, or disputed, 
books. 

The Old Testament, according to our 
Bibles, consists of thirty-nine books ; but 
among the Jews they formed only twenty- 
two, which was also the number of letters 
in their alphabet. These twenty- two books 
were divided into three classes. The first 
class consisted of five books, namely, 
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and 
Deuteronomy, which were called the Law : 
the second class consisted of thirteen books, 
namely, Joshua, Judges and Ruth in one 
book ; the two books of Samuel, of Kings, 
and of the Chronicles respectively, in single 
books ; Ezra and Nehemiah, in one book ; 
Esther, Job, Isaiah, the two books of 
Jeremiah in one ; Ezekiel, Daniel, and the 
twelve minor prophets in one book ; these 
thirteen books were called the Prophets: 



CAN 



CAN 



the third class consisted of the four remain- 
ing books, namely, Psalms, Proverbs, Eccle- 
siastes, and the Song of Solomon, which 
four books were called by the Jews Chetu- 
bim, and by the Greeks Hagiographa ; this 
class was also called the Psalms, from the 
name of the first book it contains. This 
threefold division was naturally suggested 
by the books themselves; it was used 
merely for convenience, and did not pro- 
ceed from any opinion of difference in 
the authority of the books of the several 
classes. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, 
Numbers, and Deuteronomy, are now 
generally known by the name of the Pen- 
tateuch, and are frequently cited in both 
the Old and New Testament under the 
name of the Law. It appears from Deu- 
teronomy, that the book of the Law, that 
is, the whole Pentateuch, written by the 
hand of Moses, was, by his command, 
deposited in the tabernacle, not long be- 
fore his death. (Deut. xxxi. 26'.) It was 
kept there not only while the Israelites 
remained in the wilderness, but afterwards, 
when they were settled in the land of 
Canaan. To the same sanctuary were con- 
signed, as they were successively produced, 
the other sacred books, which were written 
before the building of the temple at Jeru- 
salem. When the temple was finished, 
Solomon directed that these books should 
be removed into it, and also that the future 
compositions of inspired men should be 
secured in the same holy place. It may 
therefore be concluded, that the respective 
works of Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Joel, Micah, 
Nahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, 
and Obadiah, all of whom flourished before 
the Babylonian captivity, were regularly 
deposited in the temple. We are not in- 
formed whether these manuscripts perished 
in the flames, when the temple was burnt 
by Nebuchadnezzar ; but as the burning of 
the Scriptures is not lamented by any of the 
-contemporary or succeeding prophets, and 
as the other treasures of the temple were 
preserved and set apart as sacred by Ne- 
buchadnezzar, it is probable that these 
autographs also were saved. Certain, 
however, it is, that at that time numerous 
copies of the Scriptures were extant ; and 
we cannot doubt but some of them were 
carried by the Jews to Babylon, and that 
others were left in Judea. We find Daniel 
when in captivity, (Dan. ix. 11. 13.) re- 
ferring to the book of the Law as then ex- 
isting ; and soon after the captivity, Ezra 
not only read and explained the Law to 
the people, (Nehem. viii. 1, &c.) but he 
restored the public worship and the sa- 
crifices according to the Mosaic ritual. 
Ezra must, therefore, have been in actual 
possession either of the original manu- 
script of the Law, or of a copy so well 
authenticated as to leave no doubt of its 
accuracy, 
257 



An uncontradicted tradition exists in the 
Jewish church, that about fifty years after 
the temple was re-built, Ezra, in conjunc- 
tion with the great synagogue, formed a 
collection of the sacred writings, which had 
been increased since the Jews were carried 
into captivity, by the Lamentations of 
Jeremiah, and the prophecies of Ezekiel, 
Daniel, Haggai, and Zechariah. As Ezra 
was himself inspired, we may rest assured, 
that whatever received his sanction was 
authentic. To this genuine collection, 
which, according to former custom, was 
placed in the temple, were afterwards an- 
nexed the sacred compositions of Ezra him- 
self, as well as those of Nehemiah and 
Malachi, which were written after the death 
of Ezra. This addition, which was pro- 
bably made by Simon the Just, the last of 
the great synagogue, completed the Canon 
of the Old Testament ; for after Malachi no 
prophet arose till the time of John the 
Baptist, who, as it were, connected the 
two covenants, and of whom Malachi 
foretold, that he should precede ' the great 
day of the Lord,' (Malachi iv. 5.); that is, 
the coming of the Messiah. It cannot 
now be ascertained, whether Ezra's copy 
of the Scriptures was destroyed by An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, when he pillaged the 
temple ; but we know that Judas Mac- 
cabaeus repaired the temple, and replaced 
every thing requisite for the performance 
of divine worship, which included a cor- 
rect, if not Ezra's own copy, of the Scrip- 
tures. This copy, whether Ezra's or not, 
remained in the temple till Jerusalem was 
taken by Titus, and was then carried in 
triumph to Rome, and laid up with the 
purple veil in the royal palace of Vespa- 
sian. Thus while the Jewish polity con- 
tinued, and nearly 500 years after the 
time of Ezra, a complete and faultless 
copy of the Hebrew Canon was kept in 
the temple of Jerusalem, with which all 
others might be compared. Though Christ 
frequently reproved the rulers and teachers 
of the Jews for their erroneous and false 
doctrines, yet he never accused them of any 
corruption in their written Law, or other 
sacred books ; and St. Paul reckons among 
the privileges of the Jews, ' that unto them 
were committed the oracles of God,' (Rom. 
iii. 2.) without insinuating that they had 
been unfaithful to their trust. After the 
final destruction of Jerusalem by the 
Romans, the dispersion of the Jews into all 
countries, and the numerous converts to 
Christianity, became a double security for 
the preservation of the Hebrew Scriptures, 
which were held equally sacred by Jews and 
Christians, and to which both constantly 
referred as to the written word of God. 
The books of the Old Testament have been 
always allowed in every ago, and by every 
sect of the Hebrew church, to he the 
genuine works of those persons, to whom 



CAN- 



CAN 



they are usually ascribed. The Saviour of 
the world himself, even he, who came ex- 
pressly ' from the Father of Truth to bear 
witness to the truth,' in the last instructions 
which he gave to his apostles just before his 
ascension, said, '■ These are the words which 
I spake unto you while I was yet with you, 
that all things must be fulfilled, which were 
written in the Law of Moses, and in the 
Prophets, andin the Psalms, concerning me.' 
(Luke xxiv. 44.) By thus adopting the com- 
mon division of the Law, the Prophets, and 
the Psalms, which comprehended all the 
Hebrew Scriptures, our Lord ratified the 
Canon of the Old Testament as it was 
received by the Jews. 

The Canon of the New Testament con- 
sists of twenty-seven books, which were 
written by eight different authors, all of 
whom were contemporary with our Sa- 
viour. These books were written at dif- 
ferent times, and at places remote from 
each other ; and when the latest of them 
was published, the Gospel had been preach- 
ed, and churches founded, in many parts 
of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Different 
churches at first received different books, 
according to their situation and circum- 
stances; their canons were gradually en- 
larged, and it was not long, though the 
precise time is not known, before the 
same, or very nearly the same, books 
were acknowledged by the Christians of 
all countries. This canon was not deter- 
mined by the authority of councils, but 
the books, of which it consists, were 
known to be the genuine writings of the 
apostles and evangelists, in the same way 
and manner as the works of Caesar, Cicero, 
Virgil, Horace, and Tacitus, are known 
to be theirs ; and the canon has been 
formed on the ground of an unanimous, or 
generally concurring, testimony and tradi- 
tion. Origen, who lived in the beginning 
of the third century, is the first writer 
that has left us a regular catalogue of the 
books of the. New Testament, though 
these books are all mentioned separately 
by much earlier authors. This catalogue 
is the same as our present canon, except 
that the Epistles of St. James and St. Jude 
are omitted; but, in other parts of his 
writings Origen refers to these epistles as 
the productions of those apostles. 

In the following century we have cata- 
logues in the remaining works of Eusebius, 
Athanasius, Cyril, Epiphanius, Gregory 
Nazianzen, Philaster, Jerom, Ruffin, and 
Augustin, and those settled at the provin- 
cial councils of Laodicea and Carthage. 
Of these eleven catalogues, seven exactly 
agree with our canon ; three omit the Re- 
velation only ; and one, namely, that of 
Philaster, wants the Epistle to the He- 
brews, as well as the Revelation, but he 
acknowledges both these books in other 
parts of his works. These catalogues 
258 



include no books, which are not in our 
canon ; and we learn from Polycarp, who 
was contemporary with the apostles, and 
from Justin Martyr, Tatian, Irenaeus, 
Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria, 
all of whom lived in the second century, 
that the primitive church admitted no 
other Gospels, than those of Matthew, Mark, 
Luke, and John. We are also assured by 
these authors and many others, that the 
Scriptures were publicly read in Christian 
congregations. Copies of these books 
were dispersed every where. In all their 
various controversies, Christians of every 
denomination appealed to them as authentic 
testimony ; and both the Jewish and Pagan 
enemies of the Gospel understood, that 
they contained the faith of Christians. 
This publicity of the books of the New 
Testament rendered designed corruption 
utterly impracticable ; but it is to be ex- 
pected that the purity of these books, like 
that of the Old Testament, should have 
suffered, in a long series of years, from the 
negligence of transcribers. In collating 
the remaining manuscripts of the whole, 
and of every part of the New Testament, 
a considerable number of various readings 
have been discovered, but not of such a 
nature as to affect any essential article of 
our faith, or any indispensable rule of 
life. Indeed, Providence seems to have 
wisely ordered, that no important doctrine 
or precept should rest upon a single text of 
Scripture, or even upon the credit of one 
writer ; and we are, therefore, never com- 
pelled to have recourse to a disputed pas- 
sage in support of any fundamental prin- 
ciple of our religion. Whilst we contend, 
that a single inspired authority is a sufficient 
proof of any proposition in theology or 
morals, we acknowledge that the different 
writers of the New Testament, by their 
perfect agreement in all material points, 
confirm and strengthen each other, and 
that the Gospel derives great advantages 
from the number and consistency of the 
witnesses to its truth. The four Gospels, 
the first thirteen Epistles of St. Paul, the 
first Epistle of St. Peter, and the first 
Epistle of St. John, were always acknow- 
ledged to be written by those, whose names 
they bear, and the Acts of the Apostles by 
St. Luke. The genuineness of the other 
seven books, namely, the Epistle to the 
Hebrews, the Epistle of St. James, the 
second Epistle of St. Peter, the second 
and third Epistles of St. John, the Epistle 
of St. Jude, and the Revelation, was 
never denied by the Catholic church ; 
doubts only were entertained, at a very 
early period, concerning the right of these 
books to be admitted into the canon, be- 
cause sufficient evidence had not been 
received at all places that they were really 
apostolical writings. As soon, however, 
as there were time and opportunity for 



CAN 



CAN 



making the necessary inquiries, and for 
ascertaining the authors of these books, 
the genuineness of them all was universally 
allowed; and therefore this circumstance 
of temporary doubt, instead of invalidating 
the authority of these books, gives a sanc- 
tion to the whole collection, by proving 
the caution, with which any book was ad- 
mitted into the sacred canon. Indeed, the 
early Christians had such means of knowing 
the truth, and exercised so much care and 
judgment in settling the canon of the 
New Testament, that no writing, which 
was pronounced by them genuine, has 
been found to be spurious, and none 
genuine, which they rejected. Celsus, 
Porphyry, Julian, and all the other early 
adversaries to Christianity, admitted that 
the books of the New Testament were all 
written by the persons whose names they 
bear ; and this circumstance is of itself a 
sufficient proof of the genuineness of these 
books. The books of the New Testament 
have been differently arranged, at different 
times, and by different persons, but Dr. 
Lardner contends, that the order in 
which they stand in our Bibles is the most 
ancient, and is free from every objection. 
They may be divided into four parts ; the 
Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the 
Epistles, and the Revelation. Bishop of 
Lincoln's Elements of Christian Theology, vol. 
i. p. 3, &c. 269, &c. ; Prideaux's Connect, part 
i. b. v. ; Lardner' s Works, vol. vi. p. 27- 

CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the 
Romish church, by which persons de- 
ceased are ranked in the catalogue of 
saints. It succeeds beatification. 

When a person is to be canonized, the 
pope holds four consistories. In the first, 
he causes the petition of those, who re- 
quest the canonization, to be examined by 
three auditors of the rota, and directs the 
cardinals to revise all the necessary instru- 
ments. In the second, the cardinals re- 
port the matter to his holiness. In the 
third, which is held in public, the cardi- 
nals pay their adoration to the pope ; and 
an advocate makes a pompous oration in 
praise of the person, who is to be created 
a saint. This advocate expatiates at 
large on the miracles, which the person has 
wrought, and even pretends to know from 
what motives he acted. In the fourth con- 
sistory, the pope, having summoned toge- 
ther all the cardinals and prelates, orders the 
report concerning the deceased to be read, 
and then takes their votes, whether he is to 
be canonized or not. 

On the day of canonization, the church 
of St. Peter is hung with rich tapestry, on 
which are embroidered the arms of the 
pope, and those of the prince, who desires 
the canonization. The church is most 
brilliantly illuminated, and filled with 
thousands of devout Catholics, ready to 
attend the ceremony of the saint being 
259 



conducted to paradise. To attend this 
ceremony affords these persons great 
encouragement, as they think that the 
more respect they show to the saint, the 
more ready he will be to hear their prayers, 
and offer them to God. During this ce- 
remony the pope and all the cardinals 
are dressed in white. It costs the prince, 
who requests the canonization, a great sum 
of money, as all the officers belonging to the 
church of Rome must have their fees ; but 
this is considered only a trifle, when it is 
expected that the saint will intercede in 
heaven for his subjects, who, indeed, poor as 
they are, generally pay all the expenses 
attending the ceremony. 

Canonization of saints was not known 
in the Christian church till towards the 
middle of the tenth century. So far as 
we are able to form an opinion, the Christ- 
ians in that age borrowed this custom 
from the Heathens ; for it was usual with 
both the Greeks and Romans to deify all 
those heroes and great men, who had ren- 
dered themselves remarkable. It is not 
allowed to enter into the inquiries prior to 
canonization, till at least fifty years after 
the death of the person to be canonized. 
This regulation, however, though now 
observed, has not been followed above a 
century. 

It has been properly objected against 
canonization, that it is performed by 
human beings, who assume a power of 
rendering something an object of divine 
worship, which, while in this life, was 
no more than mortal. Hurd on Religious 
Rites, Ceremonies, fyc. p. 244, &c. Brough- 
ton's Hist. Diet. vol. i. p. 201. 

CANTICLES, literally signifies songs, 
but is peculiarly applied to a canonical 
book of the Old Testament, called in He- 
brew the Song of Songs, that is, the most 
excellent of all songs. It is believed that 
Solomon composed it on occasion of his 
marriage with the daughter of the king of 
Egypt; but this book is a continued 
allegory, in which, under the terms of a 
common wedding, a divine and superna- 
tural marriage is expressed. In this song, 
seven nights and seven days are distinctly 
marked : and, because weddings among 
the Hebrews were celebrated seven days, 
this song poetically relates the adventures 
of these seven days ; or, as some think, only 
of the five days preceding, and the day of the 
marriage. The Hebrews, apprehending it 
might be understood grossly, forbade the 
reading of it by any person before the age 
of thirty. The church, as well as the syna- 
gogue, generally received this book as 
canonical. If it be objected, that neither 
Christ nor his apostles have cited it. and 
that the name of God is not found in it. we 
answer, that there are several other books 
not cited by our Saviour, and that in an 
allc£rorv, in which the Son of God is 



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concealed under the figure of a husband, it 
is not necessary that he should be expressed 
by his proper name. This would destroy 
the allegory. 

The Hebrews had a custom of compos- 
ing songs on important occasions. Moses 
composed one after the passage of the 
Red Sea, in honour of that miracle. (Exod. 
xv. 1, 2, &c.) David composed a mourn- 
ful song on the death of Saul and Jonathan, 
(2 Sam. i. 17-) and another on the death of 
Abner, (lb. iii. 33.) Jeremiah wrote his 
Lamentations, a song, or series of songs, 
in which he deplores the ruin of Jerusa- 
lem ; and he composed others on the death 
of Josiah, king of Judah. (2 Chron. xxxv. 
25.) Deborah and Barak made a trium- 
phant hymn after the defeat of Sisera, 
(Judg. v.) ; and Judith, after the defeat 
of Holofernes, (Judg. xvi.) Hannah, the 
mother of Samuel, and king Hezekiah, re- 
turned thanks to God in solemn hymns, and 
spiritual songs. The Canticles, composed 
by the Virgin Mary, by Zacharias, and by 
old Simeon, are of the same nature. We 
read, that Solomon composed one thousand 
and five songs (1 Kings iv. 32.); but we 
have only his Song of Songs remaining. Jo- 
sephus renders it five thousand odes ; but 
the generality of commentators explain it by 
five thousand pieces in verse, or by five 
thousand verses. 

CAPER'NAUM, KaTrepvaovfi, signifies, 
the wall of penitence, or the town of consola- 
tion, or the propitiation of the penitent, or 
rather the village of Naum, or the pleasant 
village^ Capernaum, a city celebrated in 
the Gospels, and where Jesus Christ chiefly 
abode, during the three years of his minis- 
try. This city is not mentioned in the Old 
Testament by this or any other name ; and 
hence it is not improbable, that it was one 
of those towns, which the Jews built after 
their return from the Babylonish captivity. 
It was situated on the sea-coast, that is, on 
the coast of the sea of Galilee, in the bor- 
ders of Zebulun and Naphtali, (Matt. iv. 
15.) and consequently towards the upper 
part of that coast. Some think it derived 
its name from an adjacent spring of clear 
water, which, Josephus says, was called by 
the inhabitants Capernaum. This spring 
might be some inducement for building the 
town where it stood ; and the situation of 
Capernaum, which was convenient for pass- 
ing from Galilee to the other side of the 
sea, might induce our Lord to make it the 
place of his residence. On this account, 
Capernaum was highly honoured, and said 
by our Lord himself to be exalted unto hea- 
ven ; but because it used this signal favour 
improperly, it drew from him the severe 
denunciation, that it should be brought down 
to hell. (Matt. xi. 23.) This has been ful- 
filled : Capernaum, so far from being the 
metropolis of Galilee, as it once was, con- 
sisted long ago of only six poor fishermen's 



cottages. In 1817, Mr. Buckingham found 
various remains of some ancient settlement 
in its vicinity ; but in 1823, scarcely a ves- 
tige remained to attest its former existence. 
Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, p. 469 ; 
Jowetfs Researches in Syria, p. 168 ; Wells' a 
Geography, vol. ii. p. 165. 

CAPH'TOR, or Caph'torim, DnnSD, 
signifies a globe, or apple, otherwise, the 
grasp, or palm of the turtle, or of discovery. 
Some think it imports islands. Caphtor an 
island, whence came the Caphtorim, (Deut. 
ii. 23.) otherwise called the Cherethim, 
Cherethites, or Philistines. Rambam says, 
' Caphtor is what is called by the Arabians 
Damiata. ' The Targums of Jerusalem 
and Jonathan on Gen. x. 14, for Caphtorim 
read Cappadokia: the Arabic Damiatenos. 
The Septuagint, (Deut. ii. 23.) for Caph- 
torim also read Cappadokia. Damiata is 
said to be the ancient Pelusium ; and this 
word signifies muddy. It has been thought 
by some, that Caphtor is derived from DSD, 
CaPoT, and in, TuR. Capot is the Hindoo 
name for a dove, and Tur is the Hebrew 
name for a dove. Hence it is argued, that 
these words, in each language, were in pro- 
cess of time united, though separately they 
signify the same thing. Capotesi, or the 
deity in the shape of a dove, was worshipped 
in all the Hindoo nations. 

Calmet thinks, that the Philistines came 
from Crete, and that Crete was Caphtor. 
The Philistines, says he, were strangers in 
Palestine. This is expressly observed by 
the Scriptures ; and the Septuagint always 
translate this name strangers. The proper 
name of the Philistines is Cherethim : ' I 
will stretch out mine hand upon the Phi- 
listines, and I will cut off the Cherethim.' 
(Ezek. xxv. 16.) Zephaniah says, (ii. 5.) 
' Woe unto the. inhabitants of the sea- 
coasts, the nation of the Cherethites.' In 
the First Book of Samuel, (xxx. 14.) it is 
said, that the Amalekites made an irruption 
into the country of the Cherethites, that is, 
of the Philistines, as the sequel proves. 
Afterwards, the kings of Judah had foreign 
guards, called Cherethites and Pelethites, 
Philistines. 

The Septuagint, by the name of Chere- 
thites, understood the Cretans, and by 
Chereth, Crete. The Scripture says, the 
Philistines came from the isle of Caph- 
tor. Now, observes Calmet, we see no 
island in the Mediterranean, to which the 
marks of Caphtor and Cherethim, as de- 
scribed in Scripture, agree better than to 
the isle of Crete. The name Cherethim is 
the same with Cretenses. The Cretans are 
among the most ancient and celebrated 
people, that inhabited the islands of the 
Mediterranean. They pretended to have 
been produced originally out of their own 
soil. This island was well peopled in the 
time of the Trojan war. Homer calls it the 
island with a hundred cities. The city of 



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CAP 



Gaza, in Palestine, went by the name of 
Minoa, because Minos, king of Crete, 
coming into that country, had called this 
city by his own name. 

Herodotus acknowledges, that the Cre- 
tans were originally Barbarians, and not 
derived from Greece. Homer says, that a 
different language was spoken in Crete ; 
that there were Greeks, true Cretans, 
Pelasgians, &c. The ancient Cretans are 
the Cherethites ; and the Pelasgians, the 
Philistines, or Perethites of Scripture. 
Their language was that of the Canaanites 
or Phoenicians, that is, Hebrew. They were 
descended from Ham, by Mizraim. (Gen. 
x. 6. 13, 14.) 

The manners, arms, religion, and gods 
of the Cretans and Philistines were the 
same. The arms of both were bows and 
arrows. Dagon, the god of the Philis- 
tines was the Dictimus of the Cretans. 
It is said by Stephen the geographer, that 
Mamas, of Gaza, is the Jupiter of the 
Cretans. In all probability, the god Beel- 
zebub, or the god fly, was honoured in 
memory of the bees, which fed Jupiter upon 
mount Ida. 

Notwithstanding these arguments, Dr. 
"Wells is of opinion, that the Caphtorim 
came from Egypt, and that the name 
Caphtor is still preserved in an ancient 
city of Egypt, named Coptus. 

It is, indeed, allowed, that the Philis- 
tines and the Cretans were the same 
people ; but it is thought that Crete was 
peopled from Philistia. For this latter 
opinion we have the evidence of Herodo- 
tus and Pausanias, who say that the Cretans 
received their worship from Syria ; and how 
an island not larger than Crete should people 
a coast so extensive as Syria, requires some 
explanation. Calmet says, that Gaza, in 
Palestine, went by the name of Minoa, 
from Minos, king of Crete ; but if we read 
Menueh, from the Hindoo histories this 
is sufficiently explained. In short, it is 
very probable, say some, that the Caph- 
torim emigrated from India ; and that they 
were a primary nation of the Philistines, 
settled on the Red Sea, and in Egypt ; 
whence a colony occupied the southern 
coast of Judea, the islands of Crete, Cyprus, 
and others in the Mediterranean Sea. This 
people might have towns or districts in 
that part of Egypt adjoining to the Nile 
eastward ; but it may be very much doubted 
whether these were their original or primary 
stations. Sacred Geography ; Wells's Geo- 
graphy, vol. i. p. 101. 

CAPPADOCIA, KcnnroSoKia, in He- 
brew Caphtor. Cappadocia joined Galatia 
on the east, and is mentioned in Acts, (ii. 
9.) and by St. Peter, who addresses his 
First Epistle to the dispersed throughout 
Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and 
Asia. The people of this country were 
formerly infamous for their vices ; but alter 
201 



the promulgation of Christianity, it pro- 
duced many great and worthy men. Among 
these may be reckoned Gregory Nazianzen, 
Gregory Nyssen, and St Basil commonly 
styled the Great. Among many martyrs of 
much faith and constancy, St. George, a 
noble Cappadocian, and a tribune under 
Dioclesian, was most celebrated in the 
churches of both the East and West, and for 
that reason was created patron of the Order 
of the Garter by king Edward III. Wells's 
Geosraphy, vol. ii. p. 253. 

CAPTIVITY. God generally punished 
the sins and infidelities of the Jews by dif- 
ferent captivities or servitudes. The first 
captivity is that of Egypt, from which they 
were delivered by Moses, and which should 
be considered rather as a permission of 
Providence, than as a punishment for sin. 

Six captivities are reckoned during the 
government by Judges ; the first, under 
Chushan-rishathai'm, king of Mesopota- 
mia, which continued about eight years ; 
the second under Eglon, king of Moab, 
from which the Jews were delivered by 
Ehud; the third under the Philistines, 
from which they were rescued by Sham- 
gar ; the fourth, under Jabin, king of 
Hazor, from which they were delivered 
by Deborah and Barak ; the fifth under 
the Midianites, from which Gideon freed 
them ; and the sixth under the Ammonites 
and Philistines, during the judicatures of 
Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Samson, 
Eli, Samuel. 

But the greatest and most remarkable 
captivities were those of Israel and Judah, 
under their regal government. 

Captivities of Israel. In the year 
of the world 3264, Tiglath-pileser took 
several cities, and carried away captives, 
principally from the tribes of Reuben, 
Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. 
(2 Kings xv. 29.) In the year of the world 
3283, Shalmaneser took and destroyed 
Samaria after a siege of three years, and 
transplanted the tribes, that had been 
spared by Tiglath-pileser, to provinces be- 
yond the Euphrates. (2 Kings xviii. 10, 11.) 

It is generally believed, there was no 
return of the ten tribes from this second 
captivity. But when we examine care- 
fully the writings of the prophets, we 
find the return of at least a great part of 
Israel from the captivity clearly pointed 
out. Hosea (xi. 11.) says, 'They shall 
tremble as a bird out of Egypt, and as a 
dove out of the land of Assyria; and I will 
place them in their houses, saith the Lord.' 
Amos (ix. 14.) says, ' And I will bring again 
my people Israel from their captivity ; they 
shall build their ruined cities, and inhabit 
them,' &c. Obadiah, (20.) observes, ' and 
the captivity of this host of the children 
of Israel shall possess that of the Canaanites,' 
flfcc. To the same purpose speak the other 
prophets. Isaiah, (\i. 12, 13.) Bays, 'The 



CAP 



CAP 



Lord shall assemble the outcasts of Israel, 
and gather together the dispersed of Judah.' 
Ezekiel received an order from God to take 
two pieces of wood and write on one, ' For 
Judah and for the children of Israel ;' and 
on the other, *■ For Joseph and for all 
the house of Israel,' and to join these 
two pieces of wood, that they might become 
one, and designate the re-union of Judah 
and Israel. (Ezek. xxxvii. 16.) Jeremiah 
is equally express : ' The house of Judah 
shall walk with the house of Israel, and 
they shall come together out of the north, 
to the land, which I have given for an in- 
heritance to their fathers.' (Jerem. iii. 18.) 
See, also, Jerem. xxxi. 7, 8, 9. 16, 17- 20. ; 
xvi. 15. ; xlix. 2, &c. ; Zechar. ix. 13. ; x. 
6. 10. ; Mic. ii. 12. 

In the historical books of Scripture, 
we find that the Israelites of the ten tribes, 
as well as of Judah and Benjamin, return- 
ed from the captivity. Among those that 
returned with Zorobabel are reckoned some 
of Ephraim and Manasseh, who settled 
at Jerusalem with the tribe of Judah. 
When Ezra numbered those, who returned 
from the captivity, he only inquired whe- 
ther they were of the race of Israel ; and 
at the first passover, which was then cele- 
brated in the temple, was a sacrifice of 
twelve he-goats for the whole house of 
Israel, according to the number of the 
tribes. (Ezra vi. 16, 17.; viii. 35.) Under 
the Maccabees, and in our Saviour's time, 
we see Palestine peopled by Israelites of all 
the tribes indifferently. The Samaritan 
Chronicle asserts, that in the 35th year of 
the pontificate of Abdellus, 3000 Israelites, 
by permission of king Sauredius, returned 
from captivity, under the conduct of Adus, 
son of Simon. 

Captivities of Judah. The captivi- 
ties of Judah are generally reckoned four: 
the first in the year of the world 3398, under 
king Jehoiakim, when Daniel and others 
were carried to Babylon ; the second in the 
year of the world 3401, and in the seventh 
year of the reign of Jehoiakim, when Nebu- 
chadnezzar carried 3023 Jews to Baby- 
lon ; the third in the year of the world 
3406, and in the fourth of Jehoiachin, 
when this prince, with part of his people, 
was sent to Babylon ; and the fourth in the 
year of 3416, under Zedekiah, from which 
period begins the captivity of seventy years, 
foretold by the prophet Jeremiah. Dr. 
Hales computes, that the first of these cap- 
tivities, which he thinks formed the com- 
mencement of the Babylonish captivity, 
took place in the year before Christ 605. 

The Jews were removed to Babylon by 
Nebuchadnezzar, who, designing to render 
that city the capital of the East, transplanted 
thither very great numbers of people sub- 
dued by him in different countries. In 
Babylon, the Jews had judges and elders, 
who governed them, and who decided mat- 
262 



ters in dispute juridically, according to their 
laws. Of this we see a proof in the story 
of Susanna, who was condemned by elders 
of her own nation. Cyrus, in the year of 
the world 3467, and in the first year of his 
reign at Babylon, permitted the Jews to 
return to their own country. (Ezra i. 1.) 
However, they did not obtain leave to re- 
build the temple; and the completion of 
those prophecies, which foretold the ter- 
mination of their captivity after seventy 
years, was not till the year of the world 
3486. In that year, Darius Hystaspes, by 
an edict, allowed them to rebuild the tem- 
ple. In the year of the world 3559, Arta- 
xerxes Longimanus sent Nehemiah to Jeru- 
salem. The Jews assert, that only the 
refuse of their nation returned from the 
captivity, and that the principal of them 
continued in and near Babylon, where they 
had been settled, and where they became 
very numerous. 

It may, however, be doubted, whether the 
refuse of Judah was really carried to Baby- 
lon. It appears from incidental observa- 
tions in Scripture, that some remained ; and 
major Rennell has offered several reasons 
for believing that only certain classes of the 
Jews were deported to Babylon, as well as 
into Assyria. Nebuchadnezzar carried away 
only the principal inhabitants, the warriors, 
and artisans of every kind ; and he left the 
husbandmen, the labourers, and, in general, 
the poorer classes, that constitute the great 
body of the people. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.; 
xxv. 12. 22.) It is, indeed, most proba- 
ble, that the policy of Nebuchadnezzar 
would induce him to carry away only those 
whom he could usefully employ. It seems 
also probable, that the same inferior classes 
were left in Israel ; and these were under 
the influence, if not under the direct autho- 
rity of king Josiah, and other kings of 
Judah. In this respect, therefore, both 
countries were on an equality. Additions to 
Calmefs Diet. ; Sacred Geography ; Geog. 
Excurs. p. 88. ; Hales' s Analysis of Chrono- 
logy, vol. ii. p. 478. 

Princes of the Captivity. Since the 
destruction of the temple by the Romans, 
the Hebrews affirm, that they have always 
had, both in the East and West, their heads 
or princes, called princes of the captivity. 
They say, the prince of the captivity in the 
East governed the Jews of Babylon, Chal- 
dsea, Assyria, and Persia ; and the prince 
of the captivity in the West, those of Judea, 
Egypt, Italy, and the Roman empire. The 
Jews make a great difference between the 
patriarchs of Judea, and the princes of the 
captivity at Babylon. The former are called 
Rabban, and the other Rabbana. These 
last are said to be descended from David, 
in a direct line by the males ; and the patri- 
archs, from him by the females. The Jews 
also say, that the house of David continues 
in vigour, because at Bagdad are illustrious 



CAP 



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persons of this family, among whom the 
princes of the Jewish nation are now 
chosen, as they have been from time im- 
memorial. 

With respect to the princes of the cap- 
tivity at Babylon, or in the East, we know 
neither their origin, nor their succession ; 
it appears only, that they arose about the 
end of the second century. So long as the 
temple subsisted, the Eastern, as well as 
the Western Jews, continued subject to the 
bigh-priest at Jerusalem. No historian, 
prior to the destruction of the temple, has 
mentioned these supposed princes of the 
captivity. The first of these princes was 
Huna, at the close of the second century ; 
and from Huna to the perfection of the Tal- 
mud, that is, in three hundred years, they 
scarcely produce three. The Jews affirm, 
that among these princes of the captivity 
of Babylon, who were all of the tribe of 
Judah, and race of David, was the sceptre of 
Judah, foretold by the patriarch Jacob ; and 
that in Judea, among the patriarchs above- 
mentioned, was the lawgiver. (Gen. xlix. 10.) 
CAPUCHINS, a religious institution of 
the order of St. Francis. They owe their 
origin to Matthew de Bassi, a Franciscan 
of the duchy of Urbino. Having seen St. 
Francis represented with a sharp-pointed 
capuchin, or cowl, he began to wear one 
like it, in 1525, by the permission of pope 
Clement V 1 1. His example was soon fol- 
lowed by two other monks, called Lewis and 
Raphael de Fossembrun ; and, in 1528, 
the pope confirmed to them the privilege 
of wearing the square capuchin, and ad- 
mitted among them all who would take the 
habit. The vows of this order implied the 
greatest contempt of the world, and the 
most austere gravity; and its reputation 
and success excited in the other Fran- 
ciscans the bitterest feelings of indignation 
and envy. Mosheim, vol. iii. p. 442. 

CAPUTIATI, a denomination that ap- 
peared in the twelfth century, and obtained 
their name from a singular kind of cap, 
which distinguished their party. They wore 
upon their caps a leaden image of the vir- 
gin Mary, and publicly declared, that their 
purpose was to level all distinctions, to ab- 
rogate magistracy, to remove all subordi- 
nation among mankind, and to restore that 
primitive liberty, that natural equality, 
which were the inestimable privileges of 
the first mortals. Hugo, bishop of Auxerre, 
attacked them with arms, instead of argu- 
ments. Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 45G. 

CARAITES, a-iop, signifies readers, and 
is the name of a Jewish sect, that adheres 
closely to the text and letter of the Scrip- 
tures. This distinguished the Carai'tes from 
the Rabbins, who admit traditions. 

The Carai'tes are said to glory in a de- 
scent from Ezra, and to prove the succes- 
sion of their doctrine by a catalogue of all 
who have either taught or opposed Cara- 
263 



ism. Some boast of still greater antiquity, 
and pretend that they are descended from 
the ten tribes led captive by Shalmaneser. 
It is believed, that the Carai'tes first ap- 
peared about the eighth century. The com- 
pilation of the Talmud took place in the 
beginning of the sixth century ; and per- 
sons of sense were so shocked with the 
trifles, the ridiculous and incredible fables, 
which filled that work, and to see at the 
same time men daring to assert all this as 
coming from God, that many resolved to 
establish their faith only on the word of 
God, the Scriptures. However, this refusal 
to admit the Talmud as a rule of faith did 
not, for a long time, produce any schism. 
At length, about A. D. 750, Anan, a Baby- 
lonish Jew of the race of David, and his 
son, Saul, declared openly for the written 
word of God alone, exclusive of all tradi- 
tions. This declaration produced a schism : 
those who supported the Talmud and tradi- 
tions, being almost all Rabbins, or their 
disciples, were called Rabbinists ; and the 
others were denominated Carai'tes, or Scrip- 
turists, from Cara, which, in the Babylonish 
language, signifies Scripture. 

The Rabbinists charge the Carai'tes with 
most of the errors of the Sadducees ; as 
denying the immortality of the soul, and 
the existence of spirits. The Carai'tes, 
however, deny these accusations, and main- 
tain the purity of their faith, and their par- 
ticular sense of those articles. They ex- 
pect the Messiah, whom, with the rest 
of the Jews, they consider as a temporal 
king; but they forbid all computation of 
the years, in which he is to appear. They 
reject all books not in the old canon of the 
Jews ; and they require an implicit faith in 
holy Scripture, without examining whether 
any article of the law be true or false. 
They have neither phylacteries, nor parch- 
ments on the doors of their houses, nor 
frontlets upon their foreheads. When they 
see the Jews with parchments upon their 
foreheads, they call them bridled asses. 
They explain figuratively those passages, in 
which phylacteries are mentioned, and 
which are understood literally by Rabbin- 
ical Jews. There are Carai'tes at Constan- 
tinople, in Syria, Palestine, and beyond the 
Euphrates. In the West are few Carai'tes. 
The greater part are in Poland, Muscovy, 
and the East. About the middle of the 
seventeenth century, there were in Poland 
two thousand; at Caffa, in Crim Tartary, 
twelve hundred ; at Cairo, three hundred ; 
at Damascus, two hundred ; at Jerusalem, 
thirty ; in Babylon one hundred ; and in 
Persia, six hundred Carai'tes. This num- 
ber, which amounts only to 4.430, is very 
Small, when compared with the mass of the 
nation, who are Rabbinists. 

The Carai'tes are esteemed the most 
learned of the Jewish doctors. The Kab- 
binists hold them in such abhorrence, that 



CAR 



CAR 



they will form with them no alliances, nor 
even converse. They treat the Caraites as 
manzerim, or Dastards, because they observe 
none of the constitutions of the Rabbins in 
their marriages, divorces, and purifications 
of their wives : and even if a Cara'i'te would 
turn Rabbinist, the other Jews would not re- 
ceive bim. Basnag. Hist, of the Jews, lib. ii. 
16, 17; Prideaux's Connect, vol. iii p. 476. 
479 ; Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, b. i. ch. ix. 

CAR'CHEMISH, iraaia, Xapfeajuac, 
signifies a lamb, which bleats, or palpitates ; 
or, from the Hebrew and Syriac, the city 
of bleating. Carchemish was a town si- 
tuated on the Euphrates, and belonging to 
the Syrians. Necho, king of Egypt, took it, 
and left in it a garrison, which was cap- 
tured and cut in pieces, in the fourth year 
of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king of Babylon, (2 Cbron. 
xxxv. 20. 2 Kings xxiii. 29.) Isaiah speaks 
of Carcbemish, and seems to say, that 
Tiglath-pileser conquered it, perhaps from 
tbe Egyptians. It is thought to be the 
same city as that called Circesium by the 
Greeks and Latins. Wells's Geography, vol. 
ii. p. 92. 

CARDINAL, one of the chief gover- 
nors of the Romish church. The cardi- 
nals are ecclesiastical princes in the church 
of Rome, or the principal ecclesiastics 
next to the pope, by whom they are cre- 
ated, and whose senate and council they 
compose. They are divided into three 
classes or orders, consisting of six bishops, 
fifty priests, and fourteen deacons, forming 
in all seventy persons, who constitute what 
is called the Sacred College. The six car- 
dinal bishops are those of Ostia, Porto, 
Sabina, Praneste or Palestrina, Tusculum or 
Frascati, and Albano. 

The cardinals, to whom are given the 
title of Eminence and Most Eminent, and 
who wear a scarlet hat and cap, fill most 
of the great offices in the court of Rome, 
and have very extensive privileges. They 
possess an absolute power in the Church 
during the vacancy of the Holy See ; they 
have the sole right to elect the pope, and 
are themselves the only persons on whom 
the choice can fall. Adam's Religious 
World, vol. ii. p. 40; Broughton's Hist. 
Diet. vol. i. p. 206. 

CAR'MEL, bD-O, signifies knowledge or 
circumcision, or the lamb of circumcision, or 
of clamminess, or of the scarlet insect. 
Simon and Parkhurst think that it denotes 
green-fields, or verdant pastures. 

Carmel, a city of Judah, situated upon 
a mountain of the same name, in the 
southern part of Palestine. Here dwelt 
Nabal the Carmelite, the husband of 
Abigail, (Josh. xv. 55. 1 Sam. xxv.) Jerom 
says, that in his time the Romans had a 
garrison at Carmel. Here Saul, returning 
from the slaughter of the Amalekites, 
erected a trophy. (1 Sam. xv. 12.) 
264 



Carmel, a mountain south of Ptokroaia, 
and north of Dora, on the shore of the 
Mediterranean Sea. At the foot of this 
mountain, on the north side, runs the brook 
Kishon ; and a little farther north, the 
river Beleas. Josephus makes Carmel a 
part of Galilee ; but it rather belonged to 
Manasseh, and to the south of Asher. (Josh, 
xv. 26.) On the side next the sea, is a 
cave, to which some suppose the prophet 
Elijah desired Ahab to bring Baal's pro- 
phets, when fire from heaven descended on 
his burnt sacrifice. (1 Kings xviii.) 

Mount Carmel, says Volney, is a flatten- 
ed cone, and very rocky, and is about two 
thousand feet high. We still find among 
brambles, many wild vines, and olive trees, 
which prove that industry has been for- 
merly employed even on this ungrateful 
soil. Upon the summit is a chapel dedi- 
cated to the prophet Elias, which affords 
an extensive prospect over the sea and 
land. To the south, the country presents 
a chain of rugged hills, upon the tops of 
which are a great number of oak and fir trees, 
the retreat of wild boars and lynxes. 

Mount Carmel, says D'Arvieux, is on 
the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, and 
one of its principal points advances consi- 
derably into the sea, and forms a cape or 
promontory, the most elevated of any on 
the coast. The lesser mountains of this 
group are cultivable lands, of a good soil, 
deep, and remarkably fertile, capable of 
producing in a very uncommon degree. — 
There were formerly many more vineyards 
than at present. The Christians, who in- 
habit part of these villages, cultivate only 
as many vines as may furnish what wine 
they want, and dried grapes for their own 
consumption. They neglect the cultivation 
of fruit trees, which here would reach 
great excellence, as may easily be inferred 
from those here gathered, though chiefly 
from wild stocks. They have delicious 
melons, and water melons. Those mounts 
which appear most dry and arid are co- 
vered with oaks and other trees. We find 
also olives, but under no management. 
The air of these mountains is very good, 
and how sultry soever it may be on the 
border of the sea, these regions are re- 
freshed every morning by a cool sea breeze. 
These mountains feed an infinity of beeves, 
sheep, goats, hares, rabbits, partridges, 
antelopes, and other species of animals; 
all excellent in their kinds, because they 
here find excellent pasture and corn. Sa- 
cred Geography. 

CARMELITES, one of the four tribes 
of mendicant or begging friars. About the 
middle of the twelfth century, a certain 
Calabrian, called Berthold, set out with a 
few companions for Mount Carmel ; and on 
the very spot where the prophet Elias is 
said to have disappeared, he built a hum- 
ble cottage, and an adjoining chapel, and 



CAR 



CAT 



led a life of solitude, austerity, and la- 
bour. This small colony continued to sub- 
sist, and, in 1205, was erected into a mo- 
nastic community by Albert, patriarch of 
Jerusalem. This prelate composed a rule 
of discipline for the new monks, which was 
afterwards confirmed by the authority of the 
Roman pontiffs, who mitigated its excessive 
rigour and severity. Such was the origin 
of the Order of Carmelites, which was after- 
wards transplanted from Syria into Europe, 
and obtained the principal rank among the 
mendicant or begging orders. The Carme- 
lites, however, reject with indignation an 
origin so recent and obscure, and pretend 
that the prophet Elias was the parent and 
founder of their community. They say that 
Elias was introduced into the state of mona- 
chism by the ministry of angels; that his 
first disciples were Jonah, Micah, and Oba- 
diah, whose wife, after the departure of her 
husband, bound herself by a vow of chastity, 
received the veil from the hands of father 
Elias, and became the first abbess of the 
Carmelite Order. They add, that Pythago- 
ras was a member of this ancient order, that 
he drew all his wisdom from mount Carmel, 
and that he had several conversations with 
the prophet Daniel at Babylon, on the sub- 
ject of the Trinity. They even assert, that 
the Virgin Mary, and Jesus Christ himself, 
assumed the habit and profession of Carme- 
lites. 

The Carmelites came into England in the 
year 1240. Their habit was at first white ; 
but pope Honorius IV. commanded them 
to change it for that of the Minims. They 
wear shirts of linsey-wolsey, instead of linen. 
Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 412, &c. ; vol. iii. p. 52, 
&c. 

CARPOCRATIANS, the followers of 
Carpocrates, in the second century. Carpo- 
crates, who was a native of Alexandria, was a 
man of the most dissolute morals, and taught 
that a community of wives was not only law- 
ful, but also meritorious. He even asserted, 
that a man could never be happy till he had 
passed through all sorts of debauchery, and 
held it as a maxim that nothing is evil in its 
own nature, but only in the opinion of men. 
His followers believed that the world was 
made by angels ; that Jesus Christ was the 
son of Joseph and Mary, in the same manner 
as other men ; and that the body of Christ 
continued in the grave, and his soul only as- 
cended into heaven. They denied the resur- 
rection of the dead. Gregory's Hist. vol. i. 
p. 98. ; Hard on Religious Rites, &c. p. 164. 

CASTOR and POLLUX. It is said, that 
the vessel, which carried Paul to Rome, had 
the sign of Castor and Pollux. (Acts xxviii. 
11.) Castor and Pollux were sea-gods, and 
invoked by sailors; and even the lights, 
which were sometimes seen on their ships, 
were called Castor and Pollux. An inscrip- 
tion in Gruter proves that seamen implored 
Castor and Pollux in dangers at sea. These 
265 



deities are fabled to have been brothers, 
sons of Jupiter and Leda, the wife of Tyn- 
darus, king of Sparta. 

It is to be observed, that St. Luke does 
not mention the name, but the sign, of the 
ship. By the word sign, the sacred writer 
meant a protecting image of the deity, to 
whom the vessel was in some sort conse- 
crated ; as at present in Catholic countries, 
most of their vessels are named after some 
saint, St Xavier, St. Andero, St. Domi- 
nique, &c. It appears to be certain, that 
the figure, which gave name to the ship, was 
at the head, and the tutelary deity was 
placed on the poop. Fragments attached to 
Calmet's Dictionary, No. ccxiv. p. 55. 

CATHARISTS, a sect that spread much 
in the Latin church in the twelfth century. 
They were the same as the Paulicians. 
Their religion resembled the doctrine of the 
Manichaeans and Gnostics. They supposed 
that matter was the source of evil ; that the 
Creator of the world was a distinct being 
from the supreme Deity ; that Christ was not 
clothed with a real body; that human bodies 
were the production of the evil principle ; 
and that Baptism and the Lord's Supper 
were useless institutions, and destitute of all 
efficacy. They exhorted their converts to 
abstain from animal food, wine, and wedlock. 
They treated with contempt all the books of 
the Old Testament, but expressed great ve- 
neration for the New, particularly for the 
Four Gospels. To omit many other pecu- 
liarities in their doctrine, they maintained 
that human souls endued with reason were 
shut up by an unhappy fate in the prisons of 
mortal bodies, whence they could be deli- 
vered only by fasting, mortification, and con- 
tinence of every kind. Mosheim, vol. ii. 
p. 444. 

CATHOLIC denotes any thing that is 
universal or general. The rise of heresies 
induced the primitive Christian church to 
assume to itself the appellation of Catholic, 
as a characteristic, by which to distinguish 
itself from all sects, who, though they had 
party names, sometimes sheltered them- 
selves under that of Christians. The Ro- 
mish church now distinguishes itself by the 
appellation of Catholic, in opposition to all, 
who have separated from her communion, 
and whom she considers as heretics and 
schismatics ; and herself only as the true and 
Christian church. In the strict sense of the 
word, there is no catholic church in exist- 
ence, that is, no universal Christian commu- 
nion. When, therefore, in repeating the 
Apostles' Creed, we profess to believe in the 
Holy Catholic Church, we must mean, as Mr. 
Chiilingworth expresses it, ' the right that 
the church of Christ, or rather, to speak pro- 
perly, the Gospel of Christ, hath to be uni- 
versally believed. And therefore the article 
maybe true, though there were no Christian 
church in the world.' The catholic church is 
the universal church spread throughout the 



CED 



CED 



world ; and the catholic faith, is the univer- 
sal faith, or that form of doctrine, which the 
apostles delivered to the whole church. 
Every church or society of Christians, that 
preserves this catholic or universal faith, 
accompanied with true charity, is a part of 
the catholic or universal church; and he- 
cause the parts are of the same nature as 
the whole, it has heen usual to call every 
church singly, which is so qualified, a ca- 
tholic church. In this sense, churches that 
differ widely in several rites and customs, 
may still be truly catholic churches. 
ChUlingworth's Works, fol. p. 196; Seeker's 
Lectures on the Catechism, Lect. xiv. p. 113. 
Catholic, general or canonical, Epistles, 
are seven in number ; one of James, two 
of Peter, three of John, and one of Jude. 
They are called catholic, because addressed 
to Christian converts generally, and not to 
any particular church. Some difference 
exists in the order in which these Epistles 
are placed in our Bibles, from that in which 
they stood among the Greeks. Among the 
ancients some received all the seven ; others 
three only, and rejected the Second of Pe- 
ter, the Second and Third of John, and that 
of Jude. The principal design of these 
Epistles, is to warn the reader against the 
heresies of the times, and to establish 
Christian converts, against efforts made to 
seduce them to Judaism, or to a mixture of 
legal notions with Christianity, or of idola- 
trous principles and practices with the Gos- 
pel. These having former influence, and 
deep antiquity, and general reception, to 
plead in their favour, were very prevalent 
among many professors in countries only 
recently converted. 

CEDAR-TREE, according to Tourne- 
fort, is a distinct genus of plants, but is 
included by Linnaeus among the junipers. 
This tree is greatly celebrated in the 
Scriptures. A few cedars are still stand- 
ing upon mount Libanus, above Byblos 
and Tripoli, east ; but none are to be 
found in any other parts of all these 
mountains. In former times they must 
have been very abundant, since they were 
used in so many great buildings. These 
trees are prodigiously thick and tall ; 
and some among them are from thirty- 
five to forty feet in girth. The cedar- 
tree shoots out branches at ten or twelve 
feet from the ground. These branches 
are large and distant. Its leaves rather 
resemble those of rosemary. It is always 
green ; and it distils a kind of gum, to 
which different effects are attributed. 
Cedar-wood is incorruptible, beautiful, so- 
lid, and inclining to a red-brown colour. 
It bears a small cone, like that of the pine. 
The cedar grows upon mount Libanus, in 
Africa, in Cyprus, and in Crete, or Can- 
dia. The wood of this tree was used in 
making statues intended for duration. The 
temple of Jerusalem, and the palace of 
266 



king Solomon, were built with cedar. Ac- 
cording to Pliny, the roof of Diana's tem- 
ple at Ephesus was of cedar. Josephus 
says, that Solomon multiplied cedars in 
Judea till this tree was as common as syca- 
mores, which are very general in that 
country. 

The cedar loves cold and mountainous 
places ; and if the top be cut it dies. The 
branches which it shoots lessen as they 
rise, and give it the form of a pyramid. Le 
Bruyn, in his journey to the Holy Land, 
informs us the leaves of the tree point up- 
wards, and the fruit hangs downwards. The 
fruit grows like cones of the pine-tree, but 
is longer, harder, and fuller, and not easily 
separated from the stalk. It contains a 
seed like that of the cypress-tree, and yields 
a glutinous thick sort of resin, transparent, 
and of a strong smell, which does not run, 
but falls drop by drop. Le Bruyn mea- 
sured two cedars of Lebanon, and found 
them to be, one fifty, and the other forty- 
seven palms, in circumference. Naturalists 
distinguish several sorts of cedars ; but we 
confine ourselves to that of Lebanon, of 
which only the Scripture speaks. 

The number of the largest trees has va- 
ried at different times. Mr. Maundrell, 
who travelled in the region of Lebanon in 
1696, reckoned sixteen of the largest size, 
one of which he measured, and found it to 
be twelve yards and six inches in girth ; 
and thirty-seven yards in the spread of the 
boughs. Mr. Burckhardt, the celebrated 
oriental traveller, who traversed mount Li- 
banus in 1810, counted eleven or twelve of 
the oldest and best looking trees, twenty- 
five very large ones, about fifty of middling 
size, and more than three hundred smaller 
and young ones. Mr. Kinneir, who visited 
this country at the close of the year 1813, 
observes, that the once celebrated cedars 
are now to be found only in one particular 
spot of the great mountainous range which 
bears the name of Libanus, and that in so 
scanty a number as not to exceed four or 
five hundred. In 1816, Mr. Buckingham 
computed them to be about two hundred in 
number, twenty of which were very large. 
In 1817-1818, Captains Irby and Mangles, 
stated that there might be about fifty of 
them, not one of which had much merit 
either for dimensions or beauty ; the largest 
among them appearing to be the junction of 
four or five trunks into one tree. In 1818, 
Dr. Richardson stated the oldest trees to be 
no more than seven. Lastly, in 1825, Mr. 
Carne states that the forests, the cedar- 
trees, the glory of Lebanon, have, in a great 
measure, disappeared, to make way for in- 
numerable plantations of vines. 

This wood was used not only for beams, 
for planks which covered edifices, and for 
ceilings to apartments, but also in the sub- 
stance of the walls. (1 Kings vi. 36.; vii. 
12. Ezra vi. 3, 4.) 



CEL 



CEL 



In the purification of a leper, Moses 
orders, that cedar, together with hyssop, 
should he used in making - a wisp, with 
which the leper was to be sprinkled. (Lev. 
xiv. 4.) Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 46, 

47- 

CELESTINES, a religious order in the 
thirteenth century. They derived their 
name from their founder, Peter Di Mur- 
rone, who was raised to the pontificate 
under the name of Celestine V. The aus- 
terity of his manners rendered this pontiff 
extremely disagreeable to a degenerate and 
licentious clergy, and he was obliged to 
abdicate the papacy three months after his 
election. 

The Celestines rose two hours after mid- 
night to say matins, ate no flesh except when 
sick, and often fasted. Their habit con- 
sisted of a white gown, a capuche, a black 
scapulary, and shirts of serge. Mosheim's 
Eccles. Hist. vol. iii. p. 45, 40. 

CELIBACY, the state of unmarried per- 
sons, and is a word used chiefly in speaking 
of the single life of the Popish clergy, or the 
obligation they are under to abstain from 
marriage. 

At the time of the reformation, scarcely 
any point was more canvassed, than the 
right of the clergy to marry. With reason, 
the celibacy of the Romish clergy was con- 
sidered as a principal cause of their irregu- 
lar and dissolute lives; and the wisest of 
the reformers were exceedingly anxious to 
abolish a practice, which had been injurious 
to the interests of religion, by its tendency 
to corrupt the morals of those, who ought to 
have been examples of virtue to the rest of 
mankind. 

The marriage of priests was so far from 
being forbidden by the Mosaic institution, 
that the priesthood was confirmed to the 
descendants of one family, and conse- 
quently there was not only a permission, 
but an obligation upon the Jewish priests 
to marry. Hence we conclude, that there 
is no natural inconsistency, or even un- 
suitableness, between the married state 
and the duties of the ministers of reli- 
gion. Not a single text in the New Testa- 
ment can be interpreted into a prohibition 
against the marriage of the clergy under 
the Gospel dispensation ; but, on the con- 
trary, there are many passages, from which 
we may infer, that they are allowed the same 
liberty upon this subject as other men en- 
joy. One of the twelve apostles, namely, 
St. Peter, was certainly a married man, 
(Matt. viii. 14.) ; and it is supposed, that 
several of the others were also married. 
Philip, one of the seven deacons, was also 
a married man, (Acts xxi. 8, 9.) ; and if 
Christ did not require celibacy in the first 
preachers of the Gospel, it cannot be thought 
necessary in their successors. St. Paul 
says, • Let every man have his own wife,' 
(1 Cor. vii. 2.) ; and that marriage is ho- 
267 



nourable in all, (Heb. xiii. 4.) without ex- 
cepting those, who are employed in the pub- 
lic offices of religion. He expressly says, 
that ' a bishop must be the husband of one 
wife' (1 Tim. iii. 2.) ; and he gives the same 
direction concerning elders, priests, and 
deacons. When Aquila travelled about to 
preach the Gospel, he was not only married, 
but his wife Priscilla accompanied him 
(Acts xviii. 2.) ; and St. Paul insists that 
he might have claimed the privilege 'of 
carrying about a sister or wife, (1 Cor. ix. 
5.) as other apostles did.' The 'forbidding 
to marry,' (1 Tim. iv. 3.) is mentioned as a 
character of the apostasy of the latter 
times. 

That the ministers of the Gospel were 
allowed to marry for several centuries after 
the days of the apostles, appears certain. 
Polycarp mentions Valens, presbyter of 
Philippi, and Phileas, bishop of Thonius, 
as married men ; and Eusebius says, that 
the latter had both wife and children. 
There are now extant two books of Ter- 
tullian, a presbyter of the second century, 
addressed to his wife. Novatus was a mar- 
ried presbyter of Carthage, as we learn from 
Cyprian, who was himself a married man ; 
and so was Caecilius, the presbyter, who con- 
verted him, and Numidius, another pres- 
byter of Carthage. That they were allowed 
to cohabit with their wives after ordination, 
appears from the charge, which Cyprian 
brought against Novatus, that he had struck 
and abused his wife, and by that means 
caused her to miscarry. We have also a 
letter from Hilary of Poictiers, written to 
his daughter when he was in exile ; and 
from what can be collected concerning her 
age, it seems probable, that she was born 
when he was a bishop. At the same time 
it must be owned, that many things are said 
in praise of a single life in the writings of 
the ancient fathers ; and the law of celibacy 
had been proposed before, or about the 
beginning of the fourth century, by some 
individuals. The allowed necessity of a 
Christian's separating himself from the cri- 
minal pleasures and pursuits of this world, 
soon connected the ideas of holiness and 
solitude ; and the reputed sanctity of those 
persons, who condemned themselves to live 
alone in the deserts, attached a degree of 
merit to celibacy, and by degrees led to 
those monastic institutions, which have pro- 
duced such various mischief, though not 
without a mixture of some good. Siricius, 
who, according to Dufresnoy, died in the 
year 399, was the first pope that forbade 
the marriage of the clergy ; but it is proba- 
ble that this prohibition was little regarded, 
as the celibacy of the clergy seems not to 
have been completely established till the 
papacy of Gregory the Seventh, at the end 
of the eleventh century, and even at that 
time it was loudly complained of by many 
writers. The history of the following cen- 



CER 



CER 



turies abundantly proves the bad effects of 
this abuse of church power. Bishop Tom- 
line's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. ii. p. 
512, Src. ; Adams's Religious World, vol. ii. 
p. 46, note. 

CERDONIANS, a branch of the Gnos- 
tics in the second century. They derived 
their name from Cerdo, and are also called 
Marcionites, from Marcion, who propagated 
his doctrines with astonishing success 
throughout the world. 

The Cerdonians taught that there are two 
principles, the one perfectly good, and the 
other perfectly «vil; and that between these 
is an intermediate kind of deity, who is 
neither perfectly good, nor perfectly evil, 
but ci a mixed nature, and who is so far 
just and powerful as to administer rewards 
and inflict punishments. This middle deity 
is the creator of this inferior world, and 
the god and legislator of the Jewish nation. 
He wages perpetual war with the evil prin- 
ciple ; and both the one and the other aspire 
to the place of the Supreme Being, and am- 
bitiously attempt to subject to their authority 
all the inhabitants of the world. 

The Jews are the subjects of that power- 
ful genius, who formed the globe. The other 
nations, that worship a variety of gods, 
are under the empire of the evil princi- 
ple. Both these contending powers exer- 
cise oppressions upon rational and im- 
mortal souls, and keep them in a tedious 
and miserable captivity. Therefore, the 
Supreme Being, in order to terminate this 
war, and to deliver from their bondage 
those souls, whose origin is celestial and 
divine, sent to the Jews a being most like 
to himself, even his own Son Jesus Christ, 
clothed with a certain shadowy resem- 
blance of a body, that he might be visible 
to mortal eyes. The commission of this 
celestial messenger was to destroy the 
empire of both the evil principle and the 
author of this world, and to bring back 
wandering souls to God. On this account, 
he was attacked with inexpressible fury by 
the prince of darkness and the god of the 
Jews, but without effect ; since, having a 
body in appearance only, he was by that 
means rendered incapable of suffering. 
Those who follow the sacred directions of 
the heavenly conductor, and turn their eyes 
towards the Supreme Being, shall after 
death ascend to the mansions of felicity and 
perfection. 

It is said to have been in opposition to 
this heresy, that the articles, * the resurrec- 
tion of the dead,' and he ' suffered under 
Pontius Pilate,' were inserted in the creed. 
Mosheim, vol. i. p. 178. ; Hurd's History of 
Religious Rites, fyc. p. 1 65. 

CEREMONIES, the external rites and 
manner, in which the ministers of religion 
perform their sacred functions. Under 
the old covenant, God first delivered the 
great precepts of his law. It was not till 
268 



afterwards that he prescribed ceremonies. 
The multitude of external observances 
might be intended to check that inclination, 
which the Hebrews had discovered for idol- 
atry, and to induce them to desire with 
more ardour the coming of their great deli- 
verer. In the new covenant, few ceremo- 
nies are enjoined. They are considered as 
accessaries only to Christianity ; and they are 
employed as means oidy, not as the end, 
and in condescension to the weakness of the 
worshippers, who are men, and not angels. 

It has been questioned, whether the ce- 
remonies of the Jews were borrowed from 
the Egyptians, or those of the Egyptians 
from the Jews ? The striking conformity 
between the laws, the observances, and the 
ceremonies of these two nations, has divided 
the opinions of learned men. Sir John 
Marsham and Dr. Spencer have attempted 
to prove, that Moses, in many things, imi- 
tated the Egyptians. This opinion has had 
many followers. Indeed, a great resem- 
blance exists between certain ceremonies, 
common to both people ; whilst in others,, 
there are differences, which appear to be 
even studied. There seems also to have 
been a very great strangeness reciprocally 
between the two people, though the Israelites 
were prone to imitate the worship of the 
Egyptians. These opposite inclinations 
must necessarily have produced in the 
two nations many laws and ceremonies 
entirely adverse, and others absolutely alike. 
When we accurately examine the laws and 
ceremonies of each people, we perceive 
certain ceremonies and practices, which 
Moses, from condescension to the humour, 
inclination, custom, prejudices, and even 
hardness of the hearts of the Hebrews 
permitted, or prohibited, and which were 
permitted or prohibited among the Egyp- 
tians. He might conform to the Egyp- 
tians in the habits and ornaments of the 
priests, in the choice of some sacrifices, 
their colour, sex, age, and manner of 
offering them. He might borrow something 
from the forms of their temples, and their 
altars. Many of the judicial laws of the 
Hebrews appear to be copied from those 
of the Egyptians. It should be remembered, 
that many religious rites originated before 
the establishment either of the Egyptian 
or Jewish polity. Such of these as were 
truly patriarchal were not to be rejected 
under the Mosaic dispensation, merely be- 
cause they had also descended to the Egyp- 
tians, by whom they were used. For in- 
stance, it was not necessary that Moses 
should refuse to adopt the rite of sacrifice, 
because this rite was common among Hea- 
then nations. Sacrifice was a traditionary 
mode of worship, derived from the earliest 
ages, and the most respectable sources ; 
and it was transmitted from the ancestors 
of the Hebrews, and practised by all, whose 
memory they venerated. It was not neces- 






CER 



CER 



gary that Moses should omit to mention the 
new moons. This had been a patriarchal 
custom from time immemorial. In short, 
God had given certain ordinances to man, 
and more or less of them to his posterity in 
every part of the world. Such of them as 
the Egyptians had retained, though inter- 
mingled among others not so authorized, 
were adopted by Moses, who was so far the 
instrument of reforming the religious wor- 
ship of his time. To these institutions 
thus separated from human inventions, he 
added others congenial in their nature, and 
particularly adapted to the temper, circum- 
stances, and future situation of the Jewish 
people. These additions are truly the Mo- 
saic, and were intended to preserve the 
Jews distinct and separate from all other 
nations. How well they have answered this 
purpose, appears not only from their his- 
tory, but from their present dispersed state. 
The Jews are now a distinct people, still 
preserved as memorials confirming historic 
truth ; whilst nations, which were infinitely 
more powerful, and which long triumphed 
over them, have become extinct, and are 
•mingled with their conquerors. From this 
we perceive, that the design of these rites 
was not merely to restrain the Jews from 
idolatry, but that after they were no longer 
exposed to that temptation, they should by 
that means be preserved as a certain evi- 
dence of the truth of prophecy, of the provi- 
dence of God displayed towards them, and 
especially of the verity of Jesus Christ, of 
his apostles, and of the Christian religion 
in general. 

Dr. Middleton has shown the conformity 
between the pagan and the popish ceremo- 
nies, which he exemplifies in the use of 
incense, holy water, lamps, and candles be- 
fore the shrines of saints, votive gifts round 
the shrines of the deceased, &c. He proves, 
that the altars, images, crosses, processions, 
miracles, legends, even the very hierarchy, 
pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the 
present Romans, were all copied from the 
Heathens. The church of Rome has not 
so much accommodated itself to human 
weakness, as it has abused that weakness, 
by establishing an endless variety of ridi- 
culous ceremonies, destructive of true re- 
ligion, and adapted only to promote the 
riches and despotism of the clergy, and to 
keep the multitude in ignorance and super- 
stition. How far a just antipathy to the 
church puppet-shows of the papists has im- 
properly driven some protestant churches 
into the opposite extreme, is a matter that 
deserves a serious consideration. 

It has been sometimes objected to the 
discipline of the church of England, that 
several of its ceremonies are still the same 
as those of the church of Rome. To this 
it may be answered, that we have retained 
none, which have not been authorized by 
the practice of the early Christians, or 
269 



suited to the important purposes of reli- 
gious worship. Such were the moderation 
and wisdom of our reformers, that they 
did not think it necessary to abolish rites, 
merely because they were used by the 
church of Rome. Though they loudly ex- 
claimed against the antichristian power, 
which it had usurped, and were fully aware 
of its numerous corruptions, yet they were 
sensible that it retained some of the funda- 
mental doctrines of the Gospel, and that 
some of its practices were founded in Scrip- 
ture and reason, and conformable to the 
constant usages of the early Christians. 
By thus keeping their minds unbiassed by 
any improper prejudice, they were enabled 
to form a just discrimination, and to avoid 
those absurdities and excesses, into which 
some protestant churches unfortunately 
fell. The ceremonies of our public offices 
are grave, simple, and significant, and 
calculated to excite devotion in the mind, 
while ' all things are done decently, and in 
order.' (1 Cor. xiv. 40.) In the primitive 
times, every particular church ordained, 
and varied at its pleasure, its own rites and 
ceremonies ; and a considerable difference 
existed in the rituals of different churches 
very near to the days of the apostles. Au- 
gustin, who had been consulted respecting 
the obedience, which was due to the different 
customs of different churches, observes as 
follows : Quod enim neque contra fidem, 
neque contra bonos mores esse convincitur, 
indifferenter est habendum ; et propter 
eorum, inter quos vivitur, societatem ser- 
vandum est. Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christ. Theology, vol. ii. p. 530, &c. ; Ad- 
ditions to Calmefs Diet. ; Buck's Theolog. 
Dictionary. 

CERINTHIANS, ancient heretics, the 
followers of Cerinthus. This man, who was 
a Jew by birth, attempted to form a new 
and singular system of doctrine and dis- 
cipline, by combining the doctrines of 
Christ with the opinions and errors of the 
Jews and Gnostics. He taught, that the 
creator of the world, whom he considered 
also as the sovereign and law-giver of the 
Jews, was a being endued with the greatest 
virtues, and derived his birth from the Su- 
preme God ; that this Being gradually dege- 
nerated from his former virtue ; that, in 
consequence of this, the Supreme Being 
determined to destroy his empire, and, for 
that purpose, sent upon earth one of the 
ever happy and glorious aeons ; whose name 
was Christ ; that this Christ chose for his 
habitation the person of Jesus, into whom 
he entered in the form of a dove, whilst 
Jesus was receiving the baptism of John in 
the waters of Jordan; that Jesus, after his 
union with Christ, opposed the god of the 
Jews, at whose instigation he was seized 
and crucified by the Hebrew chiefs; thai 
when Jesus was taken captive. Christ as- 
cended on high, and the man Jesus alone 



CHA 



CHA 



was subjected to the pains of an ignomini- 
ous death. 

The Cerinthians admitted only parts of 
the Gospel of St. Matthew. They also re- 
jected the Acts of the Apostles and all the 
Epistles. Mosheim, vol. i. p. 117; Gregor, 
Hist. vol. i. p. 59. 

CHALDiE'A, nnuo, Chasdim, XaXdaia, 
signifies like demons ; otherwise, like plun- 
derers, or like beasts, or like fields. Chal- 
daea was a country of Asia, near the 
junction of the Tigris and Euphrates, and 
the capital of which was Babylon. See 
Babylon. 

Chasdim or Chashdim, and not Chaldaea, 
is in the Hebrew text. It is uncertain whe- 
ther Chaldaea derived its name from Chesed, 
the son of Nahor, Abraham's brother, though 
Dr. Wells is of this opinion. Some think, 
that the inhabitants of this country jour- 
neyed from the East, Kedem, (Gen. xi. 2.) 
and that Kedem was situated in the neigh- 
bourhood of Caucasus. When a consi- 
derable division of mankind withdrew to Shi- 
nar, they were accompanied by a certain pro- 
portion of Chaldaeans, or Chashdim, who were 
a superior family, or in stations of trust and 
dignity, that is, they were at least priests, if 
not also governors. Out of this body, the go- 
vernors, rulers, and kings were elected ; and 
hence the Babylonian kingdom, &c. is called 
the kingdom, &c. of the Chasdim. Chaldaea, 
in ancient times, was known by the names of 
Shinar, Shinaar, &c. &c. and was situated be- 
tween thirty and thirty-five degrees of north 
latitude. According to Ptolemy, it was 
bounded, on the north, by Mesopotamia; 
on the east, by the Tigris ; on the west, by 
Arabia Deserta ; and on the south, by the 
Persian Gulf, and part of Arabia Felix. 

The Chaldaeans were the philosophic or 
priestly order among the Babylonians, and 
were rather a tribe among a nation, than 
a nation of themselves. They were famous 
for their learning, and were priests, phi- 
losophers, astronomers, astrologers, sooth- 
sayers, &c. They gloried in having among 
them astronomical observations for 472,000 
years ; Cicero says, 470,000 ; Epigenes, 
cited in Pliny, 720,000; but the longest 
date, which has any appearance of truth, 
is 1903 years. In consequence of this pre- 
tended claim to learning and supernatural 
knowledge, the Chaldaeans are distinguished 
from the Babylonians ; and they are said to 
have inhabited a region peculiar to them- 
selves, and situated next to the Arabians 
and the Persian Gulf. Universal History, 
lib. i. c. 9 ; Sacred Geography, Excursions, No. 
x. p. 32. 

CHAMBER. The houses in the East 
contain many chambers on the sides of an 
open court, or gallery built around it. 
Describing a house built in the eastern 
fashion, Niebuhr says, ' There was not 
one well-furnished room in it ; yet it con- 
sisted of several distinct apartments, into 
270 



which the entrance was through an open gallery 
which extended all around it.' Something 
like this seems to be what Solomon means 
by his wide house, or as it should be ren- 
dered, house of chambers. (Pro v. xxv. 24.) 
As if he had said, ' If a person, by good 
fortune, should dwell in the most distant 
part of the gallery, from a quarrelling wo- 
man, yet her contention will disturb the 
whole dwelling, and every one of its inhabit- 
ants will suffer by their troublesome neigh- 
bour, who will either spread the flame of 
strife from chamber to chamber, or annoy 
the whole gallery by her brawls and squab- 
bles.' Niebuhr, Travels, vol. i. p. 251 ; Frag- 
ments attached to Calmefs Dictionary. 

CHAMOIS. The word rendered chamois 
by our translators, (Deut. xiv. 5.) is evi- 
dently improper. The Hebrew word is 
tzamor, which the Septuagint render ca- 
melopardalis ; with this the Vulgate agrees, 
and also the ArabL, which translates it 
ziraffe. However, the ziraffe, or giraffe, 
being a native of the torrid zone, and 
Southern Africa, is equally unlikely from 
its attachment to hot countries to be abun- 
dant in Judea, and used as an article of 
food, as the chamois, which inhabits the 
chilly regions of mountains only, and seeks 
their most retired shades, to shelter it from 
the warmth of summer, preferring those 
cool retreats where snow and ice prevail. 
The class of antelopes bids fairest to con- 
tain this animal, the tzamor, though Mr. 
Parkhurst rather inclines to seek it among 
the goat kind, and supposes that it derives 
its name from its remarkably browsing on 
the shoots and twigs of trees. Parkhurst' s Heb. 
Lexicon, p. 177> octavo edit. 1811 ; Scripture 
Illustrated. 

CHAOS, the mass of matter supposed to 
be in confusion before it was divided by the 
Almighty into its proper classes and ele- 
ments. It does not appear, who first asserted 
the notion of a chaos. Moses, the earliest of 
all writers, derives the origin of this world 
from a confusion of matter, dark, void, deep, 
without form, which he calls tohu bohu. This 
is precisely the chaos of the Greek and Bar- 
barian philosophers. 

CHARIOTS of War. The Scripture speaks 
of two sorts, one for princes and generals, the 
other to break the enemy's battalions, by rush- 
ing in among them, armed with iron, which 
caused terrible havoc. The most ancient 
chariots of war of which we know, are those 
of Pharaoh that were drowned in the Red 
Sea. (Exod. xiv. 7-) The Canaanites, whom 
Joshua engaged at the waters of Merom, had 
cavalry, and a multitude of chariots. (Josh. 
xi. 4.) Sisera, the general of Jabin, king of 
Hazor, had nine hundred chariots of iron in 
his army. (Judges iv. 3.) The tribe of Ju- 
dah could not obtain possession of the lands 
belonging to their lot, because the ancient 
inhabitants of the country were strong in 
chariots of iron. (Id. i. 19.) The Philistines, 



CHA 



CHA 



in the war carried on by them against Saul, 
had thirty thousand chariots, and six thou- 
sand horsemen. (1 Sam. xiii. 5.) David hav- 
ing taken a thousand chariots of war from 
Hadadezer, king of Zobah, hamstrung the 
horses, and burned nine hundred chariots, 
reserving only a hundred. (2 Sam. viii. 4.) 

It does not appear that the Hebrews ever 
used chariots in war. Solomon had a consi- 
derable number, but we know of no military 
expedition in which they were employed. 
(1 Kings x. 2G.) As Judea was a mountain- 
ous country, chariots could be of no use. In 
the books of Maccabees, mention is made of 
chariots armed with scythes, which the king 
of Syria led against Judea. (2 Mace. xiii. 2.) 

CHARITY is to be understood not of 
gifts to the poor, though that be one of the 
external actions of charity, but of that 
internal principle whence proceed all out- 
ward good actions. This principle is love, 
kindness, affection, sympathy. The bases 
of charity are love to God, and good-will 
to man. These principles will regulate 
the mind to complacency, forgiveness, 
meekness, and a desire to promote the wel- 
fare of others. Charity views dubious 
things in the most favourable light, and 
never makes the worst of bad things. 
Charity is not wearied out by disappointed 
hopes, nor overwhelmed by too plausible 
fears. It is not satisfied with empty 
wishes only, but uses endeavours and 
exertions to accomplish its benevolent 
purposes. It is not confined to a family, a 
tribe, or a nation, but embraces all man- 
kind. In some degree, charity is rewarded 
in this world ; but in the world to come, it 
may justly expect the most gracious remune- 
ration. 

Charity, in Scripture, is often expressed 
by the word love, as when our Saviour 
says, ' This is my commandment,' the 
sovereign and most essential precept of my 
religion, ' that ye love one another.' The 
suggestions of reason are in exact unison 
with the injunctions of revelation ; and we 
ought, without any limitations or exceptions, 
to cherish the feeling of love towards the 
whole race of man. From a general view of 
human nature, without reference to any 
particular individuals of any manners, reli- 
gion, or country, we discern a striking simi- 
litude, not only in the corporeal structure, 
but in the mental and moral constitution of 
all mankind. Our near approximation to 
each other affords many arguments for our 
reciprocal regard. Is our contempt of our 
neighbour excited by his obscurity, indi- 
gence, or weakness ? We ought to recollect, 
that God made both rich and poor, high and 
low, strong and weak. Has not our Saviour 
forcibly taught us a better lesson by appear- 
ing on the earth in circumstances of poverty 
and distress, and by choosing his companions 
and apostles from men in the lowest stations 
and the most inglorious occupations ? 



Charity will induce us, instead of envying 
the prosperity of our neighbour, to make it 
the subject of our rejoicing. It will give us 
an interest in his interests, and render his 
happiness an addition to our own. If cha- 
rity rejoices with those that rejoice, it will 
weep with those that weep. Is any one sick 
or unfortunate, and is not charity depressed? 
Is any in want, and does not charity feel the 
most painful solicitude for his relief? The 
disappointments of others are its vexations ; 
and others' losses are its cares. In short, no 
pain or suffering can befall those around it, 
and charity be an indifferent spectator. 

Charity renders our principles of action 
more liberal and humane. It suffers 
nothing sordid, nothing contracted in our 
views ; and teaching us to regard all men 
as brethren, the children of the same hea- 
venly Father, it represses the emotions of 
religious and political intolerance, of pro- 
fessional and national antipathies. Where 
charity prevails, no sectarian bitterness, 
no exclusive attachments to a party or a 
sect, will exist. It suppresses all those 
unsocial habitudes and sensations, which 
are the source of so many divisions and of 
so much animosity among men, while it 
encourages all those qualities and affec- 
tions, which are the best cement of amity 
and peace. It will sympathize with the 
feelings and circumstances of others, and, 
as far as it has ability, will supply their wants 
and soothe their cares. It will provide not 
only for the temporal, but also for the moral 
necessities of its fellow-creatures. It will 
have compassion not only on the afflicted and 
the indigent, but on the ignorant and the vi- 
cious. It will assiduously labour to instruct 
the one, and reclaim the other ; and it will 
strenuously endeavour to promote the know- 
ledge of true religion and virtue. The know- 
ledge of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, 
which will be found the most fruitful source 
of every good habit, charity will endeavour to 
diffuse. It will constantly propose for its 
own imitation, and earnestly recommend to 
the imitation of others, the example of Jesus 
Christ, whose conduct was one continued se- 
ries of the most beneficent actions, who went 
about doing good, healing the sick, feeding 
the hungry, comforting the afflicted, and, 
above all, labouring to soften the prejudices, 
appease the animosities, correct the vices, 
and increase the virtues of mankind. 

It is one of the properties of charity, that 
1 it is not puffed up,' that it is not inflated 
with pride or arrogance, that it represses all 
supercilious and contemptuous emotions, and 
that it is respectful to its superiors, and kind 
and courteous to its equals, its inferiors, and 
to all with whom it has any intercourse. It 
smooths the gradations between the high and 
the low, the rich and the poor. It teaches as 
that Christ is our master, and that we are 
all brethren. It renders servants meek 
and assiduous, and induces masters to 



CHE 

practise a becoming gentleness and for- 
bearance. It excites the rich to conciliate 
love by a liberal distribution of their 
wealth to the necessitous ; and it per- 
suades the powerful to dispel fear and 
win affection by an unaffected compla- 
cency of demeanour. Always intent on 
the good of others, it will deem no employ- 
ment a disgrace, and no office a degrada- 
tion, by which it can promote the hap- 
piness of its fellow-creatures. It will 
forgive even its greatest enemies, not 
unmindful that it may have need of for- 
giveness. It will always be willing to 
judge favourably of others, and to impute 
its neighbour's actions to the best inten- 
tions. It will not judge hastily, nor con- 
demn rigorously ; and it will be always 
more prone to lament, than to punish the 
errors of humanity. Without it, all our 
moral performances are worth nothing in 
the sight of God; without it all our vir- 
tues are merely the vain shows, rather 
than the substantial realities of virtue; 
and without it, faith is only a vapid confi- 
dence or a barren speculation. In every 
individual breast, in which charity resides, 
it will be found a source of pure and 
unspeakable delight, productive of the 
greatest temporal good, and leading to 
everlasting happiness. Fellowes's Body of 
Theology, vol. ii. p. 64, &c. ; Bishop Bur- 
net on the Love of our Neighbour, in 
Warner's System of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 
131. 

CHEDORLA'OMER, loirbTr:), XodoX- 
Xoyofiuip, signifies as a generation of servi- 
tude ; otherwise, the roundness of the sheaf 
Chedorlaomer, a king of the Elamites, who 
were either Persians, or a people bordering 
on the Persians. Chedorlaomer was one 
of the four kings, who were confederated 
against the five kings of the Pentapolis of 
Sodom, and who, having defeated them, 
and taken a great booty, were pursued and 
dispersed by Abraham. (Gen. xiv. 1, 2, 
&c.) This happened in the year of the 
world 2092, and before Jesus Christ 
1912. 

Chedorlaomer, for twelve years, kept five 
kings subject to him ; viz. Bera, king of 
Sodom, Birsha, king of Gomorrah, Shinab, 
king of Admah, Shemeber, king of Zeboi'm, 
and the king of Bela or Zoar. At length, 
they revolted from him, about the year of 
the world 2091. Chedorlaomer gathered a 
great army, and entered into a confederacy 
with Amraphel, king of Shinar, Arioch, 
king of Ellasar, (perhaps Thalasser, near 
Assyria, in the province of Eden), and with 
Tidal, king of the nations, or Goim, probably 
the nations beyond Jordan, in Galilee of 
the Gentiles. (Matt. iv. 15. Isaiah ix. 1.) 
These four kings marched towards Canaan. 
In their way they attacked the inhabitants 
of the countries beyond Jordan; the Re- 
phaim, giants who lived between the brook 
272 



CHE 

Jabbok and the Arnon. They took and 
pillaged Ashteroth. They defeated the 
Zuzim, who were probably the same as the 
Zamzummim, ancient inhabitants of the 
country afterwards possessed by the Ammon- 
ites. (Deut. ii. 20, 21.) Moses says, that 
the Zuzim were beaten at Ham, which was 
perhaps Chamin, an ancient city of the same 
territory. They routed the Emim, in Sha- 
veh Kiriathaim. (Gen. xiv. 5.) The Emim 
were an ancient people, who dwelt in the 
country afterwards possessed by the Moab- 
ites ; and Shaveh Kiriathaim was a city in 
the same land, and afterwards belonged to 
king Sihon. (Deut. ii. 10, 11. Josh. xiii. 
19. 21.) Lastly, in the mountains of Gilead, 
they defeated the Horites, a famous people, 
who were descended from Seir the Horite, 
and whose country was afterwards seized by 
the Edomites. (Gen. xxxii. 3. ; xxxvi. 20.) 
They carried their conquests to the plains 
of Paran in Arabia Petrsea. Thence they 
returned towards Kadesh-Barnea, where is 
the fountain of Meribah, which, however, 
was not known by that name before the 
time of Moses. (Numb. xx. 13.) They ra- 
vaged the country of the Amalekites, who 
inhabited part of Arabia Petraea; and they 
defeated the Amorites at Hazezon-tamar, 
which some think to be En-gedi, a city 
adjacent to the Pentapolis and Gomorrah. 
Thus the four allied kings destroyed the 
power of the several nations bordering on 
Sodom and Gomorrah, that these cities 
might have no assistance to expect, and be 
unable to escape their vengeance. 

The five revolted kings, perceiving the 
allies drawing towards their cities, took the 
field with their army, and put it in order of 
battle, in the very plain, in which their se- 
veral towns were situated. In this plain 
were many wells, out of which the inhabit- 
ants procured bitumen ; a circumstance that 
might have rendered the access to it more 
difficult and dangerous to the enemy's 
horse. Here the battle was fought, and 
the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Zeboi'm, 
Admah, and Zoar, were put to flight. One 
part of their army was cut to pieces, and the 
other fled to the neighbouring mountains, 
leaving their cities a prey to the conquerors. 
Sodom, Gomorrah, and the other places 
were pillaged, and the enemy, loaded with 
spoils and captives, returned by the way of 
the Euphrates. 

CHEM'ARIM. This word occurs only 
once in our version of the Bible : ' I will cut 
off the remnant of Baal, and the name of the 
Chemarims (Chemarim) with the priests/ 
(Zephan. i. 4.) ; but it frequently occurs in 
the Hebrew Bible, and is generally trans- 
lated priests of the idols, or priests clothed in 
black, because chamar signifies blackness. 
By this word the best commentators under- 
stand the priests of false gods, and in parti- 
cular the worshippers of fire, because they 
were, it is said, dressed in black. Le Clerc, 






CHE 



CUE 



however, declares against this last opinion. 
St. Jerom, in the Second Book of Kings, 
(xxiii. 5.) renders this word aruspices, sooth- 
sayers ; and in Hosea, (x. 5.) and Zepha- 
niah, (i. 4.) ditui, churchwardens. Our 
translators of the Bible, in the first and last 
places mentioned, would seem to understand 
by this word the idols or objects of worship, 
rather than their priests. This is also the 
opinion of Le Clerc. Calmet observes, that 
Camar in Arabic signifies the moon, and 
that Isis is the same deity. Among the 
priests of Isis, says Calmet, were those 
called melanephori, that is, wearers of black ; 
but it is uncertain whether this was by rea- 
son of their dressing wholly in black, or 
because they wore a black shining veil in 
the processions of this goddess. 

CHE'MOSH, unaa, Ckemosh, an idol of 
the Moabites. (Numb. xxi. 29.) The name 
is derived from a root which in Arabic sig- 
nifies to hasten. For this reason, many be- 
lieve Chemosh to be the sun, whose preci- 
pitate course might well procure it the name 
of swift. Some confound Chemosh with 
Ammon ; and Macrobius shows that Aramon 
was the sun, whose rays were denoted by 
his horns. Calmet is of opinion, that the 
god Hamanus, and Apollo Chomeus, men- 
tioned by Strabo and Ammianus Marcelli- 
nus, was Chamos, or the sun. These dei- 
ties were worshipped in many parts of the 
East Some, from the resemblance of the 
Hebrew Chamos, with the Greek Comos, 
have thought Chamos or Chemosh, to sig- 
nify Bacchus. Jerom and most interpreters 
consider Chemosh and Peor as the same 
deity. To Chemosh Solomon erected an altar 
upon the mount of Olives. (1 Kings xi. 7-) 

Mr. Parkhurst observes, that ' as to the 
form of the idol chemosh, the Scripture is 
silent ; but if, according to Jerom, it were 
like Baal-Peor, it must have been of the 
beeve kind, as were probably all the Baals, 
though accompanied with various insignia. 
There can be little doubt that part of the 
religious services performed to Chemosh, as 
to Baal-Peor, consisted in revelling and 
drunkenness, (Jer. xlviii. 11. 26.) obscenities 
and impurities of the grossest kinds. From 
Chemosh the Greeks seem to have derived 
their kw/jioq, called by the Romans Comus, 
the god of lascivious feasting and revelling.' 
Parkhurst' s Heb. Lexicon, p. 322. edit. 1811. 

CHEREM, D-in, anathema. The He- 
brews distinguish three sorts of excommu- 
nications : »V»3 niddui, separation, the lesser 
excommunication ; cherem, the greater ex- 
communication, or anathema; and nn?3^ 
shammathah, to which death is annexed. 
By cherem, the excommunicated person is 
deprived of most of the advantages of civil 
society. He can have no commerce ; and 
he cannot either buy or sell, except such 
things as are absolutely necessary to life. 
He cannot resort to the schools, nor enter 
the synagogues. He cannot eat or drink 
273 



with any one. The sentence of cherem was 
to be pronounced by ten persons, or at least, 
in the presence of ten persons ; but the ex- 
communicated person might be absolved by 
three judges, or even by one, if he were a 
doctor of the law. Anciently, cherem and 
shammathah denoted sentence of death, and 
total destruction, inflicted either by the 
people when victorious, or by the decree of 
the senate. God ordains that he, who sa- 
crifices to strange gods, shall be cherem, that 
is, punished with death. See Anathema 
and Excommunication. 

CHER'ETHIM, vro, XopsBl, signifies 
who cuts, who tears away, and exterminates. 
Cherethim or Cherethites, are deno- 
minations for the Philistines : ' I will 
stretch out mine hand upon the Philistines, 
and will cut off the Cherethim, and destroy 
the remnant of the sea-coast.' (Ezek. xxv. 
16.) Zephaniah, exclaiming against the 
Philistines, says, ' Wo unto the inhabitants 
of the sea-coasts, the nation of the Chere- 
thites.' (Zeph. ii. 5.) It is said, (1 Sam. 
xxx. 14.) that the Amalekites invaded the 
south of the Cherethites, that is, of the 
Philistines. It has been questioned whence 
the Philistines, or Cherethites, came ; but 
this subject has been already discussed under 
the article Caphtor. 

David, and some of the kings his succes- 
sors, had guards called Cherethites and Pe- 
lethites. (2 Sam. xv. 18. ; xx. 7-) Calmet 
thinks that they were of the country of the 
Philistines ; but several expositors are of a 
different opinion. We can hardly suppose, 
say the latter, that David would employ any 
of these uncircumcised people as his body- 
guard, or that the Israelitish soldiers would 
have patiently seen foreigners of that na- 
tion advanced to such places of honour and 
trust. It may, therefore, be inferred, that 
guards were called Cherethites, because 
they went with David into Philistia, where 
they continued with him all the time lie 
was under the protection of Achish. These 
were the persons who accompanied David 
from the first, and who remained with him 
in his greatest distresses ; and it is no won- 
der if men of such approved fidelity should 
be chosen by him for his body-guard. Be- 
sides, it is not uncommon for soldiers to 
derive their name, not from the place of 
their nativity, but of their residence. Pa- 
trick's Comment. ; Poole's Annot., &c. 

CHER'UB, 3V13, signifies as a child; 
otherwise, as multiplying, or as combating ; 
or abundance, or multitude of knowledge. 

Cherub, or, in the plural, Cherubim, a 
particular order of angels. The term che- 
rub, in Hebrew, sometimes denotes a calf or 
an ox. Ezekiel mentions the face of a cln 1 - 
rub as synonymous to that of an ox. (Ezek. 
i. 10.) In Syriac and in Chaldee, the word 
cherub signifies to till or plough, which 18 the 
work of oxen. Cherub also signifies strong 
and powerful, and may, therefore, refer it 
T 



CHE 



CHE 



strength of oxen. Grotiussays, the cherubim 
were figures nearly resembling a calf. Bo- 
chart thinks they were nearly the figure of an 
ox ; and Spencer is of the same opinion. Jo- 
sephus says, that the cherubim were winged 
creatures, of a figure unknown to mankind. 
Clemens of Alexandria thinks, that the Egyp- 
tians imitated the cherubim of the Hebrews 
in their sphinxes and hieroglyphical animals. 
The descriptions, which the Scripture gives 
us of cherubim differ, but they all agree in 
representing a figure, composed of various 
creatures ; a man, an ox, an eagle, and a 
lion. Such were the cherubim described by 
the prophet Ezekiel, (Ezek. i. 5, &c. ; x. 2.) ; 
and those placed by Solomon in the temple 
must have been nearly the same. (1 Kings 
vi. 23.) Those placed by Moses on the ark 
of the covenant, (Exod. xxv. 18, 19, 20.) and 
those posted by God at the entrance of Para- 
dise, (Gen. iii. 24.) are not so described as to 
be perfectly understood. Ezekiel compares 
the king of Tyre to the cherub, that covered 
the ark of the covenant upon the holy moun- 
tain, and glittered with gold and glory. 
(Ezek. xxviii. 14.) Moses says, that the two 
cherubim covered the mercy- seat, with their 
wings extended on both sides, and looked 
one upon another ; and that they had their 
faces turned towards the mercy-seat, which 
covered the ark. 

It appears from the descriptions in Scrip- 
ture, that each cherub had four heads or 
countenances ; that of a man, a lion, an ox, 
and an eagle. These four faces were proba- 
bly attached to one head, and seen by the 
spectator in union, each being joined by its 
back parts to the others. The body, from 
the neck to perhaps below the navel, had the 
likeness of a man. Ezekiel describes the 
cherub as having four wings ; and Isaiah the 
seraph, six wings. Their arms, which in our 
translation are properly enough rendered 
hands, were four in number, one on each side 
of the creature. The lower parts of the 
cherub, from the rim of the belly downwards, 
were probably either human thighs, legs, 
and feet, to which were appended, at the pos- 
teriors, the body and hind legs of an ox ; or, 
rather, the body and four legs of an ox, from 
which the human part seemed to rise, so that 
all below the rim of the belly was in the form 
of an ox, and all above was human. It would 
seem that the vision of Ezekiel, as well as 
that of Isaiah, was the resemblance of a 
moveable throne, or chariot, which was of 
prodigious dimensions, and upon which the 
conductor was supposed to sit. 

That the cherubic figures were emblems 
or representatives of something beyond 
themselves is agreed by all, both Jews and 
Christians. The question is, of what they 
were emblematical ? ' to this it is answered,' 
says Mr. Parkhurst, that ' those in the Holy 
of Holies were emblematical of the ever- 
blessed Trinity, in covenant to redeem man, 
by uniting the human nature to the Second 
274 



Person. This union was signified by the 
union of the faces of the lion and the man. 
(Ezek. i. 10.) The cherubs in the Holy of 
Holies were certainly intended to represent 
some being in heaven ; because St. Paul has 
expressly and infallibly determined, that 
the Holy of Holies was a figure or type 
of heaven, even of that heaven where is 
the peculiar residence of God. (Heb. ix. 24.) 
These cherubs, therefore, represented either 
the ever- blessed Trinity, with man taken into 
the essence, or created spiritual angels. 

' If it should be asked, since it appears 
that one compound Cherub solely was the re- 
presentative of the ever-blessed Three with 
the Man united to the Second Person, why 
were there two of these in the Holy of Holies ? 
— to this it is answered, that had there not 
in this place been two compound cherubs, it 
would have been naturally impossible for them 
to represent what was there designed ; for 
otherwise all the faces would not have look- 
ed inward towards each other, and down on 
the mercy-seat, and on the interceding high- 
priest sprinkling the typical blood of Christ, 
and at the same time have looked outwards 
towards the temple. In other words, the 
Divine Persons could not have been repre- 
sented as witnessing to each other's voluntary 
engagements for man's redemption, as be- 
holding the sacrifice of Christ's death, typi- 
fied in the Jewish church, and at the same 
time as extending their gracious regards to 
the whole world. See Isaiah, liv. 5. It 
would appear that in 1 Sam. vi. 20. the Beth- 
shemites call the Cherubim by the name of 
Jehovah Aleim ; and the Teraphim, a smaller 
sort of Cherubim, are also called Aleim. 
(Gen. xxxi. 30. 32; comp. 1 9. 34, andxxxv. 4.) 
' The coupled Cherub, or Lion-Man, on 
the vail and curtains of the outer tabernacle, 
and on the vail, doors, and walls of the 
temple, accompanied with the emblematic 
palm-tree, is such a striking emblem of the 
Lion of the tribe of Judah, (Rev. v. 5.) united 
to the Man Christ Jesus, as is easy to be 
perceived, but difficult to be evaded. 
These coupled Cherubs are appropriate to 
the tabernacle or temple and their vails, as 
emblems of Christ, and express in visible 
symbols what he and his apostles do in 
words. (See John ii. 19. 21. Heb. x. 20. ; 
comp. Matt, xxvii. 51.) As these pas- 
sages of the New Testament afford us suffi- 
cient authority for asserting that the ta- 
bernacle or temple, and their vails were types 
of the body of Christ; so they furnish us with 
an irrefragable argument to prove that the 
Cherubs on their curtains or walls could not 
represent angels. For angels did not dwell 
in Christ's body, but in him dwelleth all the 
fulness of the godhead bodily. (Col. ii. 9.) To 
obviate any undue prejudice, which may have 
been conceived against the Divine Persons 
being symbolically represented under any 
animal forms whatever, let it be remarked, 
that Jehovah appeared as Three Men to 



CHE 



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Abraham (Gen. xviii.) ; that the Serpent 
of brass, set up by God's command in the 
wilderness, was a type or emblem of Christ, 
God- Man, lifted up on the cross (Numbers 
xxi. 6 — 9. John iii. 14, 15.) ; that at Jesus's 
baptism the Holy Spirit descended in a 
bodily shape like a dove upon him (Luke iii. 
21, 22.) ; that Christ, as above intimated, 
is expressly called the Lion of the tribe of 
Judah (Rev. v. 5.) ; and that he is continu- 
ally in that symbolical book set before us 
under the similitude of a lamb. Why then 
should it appear as a thing incredible, yea 
why not highly probable, that Jehovah 
Aleim should, under the typical state, order 
his own Persons and the Union of the Man- 
hood with the Essence to be represented by 
animal forms in the Cherubim of Glory ? 
The three animal forms, exclusive of the 
man, who stood for the very human nature 
itself, are the chief of their respective ge- 
nera : the ox or bull, of the tame or gra- 
minivorous ; the lion, of the wild or car- 
nivorous ; and the eagle, of the winged 
kind. As the great agents in nature, which 
carry on all its operations, certainly are 
the fluid of the heavens, or in other words, 
the fire, at the orb of the sun, the light 
issuing from it, and the spirit or gross air 
constantly supporting, and concurring to 
the actions and effects of the other two; 
so we are told, (Psalm xix. 1.) that the hea- 
vens are the means of declaring, recounting, 
or particularly exhibiting the glory of God, even 
his eternal power and Godhead, as St. Paul 
speaks, (Rom. i. 20.) Since Jehovah is in 
Scripture represented by the immaterial hea- 
vens, and even called by their name, and es- 
pecially by that of fire ; since the Second and 
Third Persons, are exhibited respectively by 
the two conditions of light and spirit; and 
sincere is really a condition of the heavenly 
fluid, as much distinct from the other two as 
they are from each other ; it remains that 
the peculiar emblem of the First Person (as 
we usually speak) of the Eternal Trinity, 
considered with respect to the other two, 
be the fire. Bearing then in mind that 
the personality in Jehovah is in Scrip- 
ture represented by the material Tri- 
nity of Nature, which also, like their 
divine antitype, are of one substance; that 
the primary Scriptural type of the Father 
is fire ; of the Word, light ; and of the Holy 
Ghost, spirit or air in motion; we shall 
easily perceive the propriety of the che- 
rubic emblems. The ox, or bull, on account 
of his horns, the curling hair on his fore- 
head, and his unrelenting fury when pro- 
voked, (Psalm xxii. 12.) isa very proper ani- 
mal emblem of fire ; the lion, from his usual 
tawny gold-like colour, his flowing mane, 
his shining eyes, his great vigilancy, and 
his prodigious strength, of the light ; and 
the eagle, of the spirit, or air in motion, 
from his being the chief among fowls, from 
his impetuous motion (2 Sam. i. 23. Job 
275 



ix. 26. Jer. iv. 13. Lam. iv. 19.) ; and from 
his towering and surprising flights in the 
air. (Job xxxix. 27. Prov. xxiii. 5. ; xxx. 
19. Isaiah xl. 31.) The Heathens used 
these emblematic animals, or the like, some- 
times separate, sometimes joined, in various 
manners, as representatives of the material 
Trinity of nature, which they adored.' 

' Thus then the faces of the ox, the 
lion, and the eagle, representing at se- 
cond hand the three persons of Jehovah, 
the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spi- 
rit; and the union of the divine Light with 
Man being plainly pointed out by the 
union of the faces of the lion and the man, 
(Ezek. i. 10; xli. 18.) we may safely as- 
sert that the Cherubim of Glory, (Heb. ix. 
5.) in the Holy of Holies, were divinely in- 
stituted and proper emblems of the three 
Eternal Persons in covenant to redeem 
man, and of the union of the divine and 
human natures in the person of Christ. 
We find (Gen. iii. 24.) that immediately 
on Adam's expulsion from Paradise, and 
the cessation of the first or Paradisaical 
dispensation of religion, Jehovah Aleim 
himself set up these emblems, together 
with the burning flame rolling upon it- 
self, to keep the way to the tree of life, 
undoubtedly, considering the services per- 
formed before them, not to hinder, but 
to enable man to pass through it.' Some, 
however, think the arguments advanced on 
this subject not sufficiently conclusive. 

' The word 213 or 2113 kerub,' says Dr. 
Adam Clarke, ' never appears as a verb in 
the Hebrew Bible, and therefore is justly 
supposed to be a word compounded of 3 ke, 
a particle of resemblance, like to, like as, and 
21 rab, he was great, powerful, &c. Hence 
it is very likely that the cherubs, to whatever 
order of beings they belonged, were emblems 
of the All-mighty, and were those crea- 
tures, by whom he produced the great effects 
of his power. The word 31 rab is a charac- 
ter of the Most High. Prov. xxvi. 10 ; The 
great God who formed all; and again in Psalm 
xlviii. 2. where he is called the Great King.' 
Hence Dr. Clarke supposes, that the cheru- 
bim were emblematical representations of 
the eternal power and Godhead of the Al- 
mighty. 

In 2 Kings xix. 15. Psalm lxxx. 1. 
Isaiah xxxvii. 16. God is spoken of as dwell- 
ing, residing, between the Cherubim. The 
word between is supplied by our translators, 
who ought, perhaps, to have written above 
or over the Cherubim, since such is his re- 
lative situation in these visions. Parkhurst's 
Heb. and Eng. Lexicon, p. 340, octavo edit. 
1811.; Fragments attached to Calmefs Diet. 
No. clii. p. 120—129.; Dr. Adam Clarke's 
Comment, on Gen. iii. 24. 

CHILD. In Scripture, disciples are 

often called children or sons. Solomon, 

in his Proverbs, says to his disciph\ ' Hoar. 

my son.' The children of the devil, the 

t 2 



CHI 



CHI 



sons of Belial, are those who adopt, the 
maxims of the world arid the devil. The 
descendants of a man, how remote soever, 
are denominated his sons or children ; as 
the children of Edom, the children of 
Moab, the children of Israel. These ex- 
pressions, the children of light, the chil- 
dren of darkness, the children of the king- 
dom, signify those, who follow light, those 
who remain in darkness, and those, who 
belong to the kingdom. 

Persons arrived at almost the age of 
maturity, are called children. Thus, Jo- 
seph is called the child, though he was at 
least sixteen years old (Gen. xxxvii. 30.) ; 
and Benjamin even when above thirty, was 
so denominated. (Id. xliv. 20.) Men of 
full age are often called children. Thus 
Isaiah says, that the child shall die a hun- 
dred years old (Isaiah Ixv. 20.) ; that is, 
there shall be no more untimely deaths. 

By the Jewish law, children were reck- 
oned the property of their parents, who 
could sell them for seven years to pay their 
debts, and their creditors had also the power 
of compelling them to have recourse to 
this measure. The poor woman, whose oil 
Elisha increased so much as enabled her 
to pay her husband's debts, complained to 
the prophet, that, her husband being 
dead, the creditor was come to take away 
her two sons to be bondmen. (2 Kings 
iv. 1.) 

Children, or sons of God, is a name, by 
which the angels are sometimes described : 
' There was a day when the sons of God 
came to present themselves before the Lord.' 
(Job i. 6. ; ii. 1.) Good men, in opposition 
to the wicked, are also thus denominated ; 
the children of Seth's family, in opposition 
to those of Cain. ' The sons of God saw 
the daughters of men.' (Gen. vi. 2.) Or, 
perhaps, what is translated, ' the sons of 
God,' may be rendered ' the sons of the 
dignitaries' Judges, magistrates, priests, 
are also termed children of God: — ' I have 
said ye are gods, and all of you are the 
children of the Most High.' (Psalm Ixxxii. 
6.) Israelites are called sons of God, in 
opposition to the Gentiles. (Hos. i. 10. 
John xi. 52.) In the New Testament, be- 
lievers are commonly called children of 
God, by virtue of their adoption, and the 
prerogative, which Christ purchased for them 
by the merit of his death and sufferings. 
(John i 12.) Paul, in several places, extols 
the advantages of being adopted sons of 
God. (Rom. viii. 14. Gal. iii. 26.) 

Children, or sons, of men is a name given 
to Cain's family before the deluge, and, 
in particular, to the giants, who were vio- 
lent men, and had corrupted their ways. 
Afterwards, the impious, the wicked, Israel- 
ites were thus called : 'O ye sons of men, 
how long will ye love vanity?' (Psalm iv. 
2.) ' The sons of men, whose teeth are 
spears and arrowjs.' (Psalm lvii. 4.) But 
276 



very often by sons of men, mankind in ge- 
neral are to be understood : ' What is the 
son of man that thou visitest him?' (Psalm 
viii. 4.) ' His eyelids try the children of 
men.' (Psalm xi. 4.) 

CHIMNEY occurs only once in our ver- 
sion of the Bible, (Hos. xiii. 3.); but we are 
not to suppose, that either the Hebrews or 
Egyptians had chimneys like ours. In Pa- 
lestine, Arabia, and Egypt, the people use 
little fire, because those countries are very 
hot ; and their fire consists of coals laid on 
a hearth, or in a foot stove. 

CHIOS, XXog, signifies an opening, and 
is an island next to Lesbos, in the Archipe- 
lago. It is situated opposite to Smyrna, 
and not above four leagues from the Asiatic 
continent. St. Paul, sailing from Mitylene, 
came the next day over against Chios. (Acts 
xx. 15.) 

CHIT'TIM. Isaiah, speaking of the 
destruction of Tyre by king Nebuchadnez- 
zar, says, ' Howl ye ships of Tarshish ; for 
it (Tyre) is laid waste, so that there is no 
house, no entering in : from the land of 
Chittim it is revealed to them.' (Isaiah xxiii. 
1.) If Chittim signifies Macedonia, how is 
it said, that the destruction of Tyre, occa- 
sioned by Nebuchadnezzar, should come 
from Chittim ? Might it not be more pro- 
perly interpreted, as relating to the de- 
struction of that city by Alexander the 
Great ? In fact, it has been sufficiently 
proved by some late writers, that this pro- 
phecy of Isaiah has no relation to the Tyre, 
which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. It 
relates solely to Insular Tyre, and to the 
conquest of it by Alexander, in the year 
332 before Christ, when this great city was 
entirely demolished, and most of the inha- 
bitants slain. Those who remained, and 
escaped not to Carthage, were sold for 
slaves to the Greeks, and were sent cap- 
tives to Macedonia; and so, as in the 12th 
verse, they passed over to Chittim, where 
they had no rest. . The Tyre taken by Ne- 
buchadnezzar was an inland city called Old 
Tyre, the ancient seat of the Tyrian 
kings, to which the Insular Tyre was sub- 
ject. By the word Chittim, Basnage un- 
derstands the Cuthaeans, inhabitants of the 
Susiana near Babylon, who marched under 
Nebuchadnezzar, and assisted at the siege 
of Tyre. But it is asked, in what place of 
Scripture are the Cuthaeans named Chittim ? 
Bochart supposes the Romans to be meant 
by Chittim ; but the Romans were not con- 
cerned in the seige of Tyre, here mention- 
ed by Isaiah. 

Calmet and Le Clerc are of opinion, that 
Chittim is the same as Macedonia, which 
was peopled by Kittim, the son of Javan, 
and grandson of Noah. Calmet translates 
the Hebrew of Isaiah as follows : ' Howl, 
ye ships of Tarshish, because Tyre is de- 
stroyed within : it is open on the side where 
people enter, who come from Chittim.' They 



CHI 



CHO 



came from Macedonia to Tyre by sea. The 
city was supposed impregnable on this side, 
because it was surrounded by the sea. Yet 
the prophet foretels, that it should be taken, 
laid waste, and open on this side. He 
also says, that it should be ravaged from 
within, by its own inhabitants, and that the 
citizens or soldiers, who defended it, should 
be divided among themselves. Jeremiah, 
reproaching the Israelites with their in- 
constancy in the religion of their fore- 
fathers, says, ' Pass over the isles of Chit- 
tim, and see; and send into Kedar, and 
consider diligently, and see if there be such 
a thing. Hath a nation changed their 
gods, which are yet no gods.' (Jer. ii. 10, 
11.) The prophet speaks of the country of 
Macedonia, under the name of the isles of 
Chittim, after the manner of the Hebrews, 
who thus denominated peninsulas and mari- 
time countries. 

By Chittim, the author of the first book 
of Maccabees understands Macedonia. He 
calls Alexander king of Chittim (1 Mac. 
i. 1.); and he says, that Perseus, king of 
Chittim, was overcome by the Romans. 
(Id. viii. 5) The prophecy of Balaam, as 
Le Clerc observes, fully proves that by the 
word Chittim in Scripture is meant Mace- 
donia : ' And ships shall come from the 
coast of Chittim, and shall afflict Asshur.' 
(Numb. xxiv. 24.) Now the Assyrians 
were conquered by Alexander and his suc- 
cessors ; and the Romans did not enter 
Assyria, till they had become masters of 
Parthia. 

It may, however, be doubted, whether 
the word Chittim should be restrained to 
Macedonia, which was not particularly a 
maritime country. It might include all 
Greece, at least the islands of the Archi- 
pelago, and perhaps up the Bosphorus, 
since vessels might thence navigate to Tyre, 
as at present they do to Egypt, &c. It 
might , include the Greek colonies in the 
Mediterranean, and consequently, Sicily, 
Sardinia, and much of Italy. This would 
seem also to be the opinion of bishop 
Lowth, who thus translates the passage in 
Isaiah : 

' Howl, O ye ships of Tarshish ! 

For she is utterly destroyed both within 
and without : 

From the land of Chittim the tidings are 
brought unto them.' 

The bishop observes in a note on the 
place, that the news of the destruction of 
Tyre is said to be brought to them from 
Chittim, the islands and coasts of the Medi- 
terranean. 

In fact, Chittim, and the isles of Chittim, 
seem to denote, in general, the maritime 
countries and islands of the Mediterranean, 
Greece, Italy, Crete, Cyprus, Corsica, &c. 
Homes Introduction, vol. iii. p. 570. ; Lowth' s 
Notes on Isaiah. 

CHI'UN, a word which occurs in the 
277 



Hebrew of Amos (v. 26.) and which the 
translators of our English Bible have re- 
tained. According to Calmet, the literal 
translation of the passage is as follows : 
' But ye have borne the tabernacle of your 
kings, and the pedestal (the Chiun) of 
your images, the star of your gods, which 
ye made to yourselves.' By our transla- 
tors it is thus rendered: ' But ye have 
borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and 
Chiun your images, the star of your god, 
which ye made to yourselves.' The passage 
is thus cited by St. Luke, in the Acts of 
the Apostles : ' Ye took up the tabernacle of 
Moloch, and the star of your god Remphan, 
figures, which ye have made to worship 
them.' (Acts vii. 43.) The Septuagint 
also read Paicpdv, probably instead of Chiun. 
Some think that three false deities are here 
named ; Moloch, Chiun, and Remphan. 
Others are of opinion, that the three names 
mean only one god ; that is, Saturn and his 
planet. Salmasius and Kircher assert, that 
Kijoun is Saturn, whose star is called Keiran 
among the Persians, and Arabians, and that 
Remphan or Raiphan denoted the same 
among the Egyptians. They add, that the 
Septuagint, writing in Egypt, changed the 
word Chiun into Remphan or Raiphan, be- 
cause it had the same signification. Bas- 
nage, in his Jewish antiquities, says, that 
Moloch was the sun; and Chiun, Chion, 
or Raiphan, the moon. 

On the word Chiun, Mr. Parkhurst ob- 
serves, that as it is evident the Cherubim 
in the Holy of Holies of the tabernacle, 
and no doubt in Solomon's Temple also, 
were constantly attended by a supernatural 
light or glory, and as the idolaters could 
not procure this supernatural glory to their 
images, it is no wonder that they endeavour- 
ed to imitate it as well as they could by the 
splendour of burnished metal, gold, silver, and 
precious stones. Since in Amos, the idolaters 
are said to have borne the chiun of their 
images, that word may denote either some 
glorious, resplendent seat or throne, on which 
their idols were placed, and occasionally car- 
ried in procession ; or else it may signify 
the lustre of their idols, themselves shining 
with gold and precious stones. Parkhurst' s 
Hebrew and English Lexicon, p. 31*0, edit. 
1811. 

CHORA'ZIN, Xopa'Civ, signifies this se- 
cret, or this mystery. Chorazin was a town 
of Judea, generally supposed to have been 
situated on the Sea of Galilee, and not far 
from Capernaum, and consequently on the 
western coast of that sea. Chorazin is not 
found in the Old Testament : and though it 
is reckoned among the cities, in which most 
of our Saviour's miracles were performed, 
yet it is mentioned only by two of the Evan- 
gelists, St. Matthew and 5St. Luke, and by 
them only in a discourse, in which our 
Lord upbraids it for its infidelity. (Man. \i 
21. Luke x. 13.) Wells's Geog. vol. ii. p. 172. 



CHO 



CHR 



CHOREPISCOPI. In the first century, 
the bishops, who lived in cities, had erected 
new churches in the neighbouring towns 
and villages. These churches, continuing 
under the inspection and ministry of the 
bishops, imperceptibly became ecclesiastical 
provinces, which the Greeks afterwards 
called dioceses. But as the bishop of the 
city could not extend his labours and in- 
spection to all these churches, he appointed 
certain deputies to govern and instruct the 
new societies. These deputies were deno- 
minated chorepiscopi, Trig %o)pag £7ri(TK07roi, 
bishops of the country. This order held a 
middle rank between bishops and presby- 
ters, being inferior to the former, and supe- 
rior to the latter. Mosheim, vol. i. p. 86. 

CHRIST, a Greek word, which is a title 
of office, signifies anointed, and corresponds 
with the Hebrew Messiah. See Jesus and 
Messiah. 

CHRISTIAN, a disciple of Jesus Christ. 
At Antioch, where Paul and Barnabas 
jointly preached the Christian religion, the 
disciples were first called Christians, (Acts 
xi. 26.) in the year of our Lord 43. They 
generally called themselves brethren, faith- 
ful, saints, and believers. They were also 
named Nazarenes by the Jews, and Gali- 
leans by the Gentiles. Epiphanius says, 
that they were sometimes denominated Jes- 
seans, from Jesse, the father of David, or 
more probably, from the name of Jesus. 
Many have been of opinion, that Christian 
was originally derived from the Greek chres- 
tos, good, useful; and Suetonius, speaking 
of Claudius and his expelling the Jews from 
Rome, says, he banished them, because 
they were continually quarrelling concern- 
ing Chrestus. Christ, says Lactantius, is 
not a proper name, but one that denotes 
power ; for the Jews used to give this appel- 
lation to their kings, whom they called 
Christs, or anointed, by reason of their sa- 
cred unction. He adds, that the heathens 
by mistake called Jesus Christ ' Chrestus.' 
Tertullian says, that ' the name of Christian 
comes from the unction received by Jesus 
Christ ; and that of Chrestianus, which you 
sometimes through mistake give us (for you 
are not particularly acquainted with our 
name,) signifies that gentleness and benig- 
nity, which we profess.' 

CHRISTIANITY, one of the four grand 
systems of religion, derived its name 
from its Divine Author, Jesus Christ, the 
Son of God, and the Saviour of the world. 
Judaism, which contains the only pre- 
ceding revelation of the will of God, 
was introductory to Christianity ; and the 
lineage, birth, life, sufferings, death, and 
resurrection of the Messiah, that is, of 
Jesus Christ, were minutely predicted by 
a succession of Jewish prophets, and in 
particular by Isaiah, who has hence been 
styled the evangelical prophet. These 
prophecies were exactly fulfilled ; and 
278 



Jesus Christ was miraculously born at 
Bethlehem of Judea, about the year of the 
world 4004, or about 1834 years ago, in 
the reign of Augustus Caesar, emperor of 
Rome, and of Herod, tributary king of 
Judea. During his life, he chiefly con- 
fined the benefits of his personal ministry 
to the Jews ; but after his resurrection, he 
commissioned the twelve persons, whom 
he had chosen from the number of his dis- 
ciples, and who were afterwards called 
apostles, to go and instruct all nations in 
the nature and principles of his religion, 
and to introduce them by baptism into 
that society, of which he was the consti- 
tuted head. Notwithstanding the violent 
opposition, by which Christianity was en- 
countered, the number of Christians daily 
increased, and their religion, assisted by 
its Divine Author, soon made a wonderful 
progress in the Roman empire, and over- 
spread nearly the whole part of the world, 
which was known at that time. Tertul- 
lian says, that, in the third century, Christ- 
ians were found in the camp, in the 
senate, in the palace, and, in short, every 
where except in the temples and the the- 
atres; they filled the towns, the country, 
and the islands. Men and women, of all 
ages and conditions, and even those of the 
highest rank and dignity, embraced the 
Christian faith ; and the Pagans complained 
that the revenues of their temples were 
ruined. The late Dr. Porteus says, ' By 
the time the empire became Christian, 
there is every reason to believe, that the 
Christians were more numerous and more 
powerful than the Pagans.' Thus did 
the word of God mightily prevail. In a 
few years after the expiration of the first 
three centuries, the cross was waving in 
the banners of victorious armies, and many 
of the kingdoms of the world became ' the 
kingdoms of our God and of his Christ.' 
Constantine was the first Christian em- 
peror, and established Christianity as the 
religion of the empire. By edicts issued 
A.D. 324, he exhorted all his subjects to 
receive and embrace the Gospel. 

Evidences. In proof that his religion is 
divine, the Christian can refer to some un- 
contested and incontestable evidences. A 
Jewish peasant changed the religion of the 
world, without force, without power, 
without support, and without any natural 
source or circumstance of attraction, in- 
fluence, or success. Such an event hath 
not taken place in any other instance, and 
plainly proves the work of a hand Divine. 
In addition to this, the great truths of 
Christianity possess clear and incontrover- 
tible evidence, and such evidence as has 
been acknowledged by the wisest and best 
of men ; by the Bacons, the Boyles, the 
Lockes, the Miltons, the Newtons, and the 
Halleys of every age. They possess an 
evidence not written with pen and ink, 



CHR 



CHIt 



nor inscribed on the fleshly tables of man's 
heart, but the evidence of the Spirit, 
' which they that believe on Jesus shall re- 
ceive.' 

The evidences of Christianity have 
been divided into external and internal, 
and are briefly comprised under the fol- 
lowing heads : historical testimony ; the 
miracles recorded in the New Testament ; 
the exact accomplishment of the prophe- 
cies ; the rapid spread of the Gospel, not- 
withstanding the violent opposition with 
which it was encountered ; the consist- 
ency of the several parts of the inspired 
pages with each other; the purity and 
perfection of its doctrines and precepts ; 
their agreement with the moral attributes 
and perfections of the Deity ; their suita- 
bleness with the present state of man ; 
and their benevolent tendency to promote 
the good of society, and advance the pre- 
sent, as well as future happiness of man- 
kind. 

If the Celsi and Porphyrii have been 
numerous, Christianity has never wanted 
its Justins and its Origens. Besides the 
ancient apologists and defenders, to whom 
the reader is referred, he may also advan- 
tageously consult the works of Fabricius, 
Huetius, and Walchius ; and it will be 
necessary that he should peruse one or 
more of the well known treatises of Gro- 
tius, Addison, Bryant, Leslie, Lardner, 
Beattie, and Paley. The late Bishop of 
London published A Summary of the Prin- 
cipal Evidences for the Truth and Divine Ori- 
gin of the Christian Religion, than which no 
work on the subject is more methodical and 
familiar, or better calculated for the instruc- 
tion of youth, for whose use it was chiefly 
designed. 

Doctrines and Precepts. Almost all 
Christians, of all denominations, appeal to 
the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- 
ment as the ultimate standard, and the only 
infallible rule of faith and manners ; and 
they agree in rejecting, as an article of faith, 
whatever is not actually expressed in these 
writings, or fairly deducible from them. 
These writings they believe to have been 
given by immediate inspiration from God. 
Though the authority of one inspired writer, 
in a matter that is clear and unequivocal, 
is sufficient for the establishment of any 
article of faith, yet the principles of the 
Christian religion are to be collected, not 
from a single Gospel, nor from all the four 
Gospels, nor from the four Gospels with 
the Acts and the Epistles, but from the 
whole code of revelation, consisting of the 
canonical books of the Old and New Testa- 
ment. 

Christianity may be divided into credenda, 
or doctrines, and agenda or precepts. A 
summary of the former is contained in what 
is called the Apostles' Creed ; and the lat- 
ter may be collected from the discourses 
270 



of our Saviour, and the writings of his 
apostles. 

The being and the attributes of God are 
truths, on which all religion is founded. The 
eternal existence of the Deity ; his omni- 
presence ; his infinite power, wisdom, and 
goodness ; his holiness ; his justice ; and 
his other unbounded perfections ; were in- 
culcated on the Jews by express revelation. 
The same truths form the foundation of 
Christianity. In this indivisible essence 
most Christians recognise three distinct 
subsistences, yet distinguished in such a 
manner as not to be incompatible with es- 
sential unity, or simplicity of being ; and 
their essential union is also not incompati- 
ble with their personal distinction. Each 
of them possesses the same nature and pro- 
perties, and to the same extent. If we 
may use the expression, they are consti- 
tuent of one God, and no one of them is 
subordinate, no one supreme. They are 
severally denominated the Father, the Son, 
and the Holy Ghost ; and the only way, by 
which we can discriminate them, is by 
their various relations, properties and of- 
fices. Thus the Father is said eternally 
to beget the Son, the Son to be eternally 
begotten of the Father, and the Holy Ghost 
eternally to proceed from both. The mode 
of union existing between these Three 
Persons is to us unknown and incompre- 
hensible, because God has not unfolded it 
to man ; but we acknowledge the Trinity 
of persons, and the union between them, 
because these are revealed to us in the 
Scriptures. 

The other leading doctrines of the New 
Testament, relate to the corruption of hu- 
man nature ; to the remedy for this corrup- 
tion, or to the nature and offices of Jesus 
Christ ; to the application of the remedy, or 
to the nature and offices of the Holy Ghost; 
and to the resurrection, and the future 
judgment. 

1. Besides the other evils and misfor- 
tunes, which our first parents brought 
upon themselves, by, listening to the sug- 
gestions of Satan, and breaking that 
single commandment, the observance of 
which God had enjoined as the test of their 
obedience, they lost their original holiness 
and righteousness, the image and likeness of 
Jehovah in which they were created, and 
became depraved and corrupted. Ever since 
that time, mankind have been naturally in- 
clined to evil, and averse to that which is 
good. The influence of this original depra- 
vation of nature affects every individual, and 
at every period of life. To this corruption 
of our nature, the Christian Scriptures refer, 
directly, or indirectly, on many occasions, 
and in the clearest manner ; and, indeed, 
on that corruption the whole plan of Christ- 
ianity is established. But we do not be- 
lieve it merely as a truth clearly revealed 
in Scripture ; the universal corruption of 



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our nature is also a fact demonstrated by 
experience. 

2. Man having sinned, death, the pe- 
nalty of sin, must be suffered in the same 
nature in which it was incurred ; but man 
could not undergo this penalty, and suffer 
all the consequences of sin, without being 
excluded for ever from happiness and from 
heaven. In compassion, therefore, to our 
ruined and hopeless state, Jesus Christ, the 
Son of God, left the bosom of his Father in 
heaven, took upon him our nature, and by 
his meritorious death and passion, and by 
what he performed and suffered in our 
stead, redeemed us from the fatal conse- 
quences of the fall, restored us to the favour 
of God, and ' opened the kingdom of heaven 
to all believers.' This doctrine of the atone- 
ment for sin, made by Jesus Christ, the 
Son of God himself, and both God and man 
in one person, together with the principles, 
on which it is founded, and the conse- 
quences, which flow from it, distinguishes 
Christianity from all other religions. 

3. To secure to mankind the benefits of 
the redemption purchased by Jesus Christ 
with his blood, it was necessary to enable 
them to become the sons of God, and to 
walk worthy of the high and holy vocation, 
to which they were called. This also the 
Saviour of the world performed, by the 
powerful aids and assistance of the Holy 
Spirit. He promised his disciples, that 
after his own departure he would send to 
them from the Father the Holy Ghost, the 
Comforter, who should teach them all things, 
show them things to come, bring to their 
remembrance whatsoever he himself had 
said to them, guide them into all truth, en- 
due them with power from on high, and 
enable them to overcome all worldly oppo- 
sition. These promises, made partly before, 
and partly after, his resurrection from the 
dead, were faithfully accomplished. Many 
are the proofs, which the Scriptures afford, 
respecting the divinity and distinct per- 
sonality both of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost, whose benign influences are thus 
necessary to qualify us for the enjoyment of 
the blessings purchased by Christ. 

4. Christianity has revealed to man, that 
in the unknown and unbounded realms of 
Omnipotence, an habitation is reserved for 
him ; an habitation of bliss or of misery, 
according to his conduct on earth. It has 
revealed to him, that all his thoughts, words, 
and actions, shall be examined in the pre- 
sence of assembled men and angels, on the 
great day appointed for judgment, before 
the throne of Jesus Christ, who is ordained 
by the Father to be judge both of the quick 
and the dead. It has revealed to him that 
his mortal body shall be raised from the 
grave, be re-united to his soul, rendered 
like his soul immortal, and be partaker 
with it of reward or of punishment. With- 
out doubt for wise and good reasons, the 

280 



state of happiness, and the state of misery, 
severally prepared for the righteous, and 
for the wicked and ungodly, are not de- 
scribed to us in detail. In the opinion of 
most Christians, each is great in the ex- 
treme, and each is unchangeable and eter- 
nal. 

However, Christianity is not a rule 
merely of faith, but of life and manners; 
In vain it is heard, believed, professed, 
and even defended, if it be not obeyed. 
Its precepts are unquestionably holy and 
excellent; and it teaches the purest mo- 
rality in all its just and noble extent, as 
comprehending the whole of our duty 
towards God, our neighbour, and our- 
selves. The idea, which it gives of piety 
towards God, is venerable, amiable, and 
engaging; the external worship of God, 
which it prescribes, is pure and spiritual, 
and possesses a noble simplicity; and its 
public ordinances, as instituted in the 
Gospel, are few in number, easy of observ- 
ance, and excellent in their use and signi- 
fication. According to this religion, the 
two grand principles of action are love to 
God, which is the sovereign passion in 
every pious mind ; and love to man, which 
regulates our actions in our various rela- 
tions. The love of man, which Christianity 
inspires and inculcates, can never be wholly 
extinguished by any temporary injuries, 
but is extended in some degree even to 
enemies. It requires, that we should par- 
don the offences of others against us, as we 
expect pardon for our own more heinous 
offences against God ; and that we should 
no farther resist evil than is necessary for 
the preservation of personal rights and so- 
cial happiness. It dictates every relative 
and reciprocal duty between parents and 
children, masters, and servants, governors 
and subjects, husbands and wives, friends 
and friends, men and men. It does not 
merely enjoin the observance of equity, but 
also inspires the most sublime and exten- 
sive charity ; a boundless and disinterested 
effusion of tenderness for the whole human 
race. It teaches us to regulate not only 
the outward actions, but the inward affec- 
tions and dispositions of the soul ; to labour 
after real purity of heart, simplicity, and 
godly sincerity, without which no outward 
appearances can be pleasing in the sight of 
God, whom it describes as of purer eyes 
than to behold iniquity. It strikes at the 
root of all our corruptions and disorders, by 
correcting in our breasts that inordinate 
self-love, which causes us to centre all our 
views in our own pleasure, or glory, or in- 
terest, and by instructing and enabling us 
to mortify and subdue our sensual appetites 
and passions. It is designed to assert the 
dominion of the rational and moral powers 
over the inferior part of our nature, or of 
the spirit over the flesh, which alone can 
lay a just foundation for that moral liberty, 



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and that tranquillity of mind, which it is the 
endeavour of all true philosophy and true 
religion to procure and establish. In short, 
it inculcates a morality not only superior to 
the deductions of human reason, but en- 
forced on new principles and motives, and 
strengthened by additional considerations, 
derived from the highest source, and direct- 
ed to the noblest end. It is pregnant with 
genuine comfort and real consolation to the 
sincere Christian, and teaches him that all 
the trials, and losses, and misfortunes, and 
difficulties, to which he is exposed, are 
nothing in comparison with the hopes and 
prospects of futurity. 

Though, says the late Dr. Porteus, Christi- 
anity has not always been so well under- 
stood, nor so honestly practised, as it ought 
to have been; though its spirit has been 
frequently mistaken, and its precepts have 
been misapplied ; yet it has produced a 
gradual and visible change in those points, 
which most materially concern the peace 
and tranquillity of the world. ' Its benefi- 
cent spirit has spread' itself through all the 
different relations and modifications of life, 
and communicated its kindly influence to 
almost every public and private concern of 
mankind. It has insensibly worked itself 
into the inmost frame and constitution of 
civil states. It has given a tinge to the 
complexion of their governments, to the 
temper and administration of their laws. 
It has restrained the spirit of the prince, 
and the madness of the people. It has 
softened the rigour of despotism, and tamed 
the insolence of conquest. It has in some 
degree taken away the edge of the sword, 
and thrown even over the horrors of war 
a veil of mercy. It has descended into 
families, has diminished the pressure of pri- 
vate tyranny ; improved every domestic 
endearment ; given tenderness to the parent, 
humanity to the master, respect to supe- 
riors, to inferiors ease ; so that mankind 
are upon the whole, even in a temporal 
view, under infinite obligations to the 
mild and pacific temper of the Gospel, and 
have reaped from it more substantial 
worldly benefits than from any other insti- 
tution upon earth. As one proof of this 
(among many others), consider only the 
shocking carnage made in the human species 
by the exposure of infants, and the gladiato- 
rial shows, which sometimes cost Europe 
twenty or thirty thousand lives in a month ; 
and the exceedingly cruel usage of slaves, 
allowed and practised by the ancient 
Pagans. These were not the accidental and 
temporary excesses of a sudden fury, but 
were legal and established, and constant 
methods of murdering and tormenting man- 
kind. Had Christianity done nothing more 
than brought into disuse (as it confessedly 
has done) the two former of these inhuman 
customs entirely, and the latter to a very 
great degree, it had justly merited the 
281 



title of the benevolent religion : but this 
is far from being all. Throughout the 
more enlightened parts of Christendom 
there prevails a gentleness of manners 
widely different from the ferocity of the 
most civilized nations of antiquity; and 
that liberality, with which every species of 
distress is relieved, is a virtue peculiar to 
the Christian name.' The late Dr. Paley 
observes, that ' the benefit of religion, being 
felt chiefly in the obscurity of private sta- 
tions, necessarily escapes the observation of 
history. From the first general notification 
of Christianity to the present day, there have 
been, in every age, many millions, whose 
names were never heard of, made better by 
it, not only in their conduct, but in their 
disposition ; and happier, not so much in 
their external circumstances, as in that 
which is inter prcecordia, in that which alone 
deserves the name of happiness, the tran- 
quillity and consolation of their thoughts. 
it has been, since its commencement, the 
author of happiness and virtue to millions 
and millions of the human race ' Dr. 
Knox says, ' I should love the religion of 
Christ, even as a heathen philosopher and 
philanthropist, for its beneficent effects on 
the human race. It is the guide of youth, 
the support of age, the repose of the weary, 
and the refuge of the miserable. It arrests 
the hand of the oppressor, by appalling 
his conscience ; or, if haply the oppressor 
should prevail, it teaches the oppressed to 
look with confidence to a Deliverer, mighty 
to save.' 

For a more detailed account of the 
doctrines and duties of Christianity, see 
Dr. Hammond on The Fundamentals, in 
the first volume of his works ; Bishop 
Pearson On the Creed; Bishop Bull's 
works; Bishop GastrelFs Christian Insti- 
tutes; and Mr. Gisborne's Survey of the 
Christian Religion. 

Authors, who have written in defence of, 
and against Christianity. — In addition to 
those, to whom we have already referred, 
we shall mention only a few others. The 
apologies of Justin Martyr, Minucius 
Felix, and Tertullian among the ancients ; 
together with Jenkin's Reasonableness and 
Certainty of the Christian Religion, Bishop 
Stillingfleet's Origines Sacra, and Sermons 
preached at Boyle's Lectures, and collected 
in three volumes, folio, 1739, will be found 
highly useful. Bishop Newton on The Pro- 
phecies, may be also consulted with advan- 
tage, and Mr. Rett's valuable work, History 
the Interpreter of Prophecy ; and Mr. Hume's 
abstruse and sophistical Argument against 
Miracles, will be found completely refuted by 
Drs. Adams, Campbell, and Paley. 

Celsus, Porphyry, and Julian the Apos- 
tate, are perhaps the most distinguished 
opposers of Christianity among the an- 
cients; and in later times, Lords Herbert 
and Bolingbroke, Hobbcs, Hume, Gib 



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bon, Voltaire, and Thomas Paine, have 
stood foremost in the ranks of infidelity. 
In our days, schemes have been formed, 
and plans artfully and deeply laid, for the 
extirpation of Christianity. Many of 
the most distinguished literati and others 
on the continent of Europe, entered into 
a conspiracy for the express purpose of 
banishing the very name of Christianity 
from the world ; but, notwithstanding all 
the art, zeal, and exertions employed for 
effecting it, their design has hitherto in a 
great measure failed, and will doubtless 
finally prove abortive. Christians know 
who has said, that ' the gates of hell shall 
not prevail' against their religion. 

Countries where found, number of Christ- 
ians, Sfc. — The grand sub- divisions of the 
Christian religion are the Greek and 
Eastern churches, the former of which is 
subject to the patriarch of Constantinople ; 
the Church of Rome, or the Roman Ca- 
tholics, who acknowledge the authority of 
the pope ; and the Protestant or Reformed 
Churches, by whose members that autho- 
rity is rejected. The Greek and Eastern 
Churches, including the Armenians, Nes- 
torians, Coptes or Cophts, &c. compre- 
hend all Christians in European and 
Asiatic Turkey, viz. in Greece, the Grecian 
Islands, Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Pa- 
lestine, and Arabia; in Astracan, Casan, 
Georgia, and Mingrelia; in Egypt, Nubia 
and Abyssinia ; and almost all those in the 
Russian empire, both in Europe and Asia. 
The church of Rome is established in Italy, 
Sardinia, Portugal, France, Spain, and their 
dependencies j in many of the states of 
Germany, and in seven of the Swiss can- 
tons. It also comprehends many Christians 
in Great Britain, Ireland, and other Pro- 
testant countries in Europe, as well as in 
Asia, America, the West Indies, &c. The 
Protestant, or Reformed Churches, includ- 
ing the Lutherans, Calvinists, the united 
church of England and Ireland, &c. are es- 
tablished in Great Britain and Ireland, 
Sweden, Denmark, Norway, many states of 
Germany, part of Switzerland, &c. Many 
Christians also in Asia, and most of those in 
North America, the West Indies, &c. are 
Protestants. 

All the inhabitants of Europe profess 
the Christian religion, except those who 
are Jews ; about two-thirds of the inhabit- 
ants of Turkey, who are Mahometans ; 
and some of the Laplanders, and others 
inhabiting the extreme northern parts, 
who are Pagans. In Asia, the greatest 
part of the empire of Russia, the countries 
of Circassia and Mingrelia, Georgia, and 
mount Libanus, are inhabited only by 
Christians ; in every other part of Asiatic 
Turkey, and in all the eastern dominions 
of Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, 
and Holland, great numbers of Christians 
are to be found. Roman Catholic mis- 
282 



sionaries have long been employed in pro- 
pagating their doctrines in the most distant 
regions of Asia ; and Protestant mission- 
aries of various denominations of Christ- 
ians, besides those sent out and supported 
by the Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge, are now engaged in publishing 
the important truths of Christianity, in the 
different countries of the East. In Africa, 
besides the Christians in Egypt, called 
Coptes or Cophts, and in the kingdoms of 
Congo and Angola, the islands on the west- 
ern coasts, and also the large kingdom of 
Abyssinia, are inhabited by Christians. 
They are likewise numerous in all the de- 
pendencies of European powers in Africa ; 
as at Melinda, &c. in Zanquebar, at the 
Cape of Good Hope, Sierra Leone, &c. &c. 
Christianity also prevails in all the domi- 
nions of Europeans on the large continent 
of America, as well as in the West Indies 
and other American islands. The Christ- 
ians that extend farthest north and south, 
as in Canada and the Portuguese settle- 
ments, are Roman Catholics, whose religion 
is also established in all the American domi- 
nions belonging to Spain. 

It is, however, a painful truth, that the 
spread of Christianity is of small extent, 
if compared with Paganism or Mahometan- 
ism. By an ingenious calculation, it has 
been found, that, were the known inha- 
bited world divided into thirty parts, nine- 
teen of them are still possessed by Pa- 
gans, six by Jews and Mahometans, two 
by Christians of the Greek and Eastern 
Churches, and three by those of the 
Church of Rome and the Protestant com- 
munion. If we consider the number of 
inhabitants on the surface of the globe, 
the proportion of Christians to other reli- 
gionists is not much greater. According 
to a calculation published in a pamphlet 
in 1792, the inhabitants of the world 
amount to about 732,000,000; of whom 
only about 174,000,000, are Christians, 
viz. 100,000,000 of Roman Catholics, 
44,000,000 of Protestants, and 30,000,000 in 
the Greek and Eastern Churches. All these 
united do not form a fourth part of the popu- 
lation of the world. Adam's Religious World, 
vol. i. p. 159, &c. 

CHRISTIANS of St. JOHN, a sect of 
Christians, who derive their name from 
their baptism, and from their peculiar ve- 
neration for St. John the Baptist. They 
formerly inhabited the country near Jor- 
dan, but were afterwards obliged to flee 
for refuge from the persecutions of the 
successors of Mahomet into Mesopotamia 
and Chaldaea. De la Valle is of opinion, 
that these Christians might be the offspring 
of those Jews, who received the baptism 
of St. John. Their religion is a compound 
of Judaism, Christianity, and Mahometan- 
ism. Tavernier says, that these Christ- 
ians are in great numbers at Balsara, or 



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Bassora. They distinguish themselves hy 
the name of the disciples of St. John, from 
whom they say that they received their 
faith, their religious treatises, and their 
customs. They celebrate a solemn annual 
festival, which is continued for five days ; 
and, at this time they present themselves 
in a. numerous body before their bishops 
to receive, or, more properly speaking, to 
repeat, the baptism of John. They bap- 
tize only in rivers, and at no other time 
than on a Sunday. The ceremony of 
baptism is performed in the name of God 
only. They do not acknowledge Jesus 
Christ to be God, nor the Son of God ; 
but they consider him as a person greatly 
inferior to John the Baptist. Yet, they 
call him, as the Mahometans do, the Spirit 
of God. Every thing they say respecting 
Jesus Christ and his mission is replete with 
fiction and absurdity. Their ideas con- 
cerning the third person in the Trinity are 
equally ridiculous. In their sacred book 
called the Divan, are comprised the doc- 
trines and mysteries of their religion. This 
book is extremely fabulous, and full of 
the grossest errors. Kurd on Religions, 
p. 373, &c. 

CHRISTIANS of St. THOMAS, Christ- 
ians who inhabit the coasts of Malabar and 
Travancore in India, and on whom the 
Portuguese bestowed the name of St. 
Thome Christians, probably from their first 
bishop and founder Mar Thome, in the 
fifth or sixth century. Hence the Por- 
tuguese missionaries maintain, that St. 
Thomas the Apostle preached the Gospel 
in India, and suffered martyrdom at Mal- 
liapoor, now St. Thome. Some say, that 
they were originally a colony of Nestorians, 
who fled from the dominions of the Greek 
emperors, after Theodosius II. had begun 
to persecute that sect. Certain it is, that 
they must have arrived in this part at an 
early period of Christianity, and that they 
were originally a colony from Syria. The 
name of Syrians retained by them, their 
distinct features, and complexion rather 
fairer than the rest of the Malabars, the 
style of their buildings, especially of their 
churches, and, above all, the general use 
of the Syrian, or rather Chaldaean language, 
which is still preserved in all their religious 
functions, show that they are of Syrian 
extraction. 

When the first Portuguese adventurers 
landed on the coast of Malabar, they found 
that these Christians followed the doc- 
trines of Nestorius, and acknowledged as 
their ecclesiastical chief the patriarch of 
that sect, who resided in Syria. They re- 
jected the divine nature of Christ, and 
called the Virgin Mary the mother of 
Christ only, and not of God. They main- 
tained that the Holy Ghost proceeded only 
from God. They admitted no images of 
saints into their churches, where the cross 
283 



alone was to be seen. They had only 
three sacraments; baptism, the eucharist, 
and orders. They did not believe in trans- 
substantiation, nor in purgatory. They said 
that the saints are not admitted to the pre- 
sence of God, but are kept in a third place 
till the day of judgment. 

While the Portuguese possessed the 
chief settlements on the coast of Malabar, 
these Christians suffered innumerable vexa- 
tions and the most grievous persecutions 
from the Romish priests. However, nei- 
ther artifice nor violence could induce them 
to embrace the communion of Rome, till 
about the end of the sixteenth century, 
when Don Alexis de Menezes, archbishop 
of Goa, by employing the most violent and 
unwarrantable means, obliged the greater 
part of this unhappy and reluctant people 
to adopt the religion of Rome, and to ac- 
knowledge the supremacy of the pope. 
When the Portuguese were driven from 
these parts by the Dutch in 1663, the per- 
secuted Nestorians resumed their primi- 
tive liberty, and were reinstated in the 
privilege of serving God according to their 
consciences. These blessings they conti- 
nue to enjoy, and Mr. Wrede reckoned 
thirty-two churches, that still adhered to the 
doctrines of Nestorius; but he contrasted the 
misery of the present race with the opulence 
of their ancestors. 

On the contrary, Dr. Buchanan, late 
vice-provost of the college of Fort- William, 
visited these Christians in 1806, and reck- 
oned fifty-five churches in Malayala, which 
comprehends the whole region from Cape 
Comorin to Cape Illi. He denies that they 
are Nestorians, and says that their doc- 
trines ' are contained in a very few articles, 
and are not at variance in essentials with the 
doctrines of the Church of England. They 
are usually denominated Jacobitae, but they 
differ in ceremonial from the church of that 
name in Syria, and indeed from any existing 
church in the world. Their proper designa- 
tion, and that which is sanctioned by their 
own use, is Syrian Christians, or The Syrian 
Church of Malayala.' The doctor, however, 
remarks, that they acknowledge the patri- 
arch of Antioch, and that they are connected 
with certain churches in Mesopotamia and 
Syria, which amount to 215 in number, and 
labour under circumstances of discourage- 
ment and distress ; but he does not say whe- 
ther they are subject to the Greek or Jaco- 
bite patriarch of Antioch, though it would 
seem that they acknowledge the Nestorian 
patriarch. The Christians of St. Thomas are 
supposed to amount at present to 150,000. 
Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. ; Monthly Maga- 
zine, vol. xvii. p. 60. ; Adam's Religious 
World, vol. i. p. 438, &c. 

CHRISTMAS, the feast of the nativity 
of Jesus Christ. It is not exactly known 
when this day was first observed. Some 
say that the observance of it began about 



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A.D. 68. It would appear, that Teles- 
phorus, who lived in the reign of Antoninus 
Pius, ordered divine service to be cele- 
brated, and an angelic hymn to be sung, 
the night before the nativity of our Saviour. 
Certain it is, that the nativity of Christ 
was observed before the time of Constan- 
tine. Dioclesian caused fire to be set to a 
church, in which a multitude of Christians 
had assembled to celebrate the nativity of 
Christ, and burnt them and the church to 



The precise day, or even the month, in 
which our Saviour was born, is also very 
uncertain. Some, as Clemens Alexan- 
drinus informs us, affixed it to the sixteenth 
of May. But as autumn was the most 
proper season of the year for a general 
assessment, which took place at the birth 
of Christ, and required personal atten- 
dance ; and as shepherds were watching 
their flocks by night at the time of 
Christ's nativity, it is not improbable that 
our Saviour was born either in September 
or October. Chambers's Diet, by Rees ; 
Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. 
p. 196. 

CHRONICLES, a name given to two 
historical books of Scripture, which the 
Hebrews called Dibre-jamim, Words of 
Days, Diaries, or Journals. They are 
denominated in Greek, Paralipomena, or 
things omitted ; as if these books were a sup- 
plement of what had been omitted, or, 
too much abridged, in the Books of Kings 
and other historical parts of Scripture. 
Indeed, they contain many particulars, 
which are not elsewhere to be found ; but 
it is not to be supposed, that these are the 
records, or books of the acts of the kings 
of Judah and Israel, which are so often 
referred to. Those ancient registers were 
much more extensive than the Books of 
Chronicles, which refer to those original 
memoirs, and from them make long ex- 
tracts. 

The author of these books is unknown. 
Some have thought that he was the same 
as the author of the Books of Kings. But 
the great difference in the dates, narra- 
tives, genealogies, and proper names ; 
and also those repetitions of the same 
things, and often in the same words ; 
strongly militate against this opinion. The 
Hebrews commonly ascribe the Chronicles 
to Ezra, who, they say, composed them 
after the return from the captivity, and 
was assisted in this work by Zechariah 
and Haggai, who were then alive. This 
opinion is proved, first, from the simili- 
tude of style, from the recapitulations and 
general reflections, which are sometimes 
made on a long series of events ; se- 
condly, the author lived after the capti- 
vity, since in the last chapter of the 
second book, he recites the decree of 
Cyrus, which granted liberty to the Jews, 
284 



and he also continues the genealogy of 
David to Zerubbabel, the chief of those, 
who returned from the captivity; thirdly, 
these books contain certain terms and 
expressions, which, they think, are pe- 
culiar to the person and times of Ezra. 
Other marks, however, would seem to 
prove that Ezra was not the author of 
these books. First, the author continues 
the genealogy of ZerubbabeL to the 
twelfth generation; but Ezra did not live 
till that time. Secondly, in several places 
he supposes that the things, which he men- 
tions, were then in the same situation as 
formerly ; for example, before Solomon, 
and before the captivity, (2 Chron. v. 9. 
1 Kings viii. 8. 1 Chron. iv. 41. 43. ; v. 
22. 26. 2 Chron. viii. 8. ; xxi. 10.) Thirdly, 
the writer of these books was neither a 
contemporary nor an original, but a com- 
piler and abridger. He compiled them 
from ancient memoirs, genealogies, annals, 
registers, and other works, which he often 
quotes, and from which he sometimes gives 
large extracts, without changing the words, 
or attempting to reconcile inconsisten- 
cies. Hence we sometimes find the 
genealogy of the same person more than 
once. 

His principal design seems to have been 
accurately to exhibit the genealogies, 
rank, functions, and order, of the priests 
and Levites ; that after the captivity, they 
might more easily assume their proper 
situations, and re-enter on their minis- 
tries. He also wished to show in what 
manner the lands had been distributed 
among the families before the captivity, 
that each tribe, as far as was possible, 
might obtain the ancient inheritance of 
their fathers. The author quotes old 
records by the name of ancient things. 
(1 Chron. iv. 22.) He recites four several 
rolls, or numberings of the people ; one 
taken in the time of David, a second in 
that of Jeroboam, a third in that of Jo- 
tham, and a fourth in that of the captivity 
of the ten tribes. In other places he 
speaks of the numbers, which had been 
taken by order of king David, and which 
Joab did not finish. Hence we may per- 
ceive the extreme accuracy affected by the 
Jews in their genealogies and historical 
documents. 

Commentators, induced by a false per- 
suasion, that the Books of Chronicles con- 
tain few other matters than those illustrated 
in the Books of Samuel and the Kings, 
have too much neglected them. Jerom, 
however, truly observes, that these books 
contain a very great number of important 
things for the explication of Scripture ; 
that in them are contained all the Scrip- 
tural traditions; that it is deceiving our- 
selves to imagine we have any knowledge 
of the holy books, if we are ignorant of 
these ; and that in the Chronicles we 



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may find the solution of an infinite num- 
ber of questions, which concern the Gos- 
pel. 

No one disputes the authority or canoni- 
calness of the Chronicles. The ancient He- 
brews formed them into one book ; but in 
the modern Hebrew Bibles they consist of 
two. 

Between the books of Kings and those 
of the Chronicles, many variations, as 
well in facts as in dates, are found. 
These, however, may be explained and 
reconciled, chiefly on the principle, that 
these books are supplementary to those of 
the kings. It must not be forgotten, that, 
after the captivity, the language was 
slightly changed from what it had been ; 
that the various places had received new 
names, or undergone sundry vicissitudes; 
that certain things were now better known 
to the returned Jews, under other appel- 
lations than those, by which they were 
formerly distinguished; and that from 
the materials before him, which often 
were not the same as those used by the 
abridgers of the histories of the kings, 
the author takes those passages, that 
seemed to him best adapted to his purpose, 
and most suitable to the times in which he 
wrote. It must also be considered, that 
he often elucidates obsolete and ambiguous 
words, in former books, by a different 
mode of spelling them, or by a different 
order of the words employed even when 
he does not use a distinct phraseology of 
narration, which he sometimes adopts. 
The first book contains a recapitulation 
of sacred history, by genealogies, from 
the beginning of the world to the death 
of David, in the year of the world 2989, 
and before Jesus Christ 1015. The se- 
cond book contains the history of the kings 
of Judah, and part of those of Israel, from 
the beginning of Solomon only, in the 
year of the world 2990, to the return from 
the captivity of Babylon, in the year of 
the world 3468, and before Jesus Christ 
536. 

The Jews have chronicles or histories in 
their language, but these are incorrect and 
modern. 

The Samaritan Chronicle, which was 
published by M. Bernard, has been in- 
serted by M. Basnage, with some re- 
marks, in his history of the Jews. It be- 
gins at the creation, and continues to the 
taking of Samaria by Saladin, 1187- It 
is very short and inaccurate. See Sama- 
ritan. 

CHURCH, a word which is found only 
in the writings of the New Testament, and 
is of different significations according to 
the different subjects, to which it is applied. 

1. The Greek word 'EKK\r}<ria, denotes an 
assembly, whether common or religious. 

2. It is understood of the collective body 
of Christians, or of all those, who profess to 

285 



believe in Christ, and acknowledge him 
as the Saviour of mankind. This is called 
by ancient writers the catholic or universal 
church, and agrees with the apostle Paul's 
account. (Col. i. 18.) 3. It is applied to 
any particular congregation of Christians, 
who are united together, and meet in one 
place for the solemn worship of God. 
' The visible church of Christ,' says the 
nineteenth article of the church of Eng- 
land, ' is a congregation of faithful men, 
in the which the pure word of God is 
preached, and the sacraments be duly 
administered according to Christ's ordi- 
nance, in all those things that of neces- 
sity are requisite to the same.' An ad- 
herence to the fundamental principles of 
the Gospel is, therefore, sufficient to con- 
stitute a visible church, though every doc- 
trine, which it maintains, may not be 
founded in truth, nor all the parts of its 
public worship be agreeable to Scripture. 
4. It may denote all those persons, who 
have truly believed and obeyed the Gos- 
pel, and who, though they have lived at 
different periods, are supposed to be united 
into one body, which is called the mystical 
or invisible church. This appellation they 
receive not only because they are not now 
all upon earth, but because the qualities and 
properties, which gave them a claim to be 
members of this blessed society, were never 
the objects of sense, and could not bejudged 
of by men from merely external circum- 
stances. 5. It is now frequently used to 
denote any particular denomination of 
Christians distinguished by particular doc- 
trines, ceremonies, &c. ; as the Romish 
church, the Greek church, the English 
church, &c. 

" We find," observes Bishop Tomline, 
" the word church used in the New Testa- 
ment in a more or less extended sense ; 
our Saviour said to Peter, ' Thou art Pe- 
ter, and upon this rock I will build my 
church, and the gates of hell shall not pre- 
vail against it.' (Matt. xvi. 18.) Here 
the church means the whole body or so- 
ciety of faithful Christians throughout the 
world ; and in this sense it is promised 
that the church of Christ shall be per- 
petual, that is, that there shall be always 
those, who will ' continue stedfastly in the 
apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in 
breaking of bread, and in prayers.' (Acts 
ii. 42.) The word church was, from the 
first preaching of the apostles, used to 
signify believers in the Gospel generally ; 
thus in the beginning of the Acts it is said, 
that ' the Lord added to the church daily.' 
(Ibid. 47.) And St. Paul, who, in ihe 
same chapter of his Epistle to the Ephe- 
sians, calls Christ 'the Head of the church,' 
says that ' the church is subject to Christ ;' 
and that 'Christ loved the church.' (Ephes. 
v. 23, 24, 25.) ; in which passages th< 
apostle means Christians in general, whp 



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however dispersed from one church, have 
' one hope of their calling, one Lord, one 
faith, one baptism.' (Ephes. iv. 4, 5.) But 
in a more limited sense St. Paul, in addres- 
sing the Corinthian Christians, calls them 
' the churqh of God, which is at Corinth.' 
(1 Cor. i. 2.) St. John writes, ' To the 
seven churches, which are in Asia,' (Rev. i. 
4.) ; and St. Luke says, ' that St. Paul went 
through Syria and Cilicia confirming the 
churches.' (Acts xv. 41.) In these pas- 
sages the word Church is applied to the 
Christians of particular cities. And even 
the believers of a single family are by St. 
Paul called the Church, in the cases of 
Priscilla and Aquila, Nymphas and Phile- 
mon : ' Greet Priscilla and Aquila ; like- 
wise greet the church that is in their house,' 
(Rom. xvi. 3. 5.) ; ' Salute Nymphas, and 
the church which is in his house.' (Col. iv. 
15.) ' Paul unto Philemon, and to the 
church in thy house.' (Philem. 1, 2,) And 
thus Tertullian says ' Ubi tres, ecclesia est, 
licet laici ;' and upon another occasion, 
• In uno et altero est ecclesia.' " Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Theology, vol. ii. p. 
326, &c. 

CHURCH of ENGLAND and IRE- 
LAND is that established by law in Eng- 
land and Ireland, where it forms a part of 
the common law of the land, or constitution 
of the country. 

Rise, Progress, fyc. When and by whom 
Christianity was first introduced into Bri- 
tain, cannot at this distance of time be 
exactly ascertained. Eusebius, indeed, po- 
sitively declares, that it was by the apos- 
tles and their disciples ; Bishops Jewell and 
Stillingfleet, Dr. Cave, and others, insist 
that it was by St. Paul j and Baronius 
affirms, on the authority of an ancient MS. 
in the Vatican Library, that the Gospel was 
planted in Britain by Simon Zelotes the 
apostle, and Joseph of Arimathea, and 
that the latter came over A.D. 35, or 
about the twenty-first year of Tiberius, 
and died in this country. According to 
Archbishop Usher, the British Churches 
had a school of learning in the year 182, 
to provide them with proper teachers, and 
it would appear that they flourished, with- 
out dependence on any foreign church, 
till the arrival of St. Austin in the latter 
part of the sixth century. 

Episcopacy was early established in this 
country ; and it ought to be remembered, 
to the honour of the British bishops and 
clergy, that during several centuries they 
withstood the encroachments of the See of 
Rome. Popery, however, was at length 
introduced into England, and, as some say, 
by Austin the monk ; and we find its errors 
every where prevalent during several ages 
preceding the reformation, till they were 
refuted by Wickliffe. The seed, which Wick- 
liffe had sown, ripened after his death, and 
produced a glorious harvest. However, 
286 



it was not till the reign of Henry VIII., 
that the reformation in England in reality 
commenced. When Luther declared war 
against the pope, Henry wrote his treatise 
on the Seven Sacraments against Luther's 
book Of the Captivity of Babylon, and was 
repaid by the pontiff with the title of De- 
fender of the Faith. This title, in a sense 
diametrically opposite, and by a claim of 
higher desert, was transmitted by Henry 
with his crown, and now belongs to his 
successor. Henry's affections being es- 
tranged from his queen Catherine, and 
fixed on Anne Boleyn, he requested a di- 
vorce from his wife ; but the pope he- 
sitating, the Archbishop of Canterbury 
annulled his former marriage. The sen- 
tence of the archbishop was condemned 
by the pope, whose authority Henry, there- 
fore, shook off, and was declared by par- 
liament Supreme Head of the Church. In 
the year 1800, when the kingdoms of 
Britain and Ireland were united, the 
Churches of England and Ireland, which 
had always been the same in government, 
faith, and worship, became one United 
Church. 

Tenets, &c. The acknowledged standards 
of the faith and doctrines of the United 
Church are, after the Scriptures, the Book 
of Homilies, and the Thirty-nine articles. 
Her liturgy is also doctrinal as well as de- 
votional, and informs the judgment, while 
it kindles the affections. 

The Homilies were composed by Cran- 
mer, Latimer, and Ridley, men of unex- 
ceptionable learning and orthodoxy ; or, 
according to others, the first book was 
written principally by Cranmer, and the 
second by Jewell. They were appointed to 
be read in churches at the beginning of 
the Reformation, when, by reason of the 
scarcity of learned divines, few ministers 
were found, who could safely be trusted 
to preach their own compositions. 

The first draught of the Articles was com- 
posed by Archbishop Cranmer, assisted by 
Bishop Ridley, in the year 1551 ; and 
after being corrected by the other bishops, 
and approved by the convocation, they were 
published in Latin and English in 1553, 
and amounted to forty-two in number. In 
1562, they were revised and corrected. 
Being then reduced to thirty-nine, they 
were drawn up in Latin only; but in 1571 , 
they were subscribed by the members of the 
two houses of convocation both in Latin 
and English, and therefore the Latin and 
English copies are to be considered as 
equally authentic. The original manu- 
scripts, subscribed by the houses of con- 
vocation, were burnt in the fire of London ; 
but Dr. Bennet has collated the oldest 
copies now extant, in which it appears 
that there are no variations of any im- 
portance. 

Though it is generally believed, that 



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Cranmer and Ridley were chiefly con- 
cerned in framing the forty-two articles, 
on which our thirty-nine are founded, yet 
Burnet says, that ' questions relating to 
them were given about to many bishops 
and divines, who gave in their several 
answers, that were collated and examined 
very maturely; all sides had a free and 
fair hearing before conclusions were made.' 
Indeed, caution and moderation are no 
less conspicuous in them, than a tho- 
rough knowledge of the Scriptures, and 
of the early opinions and practice of Christ- 
ians. 

The thirty-nine articles are arranged with 
great judgment and perspicuity, and may 
be considered under four general divisions : 
the first five contain the Christian doc- 
trines concerning the Father, the Son, 
and the Holy Ghost; in the sixth se- 
venth, and eighth, the rule of Faith is es- 
tablished ; the ten following relate to Christ- 
ians as individuals; and the remaining 
twenty-one relate to them as members of 
a religious society. But as all confessions 
of faith have referred to existing heresies, 
we find in the articles not only the positive 
doctrines of the Gospel asserted, but also 
the principal errors and corruptions of 
the Church of Rome, and most of the ex- 
travagancies adopted by certain Protestant 
sects at the time of the Reformation, re- 
jected and condemned. 

During the last century, disputes arose 
among the clergy respecting the propriety 
of subscribing to any human formulary of 
religious sentiments. Parliament was ap- 
plied to for its removal, in 1772, by cer- 
tain clergymen and others, whose petition 
received the most public discussion, but 
was rejected by a large majority. 

It has been generally held by most, if 
not all, Calvinists, both in and out of the 
Church, that the doctrinal parts of our 
articles are Calvinistic. This opinion, how- 
ever, has been of late warmly controverted. 
The dispute was carried on principally by 
Mr. Overton of York, on the one side, and 
by Dr. Kipling, dean of Peterborough, and 
Mr. Daubeny, archdeacon of Sarum, on 
the other. It is, however, perhaps, more 
natural to believe, with some of our ablest 
divines, that the articles are framed with 
comprehensive latitude, and that neither 
Calvinism nor Arminianism was intended 
to be exclusively established. The Church 
of England, properly speaking is not in 
her doctrines, any more than in her dis- 
cipline, Calvinistic, Arminian, Lutheran, 
or Romish. Combining the perfections of 
all those persuasions, and avoiding their 
faults and defects, she stands as dis- 
tinguished in a religious, as the State to 
which she is allied, appears in a political 
view. 

Worship, Rites, and Ceremonies. In this 
Church, divine service is conducted by a 
287 



Liturgy, which was composed in 1547, and 
has undergone several alterations, the last 
of which took place in 1661, in the reign 
of Charles II. Many applications have 
been since made for a review ; and parti- 
cular alterations were proposed in 1689, by 
several learned and excellent divines, in the 
number of whom were Archbishops Tillot- 
son and Tennison, and Bishops Patrick, 
Burnet, Stillingfleet, Kidder, &c. To this 
Liturgy every clergyman promises at his 
ordination to conform in his public minis- 
trations. Our enemies themselves being 
judges, it must be acknowledged, that the 
Liturgy of the Church of England abounds 
so much with the soundest doctrines of the 
Gospel, that every devout supplicant, par- 
ticipating in her solemn services, may 
read his duty, and the motives of his duty, 
in its truly evangelical petitions. See 
Liturgy. 

The ceremonies of this Church are so 
innocent that most of the Christian world 
agree, or would agree, in them. They 
' are few and easy, ancient and significant, 
and though we do not place so much religion 
in externals as the Church of Rome doth, 
yet here is prescribed all that is needful for 
decency and order ; viz. that the clergy 
always wear grave and distinct habits, and 
have peculiar garments in divine adminis- 
trations, — that churches be adorned and 
neat — that the people be reverent in God's 
house, — that the memory of our Saviour's 
chief acts, and the festivals of the Holy 
Apostles, be religiously observed, — that 
Lent, with the vigils of great feasts, the 
Ember weeks, and all the Fridays in the 
year, be kept as days of fasting or absti- 
nence ; and if some Protestants do not ob- 
serve them, yet others do, and are com- 
mended for it.' 

Government and Discipline. Ever since 
the reign of Henry VIII., the sovereigns of 
England have been styled ' Supreme Heads 
of the Church,' as well as ■ Defenders of 
the Faith ;' but this title conveys no spi- 
ritual meaning, and denotes only the regal 
power to prevent any ecclesiastical differ- 
ences ; or, in other words, it only substi- 
tutes the king in place of the pope, with 
respect to temporalities, and the external 
economy of the Church. The Church of 
England is governed by two archbishops, 
and twenty-four bishops, besides the Bishop 
of Sodor and Man. The benefices of the 
bishops were converted by William the 
Conqueror into temporal baronies ; and, 
therefore, all of them, except the Bishop of 
Man, are barons or lords of parliament, and 
sit and vote in the house of lords, where 
they represent the clergy. It would seem, 
however, that as the See of Sodor and Man 
is now in the disposal of the Crown, the 
Bishop of Man will have a vote in parlia- 
ment. The bishops' representatives and 
assistants are the archdeacons, of whom 



CIN 



CIN 



there are sixty in England. The other 
dignitaries of the church are the deans, ca- 
nons, prebendaries, &c. ; and the inferior 
clergy are the rectors, vicars, and curates. 
The United Church knows only three orders 
of ministers ; bishops, priests, and deacons : 
but in these orders are comprehended arch- 
bishops, bishops, deans, archdeacons, rec- 
tors, vicars, and curates. 

The Church of Ireland is also episcopal, 
and is governed by four archbishops, and 
eighteen bishops. Since the union of Bri- 
tain and Ireland, one archbishop and three 
bishops sit alternately in the house of peers, 
by rotation of sessions. By a recent act of 
Parliament, the archbishoprics on avoidance, 
to be reduced to two ; and the bishoprics to 
ten. 

Eminent Men, fyc. The Church of Eng- 
land has been justly styled the Bulwark of 
the Reformation. She has produced a 
succession of divines, more in number, and 
greater in point of natural abilities, and pro- 
fessional acquirements, than any other 
church whatever. The sermons of her bi- 
shops and clergy will be read and esteemed 
so long as sound judgment, solid reasoning, 
and orthodox divinity, shall be held in re- 
pute. While some of her sons have ably 
answered every objection that has been 
brought against Christianity, others of them 
have fully elucidated its evidences. There 
is, perhaps, no department in theology, in 
which her servants have not distinguished 
themselves ; and there are few branches of 
study connected with it, to which some even 
of her laity have not applied, and in which 
they have not excelled. 

Among the men, who have been eminent 
in their day and generation, who have 
adorned their respective situations in the 
now United Church, and many of whom 
were not less distinguished for piety than 
for learning, the following may be ranked : 
— Archbishops Cranmer, Usher, Laud, 
Wake, Tillotson, Seeker, &c. ; Bishops 
Ridley, Latimer, Jewell, Andrews, Taylor, 
Hall, Beveridge, Bedell, Patrick, Burnet, 
Bull, Pearson, Stillingfleet, Gastrell, Kenn, 
Kidder, Walton, Gibson, Wilson, Sherlock, 
Warburton, Newton, Lowth, Home, Hurd, 
Horsley, Watson, &c. ; Deans Prideaux, 
Stanhope, Sherlock, Tucker, Milner, &c. ; 
Doctors Bentley, Barrow, Berriman, Ben- 
net, Cave, Cudworth, Ellis, Hammond, 
Heylin, Jackson, Jenkin, Jortin, Kenni- 
cott, Lightfoot, Mills, Brett, Pococke, South, 
Stebbing, Trapp, Waterland, Whitby, Pa- 
ley, &c. ; Messrs. Nowel, Hooker, Leslie, 
Wheatley, Jones, Carlyle, &c. Adam's 
Religious World, vol. ii. p. 357, &c. 

CINNAMON. The cinnamon-tree, in 
the Linnaean system of botany, is a species 
of the laurel or bay-tree. Ray seems to 
think that the cassia cinnamomea of Hermann, 
the cassia lignea, and the cassia fistula of the 
ancient Greek writers, were the same, or 
288 



varieties of the same species of plant. It is 
observable, that the ancient signification 
of these names is very different from the 
modern. The younger branches of the tree, 
covered with their bark, were called by the 
Greek writers Kivvayuxiyiov, cinnamon, and 
sometimes tevkoKaooia, or cassia lignea; 
but when they were divested of their bark, 
which being dried became tubular, this bark 
was denominated maia avpiyZ, or cassia 
fistula. As in process of time the wood of 
this tree was found useless, they stripped 
the bark from it, and brought that only ; 
and the same custom prevails at this day. 

At present, no one doubts that the cin- 
namomum of the ancients is our cinnamon. 
It is a long thin bark of a tree, rolled up, 
of a dark red colour, of a poignant taste, 
aromatic, and very agreeable. The finest 
cinnamon comes from the isle of Ceylon. 
It has formed the subject of an inquiry, 
whether the cinnamon of Ceylon is of the 
same species as that growing in Malabar, 
Sumatra, &c. ; differing only through the 
influence of the soil and climate, in which 
it grows, or from the culture and manner 
of curing the cinnamon. Mr. White and 
Mr. Combes determine this question in 
the affirmative. Mr. White conjectures, 
' that the cinnamon of Ceylon was formerly, 
as well as that of Sumatra and Malabar, 
called cassia ; but that the Dutch writers 
being acquainted with the excellent quali- 
ties, which the ancients ascribed to their 
cinnamon, chose to add the name of cinna- 
mon to that of cassia ; and in process of 
time they have found the name of cinnamon 
more profitable than that of cassia, by which 
we chose to call our canella, to our national 
loss of many thousands a year.' 

God commands Moses to take cinnamon, 
and other sweet spices, and make a per- 
fumed oil with them, to anoint the taber- 
nacle and its vessels. (Exod. xxx. 23.) 
It is not improbable, that cinnamon might 
at that time be imported into Egypt, 
Arabia, &c. as it is now into Europe ; and, 
therefore, it might originally come from 
the island of Ceylon. Some, however, 
have thought that Moses could not mean 
the cinnamon of Ceylon ; but there might be 
cinnamon in Arabia or Ethiopia. Philosoph. 
Transac. vol. 1. p. 887 ; Scripture Illustrated. 
Expos. Ind. p. 162; Addition to CalmeVs Diet. 

CIN NERETH, or Cin'neroth, msa, 
m~i3:>, signifies harp, or guitar ; otherwise, 
as a light. It was a city of Naphtali, south 
of which was situated a great plain, that 
reached to the Dead Sea, along the river 
Jordan. (Josh. xix. 35.) Many believe, 
and with probability, that Cinnereth was 
the same as Tiberias ; for as the lake of 
Gennesareth (in Hebrew, the lake of Cin- 
nereth) is without doubt that of Tiberias, 
it is reasonable to think that Cinnereth and 
Tiberias were the same city. See Tiberias. 
The Lake of Cinnereth, the Sea of 



CIN 



CIR 



Cinnereth, or Tiberias, or the Lake of Genne- 
sareth, are names given to the lake from the 
city Cinnereth, or Tiberias, being situated 
on the western shore, toward the southern 
extremity ; or from the district of Gennesa- 
reth on the eastern coast. It is also called 
the sea of Galilee, because on the north and 
east it is enclosed by Galilee. Josephus 
says, that it is one hundred furlongs in 
length, and forty in width. The water is 
good to drink, and breeds abundance of 
fish. Here, the apostles Peter, Andrew, 
John, and James, who were fishermen, car- 
ried on their trade. The river Jordan 
passes through this lake, into which it 
brings a supply of water. The country, 
which borders on the Sea of Galilee, is very 
beautiful and fruitful. 

Josephus says, that ' the waters of this lake 
are sweet and very agreeable for drinking, 
for they are finer than the thick waters of 
other fens. The lake is also pure, and on 
every side ends directly at the shores, and 
at the sand : it is also of a temperate na- 
ture, when drawn up, and softer than river 
or fountain water : and it is so cold, that 
the people of the place cannot warm it in 
the sun, in the hottest season of the year. 
There are several kinds of fish in it, different 
both to the taste and sight from those else- 
where. It is divided into two parts by the 
river Jordan.' Mr. Buckingham visited 
this lake in 1816, and bears testimony to 
the truth of this description. He observes, 
that ' all these features are drawn with an 
accuracy, that could only have been attained 
by one resident in the country. The size is 
still nearly the same, the borders of the 
lake still end at the beach or the sands, at 
the feet of the mountains, which environ it. 
Its waters are still as sweet and temperate 
as ever, and the lake abounds with great 
numbers of fish of various sizes and kinds. 
The appearance of the lake, as seen from 
Capernaum, is still grand; its greatest 
length runs nearly north and south from 
twelve to fifteen miles j and its breadth 
seems to be, in general, from six to nine 
miles. The barren aspect of the mountains 
on each side, and the total absence of wood, 
give, however, a cast of dulness to the pic- 
ture ; and this is increased to melancholy 
by the dead calm of the waters, and the 
silence, which reigns throughout its whole 
extent, where not a boat or vessel of any 
kind is to be found.' 

Dr. Clarke describes this lake as longer 
and finer than our Cumberland and West- 
moreland lakes. Like that of Windermere, 
the lake of Gennesareth is often greatly 
agitated by winds. (Matt viii. 23 — 27) A 
strong current marks the passage of the 
Jordan through the middle of this lake ; 
and when this is opposed by contrary winds, 
which blow here with the force of a hurri- 
cane from the south-east, sweeping into the 
lake from the mountains, a boisterous sea 
289 



is instantly raised : this the small vessels, 
of the country are ill qualified to resist. 
' The wind,' says he, ' rendered the surface 
rough, and called to mind the situation of 
our Saviour's disciples ; when, in one of tin. 
small vessels, which traverse these waters, 
they were tossed in a storm, and saw Jesus 
in the fourth watch of the night walking to 
them upon the waves.' (Matt. xiv. 24 — 26.) 
These agitations, however, do not last for 
any length of time. When not agitated by 
tempests, the water is stated to be as clear 
as the purest crystal, sweet, cool, and most 
refreshing to the taste. 

The fish in this lake are said by other 
travellers to be most delicious. ' There is 
not much variety, but the best sort is the 
most common ; it is a species of bream, 
equal to the finest perch. It is remarkable, 
that there is not a single boat of any descrip- 
tion on the lake at present ; and the fish are 
caught by casting nets from the beach ; a 
method, which must yield a very small quan- 
tity, compared to what they would get with 
boats.' Irby and Mangles' s Travels in Egypt, 
&c. p. 295 ; Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 
209, 210. 225 ; Buckingham's Travels in Pa- 
lestine, pp. 470, 471 ; Josephus de Bell. Jud. 
lib. iii. c. 10. 

CIRCUMCELLIONES, a species of fa- 
natics, who derived their name from their 
wandering course of life. They espoused 
the party of the Donatists, and first appeared 
in the reign of the emperor Constantine. 
This furious and bloody set of men, com- 
posed of the rough and savage populace, 
maintained their cause by the force of 
arms, and over-running Africa, filled that 
province with slaughter and rapine. This 
outrageous multitude, whom no prospect 
of sufferings could terrify, and who, on 
urgent occasions, faced death itself with 
the most audacious temerity, contributed 
to render the sect of the Donatists an object 
of the utmost abhorrence. 

The Donatists unable to convince these 
madmen of their errors, applied to Tauri- 
nus, general of the forces in Africa, who 
sent against them some soldiers. Great 
numbers of the Circumcelliones were kill- 
ed ; but they were not entirely suppressed 
till the latter part of the fifth century. 
Mo.sheiyn's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. pp. 330, 331 ; 
Hurd on Religious Rites, Ceremonies, &c. p. 
166. 

CIRCUMCISION. This term is derived 
from the Latin circumcidere, to cut all 
round, because the Jews, in circumcising 
their children, cut off after this manner 
the little skin which covers the prepuce. 
God enjoined Abraham to use circumcision, 
as a sign of his covenant. In pursuance of 
this order, Abraham, at ninety-nine years 
of age, was circumcised ; and also his son 
Ishmael, and all his family. (Gen. xvii. 10.) 
God repeated the precept of circumcision 
to Moses, and ordered that all, who intended 
U 



cm 



CIR 



to partake of the paschal sacrifice, should re- 
ceive circumcision, and that this rite should 
be performed on children, on the eighth day 
after their birth, including the day when the 
child was born, and that on which it was 
performed. 

The Jews have been always very exact 
in observing this ceremony ; and it appears 
that they did not neglect it when in Egypt. 
But Moses, while in Midian, with Jethro, 
his father-in-law, did not circumcise his 
two sons born in that country. During 
the journey of the Israelites in the wilder- 
ness, their children were not circumcised, 
probably on account of the danger, to 
which they might have been exposed in 
sudden removals, &c. by reason of their 
unsettled state and manner of life. 

The law mentions nothing respecting the 
minister, or the instrument of circumci- 
sion. The father, a relation, or any other 
person, might perform this ceremony. A 
knife or razor was generally used ; but 
Zipporah, the wife of Moses, and also 
Joshua, employed a sharp stone. (Exod. iv. 
25. Josh. v. 3.) 

Circumcision was that rite of the law, by 
which the Israelites were taken into God's 
covenant ; and (in the spirit of it) was the 
same as baptism among Christians. For, as 
the form of baptism expresses the putting 
away of sin, circumcision was another form 
to the same effect. The Scripture speaks of 
a ' circumcision made without hands,' of 
which that made with hands was only an 
outward sign, of the internal cleansing of the 
heart, by the effusion of the Spirit of God, 
and denoted ' the putting off the body of 
the sins of the flesh.' (Coloss. ii. 11.) This 
is also the meaning of the Christian baptism. 
Of this inward and spiritual grace of circum- 
cision, the Apostle speaks expressly in ano- 
ther place : ' he is not a Jew, which is one 
outwardly, neither is that circumcision, which 
is outward in the flesh; but he is a Jew, which 
is one inwardly, and circumcision is that of 
the heart, in the spirit, and not in the letter.' 
(Rom. ii. 28.) Some, perhaps, may be ready 
to suppose, that this spiritual application of 
circumcision, as a sacrament, was invented 
after the preaching of the Gospel, when the 
veil was taken from the law ; but this doc- 
trine was enforced only on those, who had it 
before, and who had departed from the sense 
of their own law; for Moses instructed the 
Jews, that the ' foreskin of the heart' was to 
be ' circumcised' in a figurative or moral way, 
before they could be accepted as the servants 
of God ; and again, that the Lord would 
' circumcise their heart, to love him with all 
their heart, and with all their soul.' (Deut. 
x. 16. xxx. 6.) This was the same as to say, 
that he would give them what circumcision 
signified, making them Jews inwardly, and 
giving them the inward grace with the out- 
ward sign ; without which the letter of bap- 
tism avails no more now than the letter of 
290 



circumcision did then. Hence we may say 
of the one as is said of the other, ' he id not 
a Christian, which is one outwardly, and bap- 
tism is not the plotting away the filth of the 
flesh, by washing with water, but the answer of 
a good conscience towards God.' (1 Peter 
iii. 21.) 

Some authors of reputation assert, that 
the Jews as well as all other nations that 
practised circumcision, received this rite 
from the Egyptians. Celsus and Julian 
the Apostate affirmed that Abraham learn- 
ed this ceremony in Egypt. Marsham and 
Le Clerc adopted the same opinion. It 
appears, however, that Herodotus, whose 
authority these writers have followed, did 
not intend to assert, that circumcision was 
first practised by the Egyptians. He says, 
that circumcision was a very ancient rite 
among the Egyptians, by whom it was in- 
stituted from the beginning. By the expres- 
sion, from the beginning, is not meant from 
the origin of the Egyptians, but that it 
was so early among them, the heathen 
writers were at a loss to know when it was 
first practised. That Herodotus intended 
no more by this expression is evident from 
his own words. He afterwards doubts 
whether the Egyptians learnt circumcision 
from the Ethiopians, or the Ethiopians 
from the Egyptians ; and unable to solve 
this matter, he concludes, that it was a 
very ancient rite. If he had before meant, 
that this was an original rite of the Egypt- 
ians, no reason could have existed for this 
doubt. It is to be observed, that among 
the heathen writers, to say any thing was 
an dp%i|C, from the beginning, was the same 
as to say, that it was very anciently prac- 
tised. It is true that Herodotus, in another 
place, tells us, that the Jews learned cir- 
cumcision from the Egyptians ; and Dio- 
dorus Siculus was of opinion, that the Col- 
chians and the Jews, because they used 
circumcision, derived their origin from the 
Egyptians. To this it is answered, that 
the heathen writers had little knowledge 
of the Jewish history, and that they sel- 
dom mention the Jews without making 
some palpable mistakes. Origen, there- 
fore, might justly blame Celsus for adher- 
ing to the heathen relation respecting 
circumcision, rather than to that of Moses. 
The latter has given a full and clear account 
of the origin of this rite ; whilst the heathen 
writers offer only imperfect hints and 
vague conjectures. But we have the tes- 
timony of a heathen writer confirming the 
narration of Moses respecting Abraham's 
circumcision. We read in Philo Biblius's 
extracts from Sanchoniathon, that it was 
recorded in the Phoenician Antiquities, 
that Ilus, who was also called Chronus, 
circumcised himself, and compelled his 
companions to do the same. The same 
author tells us, that this Ilus, or Chronus, 
sacrificed his only son ; and we are informed 






CIR 



CIS 



by the Egyptian records, that this Chronus 
was called Israel by the Phoenicians. 
It is therefore evident, that this Chro- 
nus, or Israel, who is said by the heathen 
writers to have sacrificed his only son, can 
be no other than Abraham. Besides, the 
Scripture speaks of the institution of cir- 
cumcision, when it was first enjoined to 
Abraham, as a rite entirely new. It in- 
forms us, that this was the seal of the co- 
venant, which God had made with that 
patriarch. How then could circumcision 
be a mark, by which to distinguish Abra- 
ham and his posterity from the rest of man- 
kind, if it were at that time common 
among the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phoe- 
nicians, and other nations, who had before 
practised it? 

We need not be perplexed in discover- 
ing circumcision among the Arabians, 
Saracens, and Ishmaelites. These peo- 
ple, as well as the Hebrews, sprang from 
Abraham ; but they never regarded cir- 
cumcision as an essential rite, to which 
they were bound, on pain of being cut off 
from their people. Circumcision, with 
the law of Moses, was introduced among 
the Samaritans and Cuthaeans. The Idu- 
maeans, though descended from Abraham 
and Isaac, were not circumcised till sub- 
dued by John Hyrcanus. They who assert 
that the Phoenicians were circumcised, 
probably mean the Samaritans ; for we 
know, from other authority, that the Phoe- 
nicians did not observe this ceremony. 
With respeet to the Egyptians, circumci- 
sion was never of general and indispen- 
sable obligation ; certain priests only, and 
particular professions, were obliged to 
observe it. 

It has been asked, whether circumcision 
might be repeated? After the Israelites 
had passed over Jordan into the land of 
Canaan, Joshua was commanded to renew 
the rite of 'circumcision. The text is, 
* Make thee sharp knives, and circumcise 
again the children of Israel the second time,' 
(Josh. v. 3.); and after the rite had been 
performed, God said, ' This day have 1 
rolled away the reproach of Egypt from 
you,' (Ibid. 9.) 1. The sharp knives are 
allowed to be, what they are called in the 
margin of our English Bible, knives of 
flint, which were commonly used in the 
eastern countries. Some of the Jews, 
from the words of Jeremiah, (ix. 25.) ' 1 
will punish the circumcised that has a 
foreskin,' have undertaken to prove, 
that it was possible to reproduce the 
foreskin by art. This they say had been 
done in the wilderness by the Israelites, 
who for that reason were commanded to 
be again circumcised. Those Christians 
who have embraced this opinion, endea- 
vour to support it by the following words 
of St. Paul: ' If any man is called, being 
circumcised, let him not again get a 
291 



foreskin,' or, as we render the words, 
' let him not become uncircumcised.' 
The difficulty of the words of Joshua, 
however, arises from misunderstanding the 
idiom of the original, and may be easily 
removed by paraphrasing them as 
follows : ' Let the ceremony of circumci- 
sion, which has been so long disconti- 
nued, be renewed.' 2. The rolling away 
the reproach of Egypt, is supposed by 
some to relate to the reproaches used by 
the Egyptians ; who upbraided the Israel- 
ites for their long wandering in the wil- 
derness, where they seemed brought to be 
destroyed. From these reproaches God 
now delivered them, and by enjoining 
circumcision, he assured them, that they 
should shortly possess the country, which no 
uncircumcised person might inherit. Our 
learned Spencer thinks, that the reproach of 
Egypt was the slavery, to which the Israel- 
ites had been so long subject, and that they 
were now declared a free people, by receiv- 
ing the mark of the seed of Abraham, and 
being made heirs of the promised land. It 
appears, therefore, that the Hebrews never 
repeated circumcision ; but when they ad- 
mitted a proselyte of another nation, 
in which circumcision had been cus- 
tomary, if he had already received cir- 
cumcision, they were satisfied with draw- 
ing some drops of blood from the part 
usually circumcised. This blood was 
called the blood of the covenant. Jews, who 
renounced Judaism, sometimes endea- 
voured to erase the mark of circumcision. 
(1 Mace. i. 1.5.) Univ. Hist.; Spencer de 
Leg. Heh. ; Patrick's Comment. ; Shuckford's 
Connect, vol. iii. p. 354, &c. Home's Intro- 
duction, vol. iii. p. 271. 

CISTERNS were common throughout 
Palestine, and also in cities and private 
houses. As the cities were built mostly upon 
mountains, and the rains fall in Judea at two 
seasons only, spring and autumn, people 
were obliged to keep water in cisterns ; in 
the country for the use of their cattle, and in 
cities for the convenience of the inhabitants. 
There are cisterns of very large dimensions, 
at this day, in Palestine: some 150 paces 
long, and 60 wide; and others 122 paces 
long, and 54 wide. One at Ramah is 32 
paces in length and 28 in width. Wells and 
cisterns, fountains and springs, are seldom 
accurately distinguished in the language of 
Scripture. 

CISTERTIANS. Towards the conclusion 
of the eleventh century, Robert, abbot of 
Moleme, in Burgundy, having employed, in 
vain, his most zealous efforts to revive the 
decaying piety and discipline of his pon vent, 
and to oblige his monks to observe more ex- 
actly the rule of St. Benedict, retired with 
about twenty monks to a place called Citeaux, 
in the diocese of Chalons. In this retreat, 
Robert founded the famous order of the 
Cistertians, which made a most rapid 
u 2 



CLA 



CLA 



and astonishing progress, spread through 
the greatest part of Europe in the following 
century, was enriched with the most liberal 
and splendid donations, acquired the form 
and privileges of a spiritual republic, and 
exercised a sort of dominion over all the 
monastic orders. The great and fundamen- 
tal law of this new fraternity was the rule 
of St. Benedict, which was to be rigorously 
observed. To this were added several other 
injunctions intended to maintain the autho- 
rity of the rule. These injunctions were 
extremely austere, and grievous to nature, 
but esteemed pious and laudable in a super- 
stitious age. However, they did not pre- 
serve the sanctity of this order. The se- 
ducing charms of opulence corrupted the 
Cistertians, whose zeal in the rigorous ob- 
servance of their rule began gradually to 
diminish, and who in time became as negli- 
gent and dissolute as the rest of the Bene- 
dictines. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. ii. p. 
306, &c. 

CLAU'DIUS, KXavSioe, in Latin signi- 
fies lame. The emperor Claudius, men- 
tioned in the New Testament, succeeded 
Caius Caligula, A.D. 41, and reigned up- 
wards of thirteen years. King Agrippa, by 
his persuasion, contributed much to his 
accepting the empire, which was offered him 
by the soldiers. In return, he gave all 
Judea to Agrippa ; and the kingdom of 
Chalcis to his brother Herod. He ended 
the dispute between the Jews and the Alex- 
andrians, by confirming the Jews in the 
freedom of that city, and in the free exer- 
cise of their religion and laws; but he 
would not permit them to hold assemblies 
at Rome. 

Agrippa dying in the fourth year of 
Claudius, A.D. 44, the emperor again re- 
duced Judea into a province, and sent 
Cuspius Fadus as governor. About this 
time happened the famine foretold by the 
prophet Agabus. (Acts xi. 28, 29, 30.) At 
the same time Herod, king of Chalcis, ob- 
tained from the emperor the authority over 
the temple, and the money consecrated to 
God, with a power of deposing and estab- 
lishing the high priests. In the ninth year 
of Claudius, A.D. 49, this emperor pub- 
lished an order, expelling all Jews from 
Rome. (Acts xviii. 2.) It is very proba- 
ble, that the Christians being confounded 
with the Jews, were also banished. This 
is plainly intimated by Suetonius, who tells 
us, that Claudius expelled the Jews, on 
account of the continual disturbances ex- 
cited by them, at the instigation of Chres- 
tus, or Christ. Claudius was poisoned by 
his wife Agrippina, and was succeeded by 
Nero. 

Clau'dius Lys'ias, tribune of the Ro- 
man troops, that kept guard at the temple 
of Jerusalem. Observing the tumult raised 
on account of St. Paul, whom the Jews had 
seized and intended to murder, he rescued 
292 



Paul, and ordered him to be bound with 
two chains, and carried to Fort Antonia, 
where was the Roman garrison. Then, 
being desirous of knowing the reason of 
this disturbance, he commanded Paul to 
be extended on the ground, and to put him 
to the torture by whipping. Paul, how- 
ever, having demanded whether it was law- 
ful thus to treat a Roman citizen, Lysias 
was afraid, and forbade that treatment. The 
next day, the tribune sent for the Jewish 
priests and council, that he might learn the 
reason of the commotion the preceding day. 
Paul cried out, that he was a Pharisee, and 
that the accusation against him proceeded 
from his believing the resurrection of the 
dead. The Pharisees took Paul's part, and 
the Sadducees opposed him ; and as the 
tumult increased, Lysias sent soldiers to 
carry off the apostle to the tower of Anto- 
nia, where he was imprisoned. The day 
following, more than forty Jews engaged in 
a conspiracy to kill Paul. This was told 
to the apostle by his nephew. The tribune, 
on receiving this intelligence, sent a strong 
guard the night following to conduct Paul 
to Cesarea. (Acts xxi. 27, 28, &c. ; xxii. 
1, 2, 3, &c. ; xxiii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) This is 
what we know of Lysias. 

Clau'dius Fe'lix, successor of Cumanus 
in the government of Judea. Felix found 
means to solicit and engage Drusilla, sister 
of Agrippa the Younger, to leave her hus- 
band Azizus, king of the Emessenians, and 
to marry him, A.D. 53. Felix sent to Rome 
Eleazar, son of Dinaeus, captain of a band 
of robbers, who had committed great ravages 
in Palestine ; he procured the death of Jo- 
nathan, the high priest, who sometimes 
freely represented to him his duty ; he de- 
feated a body of 3000 men, whom an Egyp- 
tian, a false prophet, had assembled upon 
the mount of Olives. St. Paul being 
brought to Cesarea, where Felix usually 
resided, was well treated by Felix, who 
permitted his friends to see him, and ren- 
der him services, hoping the apostle would 
procure his redemption by a sum of money. 
Felix did not think it convenient either to 
condemn Paul, or to set him at liberty, 
when the Jews accused him. He ad- 
journed the determination of this affair 
till the arrival of Lysias, who commanded 
the troops at Jerusalem, where he had 
taken Paul into custody, and who was ex- 
pected at Cesarea. (Acts xxiii. 26, 27, &c. ; 
xxiv. 1, 2, 3, &c.) This happened, A.D. 
58. 

One day, Felix, with his wife Drusilla, 
who was a Jewess, sent for Paul, and 
desired him to explain the religion of 
Jesus Christ. The apostle spoke with his 
usual boldness, and discoursed to them 
on justice, chastity, and the last judg- 
ment. Felix trembled, and remanded 
him to his confinement. He afterwards 
caused Paul to be brought to him occasion- 



CLE 



CLO 



ally, as if he were disposed to receive his 
instructions. He detained Paul two years 
at Cesarea, and was glad of this opportu- 
nity to oblige the Jews, who were extremely 
dissatisfied with his government. He was 
recalled to Rome, A.D. 60 ; and many Jews 
going thither to complain of the extortions 
and violence committed by him in Judea, 
he would certainly have been put to death, 
if his brother Pallas, who had been Clau- 
dius's slave, and was now his freedman, had 
not preserved him. Felix was succeeded 
in the government of Judea by Porcius 
Festus. 

CLEM'EXT, Clemens, signifies in Latin 
mild, good, modest, merciful, and is men- 
tioned in St. Paul's Epistle to the Philip- 
pians ; in which that apostle says, that 
Clement's name is in the Book of Life. 
The generality of fathers and interpre- 
ters conclude, that this is the same Cle- 
ment, who succeeded to the government of 
the church at Rome. Grotius, however, 
is of opinion, that the Clement mentioned 
by the apostle, was a priest of the church at 
Philippi. 

CLE'OPAS, KXeoTrac, signifies the whole 
glory, or glory altogether ; or it may be de- 
rived from the Hebrew, f\brt, chalaph, to 
change. Cleopas, according to Eusebius 
and Epiphanius, was brother of Joseph, 
both being sons of Jacob. He was the fa- 
ther of Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, of 
James the Less, of Jude, and Joseph or 
Joses. Cleopas married Mary, sister to the 
Blessed Virgin. He was, therefore, uncle 
to Jesus Christ, and his sons were first 
cousins to him. Cleopas, his wife, and 
sons, were disciples of Christ ; but Cleopas 
did not sufficiently understand what Jesus 
had so often told his disciples, that it was 
expedient he should die, and return to the 
Father. Having beheld our Saviour expire 
upon the cross, he lost all hopes of seeing 
the kingdom of God established by him on 
earth. 

The third day after our Saviour's death, 
that is, on the day of his resurrection, 
Cleopas departed from Jerusalem. He 
went with another disciple to Emmaus ; 
and, in the way, they discoursed on what 
had lately happened, particularly with 
respect to Jesus Christ. Our Saviour 
joined them, appearing as a traveller ; 
and asking them on what they were dis- 
coursing, he reasoned with them, and en- 
couraged them, convincing them from 
Scripture, that it was necessary the Mes- 
siah should suffer death, previously to his 
being glorified. At Emmaus, Jesus seemed 
as if inclined to go farther ; but Cleopas 
and his companion detained him, and made 
him sup with them. While they were at 
table, Jesus took bread, blessed it, brake 
it, and gave it to them. By this action 
their eyes were opened, and they knew him ; 
but Jesus left them, and they instantly 
203 



returned to Jerusalem. (Luke xxiv.) In 
our translation it is said, ' that he va- 
nished out of their sight ;' but the words 
of the original ought to be rendered, 'he 
suddenly went away from them.' Dr. 
Chandler. 

No other actions of Cleopas are known. 
It is the opinion of Jerom, that he abode 
continually at Emmaus, and that he invited 
our Saviour into his own house. Supposing 
Cleopas to have been the brother of Joseph, 
and father of James, &c, Calmet thinks it 
more probable, that he was a Galilean, and 
dwelt in some city of Galilee. 

CLOUD, a collection of vapours sus- 
pended in the atmosphere. It is a conge- 
ries of watery particles, or vesiculae, raised 
from the waters or the watery parts of the 
earth, by the solar, or subterraneous, or 
electrical fire. 

When the Israelites had left Egypt, 
God gave them a pillar of cloud to direct 
their march. (Exod. xiii. 21, 22.) Accord- 
ing to Jerom, in his Epistle to Fabiola, 
this cloud attended them from Succoth ; 
or, according to others, from Rameses ; 
or, as the Hebrews say, only from Etham, 
till the death of Aaron ; or, as the ge- 
nerality of commentators are of opinion, 
to the passage of Jordan. This pillar 
was commonly in front of the Israelites ; 
but at Pihahiroth, when the Egyptian 
army approached behind them, it placed 
itself between Israel and the Egyptians, 
so that the Egyptians could not come near 
the Israelites all night. (Exod. xiv. 19, 20.) 
In the morning, the cloud moving on over 
the sea, and following the Israelites, who 
had passed through it, the Egyptians 
followed the cloud, and were drowned. 
From that time this cloud attended the 
Israelites ; it was clear and bright during 
night, in order to afford them light, but 
in the day it was thick and gloomy, to de- 
fend them from the excessive heats of the 
deserts. ' The angel of God, which went 
before the camp of Israel, removed and 
went behind them; and the pillar of 
the cloud went from before their face, 
and stood behind them.' (Exod. xiv. 19.) 
Here we may observe, that the angel 
and the cloud made the same motion, as 
it would seem, in company. The cloud 
by its motions gave the signal to the 
Israelites to encamp or to decamp. 
Where, therefore, it stayed, the people 
stayed, till it rose again ; then they broke 
up their camp, and followed it till it 
stopped. It was called a pillar, by reason 
of its form, which was high and elevated, 
as it were a pile or heap of fogs. Some 
interpreters suppose, that there were two 
clouds, one to enlighten, the other to 
shade the camp. St. Paul says, that the 
pillar of cloud was a figure of baptism : 
it enlightened the Israelites by night, as 
baptism enlightens us; and it was a 



CLO 



COC 



continual earnest of God's care and pro- 
tection. 

The Lord appeared at Sinai in the midst 
of a cloud (Exod. xix. 9. ; xxxiv. 5.) ; and 
after Moses had built and consecrated the 
tabernacle, the cloud filled the court around 
it, so that neither Moses nor the priests 
could enter. (Exod. xl. 34, 35.) The same 
happened at the dedication of the temple 
of Jerusalem by Solomon. (2 Chron. v. 13. 
1 Kings viii. 10.) 

When the cloud appeared upon the tent, 
in front of which were held the assemblies 
of the people in the desert, it was then 
believed that God was present. (Exod. 
xvi. 10.; xxxiii. 9. Numb. xi. 25.) The 
motion of the cloud, which rested upon this 
tent was a sign of God's presence. The 
angel descended in the cloud, and thence 
spoke to Moses, without being seen by the 
people. (Exod. xvi. 10. Numb. xi. 25. ; 
xii. 5.) It is common in Scripture, when 
mentioning God's appearing, to represent 
him as encompassed with clouds, which 
serve as a chariot, and contribute to veil 
his dreadful majesty. (Job xxii. 14. Isaiah 
xix. 1. Matt. xvii. 5. xxiv. 30, &c. ; Psalm 
xviii. II, 12. ; xcvii. 2. ; civ. 3.) 

Cloud is also used for morning mists : 
' Your goodness is as a morning cloud, 
and as the early dew itgoeth away.' (Hosea 
vi. 4. ; xiii. 3.) Job, speaking of the chaos, 
which covered the whole earth, says, that 
God had confined the sea or the water as it 
were with a cloud, and covered it with dark- 
ness, as a child is wrapped in its blankets. 
The author of Ecclesiasticus (xxxiv. 6.) uses 
the same expression. Isaiah prays to God 
to hasten the coming of the Righteous One, 
and to command the clouds to pour him 
down on the earth. (Isaiah xlv. 8.) The 
Son of God, at his second advent, is de- 
scribed as descending upon clouds. (Matt. 
xxiv. 30 ; Luke xxi. 27- Rev. xiv. 14, 15, 
16.) 

COCCEIANS, a denomination that arose 
in the seventeenth century, and obtained 
its name from John Cocceius, a native of 
Bremen, and professor of divinity in the 
university of Leyden. This man repre- 
sented the whole history of the Old Testa- 
ment as a mirror, which held forth an accu- 
rate view of the transactions and events 
that were to happen in the church, under 
the dispensation of the New Testament, 
and to the end of the world. He affirmed 
that by far the greatest part of the ancient 
prophecies foretold Christ's ministry and 
mediation, and the rise, progress, and revo- 
lutions of the church, not only under the 
figure of persons and transactions, but in 
a literal manner, and by the sense of the 
words used in these predictions. He laid 
it down as a fundamental rule of interpre- 
tation, that the words and phrases of Scrip- 
ture are to be understood in every sense, of 
which they are susceptible ; or, in other 
294 



words, that they signify, in effect, every 
thing which they can signify. 

Cocceius also taught, that the covenant 
made between God and the Jewish nation, 
by the ministry of Moses, was of the same 
nature with the new covenant obtained by 
the mediation of Jesus Christ. In conse- 
quence of this general principle, he main- 
tained, that the ten commandments were 
promulgated by Moses, not as a rule of 
obedience, but as a representation of the 
covenant of grace ; that when the Jews 
had provoked the Deity by their various 
transgressions, in particular by the worship 
of the golden calf, the severe and servile 
yoke of the ceremonial law was added to 
the decalogue, as a punishment inflicted on 
them by the Supreme Being in his righteous 
displeasure ; that this yoke, which was pain- 
ful in itself, became doubly so on account 
of its typical signification, since it daily 
admonished the Israelites of the imperfec- 
tion and uncertainty of their state, filled 
them with anxiety, and was a standing and 
perpetual proof that they had merited 
the displeasure of God, and could not ex- 
pect, before the coming of the Messiah, 
the entire remission of their transgressions 
and iniquities; that, indeed, good men, 
even under the Mosaic dispensation, were 
immediately after death made partakers of 
everlasting happiness and glory, but that 
nevertheless, during the whole course of 
their lives, they were far removed from 
that firm hope and assurance of salva- 
tion, which rejoices the faithful under the 
dispensation of the Gospel ; and that their 
anxiety naturally arose from the consi- 
deration, that their sins, though unpu- 
nished, were not pardoned, because Christ 
had not as yet offered up himself a sa- 
crifice to the Father to make for them 
an entire atonement. Mosheim's Eccles. 
History, vol. iv. p. 545, &c. 

COCK, a tame bird very well known. 
It is observed by profane anthors, that 
the cock usually crows twice in a night ; 
once about midnight, and the second time 
at the fourth watch of the night, or about 
break of day. This latter, which is the 
louder and more remarkable, Dr. Whitby 
observes, is that properly called cock- crow- 
ing. Of this crowing of the cock, the 
Evangelists are to be understood, where 
they relate Christ's words to Peter, ' Be- 
fore the cock crow, thou shalt deny me 
thrice,' that is, before the time of night 
emphatically called the cock-crowing ; for 
it appears from St. Mark, that the cock 
crew after Peter's first denial of Christ, and 
crew the second time after his third denial. 
(Mark xiv. 68. 72.) The Jews affirm, that 
all cocks were removed from Jerusalem, at 
the time of the passover. Some critics, 
therefore, have proposed to render the 
words of Luke (xxii. 60.) ' the cock crew,' 
by the cock crowing was sounded, or that 



CCEL 



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particular time was made known by the 
watchman. Though Dr. Doddridge does 
not approve of this solution of the diffi- 
culty, yet we know that in India the time 
is marked by the sounding of a bell, 
which is struck by a person called the 
ghuree-alee, and which is equivalent to 
our striking of a clock. Asiatic Researches, 
vol. v. p. 88 ; Fragments attached to Calmet's 
Diet. No. eclxiii. p. 166; Whitby's Comment, 
on the New Testament. 

CCELO-SYR'IA, hollow or depressed 
Syria; Syria in the vale. (1 Mace. xiii. 10.) 
This name imports the hollow land, or 
region, situated between two long ridges 
of mountains ; and those mountains have 
been always understood to be Libanus 
and Anti-libanus. As these ridges run pa- 
rallel for many leagues, they contain be- 
tween them a long, extensive, and extremely 
fruitful valley. 

CCENOBITES, an order of monks, in 
the fourth century. They lived together in 
a fixed habitation, and formed one large 
community under a chief, whom they called 
father or abbot. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. 
p. 309. 

COLLEGIANTS, a religious society that 
arose in 1619, when the disputes and tu- 
mults, which the Arminian system produced 
in Holland, were at the height. They meet 
twice a-year at Rhinsberg, in the neighbour- 
hood of Leyden, and are generally known by 
the name of Collegiants, or Collegians, from 
their assemblies being called colleges. All 
are admitted to the communion of this 
sect, who acknowledge the divinity of Scrip- 
ture, and endeavour to live suitably to its 
precepts and doctrines, whatever may be 
their peculiar sentiments concerning the 
nature of the Deity, and the truths of 
Christianity. The union of this community 
is maintained, not by the authority of rulers 
and doctors, the force of ecclesiastical laws, 
the restraining power of creeds and confes- 
Bi ins, nor the influence of certain positive 
rites and institutions, but merely by a zeal 
for the advancement of practical religion, 
and a desire of deriving instruction from 
the study of the holy Scriptures. Mosheim's 
Eccles. Hist. vol. v. p. 57, &c. 

COLLYRIDIANS, a sect in the fourth 
century, that superstitiously worshipped the 
Virgin Mary, and ottered to her, on certain 
appointed days, a particular kind of bread, 
or little cakes (collyridae). Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. i. p. 351. 

COLOS'SE, KoXovoai, signifies punish' 
ment, correction. It was a city of Phrygia 
Minor, and stood on the river Lyceus, at 
an equal distance between Laodicea and 
Hierapolis. These three cities, says Euse- 
bius, were destroyed by an earthquake, in 
the tenth of Nero, or about two years after 
the date of St. Paul's Epistle to the Colos- 
sians. 

Some believe that St. Paul never visited 
295 



this place, though he preached in Phrygia ; 
but the Colossians received the faith from 
Epaphras, and perhaps also from Timothy. 
Paul having been informed that false apos- 
tles at Colosse had preached the necessity 
of legal observances, either by Epaphras, 
then prisoner with him at Rome, or by a 
letter from the Laodiceans, wrote the Epistle 
to the Colossians, which we now have, and 
in which he insists that Jesus Christ is the 
only mediator with God, and the true 
head of the church, &c. This epistle was 
written at the time St. Paul was prisoner 
at Rome, very probably in A. D. 62, and 
was carried to the Colossians by Tychi- 
cus and Onesimus. Sac. Geography; Bp. 
Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. i. 
p. 413 

COMMINATION, an office in the 
Church of England appointed to be read 
on Ash- Wednesday, and at other times 
when the ordinary shall direct. The pre- 
face, which the church has prefixed to this 
office, informs us, that 'in the primitive 
church there was a godly discipline, that at 
the beginning of Lent such persons as stood 
convicted of notorious sins, were put to 
open penance, and punished in this world, 
that their souls might be saved in the day 
of the Lord ; and that others, admonished 
by their example, might be the more 
afraid to offend.' This discipline, which 
was anciently exercised in our own, as 
well as in foreign churches, degenerated 
in succeeding ages, during the corruptions 
of the church of Rome, into a formal con- 
fession of sins on Ash-Wednesday, and was 
used by all persons indifferently, from whom 
no other testimony of repentance was re- 
quired, than submission to the empty cere- 
mony of sprinkling ashes upon their heads. 
This ceremony, therefore, was wisely re- 
jected by our reformers as mere shadow 
and show ; and in its room was substituted 
this office, which is called, A commination 
or denunciation of God's anger and judgment 
against sinners; whereby the people being 
apprised of God's wrath and indignation 
against their sins, might not, through want of 
discipline in the church, be encouraged 
to follow and pursue them, but be induced 
to supply the want of that discipline, by 
severely judging and condemning them- 
selves, and thus avoid condemnation at the 
tribunal of God. 

Certain parts of this office are sometimes 
used on solemn days of fasting and humi- 
liation ; but the whole office is never read, 
except on the first day of Lent. IVheatly's 
111 ust ration of the Book of Common Prayer, 
p. 529. 

COMxMUNION signifies 1. fellowship, 
concord, or agreement; 'What com- 
munion hath light with darkness?' (2 Cor. 
vi. 14.) Those who are enlightened by 
the word can have no profitable or agree- 
able converse with such as are in darkness 



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or ignorance. 2. It is also used for the sa- 
crament, or sign of our spiritual fellowship 
with Christ : ' The cup of blessing, is it not 
the communion of the blood of Christ?' 
(] Cor. x. 16.) 

Communion of Saints is an article in the 
Apostles' Creed, and denotes that Christians 
or saints have communion or fellowship with 
the Father, from whom cometh every good 
and perfect thing ; with his Son Jesus Christ* 
through whom forgiveness and mercy are 
conveyed to us ; and with the Holy Ghost, 
whose sanctifying graces are conferred on 
those whose hearts are duly prepared for 
their reception : that Christians have also 
communion with the holy angels, who are 
ministering spirits sent forth to minister 
for them, who shall be heirs of salvation ; 
that, besides the external fellowship* which 
they have in the word and sacraments of 
the church, they have an intimate union 
and conjunction with all the saints on 
earth, as the living members of Christ: 
and that Christians have communion not 
only with the saints on earth, but are of 
one city and one family with all those 
who have ever died in the true faith 
and fear of God, and now enjoy the pre- 
sence of the Father, and who in their state 
of glory still sympathize with the faithful 
below, assisting, comforting, and praying 
for them. The belief of this communion of 
saints should excite and encourage us to ho- 
liness of life. If ' we walk in the light, as 
God is in the light, we have fellowship one 
with another;' but ' if we say that we 
have fellowship with him, and walk in 
darkness, we lie, and do not the truth.' 
(1 John i. 7> 6.) It should induce us to 
wish well to all mankind, and to render 
them every good in our power. To 
those who have obtained the like precious 
faith with ourselves, we are still more 
nearly related; as being in a peculiar 
sense children of the same father, disci- 
ples of the same master, animated by 
the same spirit, and members of the same 
body. These things should oblige us to 
preserve as much as possible, by prudent 
order and mutual forbearance, the unity 
of the church ; and to attend on public 
instruction, join in public worship, and 
observe the sacraments, which our Lord 
has appointed. We ought to rejoice in 
the happiness of the saints above, che- 
rish their memories, and beseech the 
disposer of all things that he would give 
us grace so to follow their good examples on 
earth, that we may meet them in happiness 
in heaven. Seeker's Lectures on the Catechism 
of the Church of England, Lect. xiv. ; Bishop 
Pearson on the Creed, p. 359, edit. 1710. 

COMPASSION is a feeling, which na- 
turally arises in our breasts, when we per- 
ceive pain or misery in our fellow-crea- 
tures. This principle of compassion was 
evidently planted in our nature for the 
296 



best and wisest purposes; to stimulate 
our exertions for mitigating the pain, and 
alleviating the misery of each other. To 
resist, therefore, this tender impulse, 
and not to afford relief to the distressed 
when we are capable of affording it, is 
really as contrary to the dictates of our 
nature, as it would be to refuse food when we 
are hungry, or drink when we are thirsty. 

Compassion is an aboriginal principle 
of our nature, distinct from benevolence, 
though one of the essential constituents 
of a benevolent disposition. In the tales 
of fictitious history, we participate more 
cordially in the griefs and disappointments 
of the unhappy, than in the realized hopes 
and success of the prosperous ; and the 
same observation is applicable to the vi- 
cissitudes of real life. The feeling of 
compassion, though often blended with 
pain, produced by the misery of others, 
is not altogether destitute of pleasure to 
the individual. As suffering is the proper 
object of compassion, which was planted 
in our nature as a lively incitement to the 
relief of every species of misery, it fol- 
lows that the feeling of compassion ought 
to be proportioned to the misery of the 
sufferer. If, in any particular conjuncture, 
a poor and a rich man are equally in need 
of our assistance, we ought to assist the poor 
before the rich man ; for it seems morally 
right to direct our beneficence more especi- 
ally to those points where we are sure it will 
produce the greatest quantity of happiness. 
A small favour conferred on a poor man will 
usually add more sensibly to his comfort and 
happiness, than a much larger favour be- 
stowed on a rich man. We ought, therefore, 
to prefer, in the distribution of our charity, 
those whose wants are the greatest, and to 
the increase of whose happiness, or the alle- 
viation of whose misery, we can contribute 
in the greatest degree. 

It may be said, that it is our duty to 
follow the dictates of reason, rather than 
to be governed by the impulses of com- 
passion ; or that reason wants not the 
aid of the affections. But though reason 
teaches us, that it is our duty to exert 
ourselves to relieve the sufferings of our 
fellow-creatures, yet, in the service of 
humanity, the exertions of reason would 
generally be very feeble and inefficient, 
if they were not invigorated by the feeling 
of compassion. Men are usually directed in 
their conduct more by the feeling of right, 
than by the abstract principle of right ; more 
by a sensitive consciousness, than by a spe- 
culative conviction of duty. Reason teaches 
us to prefer mercy and beneficence to cru- 
elty and oppression ; but compassion makes 
us feel the sufferings of others more than 
any rational inquiry into the difference of 
good and evil, of pleasure and pain, ever 
could accomplish. Reason is supreme when 
it can command the support of the affections. 



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Though reason teaches us to provide for the 
benefit of others, and shows the fitness of 
beneficence to our nature, and to the cir- 
cumstances, in which we are placed, yet it 
would often ineffectually plead the cause 
of indigence and woe, if compassion, which 
gives a sensitive perception of the privations 
which others endure, and of the pains which 
others feel, did not second the authority, and 
enforce obedience to the decrees of reason. 
Hence we may learn how much it is our duty 
to cherish the feeling of compassion, which 
the Divine Wisdom planted in our breasts 
as an advocate for the distressed, whose 
miseries it renders more touching to our 
nature, for the purpose of increasing our 
willingness to relieve them. 

It may be said, that the feeling of com- 
passion is a defect in our nature, which 
we should accordingly endeavour to sup- 
press rather than indulge. If defect mean 
want of wisdom or congruity, the asser- 
tion is false, for' the affection itself is 
admirably adapted to our nature and cir- 
cumstances. Were we never to assist 
the indigent and afflicted, till we were 
reasonably convinced that it was our duty 
to do it, that the relief would be well 
bestowed, or was exactly apportioned to the 
need of the sufferer, or the circumstances of 
the case, the favourable moment of adminis- 
tering relief would commonly elapse before 
we could determine. While the mind was 
thus employed in deliberation, the heart 
would grow cold. Pain and misery, of what- 
ever species they may be, are scarcely seen 
before compassion touches some of the finer 
chords of our heart. Its tender impulses 
ought therefore to be generally regarded as 
the voice of God within our breasts, peremp- 
torily calling upon us to pass by no misery 
which we can relieve. If the maxim were to 
be generally prevalent, that men in their 
conduct should be governed solely by their 
reason, and should discard the use, and reject 
the counsel of their affections, we might, per- 
haps, render our nature metaphysically wise, 
but it would, at the same time, become more 
practically barbarous. The heart of flesh 
would be exchanged for a heart of stone. 
The miseries of life, many as they are, would 
be increased tenfold in number and in size ; 
in proportion as men advanced in intellect, 
they would retrograde in humanity ; the 
young and the old, the sick and the infirm, 
would have no support; and those, who 
mourn, would be without a comforter. Rea- 
son was given us, not to supersede the use, 
but to prevent the abuse of our affections ; 
not to destroy, but to regulate their opera- 
tions. In the complex system of the present 
life, no man is so truly virtuous as he, in 
whose conduct the rectitude of reason is 
mingled with the tenderness of love. /'<•/- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 1 72. 
l!)3 ; Sterne's Sermons, Serm. iii. edit. 17^7- 
CONCUBINE. This term in Scripture 
297 



signifies a wife of the second rank, who was 
inferior to the matron, or mistress of the 
house. The children of concubines did not 
inherit their father's fortune, but the father, 
during his life, might provide for them, and 
give them presents. Sarah was Abraham's 
wife, and bare to him Isaac, the heir of all 
his wealth. The patriarch had also two con- 
cubines, Hagar and Keturah. These bare to 
him other children, whom he distinguished 
from Isaac, and made them presents. (Gen. 
xxv. 6.) As polygamy was tolerated in 
the East, it was common to see one, two, or 
more wives in a family, and also several con- 
cubines. Since the abrogation of polygamy 
by Jesus Christ, and the reduction of mar- 
riage to its primitive institution, the use of 
concubines has been condemned and for- 
bidden among Christians. Yet, clandestine 
marriages were for a long time tolerated, 
and the women so married were frequently 
called concubines. 

CONDEMNATION signifies 1. the de- 
claring guilty, or pronouncing the sentence 
of punishment on any malefactor, by some 
judge. 2. It denotes that which aggravates 
the sin and punishment, or that which is 
the reason, the evidence, and cause of con- 
demnation. 3. The punishment itself, to 
which a person is adjudged or condemned. 
(1 Cor. xi. 32.) 4. A censure of other 
men's persons, intentions, words, or ac- 
tions, either rashly, unjustly, or unchari- 
tably. (Lukevi. 37.) 5. An evidence against 
the wickedness and faults of men, by the 
good example and conduct of others. (Matt. 
xii. 41.) 

The manner of condemning, or passing 
sentence on persons, varied in different 
countries. The Jews, by simply pronounc- 
ing the sentence, ' Thou N. art just,' or 
' Thou N. art guilty,' either absolved or con- 
demned. Among the Greeks, condemna- 
tion was signified by giving a black stone ; 
and absolution, by giving a white one. 
This custom is alluded to in Rev. ii. 17, 
' To him that overcometh I will give a 
white stone ;' that is, I will absolve and 
acquit him in the day of judgment. Lowman 
on Revelations. 

CONFESSION signifies 1. a public 
acknowledgment of any thing as our own : 
thus Christ will confess the faithful in the 
day of judgment. (Luke xii. 8.) 2. To 
own and profess the truths of Christ, and 
to obey his commandments, in spite of 
opposition and danger from enemies. 
(Matt. x. 32.) 3. To utter or speak the 
praises of God, or to give him thanks. 4. 
To acknowledge our sins and offences to 
God, either by private or public confes- 
sion ; or to our neighbour, whom we have 
wronged ; or to some pious persons, from 
whom we expect to receive comfort and 
spiritual instruction ; or to the whole ceil* 
gregation when our fault is published. 
(Psalm xxxii. 5. Matt. iii. G. James v. Id. 



CON 



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1 John i. 9.) 5. To acknowledge a crime 
before a judge. (Josh. vii. 19.) 

In the ceremony of the solemn expiation, 
the high priest confessed in general his own 
sins, the sins of other ministers of the tem- 
ple, and those of all the people. When an 
Israelite offered a sacrifice for sin, he put 
his hand on the head of the victim, and 
confessed his faults. (Levit. iv. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) Some interpreters believe, that he 
not only declared himself in general a sin- 
ner, but that he confessed in particular the 
sin, for which he offered this sacrifice. On 
the day of solemn expiation, the Jews still 
make a private confession of their sins, 
which is called by them cippur, and which 
is said to be in the following manner. Two 
Jews retire into a corner of the synagogue. 
One of them bows very low before the other, 
with his face turned towards the north. He 
who performs the office of confessor gives 
the penitent nine-and-thirty blows on the 
back with a leathern strap, repeating these 
words ; ' God, being full of compassion, for- 
gave their iniquity, and destroyed them not; 
yea, many a time turned he his anger away, 
and did not stir up all his wrath.' As there 
are only thirteen words in this verse recited 
in the Hebrew, he repeats it three times, 
and at every word strikes one blow ; which 
makes nine-and-thirty words, and as many 
lashes. In the mean time, the penitent 
declares his sins, and at the confession of 
every one beats himself on his breast. This 
being finished, he, who has performed the 
office of confessor, prostrates himself on the 
ground, and receives from his penitent nine- 
and-thirty lashes. 

The Romish church not only requires 
confession as a duty, but has advanced it to 
the dignity of a sacrament. These confes- 
sions are made in private to the priest, who 
is not to reveal them under pain of the 
highest punishment. The Council of Trent 
requires ' secret confession to the priest 
alone, of all and every mortal sin, which, 
upon the most diligent search and examina- 
tion of our consciences, we can remember 
ourselves to be guilty of since our baptism ; 
together with all the circumstances of those 
sins, which may change the nature of them ; 
because, without the perfect knowledge of 
these, the priest cannot make a judgment of 
the nature and quality of men's sins, nor 
impose fitting penance for them.' This is 
the confession of sins, which the same coun- 
cil confidently affirms ' to have been insti- 
tuted by our Lord, and, by the law of God, 
to be necessary to salvation, and to have 
been always practised in the catholic church.' 
It is, however, evident, that such confes- 
sion is both unnecessary and unscriptural. 
1. No proof exists that the power of remit- 
ting and retaining sins, on which sacramen- 
tal confession is founded, was imparted to 
any besides the apostles, or at most to those 
to whom a discernment of spirits was com- 
298 



municated. 2. If our Saviour had in- 
tended this to be a duty, he would, very 
probably, have delivered to us an express 
command on the subject. 3. This autho- 
rity of pardoning sins, immediately in rela- 
tion to God, without any reference to church 
censures, was not claimed for many ages 
after Christ. 

St. James, indeed, says, ' Confess your 
faults one to another,' (James v. 16.); but 
priests are not here mentioned, and the 
word ' faults' seems to confine the pre- 
cept to a mutual confession among Christ- 
ians, of those offences, by which they may 
have injured each other. Certain it is, that 
from this passage the necessity of auricular 
confession, and the power of priestly abso- 
lution, cannot be inferred. Though many 
of the early ecclesiastical writers earnestly 
recommend confession to the clergy, yet 
they never recommend it as essential to the 
pardon of sin, or as having connection with 
•i sacrament. They only urge it as enti- 
tling a person to the prayers of the congre- 
gation ; and as useful for supporting the 
authority of wholesome discipline, and for 
maintaining the purity of the Christian 
church. Chrysostom condemns all secret 
confession to men, as being obviously liable 
to great abuses; and Basil, Hilary, and 
Augustin, all advise confession of sins to 
God only. It has been proved by M. Daille, 
that private, auricular, sacramental confes- 
sion of sins was unknown in the primitive 
church. 

Our church, therefore, encourages its 
members to use confidential confession to 
their priest,or to any other minister of God's 
holy word ; but this is very different from 
its being an essential part of a sacrament 
instituted by Christ and his apostles. A 
contrite sinner may feel relief in unburden- 
ing his mind to his spiritual pastor, and may 
receive advice and consolation, which may 
soften the pangs of a wounded conscience. 
By this means, his scruples may be re- 
moved ; his good resolutions confirmed ; and, 
instead of falling a victim to religious me- 
lancholy, he may be enabled to work out his 
salvation by a life of active virtue, and by a 
humble faith in the merits of the blessed 
Jesus, who, as he himself assures us, came 
into the world ' to call sinners to repent- 
ance.' The only absolution, which our 
church authorizes its clergy to pronounce, is 
ministerial, or declaratory of God's pardon 
upon the performance of the conditions re- 
quired in the Gospel ; it always supposes 
faith and sincere repentance, of which God 
alone is Judge. Among the early Christ- 
ians, no other absolution, than declaratory 
and precatory, was known. This fully ap- 
pears from the ancient liturgies and rituals, 
and from the authors who have written upon 
these subjects, and particularly from the 
treatise of Morinus de Pcenitentid, in which 
he has proved, that the indicative form of 



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absolution, as it is called, Ego te absolvo, 
was introduced into the church as late as 
the twelfth century. Previously to that 
period, only some such prayer as the fol- 
lowing was used : Absolutionem et remis- 
sionem tribuat tibi omnipotens Deus. The 
right of requiring confession, and of absolv- 
ing sins, as exercised in the church of 
Rome, must necessarily be the source of an 
undue and dangerous influence to the clergy, 
and must at the same time operate as a great 
encouragement to vice and immorality 
among the people. 

But, though private auricular confession 
is not of Divine authority, yet as archbi- 
shop Tillotson properly observes, ' there are 
many cases wherein men, under the guilt 
and trouble of their sins, can neither ap- 
pease their own minds, nor sufficiently di- 
rect themselves, without recourse to some 
pious and prudent guide. In these' cases, 
men certainly do very well, and many times 
prevent a great deal of trouble and per- 
plexity to themselves, by a timely discovery 
of their condition to some faithful minister 
in, order to their direction and satisfaction. 
To this purpose a general confession is for 
the most part sufficient ; and where there is 
occasion for a more particular discovery, 
there is no need of raking into the particu- 
lar and foul circumstances of men's sins to 
give that advice, which is necessary for the 
cure and ease of the penitent.' Bishop Tom- 
line's Ekm. of Christ. Theolog. vol. ii. p. 
423, &c. ; Tillotsoris Sermons, Serm. 160, 
161. 

CONFIRMATION, a rite in the Christ- 
ian church, by which a person, arrived at 
years of discretion, undertakes the perform- 
ance of every part of the baptismal vow 
made for him by his godfathers and god- 
mothers. In the Acts of the Apostles is 
afforded the most incontestable demonstra- 
tion, that the apostles themselves used this 
rite after baptism, and that from the impo- 
sition of hands extraordinary benefits were 
originally derived : ' When they heard this, 
they were baptized in the name of the 
Lord Jesus. And when Paul had laid his 
hands upon them, the Holy Ghost came on 
them ; and they spake with tongues and 
prophesied.' (Acts xix. 5, 6.) We are also 
informed by St. Luke, in another place, that 
when Philip the Evangelist had planted a 
church in Samaria, and the apostles had 
heard ' that Samaria had received the word 
of God,' they sent thither Peter and John, 
two of their own body, who prayed for 
them, ' and laid their hands on them,' and 
the Samaritans 'received the Holy Ghost.' 
In the Epistle to the Hebrews, the ' laying 
on of hands,' is mentioned among such ob- 
servances as are essential, and of strict ne- 
cessity. 

Upon these authorities was founded the 
practice, which prevailed in the primitive 
church, of persons receiving from the bi- 
200 



shop immediately after baptism, a solemn 
benediction, accompanied with imposition 
of hands, unction upon the forehead with 
the holy chrism, made of oil and balsam, 
the sign of the cross, and a prayer for the 
descent of the Holy Ghost. Tertullian says, 
' When we come out of the water, we are 
anointed with a blessed ointment, according 
to that ancient rite, by which men used to 
be anointed for the priest's office, with oil 
out of a horn, ever since the time that 
Aaron was anointed by Moses ; so that 
Christ himself has his name from Chrism. 
Then we have the imposition of hands on 
us, which calls down and invites the Holy 
Ghost.' This ceremony was called confirm- 
ation, as it completed the admission of the 
person into the Christian church, and qua- 
lified him to partake of the Lord's Supper. 
It was not confined to adults, but infants 
also received confirmation as soon as they 
were baptized, and an opportunity offered of 
presenting them to the bishop. Though it 
was generally performed by bishops, yet, in 
some countries, and at some periods, it was 
performed by presbyters. Jerom tells us, 
that, in his time, confirmation was always 
performed in the Latin church by bishops, 
as it had been in earlier times. Hilary 
says, that in Egypt the presbyters confirmed 
in the bishop's absence ; and that was also 
the practice in the Greek church ; but the 
Greek Christians did not allow confirmation 
to be a sacrament. From one of the canons 
of the council of Illiberis, we learn, that, in 
the time of both Cyprian and Augustin, 
confirmation was performed by bishops. 
The ancients did not think this rite so ab- 
solutely necessary, that the want of it would 
exclude from the kingdom of heaven those 
who had already been baptized ; but they 
attributed to it so much importance, that 
they punished the neglect of it with marks 
of disgrace and public censure, and denied 
the privilege of ecclesiastical promotion 
and holy orders to such as had voluntarily 
and carelessly omitted it. 

After this example of the primitive 
Christians, our church requires all who have 
been baptized to appear publicly in the 
congregation, and renew their baptismal 
vow according to the form prescribed in our 
liturgy. To give this ordinance the greater 
solemnity, it is performed only by the 
higher orders of the church, the archbishops 
and bishops. Thus far our church receives 
confirmation, confining it to prayer and im- 
position of hands without the chrism or the 
sign of the cross, and believes it to be de- 
rived from the practice of the apostles. 
There is, indeed, no Scriptural authority 
for the use of the chrism, or the sign of the 
cross ; and Bingham thinks that the chrism 
formed no part of confirmation before the 
latter part of the second century, though 
other writers attribute to it an earlier 
date. 



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It must be admitted, that the apostles 
laid no absolute injunction on their succes- 
sors to observe this rite as of Divine autho- 
rity ; and in the New Testament is no ex- 
press command enjoining confirmation as a 
thing ordained by Christ, and this proves 
that it- is not a sacrament. At the same 
time, the Scripture does not give the least 
intimation that this rite was intended to be 
laid aside at any future age of the church ; 
and the subsequent practice is a strong 
presumption of a contrary intention. In- 
deed, the general benefits, which still attend 
the institution, tend very much to confirm 
the supposition, that it was not designed to 
be of temporary observance, but of perpe- 
tual obligation. 

By some it has been argued, that the 
apostles used this rite to procure for their 
converts the eminent gifts and miraculous 
powers of the Holy Ghost, which uniformly 
followed their imposition of hands ; while 
their successors considered it only as a pro- 
per and probable means of obtaining the 
ordinary graces of wisdom and truth, to 
assist young persons in discharging the 
duties of religion, and to inspire them with 
pious sentiments and resolutions. To this 
it may be answered, that it has never been 
proved, and that it does not appear by any 
means probable, that miraculous powers 
were always intended to be procured by 
the apostles' imposition of hands ; and we 
may reasonably suppose, that many of the 
Samaritans, already mentioned, had only 
the ordinary comforts and assistances of 
the Holy Spirit conferred on them at con- 
firmation. 

But, passing over matters of dispute and 
conjecture, we cannot avoid regarding it 
as an instance both of wisdom and piety in 
the governors of the Christian church to 
continue this rite, in conformity to the 
apostolic practice ; and as it is the duty of 
the members of every church to obey the 
lawful commands of those ' who are set 
over them in the Lord,' we certainly ought 
to pay all due attention to this religious 
observance : an observance that may be 
traced back from this time to the age of 
primitive Christianity ; an observance which 
has, indeed, been accompanied with dif- 
ferent ceremonies, and been performed at 
different times in different churches, ac- 
cording as their respective governors have 
prescribed, but which has been always con- 
sidered as a sacred institution, as a means 
of obtaining grace, and of advancing in 
holiness. 

The church of Rome seems, in a great 
measure to have altered the practice of 
the apostles, in ' laying on of hands,' and 
by the addition of certain superstitions, 
has raised confirmation to the rank of a 
sacrament, for which the Scriptures furnish 
no authority. But this rite is observed, 
according to original usage, in all Protes- 
300 



tant churches that admit of bishops; and 
even some of those that reject episcopacy, 
and, therefore, cannot properly have any 
confirmation, are so sensible of its wisdom 
and utility, that they observe it in the best 
manner, which their circumstances, and 
the nature of their establishments, will 
permit. 

One principal design intended by our 
reformers in the continuance of this rite, 
was, that such persons as have been bap- 
tized in infancy, and are arrived at suffi- 
cient years of discretion, may, in the face 
of the church and of its proper govern- 
ors, publicly and solemnly take upon them- 
selves their Christian profession, and the 
discharge of that vow, which their sponsors 
engaged they should, in due time, perform. 
Another important end or reason for which 
we have retained confirmation, is, that 
those who, at years of discretion, thus 
openly declare their adherence to the 
Christian profession, and are solemnly 
dedicated to it by the imposition of hands, 
may be admitted to a participation of the 
sacrament of the Lord's Supper. The last 
object we shall mention for confirmation 
being retained in our church, is, that the 
ordinary graces of the Holy Spirit may be 
implored for the persons thus dedicated 
to God by their spiritual governors. 
Wheatly's Illustration of the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, p. 31)6, &c. ; Bishop Tom- 
line's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. ii. p. 
416. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS, a deno- 
mination of Protestants, who reject all 
church government, except that of a single 
congregation, under the direction of one 
pastor, with their elders, assistants, or ma- 
nagers. 

The platform of church discipline drawn 
up in 1 648, and agreed upon by the elders 
and messengers of the churches, assembled 
in the synod at Cambridge in New Eng- 
land, defines a congregational church to be, 
by the institution of Christ, a part of the 
militant visible church, consisting of a 
company of saints by calling, united in 
one body by a holy covenant, for the 
public worship of God, and the mutual 
edification of each other in the fellowship 
of the Lord Jesus. According to this plat- 
form, those who are admitted members of 
churches ought to be first examined; for 
the eunuch of Ethiopia, before his admis- 
sion, was examined by Philip, whether he 
believed in Jesus Christ with all his heart. 
The officers are charged with the keeping 
of the doors of the church, and are, there- 
fore, in a special manner, to try the fit- 
ness of those who enter. The qualifica- 
tions necessary to be found in all church 
members, are repentance from sin, and 
faith in Jesus Christ. The confession of 
faith, which was agreed upon by the synod 
at their second session, teaches the doc- 



CON 



CON 



trine of the Trinity, of predestination, total 
depravity, particular redemption, effectual 
grace, and tinal perseverance. In one par- 
ticular, the Congregationalists differ from 
the Independents : the former invite coun- 
cils, which are advisory only ; but the latter 
were accustomed to decide all difficulties 
within themselves. Adam's View of Reli- 
gions, p. 122. 

CONONITES, a denomination that ap- 
peared in the sixth century, and derived 
their name from Conon, bishop of Tarsus, 
their chief. Conon taught that the body 
never lost its form ; that its matter alone 
was subject to corruption and decay, and 
was to be restored when this mortal shall 
put on immortality. Mosheim's Eccles. His- 
tory, vol. i. p. 473. 

CONSCIENCE may be denned an in- 
ward power or faculty, which furnishes us 
with such impressions or sentiments of 
moral good and evil, that we necessarily 
give our approbation to the one, and with- 
hold it from the other. That there is within 
us such a moral faculty, or directing prin- 
ciple, as conscience, cannot be doubted. 
Every man must be conscious, not only of 
a power, common to him with the inferior 
creation, of complying with the solicitations 
of passion or appetite, but also of a supe- 
rior faculty or power, not possessed by other 
creatures, of suppressing the inclinations 
of an injurious appetite, of opposing the 
impulses of a wrong passion, and of form- 
ing and regulating his whole conduct by 
certain laws. Every action is accompanied 
with a consciousness of right or wrong, by 
which we approve or disapprove of what we 
do. Conscience seems intended by our 
Creator to be to the mind what the eye is 
to the body. Its office consists in directing 
us in the way in which we should walk, in 
admonishing us of every deviation from it, 
and in bringing us back when we turn aside 
to the right hand or to the left. It justifies 
and applauds, when we act rightly ; re- 
proaches and condemns when we do amiss ; 
and gives secret intimations that we shall 
accordingly be justified or condemned at 
a future tribunal. In particular persons, 
indeed, it is more or less active, according 
as they have established, or reduced, its 
influence, by an habitual attention to its 
admonitions, or by constant efforts to silence 
or suppress them. But there are seasons 
in which this principle, in spite of all arts 
and efforts to suppress it, will resume its 
authority, and execute its office, in placing 
before us the obligations of duty, and in se- 
vere accusations and reproaches for having 
departed from them. 

To secure to us the approbation of con- 
science, it ought to obtain the supremacy 
of the mind, preside over all inferior prin- 
ciples, and regulate and govern every pro- 
pensity and affection of our nature, and not 
be controlled or influenced by them. We 
301 



should reverence it as the oracle of God, 
the faithful interpreter of his will ; and we 
ought to give a constant attention to it, and 
form our whole conduct by its counsels. In 
all important points of duty, its decisions 
will be generally clear ; and in particular 
doubtful cases, in which it may not be easy 
to decide on the lawfulness or unlawful- 
ness of an action, we ought to adhere to 
the side most likely to secure our inte- 
grity, which should not be endangered by 
too near approaches to sin. Such ap- 
proaches naturally lead to known and 
avowed iniquity ; and the man, who allows 
himself to hazard an action, the lawfulness 
of which is not apparent, and the unlaw- 
fulness suspected, betrays a propensity 
that will not long permit him to hesitate at 
the commission of evident and undisputed 
crimes. 

1 Nothing,' says an elegant writer, 'is a 
surer instance of the goodness of the Crea- 
tor, than that delicate inward feeling, so 
strongly impressed on every reasonable 
creature. This internal sense, if duly at- 
tended to, and diligently cherished, and 
kept alive, would check the sinner in his 
career, and make him look back with hor- 
ror on his crimes. An ancient is com- 
mended for wishing, that he had a window 
in his breast, that every one might see into 
it. But it is certainly of more consequence 
to keep ourselves free from the reproach of 
our own hearts, than from the evil opinions 
of others. We should therefore consider 
conscience as a mirror, in which every one 
may see himself reflected, and in which 
every action is represented in its proper 
colours.' 

It is, however, necessary to observe, that 
to secure the approbation of our conscience, 
we must not only religiously follow its 
guidance, and observe its dictates, but ac- 
quire a just information of our duty, and 
live conformably to our information. Con- 
science itself may be erroneous, and hold 
out false lights ; and in that case, however 
faithfully we pursue its directions, this will 
not always insure our innocence. St. Paul 
calls himself the least of the apostles, not 
meet to be called an apostle, and the chief 
of sinners, because he persecuted the church 
of Christ, though, as he himself informs us, 
he did it in ignorance. We ought to act 
agreeably to our belief, and comply with 
the dictates even of an erroneous con- 
science. Yet, if such were not inevitable 
errors, but the effects of voluntary corrup- 
tion and negligence, they must subject us to 
the imputation of guilt, and consequently to 
the reproaches of our own mind, as soon as 
we shall discern its errors, and the criminal 
occasions of them. Sermons bij George Carr, 
vol. ii. p. 34, &C. ; The Connoisseur, No. 
xxviii. 

CONSECRATION, a devoting or set- 
ting apart of any things or persons to the 



CON 



CON 



worship and service of God. In the law, 
God ordained that the first-horn of man 
and beast should be consecrated to him. 
He consecrated the race of Abraham, par- 
ticularly the tribe of Levi, and more espe- 
cially the family of Aaron. (Exod. xiii. 2. 
12. 15. Numb. i. 49. ; iii. 12. 1 Pet. ii. 9.) 
Other consecrations depended on the will 
of men, who consecrated themselves, or 
things, or persons subject to them, to the 
service of God for a time only, or entirely. 
Joshua devoted, or set apart, the Gibeon- 
ites to the service of the tabernacle. (Josh. 
ix. 27-) David and Solomon devoted the 
Nethinims, who were some remains of the 
Canaanites. (Ezra viii. 20. ; ii. 58, &c.) 
Hannah offered her son Samuel to the 
Lord, to serve all his life in the taber- 
nacle. (1 Sam. i 11.) The angel, who pro- 
mised Zacharias a son, commanded him to 
consecrate the child to the Lord, and to 
be careful that during his whole life, he ful- 
filled those laws, which the Nazarites, who 
were consecrated to God for a time only, 
observed during their consecration. (Luke 
l. 15.) 

The Hebrews sometimes devoted to the 
Lord fields or cattle, which were after- 
wards no longer in their own power. (Le- 
vit. xxvii. 28, 29.) It seems probable 
that Jacob did the same. (Gen. xxviii. 20.) 
David and other kings frequently conse- 
crated to the Lord the arms and spoils, 
or the cities and countries, of their ene- 
mies. 

The New Testament furnishes us with 
instances of consecration. Believers in 
Christ are consecrated to the Lord, as a 
holy race, a chosen people. (1 Pet. ii. 9.) 
Bishops and other ministers of the Gospel 
are devoted more peculiarly to his service. 
Among the ancient Christians, the conse- 
cration of churches was performed with 
much pious solemnity. 

CONSUBSTANTIAL, a word of simi- 
lar import with co-essential, and denotes 
something of the same substance with 
another. Thus, it is said in the second ar- 
ticle of our church, that Christ is consub- 
stantial, or of one substance, with the Fa- 
ther. The term ofxoovcnoQ, consubstantial, 
was first adopted by the fathers of the 
councils of Antioch and Nice, to express 
more precisely the orthodox doctrine, and 
to serve as a barrier and precaution against 
the errors and subtilties of the Arians, 
who denied only that Christ was consub- 
stantial with the Father. The Arians al- 
lowed, that the Word was God, as having 
been made God ; but they denied that he 
was the same God, and of the same sub- 
stance with the Father. Accordingly, they 
greatly exerted themselves, that the use of 
this word might be abolished. The emperor 
Constantine employed all his authority 
with the bishops that it might be expunged 
from the symbols ; but it was retained, and 
302 



is at this day, as it was then, the distin- 
guishing criterion between an Athanasian 
and an Arian. 

St. John says, that ' the Word was with 
God,' that is, the Word was united with 
the Father, or was of one substance with 
the Father. ' I and my Father are one,' 
was a declaration of Christ himself. ' And 
the Word was God,' or the very and eter- 
nal God. ' The same was in the beginning 
with God,' that is, the Word was united 
with the Father from all eternity. ' All 
things were made by him, and without 
him was not any thing made that was 
made.' (John, ch. i.) This proves that by 
the Word St. John means Christ, since the 
creation of the world is in Scripture repeat- 
edly attributed to Christ, and consequently 
the Word being made flesh is Jesus Christ. 
The creation of the world is also attributed 
to God the Father. This, therefore, forms 
an additional proof of an incomprehensible 
identity or unity of substance between the 
Father and the Son. Bishop Tom line's Ele- 
ments of Christ. Theolosy, vol. ii. p. 110. 

CON SUBSTANTIATION, tenet of the 
Lutheran church, with respect to the man- 
ner of the change made in the bread and 
wine in the eucharist. In contradiction to 
the other reformers, Luther only changed 
transubstantiation into consubstantiation, 
which means that the substance of Christ's 
body and blood is present in the holy 
sacrament with the substance of bread 
and wine. He attempted to illustrate the 
doctrine of consubstantiation by saying, 
that Jesus Christ ' is in the bread, just as 
fire is in the red hot iron.' His persever- 
ance in this opinion was a principal cause 
of the division among the reformed churches. 
Bishop Tomline's Elements of Theology, vol. 
ii. p. 481 ; Adam's Religious World, vol. ii. 
p. 333. 

CONTENTMENT, is a cheerful acqui- 
escence in that condition of life, in which 
we are placed, whatever it may be. With- 
out this acquiescence in our condition, no 
wealth is any bar against misery ; and with 
it, no penury can prevent happiness. Ex- 
perience proves, that contentment is rather 
the effect of a virtuous and religious dispo- 
sition of mind and heart, than of external 
circumstances ; and that the specious advan- 
tages of wealth, of honour, and of power, 
contribute much less to this desired end 
than is commonly imagined. Dissatisfac- 
tion with our present circumstances, extra- 
vagant desires and immoderate wishes, the 
absence of inward complacency, and the 
feeling of envy, are not exclusively the 
vices of the poor, but are more frequently 
found among the rich. Wealth certainly 
enlarges the means, as well as varies the 
modes of enjoyment ; but all enjoyment, 
as far as it is sensual, is not so much pro- 
portioned to the means, as to the physical 
capacity of the individual. The power of 



CON 



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receiving pleasure is very inferior to the 
means of producing it ; and an accumulation 
of the means of pleasure, without the most 
resolute self-denial and the most vigilant 
government of the appetites, is sure to lead 
to excess of indulgence. Excess generates 
satiety, which is itself a feeling of dissatis- 
faction and discontent. Hence we see that 
outward circumstances have no insepara- 
ble connection with the degree of inward 
satisfaction ; and that reason, as well as piety, 
enforces contentment in all conditions of 
life. 

True contentment is founded on religion, 
which alone can offer such motives and 
considerations, as will render the mind con- 
tented under the dispensations of a Being 
infinitely wise and good, who intends the 
happiness of all his creatures, and who will 
sufficiently recompense us for all the hard- 
ships we suffer in this probationary state. 
The Apostle tells us, that, ' The Lord loveth 
whom he chasteneth, and scourgeth every 
son whom he receiveth.' Do we blame a 
physician for administering bitter and un- 
palatable medicines, when they are neces- 
sary to repress the ravages of disease, and 
restore the vigour of the body ? Ought we 
then to murmur against the All-wise and All- 
good Being, who uses suffering and affliction 
as the means of our moral reformation ? 
Assured that God is ever employed in the 
production of the greatest good, even in the 
most adverse occurrences of our lives, in- 
stead of fretting with acrimony, complaining 
with bitterness, or raving with passion, we 
should be contented, and ready to say with 
Jesus, ' Not my will, but thine be done.' 
The certain assurance of an eternal recom- 
pense in a better life will invigorate our 
fortitude, and exhilarate our hopes, making 
us deem our burthen easy, and our afflic- 
tion light. 

If we consider the world as an inn, in- 
tended only to accommodate us while we 
are on our journey ; if we are convinced 
from the dispensations of Providence, that 
temporal enjoyments are no ingredients of 
true happiness, nor the proper and ade- 
quate reward of a sincere and unaffected 
piety; we shall become as happy as it is 
possible to be in this state of imperfection. 
To God, the past, the present, and the fu- 
ture, are as one indivisible point ; and, 
consequently, the fitness of our present 
condition to pruuuce our greatest good 
must appear very differently in his mind 
to what it does in ours. How presump- 
tuous is it in us, who are so short-sighted, 
to murmur against the fitness of our pre- 
sent condition to our individual need ! This 
is to accuse his justice, and to demonstrate 
our own impiety. 

We have nothing, which we did not re- 
ceive. We can prefer no claim of right to 
any one thing which we possess. All that 
we have, or enjov, is an unmerited indul- 
303 



gence, flowing from the divine beneficence. 
This consideration aggravates the guilt of 
our discontent. It is more incumbent on 
us to thank God for what he pleases to 
confer, than to complain of what he thinks 
it proper to deny; and the pleasure which 
we enjoy will always be found to afford 
stronger reasons for gratitude, than the 
sufferings which we endure can furnish for 
discontent. When we consider our own 
unworthiness, we shall find that God is 
much more bountiful than we deserve, and 
that he always inflicts on us fewer evils 
than he well might, without any impeach- 
ment of his justice or his goodness. Can 
we imagine that God takes any pleasure in 
the misery of his children, or that he ever 
exposes them to any sufferings, which are 
not really and eventually beneficial ? We 
ought, therefore, to be grateful to God for 
the evil, which he inflicts, as well as for the 
good, which he bestows ; and whatever be 
our circumstances in this world, we ought 
not to give way to angry complaints, male- 
volent impatience, or sullen discontent. In 
a sincere and steady regard to God, to his 
fatherly purposes, and his unerring modes 
of bringing them to pass, we ought to seek 
that satisfaction with our lot, which none 
of its trials may be able to destroy. That 
is the best condition in life, in which we can 
best perform the duties incumbent on us. 
W T e have great reason to be thankful for 
poverty or affliction, if they teach us pa- 
tience, meekness, and resignation, which 
are virtues not so natural and easy in a 
prosperous state. Richardson's Divine and 
Mural Essays, p. 141, &c. ; Felloives's Body 
of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 423. 500 ; Bowdens 
Sermons, Serm. iv. 

CONVERSATION signifies an interlo- 
cution between two or more persons, on 
any subject. The virtue of both sexes 
greatly depends on their observing a due 
regard to decency, in their conversation 
with each other. The modest respect 
and reserve, which are so strong a protec- 
tion against any wanton or unbecoming 
familiarities, must otherwise be destroyed, 
and the most lax and sensual behaviour 
ensue. In particular, it is of the utmost 
importance to preserve in the female mind 
a nice and delicate sense of shame, which 
may instantly feel, and feel with lively ab- 
horrence, every the least deviation from 
modesty. In proportion as the sense of 
shame and a regard for decency in a 
woman are weakened, her integrity be- 
comes suspicious, and, at least, she loses 
its strongest safeguard, and its firmest stay. 
What, indeed, can tend so forcibly to 
deaden the sense of shame, and to destroy 
the regard for decency, as gross, impure, 
and libidinous conversation ? Some per- 
sons delight in discoursing on such sub- 
jects only as place them below the level of 
the beasts, and are indifferent to c\ i rj 



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other sort of converse, than that which 
abounds with the language of obscenity. 
Hence, they are never so happy as when 
they are relating or hearing some filthy 
tale. Their language is the language of a 
brothel, and the whole of their discourse 
is blended with the associations of lewd- 
ness or the artifices of seduction. Older 
people are frequently more addicted to 
this sin than the young ; and hence the 
corruption of their lips acts like a conta- 
gious poison on their offspring, who must 
occasionally hear their conversation. Thus 
their family, whom a greater respect for 
decency manifested in the parents might 
have preserved modest and innocent, are 
soon infected with the sensual venom, 
which is continually dropping from the 
father's or mother's lips, and which, while 
it withers every fibre of shame in the 
breasts of the young, fits them only for a 
life of debauchery and prostitution. 

At the same time it may be observed, 
that any thing like gloom or sourness, 
whether in manner or in speech, is so far 
from being any mark of Christian ex- 
cellence, that it is repugnant to the genius 
of the Christian doctrine, and to the native 
openness and simplicity of the Christian 
character. Those persons, who make re- 
ligion to consist in an affected sanctity of 
look, or an habitual and unremitted gloomi- 
ness of discourse, seem to slight both the 
spirit and the precepts of the Christian re- 
ligion. Conversation with each other, so 
long as it be carefully separated from 
every infusion of irreligion, is one of the 
most delightful employments of our ra- 
tional nature; but conversation may not 
be either irreligious or immoral, though it 
does not continually turn on grave or 
momentous topics. Are we to exert none 
of the gay but unvitiated flights of fancy, 
none of the exuberances of vivacity, or the 
creations of mirth ? Surely the Christian 
religion does not enjoin us to be thus se- 
vere, or to debar ourselves from any en- 
joyments, which are not injurious to good 
morals, either in their causes or their con- 
sequences. We are all liable to depression 
of spirits ; and may we not physically and 
medicinally have recourse to the exhilarat- 
ing power of pleasurable conversation? 
May we never unbend from severer stu- 
dies or serious occupations ? Besides, 
pleasantry of discourse is a most powerful 
auxiliary of morality. Out of some follies 
and vices men may be better laughed than 
reasoned; and the playfulness of ridicule 
has sometimes a sharper edge than the 
fierceness of invective. Shame may be 
excited by raillery, when it cannot be pro- 
voked by serious reproof. Many, who can- 
not endure contempt, despise invective. 
The infidel often laughs at religion, and 
attacks it with the shafts of wit and irony ; 
and may we not sometimes employ wit 
304 



and irony in its defence? May we not 
show the sceptic that neither force of ar- 
gument nor of ridicule is all on his side of 
the question ? Fools' make a mock of sin ; 
and may not wise men make a mock of 
such fools? Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol. ii. p. 259, &c. 

CONVERSION is a change from one 
state to another, or from a wicked to a 
holy life. It has been usual to divide all 
mankind into two classes, the converted 
and the unconverted. Such a division in- 
fers the necessity of conversion to all ; but 
this appears to be too absolute and unlimit- 
ed. There is a class and description of 
Christians, who having been piously edu- 
cated, and persevering in a virtuous course 
of life, are not conscious to themselves 
that they were ever without the influence 
of religion on their hearts and conduct. 
These persons cannot be reckoned either 
converted or unconverted. They are not 
converted, because they are not sensible 
of any religious change, which can be 
properly called a conversion. They are 
not unconverted, because that implies a 
state of reprobation. If therefore con- 
version be insisted on as indispensable to 
all for the purpose of salvation, some per- 
sons, who were never indifferent to the 
influence of religion, or alienated from it, 
could not apprehend in what their conversion 
should consist. 

It appears that spiritual assistance, 
may be imparted at any time from 
the earliest to the latest period of 
life; and therefore those, who are, and 
have been, in such a religious state, that 
no such change as is usually meant by con- 
version is necessary for their salvation, 
need not be dejected from not possessing 
the consciousness of this change. Our Sa- 
viour, indeed, says, ' Except a man be 
born again, he cannot see the kingdom of 
God,' and, ' Except a man be born of 
water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter 
into the kingdom of God.' But it is no 
where determined at what time of life, or 
under what circumstances, this gift is im- 
parted; and the contrary is intimated, by 
comparing it to the blowing of the wind, 
which, in its mode of action, is beyond 
our calculation : ' The wind bloweth 
where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound 
thereof, but canst not tell whence it 
cometh, and whither it goeth ; so is every 
one that is born of the Spirit.' The ef- 
fect of this uncertainty is, that we are 
taught to pray for spiritual assistance in 
all stages, and under all circumstances, of 
life. We pray for it in baptism for those 
who are baptized ; and we pray for it par- 
ticularly in the office of confirmation, for 
young persons just commencing the business 
of life. If we cannot ordinarily distinguish 
the operations of the spirit from those of our 
own minds, we cannot distinguish when they 



CON 



CON 



commence. Spiritual assistance may there- 
fore be imparted without such a sensible 
conversion, that a person can fix his me- 
mory on some great and general change pro- 
duced in him at an assignable time. 

As the notion of sudden and instantane- 
ous conversions, and of the pangs of the 
new-birth, has been, and may still be held 
by some well-meaning Christians, to be 
a doctrine of the Gospel, it may be proper 
to show in what cases, and under what 
limitations, it ought to be allowed. A 
conversion may be sudden and instantane- 
ous, when the conviction itself is wrought 
by surprise. Thus, in the second chapter 
of the Acts we read, that the Jews, being 
assembled at the great feast of Pentecost, 
from every nation known at that time in 
the world, and ' hearing the disciples 
speak with other tongues, as the Spirit 
gave them utterance, were all amazed, 
and marvelled.' Finding that the Person, 
whom they had crucified as an impostor, 
was the true and long-expected Messiah, 
and that this miracle of speaking with new 
tongues, was wrought in confirmation of 
the truth of his mission, ' they were 
pricked to the heart, and said unto Peter, 
and unto the rest of the apostles, men and 
brethren, what shall we do V — We read 
also, in the sixteenth chapter of the Acts, 
that the jailer, who kept Paul and Silas, 
was seized with the like sudden surprise, 
when he found that though all the doors of 
the prison had been opened, yet none of 
the prisoners had escaped. ' He fell down 
before Paul and Silas, and brought them 
out, and said, Sirs, what must I do to be 
saved?' In these two cases, conviction 
flashed like lightning on the mind, and ex- 
torted an instantaneous confession of what 
was felt. A conversion may be also sudden, 
not only from a sudden change of belief, or 
sentiments, but also from a sudden appli- 
cation of a previous belief to a conscience 
involved in guilt. For instance, Peter was 
suddenly struck with remorse, when our 
Lord turned back and looked on him ; and 
David felt the same compunctions of con- 
science, when Nathan retorted on him 
that condemning sentence, ' Thou art the 
man.' 

If, however, it be necessary, or at 
least, expedient, that some men should 
be wrought on by quick impulses, or sud- 
den shocks, it is equally certain that others 
may be converted by more gentle methods, 
and gradual convictions. Of the latter 
kind many examples are recorded in 
Scripture. The Bereans mentioned in 
the Acts, gave not their immediate con- 
sent to the first preaching of the Gospel, 
but pondered and meditated on it, ' com- 
paring spiritual things with spiritual.' For 
they searched the Scriptures daily whe- 
ther these things were so.' — The good 
Centurion, the first convert from the Gen- 
305 



tile to the Christian world, seems to have 
felt no agonizing sensations of guilt and 
remorse, during the time of his conversion. 
For the account given by himself, and by 
St. Peter, intimates nothing of this kind. 
Cornelius and his company were not tor- 
mented with the stings of a guilty con- 
science, and the lashes of despair, before 
they were admitted into a justified state. — 
We read in the sixteenth chapter of the 
Acts, that Lydia of Thyatira, after having 
heard the preaching of St. Paul, was con- 
verted. She certainly did not feel any ot 
those horrors, which some persons mention 
as a necessary proof of conversion ; and 
she probably did not even find any sudden 
change of sentiments, or rapid alteration 
of belief. The account given of her is, 
that being one of those, who worshipped 
God, that is, adored the true God of the 
Jews, the great Jehovah, the Lord ' open- 
ed her heart, that she attended to the 
things, which were spoken by Paul.' The 
expression of attending to his preaching, 
intimates, very probably, a state of mind 
not immediately assenting, but rather 
weighing, considering, and deliberating 
on the things, which were spoken. The 
context also favours this opinion; for it 
plainly appears, that some time elapsed 
between her own conversion, and the bap- 
tism of all her household. Her expression 
also to Paul and Silas, ' If ye have judged 
me faithful to the Lord, come into my 
house, and abide there,' certainly implies 
no perturbation or agony of mind. 

On the whole, nothing can be concluded 
either from sudden or gradual conversions; 
from piercing compunctions, or gentle 
drawings of the Holy Spirit, considered 
merely in themselves. Whether we are 
drawn at first by the cords of love, or 
driven by the lashes of fear, it is not so 
material, as whether we persevere to the 
end. This is the great point on which we 
ought to fix our attention. The apostle 
John tells us, that this is the side, on which 
we are most liable to dangerous errors. ' Let 
no man deceive you : he that doeth righte- 
ousness is righteous, even as he is righte- 
ous : He that committeth sin is of the devil.' 
(1 John iii. 7> 8.) Our Saviour himself 
says, ' By their fruits ye shall know them.' 
Paley's Sermons, Serm. vii. ; Dr. Tucker on 
Conversion, in Clapham's Selection of Sermons, 
Serm. xxvi. 

CONVOCATION, an assembly of the 
clergy of England, by their representa- 
tives, for the purpose of consulting on 
ecclesiastical matters. Though the con- 
vocation has not been permitted to transact 
any business for upwards of seventy years, 
yet it still meets on the second day of 
every session of parliament. Like parlia- 
ment, it consists of an upper and lower 
house. In the upper house, the arch- 
bishops and bishops sit ; and in the lower 
X 



CON 

house, the inferior clergy, who are repre- 
sented by their proctors. These consist 
of all the deans and archdeacons, of one 
proctor for every chapter, and two for the 
clergy of every diocese, and amount in all 
to one hundred and forty-three divines. 
The lower house choose their prolocutor or 
speaker, whom they present to the arch- 
bishops and bishops of the upper house. 
The business of the prolocutor consists in 
taking care that the members attend, in 
collecting their debates and votes, and in 
carrying their resolutions to the upper 
house. The convocation is summoned by 
the king's writ, directed to the archbishop 
of each province, requiring him to summon 
all bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c. The 
power of the convocation is limited by a 
statute of king Henry VIII. They are not 
to make any canons or ecclesiastical laws 
without the king's license ; nor, when per- 
mitted, can they put them in execution, 
except under certain restrictions. They 
possess the power of examining and censur- 
ing all heretical and schismatical books, 
persons, &c. ; but an appeal lies from them 
to the king in chancery, or to his delegates. 
The clergy in convocation have the same 
privileges as members of parliament. 
The reason for not permitting the convo- 
cation to sit, was originally owing to the 
unhappy disputes which began after the 
revolution, between the high-church party 
and those who favoured moderation. These 
disputes increased during the reign of 
queen Anne, and continued in that of her 
successor. It was, therefore, determined 
in council, that the convocation should be 
still summoned to meet, but that on the 
day of their meeting they should be ad- 
journed. 

A late writer judiciously observes, that 
'it is always to be lamented when private 
animosities obstruct the discharge of public 
duties ; the flock cannot prosper while the 
shepherds are at variance. It is not for an 
individual to express his opinion on so 
delicate a subject as the revival of the 
powers of the convocation : but he must 
ever look up with veneration to that as- 
sembly, whose deliberations, under God, 
rescued us from many dangerous errors, 
and settled on so sure a foundation the 
ecclesiastical establishment of this country.' 
Brewster's Secular Essay, p. 60 ; Hurd on 
Religious Rites, &c. p. 635. 

CONEY, or Rabbit. The Hebrew word 
ysv saphan, which our translators have 
rendered a coney, conformably to the sen- 
timents of the modern Jews, and the 
greatest number of interpreters, is trans- 
lated in the Septuagint and Vulgate, cheer o- 
gryllus, a hedge-hog, or porcupine. Many, in- 
deed, are the reasons against admitting this 
animal to be the rabbit. This last was an 
animal peculiar to Spain, and therefore 
could not be supposed to be either in 
306 




COP 



Judea or Arabia. The coney does not 
chew the cud ; it inhabits a sandy soil, and 
does not dwell in rocks. Hence Bochart 
thinks, that this animal is a kind of large 
rat, which is common in Arabia, and is 
called Aljarbuho. These rats chew the 
cud, dwell in rocks, and are gregarious ; and 
the same qualities are ascribed in Scripture 
ti, the saphan. Mr. Pennant supposes if, 
to be the Egyptian jerboa, which is the 
same as that mentioned by Bochart, and 
which he thinks is the daman Israel, or 
Israel's lamb ; but Dr. Shaw distinguishes 
the jerboa from the daman Israel. 

Mr. Bruce is of opinion that the saphan is 
the ashkoko, which in Arabia or Syria is 
called Israel's lamb, or gannim Israel. The 
ashkoko, Mr. Bruce observes, 'is above all 
other animals so much attached to the rock, 
that I never once saw him on the ground, 
or from among large stones in the mouth 
of caves, where is his constant residence ; 
he is gregarious, and lives in families. He 
is in Judea, Palestine, and Arabia, and 
consequently must have been familiar to 
Solomon. For David describes him very 
pertinently, and joins him with other 
animals perfectly known to all men : ' The 
hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the 
rocks for the saphan or ashkoko.' (Psalm civ. 
18.) And Solomon says, 'There be four 
things, which are little upon earth, but they 
are exceeding wise.' ' The saphanim are a 
feeble folk, yet they make their houses in 
the rocks.' (Prov. xxx. 24. 26.) Now this, 
I think, very obviously fixes the ashkoko to 
be the saphan, for this weakness seems to 
allude to his feet, and how inadequate these 
are to dig holes in the rock, where yet, 
however, he lodges.' The ashkoko greatly 
resembles our rabbit. Bruce's Travels, vol. 
v. p. 139, &c. ; Scripture Illustrated; Dr. 
Adam Clarke's Comment, on Leviticus. 

COPTS, a name given to the Christians 
of Egypt, who do not belong to the Greek 
church, but are Monophysites, and in most 
respects Jacobites. Scaliger and father 
Simon derive the name from Coptos, once a 
celebrated town of Egypt, and the metro- 
polis of the Thebaid; but Volney and 
others are of opinion, that the name Copts 
is only an abbreviation of the Greek word 
Aiguptios, an Egyptian. The Copts have 
a patriarch, whose jurisdiction extends over 
both Egypts, Nubia, and Abyssinia, who 
resides at Cairo, but who takes his title 
from Alexandria. He has under him 
eleven or twelve bishops, besides the abuna, 
or bishop of the Abyssinians, whom he ap- 
points and consecrates. The rest of the 
clergy, whether secular or regular, are 
composed of the orders of St. Anthony, St. 
Paul, and St. Macarius, who have each 
their monasteries. Their archpriests, who 
are next in degree to bishops, and their 
deacons, are said to be numerous ; and they 
often confer the order of deacon even on 



COR 



COR 



children. Next to the patriarch is the 
bishop or titular patriarch of Jerusalem, 
who also resides at Cairo, because there are 
only few Copts at Jerusalem ; he is, in 
reality, little more than bishop of Cairo, 
except that he goes to Jerusalem every 
Easter, and visits some other places in 
Palestine, which own his jurisdiction. To 
him belongs the government of the Coptic 
church, during the vacancy of the patriar- 
chal see. The ecclesiastics are said to be 
in general of the lowest ranks of the people ; 
and hence that great degree of ignorance 
which prevails among them. They have 
seven sacraments ; baptism, the eucharist, 
confirmation, ordination, faith, fasting, and 
prayer. They admit only three oecume- 
nical councils ; those of Nice, Constanti- 
nople, and Epbesus. They observe four 
Lents, as do the Greeks and most Eastern 
Christians ; but it is said, by Brerewood 
and Ross, that they do not keep the 
Lord's day. There are three Coptic 
liturgies ; one attributed to St Basil, 
another to St. Gregory, and the third to 
St. Cyril. These are translated into 
Arabic for the use of the clergy and the 
people. The Copts are fond of rites and 
ceremonies. During the time of service, 
they are always in motion. In particular, 
the officiating priest is in continual motion, 
incensing the saints, pictures, books, &c. 
every moment. They have many monaste- 
ries in which the monks bury themselves 
from society in remote solitudes. Their 
nunneries are properly hospitals ; and few 
enter them, except widows reduced to 
beggary. During the first three ages of 
the church, no country exhibited more 
sincere or greater Christian piety than 
Egypt, and the north of Africa in general. 
At present, however, little more than the 
mere shadow of Clmstianity can be seen in 
Egypt ; and, in point of numbers, not more 
than fifty thousand Christians in all can be 
found in this country. There are not more 
than three Christian churches at Cairo. 
J dam's Religious World, vol. i. pp. 391, 
&c. 

COR'BAN, denotes a gift, a present 
made to God, or to his temple. The Jews 
sometimes swore by corban, or by such gifts 
offered to God. (Matt, xxiii. 18.) Theo- 
phrastus says, that the Tyrians forbade 
the use of such oaths as were peculiar to 
foreigners, and particularly of corban, 
which, as Josephus observes, was used only 
by the Jews. Jesus Christ reproaches the 
Jews with cruelty towards their parents, 
and says, that to excuse themselves from 
showing any liberality to them, they would 
tell them, ' May what you ask of me be 
corban,' that is, consecrated to God ; 
or, ' May all that I am able to give you 
be corban,' that is, devoted to God, so 
that neither you nor I may employ any 
thing of it to our use ; or, ' I swear by 
307 



corban,' that is the gift made to God, 'that 
I will not assist you in any thing.' St. 
Mark expresses, much after this manner, 
such reply from children to their parents : 
' It is a gift (corban) by whatsoever thou 
mightest be profited by me,' that is ' I 
have already devoted that to God which 
you ask of me, and it- is no longer mine to 
give.' 

Josephus remarks, that, among the Jews, 
men and women sometimes made them- 
selves corban ; that is, they consecrated 
themselves to God, or to certain ministries 
in his service. If they were afterwards 
desirous of quitting their obligation, they 
gave to the priest for a man fifty, for a 
woman thirty shekels ; or they agreed with 
the priest for so much as was satisfactory. 
Moses speaks of different sorts of corban, 
or dedications of part of their estates, 
which was afterwards redeemed, or, if 
cattle, was sanctified. (Levit. xxvii. 1,2, 3, 
&c.) Those who, in the Acts, (xxiii. 12.) 
vowed neither to eat nor drink till they had 
killed Paul, in some measure made every 
thing corban that belonged to them, or 
every thing, which might supply them with 
meat and drink. 

Corban, as it is expressed in the ori- 
ginal, (Matt, xxvii. 6.) signifies also the 
treasury of the temple, where offerings, 
made in money, were deposited. The 
Jews taking up the money, which Judas 
had cast into the temple, after he had be- 
trayed Jesus Christ, scrupled to place it in 
the treasury of the temple, because it was 
the price of blood, and as such was esteemed 
impure. 

CORD. To put cords about the reins, 
to gird one's self with a cord, was a mark 
of sorrow and humiliation. The servants 
of Benhadad, king of Syria, presented 
themselves before the king of Israel, with 
sackcloth on their loins, and ropes upon 
their heads, and implored Ahab's clemency. 
(I Kings xx. 31, 32.) The cords of the 
wicked, (Psalm exxix. 4.) are the snares, with 
which they catch weak persons. The cords 
of sin, (Prov. v. 22.) are the consequences 
of crimes and bad habits ; for bad habits 
are, as it were, indissoluble bands, from 
which it is almost impossible to extricate 
ourselves. * Let us cast away their cords 
from us;' (Psalm ii. 3.) that is, let us cast off 
their government, and free ourselves from 
subjection to their laws, which, like fetters, 
restrain us from our purposes. To draw 
iniquity with cords of vanity, (Isai. v. 18.) 
is to spare no pains or cost in the pursuit of 
sin. I drew them with the cords of a man, 
(Hos. xi. 4.) that is, I used fair and gentle 
means, suitable to the temper of man, to 
draw them to obedience. 

Baruch, (vi. 43.) speaks of a custom 

among the Babylonians. ' The women with 

cords about them, sitting in the ways, burn 

bran for perfume : but if any of them, draw n 

x 2 



COR 



COR 



by some that passeth by, lie with him, she 
reproacheth her fellow, that she was not 
thought as worthy as herself, nor her cord 
broken.' This is explained by Herodotus, 
who says, that the Babylonian women have 
a custom of prostituting themselves once in 
their lives, in honour of Melitta : they stand 
near the temple of the goddess, with cords 
about their heads, as marks of their devo- 
ting themselves. They are separated from 
one another by lines ; and into these stran- 
gers enter, carry off whom they choose, and 
break the cords. 

COR'INTH, KopivSog, signifies satiety, 
or fulness ; otherwise, ornament. It was a 
celebrated city, the capital of Achaia, and 
was situated on the isthmus which separates 
the Peloponnesus from Attica. This city 
was one of the best peopled, and most 
wealthy of Greece. Its situation between 
two seas drew thither the trade of both the 
East and West. Its riches produced pride, 
ostentation, effeminacy, and all vices, the 
consequences of abundance. In particular, 
lasciviousness was not only tolerated, but 
was, in some sort, consecrated there, by 
the worship of Venus, and the public pros- 
titution of numerous attendants devoted to 
her. The Corinthians pretended to phi- 
losophy, learning, and politeness. This 
city is chiefly memorable among heathen 
writers for its citadel, Acro-corinthus, which 
was so denominated from its being built 
upon a very high rock ; and also for its in- 
solence to the Roman legates, which caused 
L. Mummius to destroy it. In the burn- 
ing of it, so many statues of different me- 
tals were melted together, that they pro- 
duced the famous Corinthian brass, which 
was more esteemed than either gold or sil- 
ver. It was afterwards restored to its 
former splendour by Julius Caesar, and was 
beautified with pillars, which have been 
ever since called by the name of the Corin- 
thian order. 

A late French writer, who visited this 
country, thus observes: When the Caesars 
rebuilt the walls of Corinth, and the tem- 
ples of the gods rose from their ruins more 
magnificent than ever, an obscure archi- 
tect was rearing in silence an edifice, 
which remains standing amidst the ruins of 
Greece. This man, unknown to the great, 
despised by the multitude, rejected as the 
offscouring of the world, at first associated 
with himself only two companions, Crispus 
and Gaius, with the family of Stephanas. 
These were the humble architects of an 
indestructible temple, and the first believ- 
ers at Corinth. The traveller surveys the 
site of this celebrated city; he discovers not 
a vestige of the altars of paganism, but 
perceives some Christian chapels rising 
from among the cottages of the Greeks. 
The apostle might still from his celestial 
abode, give the salutation of peace to his 
children, and address them in the words, 
308 



' Paul to the church of God, which is at 
Corinth.' 

St. Paul came to Corinth before the end 
of A.D. 51, or in the beginning of A.D. 
52. (Acts xviii. 1.) He lodged with 
Aquila and his wife Priscilla, who, as well 
as himself, made tents ; and thus he ob- 
tained a livelihood by his labour, without 
being burdensome to any one. He 
preached in the Jewish synagogues, and 
converted some. From Corinth he wrote 
his two Epistles to the Thessalonians, A.D. 
52. Observing that the Jews of Corinth, 
instead of being benefited by his instruc- 
tions, opposed him with blasphemy, he 
shook his raiment, and said, f Your blood 
be upon your own heads ; I am clean : from 
henceforth I will go unto the Gentiles.' 
He went, therefore, and lodged with Justus, 
surnamed Titus, a Gentile, but one who 
feared God; and many of the Gentiles af- 
terwards embraced the faith. Paul suf- 
fered much at Corinth; but Jesus Christ 
said to him, Be not afraid, for I have 
much people in this city. He continued 
eighteen months at Corinth, or in its vici- 
nity. 

St. Paul left Corinth, A.D. 53 or 54, and 
went to Jerusalem. From Ephesus he 
wrote his first Epistle to the Corinthians, in 
the beginning of A.D. 56. In this Epistle, 
he reproves some who disturbed the peace 
of the church ; complains of some disorders 
in their assemblies ; of law-suits among 
them ; and of a Christian, who had com- 
mitted incest with his mother-in-law, the 
wife of his father. This letter produced in 
the Corinthians abundant sorrow, great 
vigilance against the vices reproved, and a 
very beneficial dread of God's anger. They 
repaired the scandal given, and expressed 
abundant zeal against the crime committed. 
(2 Cor. vii. 9, 10,11.) 

Paul having understood the good effects 
of his first letter among the Corinthians, 
wrote a second to them, A.D. 57, from 
Macedonia, and probably from Philippi. 
He expresses his satisfaction at their con- 
duct, justifies himself, and comforts them. 
He glories in his suffering, and exhorts 
them to liberality. Near the end of the year 
57, he came again to Corinth, where he 
-stayed about three months, and whence he 
went to Jerusalem. Just before his second 
departure from Corinth, he wrote his Epistle 
to the Romans, probably in the beginning 
of A.D. 58. 

From the words typaipa vfiiv s.v ry iiria- 
ro\y, (1 Cor. v. 9.) which in our version is 
rendered, ' I have written to you in an 
epistle,' a question of importance has been 
much agitated, whether St. Paul wrote any 
other epistles to the Corinthians than those 
which we now have. From the text it has 
been inferred, that St. Paul had already 
written to the Corinthians an epistle, which 
is no longer extant, and to which he al- 



COR 



COV 



hides ; some contend that by ry i7riaro\y, 
he means only the epistle, which he is 
writing ; and others, that St. Paul refers to 
an epistle, which he had written, or begun 
to write, and had not sent, but which he 
suppressed, on receiving further informa- 
tion from Stephanas, Fortunatus, and 
Achaicus, and wrote this, in which he con- 
siders the subject more fully. It would 
appear, however, from the evidence ad- 
duced, that St. Paul wrote only the two 
epistles, which are now extant, and bear his 
name. Home's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 
374 ; Lardner's History of the Apostles and 
Evangelists ; Bishop Tomlhie's Elements, 
vol. i. p. 300, &c. ; Wells's Geography, 
vol. ii. p. 259 ; Chateaubriand 's Travels in 
Greece, Palestine, &c. vol. i. p. 183; Bloom- 
field's Recensio Synoptica, vol. vi. pp. 341, 
342. 

CORNARISTS, the disciples of Theo- 
dore Cornhert, a sectary of the states of 
Holland. H2 wrote at the same time 
against the Catholics, the Lutherans, and 
the Calvinists. He maintained that every 
religious communion needed reformation ; 
but he added, that no person had a right to 
engage in accomplishing it, without a mis- 
sion supported by miracles. He was also 
of opinion, that a person might be .'. good 
Christian without being a member of any 
visible church. Adam's View of Religions, 
p. 122. 

CORNE'LIUS, centurion of a cohort 
belonging to the legion surnamed Italian. 
(Acts x. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c.) He was a 
Gentile, but one that feared God, was 
constant at his devotions, and performed 
many charitable deeds. His whole family 
also served God. It pleased the Almighty 
to favour him, in a miraculous manner, 
with an introduction to the knowledge of 
the Gospel. An angel directed him to 
send for Peter, from whom he might 
receive instruction. This direction he 
obeyed ; and whilst he and his family were 
listening to Peter's relation of Gospel 
truths, the Holy Ghost fell on them, and 
they were added to the Christian church, 
as the first-fruits of the Gentiles. See 
Peter. 

Some of the Latins make Cornelius bi- 
shop of Cesarea in Palestine : some of the 
Greeks, bishop of Ilium; and others, of 
Scepsis. 

CORNER, the extremity of any land, 
country, habit, of the beard and hair, of a 
people, building, table, altar, &c. ' Ye 
shall not round the corners of your heads, 
neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy 
beard,' says Moses. (Levit. xix. 27-) 

In a room fitted up in the East, the place 
of sitting is a raised kind of settle, which is 
called the duan or divan, or sofa. Upon 
this sofa are placed cushions against the 
wall to lean upon. In this seat, the place 
of honour is the comer, where two cushions 
300 



may be used by the person at the same 
time. ' Thou gavest them kingdoms 
and nations; and didst divide them into 
corners. (Nehemiah ix. 22.) As the 
shepherd taketh out of the mouth of a 
lion two legs, or a piece of an ear ; so shall 
the children of Israel be taken out that 
dwell in Samaria, in the corner of a bed, and 
in Damascus, in a couch.' (Amos iii. 12.) 
The corner of a bed, or duan, is the place of 
honour ; the most easy, voluptuous, in- 
dulging station. As if the prophet had 
said, ' Those now most at their ease, shall 
be delivered to their enemies, like sheep to 
the lion, and scarcely any of them be res- 
cued from his jaws.' Some writers are of 
opinion, that what in this passage is ren- 
dered in a couch, is much better translated 
in the margin of our English Bibles, by 
the bed's feet, the lower or broad part of 
the divan. 

The corner sometimes signifies the most 
devoted place, the part of the edifice most 
in sight. Zechariah, (x. 4.) speaking of 
the tribe of Judah, after their return from 
the captivity, says, ' Our of him came forth 
the corner.' This tribe shall afford corners, 
heads ; it shall produce the corner-stone, 
the Messiah. Corner is also taken for the 
most retired part of a house. (Prov. xxi. 
9. ; xxv. 24.) Paul speaking to Agrippa, 
(Acts xxvi. 26.) of our Saviour, and his 
resurrection, tells him that these things 
were not transacted in a corner, but pub- 
licly. Harmer's Observations, vol. ii. p. 309; 
Fragments attached to Calmet's Diet. No. 
xii. p. 26. 

COVENANT. The word testamentum 
is often used in Latin, and diaSi)Ki] in 
Greek, to express the Hebrew nn^ berilh, 
which signifies covenant ; and hence Old 
and New Testament are improperly used to 
denote the Old and New Covenant. 

Jeremiah, (xxxiv. 18.) mentions a re- 
markable ceremony not noticed in the his- 
torical books of Scripture : the Lord says, 
4 I will give the men which have not per- 
formed the words of the covenant, which 
they had made before me, when they cut 
the calf in twain, and passed between the 
parts thereof.' When this covenant was 
sworn to, and on what occasion, is un- 
known ; but it is probable, that it was not 
long before, since they who had sworn to 
it were still living. The custom of cutting 
a victim in two, of putting the several parts 
upon two different altars, and causing those, 
who contracted any covenant, to pass be- 
tween them, is well authenticated in Scrip- 
ture, and profane authors. (Gen. xv. 9, 10. 
170 The passage in Hebrews, (ix. 16.) 
which in our translation is rendered testa' 
v/rtit, S:c may perhaps be illustrated by re- 
ferring it to such a ceremony. ' Now, where 
there is a testament, haSi'iKij, a covenant,' 
the death of the testator, Sta&tuivav, the 
confirmer of the covenant, is necessary : for a 



cov 



cov 



testament, ' covenant,' is of no authority 
while the confirmer of the testament, co- 
venant, 'is living;' that is, while those 
beasts were not slain, between whose di- 
vided parts the persons covenanting were to 
pass, the covenant wanted the most so- 
lemn token of its ratification. AiaS^/cfj 
may signify not so much a covenant made 
between two equal contracting parties, as 
a proposal made by one party for the other 
to accept ; thus, let him ' take hold of my 
covenant,' my proposals. (Isa. lvi. 4. Hos. 
ii. 18. Psalm xxv, 14, &c.) 

The first covenant with the Hebrews, is 
that made when the Lord chose Abraham 
and his posterity for his people, and gave 
them circumcision as a mark of his cove- 
nant with them. God proposed to Abra- 
ham to give him posterity, and to bestow 
on his posterity the promised land ; and 
Abraham, as a token on his part of ac- 
cepting the proposal, undertook the obe- 
dience of circumcision. A second cove- 
nant, or a solemn renewal of this covenant, 
was made at Sinai, and comprehended 
all those, who observed the law of Moses. 
The new covenant, of which Jesus Christ 
is the mediator and author, and which was 
confirmed by his blood, comprehends all 
who believe in him, and are in his church. 

The first covenant between God and 
man, was that made with Adam at his 
creation, when he was prohibited from 
eating the forbidden fruit. (Gen. ii. 16.) 
A second covenant God made with man 
after his fall, and promised him not only 
forgiveness, provided he repented, but also 
a Messiah, who should redeem the human 
race from the death of sin, and from the 
second death. (Rom. v. 12. 19.) A third 
covenant is that, which God made with 
Noah, when he directed him to build an 
ark, in which to preserve animals and 
men, to re^people the world after the de- 
luge. (Gen. vi. 18.) These three covenants 
were general between Adam and Noah, and 
their posterity ; but that, which God made 
with Abraham, was limited, and regarded 
that patriarch only, and his family by 
Isaac exclusively. (Gen. xii. 1, 2, 3, &c. ; 
xv. 4, 5. 18.) The seal or confirmation of 
this covenant was the circumcision of all 
the males of Abraham's family. The effects 
of this covenant are visible in all parts of 
the Old Testament; the coming of the 
Messiah was its consummation and end. 
The covenant of God with Adam forms 
what we call the state of nature ; that 
with Abraham, explained farther under 
Moses, constitutes the law ; and that cove- 
nant through the mediation of Jesus Christ, 
forms the law of grace. 

We commonly say the Old and New 
Testament ; the covenant between God and 
the posterity of Abraham, and that which 
he hath made with believers by Jesus 
Christ ; because these two covenants emi- 
310 



nently contain all the rest, which are con- 
sequences, branches, or explanations of them. 
The greatest, most solemn, most excellent, 
and most perfect of the covenants of God 
with men, is that made through the media- 
tion of Jesus Christ. This eternal cove- 
nant must continue to the end of time ; 
of it the Son of God is the guarantee ; it is 
confirmed with his blood ; the end and ob- 
ject of it is eternal life ; and its laws and 
constitutions are infinitely more exalted 
than those of the Old Testament. Faith, 
repentance, and a holy and virtuous life, 
are the conditions, or token on our part. 
The conditions of this covenant are neces- 
sary to purify our nature, and prepare us 
for happiness. Our eternal felicity abso- 
lutely depends on the observance, and our 
eternal misery infallibly pursues the trans- 
gression, of this covenant. It is with the 
most high God, that we have exchanged 
promises in this important treaty of peace. 
This contract cost nothing less than the 
blood of Christ, the eternal and only be- 
gotten Son of God. We ought to consider, 
that the conditions of this covenant were 
laws of our own enacting, though God first 
proposed them to us ; and that -they are to 
us truly a law of liberty, because we gave 
them the force of laws in respect to our- 
selves, by our own voluntary ratification. 
God communicates to us the assistance of 
his Holy Spirit, which ' helps our infirmi- 
ties,' and enables us, if we are not shame- 
fully wanting to ourselves, to observe and 
perform the conditions promised on our 
part. Indeed, he who is comparatively 
called the righteous man, ' falls seven times 
a-day ;' but he does not, like the reprobate, 
sin ' through malicious wickedness,' nor fall, 
except through infirmity ; and when he 
does fall, he rises again in a sincere re- 
pentance, and with new resolution. Serm. 
xiii. in Sermons selected by Mr. Clapham ; 
Tillotson's Sermons, vol. ix. p. 309. 

COVETOUSNESS, an immoderate de- 
sire of worldly possessions. The worship- 
ping of false gods, or the worshipping of 
the true God by images or by any other 
material representations, is idolatry. It is 
the first and grossest sort of idolatry, of 
which the covetous man is guilty; for 
though he has idols of gold and silver, yet 
he doth not worship the true God by or 
through these, but he adores the idols them- 
selves, purely and solely on their own ac- 
count. They are his gods. ' He saith 
unto gold, thou art my hope, and to the 
fine gold, thou art my confidence ;' for it is 
in these, and not in Providence, that he 
placeth his chief support. They constitute 
the objects of his highest regard, and most 
tender solicitude. The mere sight of them 
fills him with joy unspeakable ; and his at- 
tention to them absorbs every other care. 
Though he lift up his hands and his eyes to 
heaven, and in his prayers call loudly on 



cov 



cou 



the name of the true God, this is only a 
mock worship. The god that he adores is 
that which has his heart, in which he puts 
his whole trust, which he prefers to every 
thing besides, and which he ' loves with all 
his soul, and with all his strength.' Ac- 
cordingly, our blessed Saviour declares, that 
we cannot serve two such different masters 
as God and mammon, or riches ; since 
the services they require from us will 
often interfere with each other, and ' we 
must hate the one and love the other, 
or we must hold to the one and despise 
the other.' 

The dread of some trifling loss, or ex- 
pense, will make the covetous man neglect 
many opportunities, which Providence affords 
him, of promoting the honour of his Maker, 
and the good of his fellow-creatures; and 
the hopes of a paltry advantage will engage 
him in such schemes and measures, as nei- 
ther justice nor humanity, neither reason 
nor religion, permit. He will utterly hate 
every expensive virtue, and meanly attach 
himself to every gainful vice. In short, 
what can be expected that is truly great and 
good, or rather, what is not to be expected 
that is vile and wdcked, from him, who pre- 
fers his own sordid views to every other 
consideration, and who dreads poverty much 
more than eternal death ? Covetousness, 
however, is not only justly entitled to the 
imputation of idolatry, but of the worst 
idolatry, the most obstinate and incurable. 
Whilst we hear or read of the conversion 
of whole nations of other idolaters, the 
worshippers of mammon have been ever 
deaf to all instruction. Even a voice from 
heaven has no effect upon them. Peni- 
tents of other classes may frequently be 
met with ; but who ever saw or heard of 
a reformed miser ? The extreme difficulty 
of such a man's repenting is affirmed by 
our Saviour, who intimates that the extra- 
ordinary grace of God is necessary to his 
repentance. 

It may not be improper to suggest a few 
observations, by which we may discover 
how far the infection of this sin hath seized 
upon our hearts. Are our wealth and riches 
the most frequent and agreeable entertain- 
ments of our private thoughts and medita- 
tions ? Are we transported with an immode- 
rate joy at any increase of our fortunes ? 
Or do we feel as disproportionate a sorrow 
at any diminution of them 1 Are we not 
rigorous exactors of our own rights, and 
unwilling to forego any trifling advantage 
to ourselves, though we might by such 
means perform the most friendly and be- 
neficial act to our neighbour ? Do we feel 
reluctance to any work of charity, to which 
we contribute nothing, or much less than 
we are able ? Let us consider well the 
favorite attachments of our hearts, and to 
what party they would adhere in a contest 
between God and mammon. Do we find 
311 



that interest and gain would obtain the 
superiority over our duty; and that we 
should choose to hazard our soul ratber 
than our property ? According as we dis- 
cover in our hearts more or fewer of such 
affections and attachments, we may con- 
clude, that we are more or less inclined to 
covetousness. Serm. xxxviii. in Sermons se- 
lected and abridged by Mr. Clapham. 

COUNCIL, sometimes denotes any kind 
of assembly ; sometimes that of the Sanhe- 
drim ; and, at other times, a convention of 
pastors met to regulate ecclesiastical affairs. 
The assembly of the apostles, &c. at Jeru- 
salem, (Acts xv. 6, 7-) met to determine 
whether the yoke of the law should be im- 
posed on the Gentile converts, is reputed 
the first council of the Christian church. 

Oecumenical or general councils were com- 
posed of commissioners from all the churches 
in the Christian world, and, therefore, re- 
presented the church universal. Of them 
the Romanists reckon eighteen, Bullinger 
six, Dr. Prideaux seven, and Bishop Be- 
veridge eight. They were established by 
the authority of Constantine the Great, the 
first Christian emperor, who thought it equit- 
able, that questions of superior import- 
ance, and such as intimately concerned 
the interests of Christianity in general, 
should be examined and decided in assem- 
blies, which represented the whole body of 
the Christian church. These general coun- 
cils were as follows : 

The first general council was that held in 
the year 325, at Nice, in Bithynia, whence 
it derived its name, and was called the 
council of Nice. The opinions promulgated 
by Arius, who denied the divinity of Jesus 
Christ, occasioned the assembling of this 
council. The tenets of Arius, who was 
himself present, were deliberated upon for 
several clays. After many severe debates, 
and violent efforts of the two parties, the 
council condemned the doctrine of Arius, 
and declared Christ consubstantial, or of the 
same essence, with the Father. Arius was 
banished among the Illyrians : and his fol- 
lowers were obliged to subscribe to the 
creed, or confession of faith, composed in 
this council. 

The second general council was that con- 
vened at Co7ista?itinople, in the year 381. 
In it the heresy of the Macedonians, who 
denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost, was 
condemned. One hundred and fifty bishops, 
who were present at this council, finished 
what the council of Nice had left imperfect, 
asserted the divinity of the Holy Ghost, and 
confirmed, in a full and determinate manner, 
the doctrine of Three Persons in One God. 

The third general council was held at 
Ephesus, in 431. Anastasius, a friend of 
Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, had 
declaimed warmly against the title of 
mother of God, which was at this time fre- 
quently given to the Virgin Mary, and 



cou 



cou 



said that she was rather to be called 
the mother of Christ, since the Deity 
can neither be born nor die, and conse- 
quently , the Son of Man alone could derive 
his birth from an earthly parent. These 
opinions were defended by Nestorius, 
who was cited before the above council, at 
which presided his avowed enemy Cyril, 
bishop of Alexandria. Nestorius, who 
was judged without being heard, was 
charged with blasphemy against the Di- 
vine Majesty, deprived of his episcopal 
dignity, and sent into exile, where he died. 
However, the doctrine established in this 
council was that which has been generally 
received, ' that Christ was one divine 
person, in whom two natures were most 
closely and intimately united, but without 
being mixed or confounded.' 

The fourth general council was held at 
Chalcedon, by order of the emperor Mar- 
cian, in the year 451. In this council, Euty- 
chus, who had affirmed that there was only 
one nature in Christ, and who had been 
already sent into banishment, and de- 
prived of his sacerdotal dignity, by the 
emperor, was condemned though absent. 
At the same time, the following doctrine, 
which is still almost generally received, 
was inculcated on Christians as an object 
of belief, ' that in Christ two distinct 
natures were united in one person, and that 
without any change, mixture, or confu- 
sion.' — These, as they were the first 
four general councils, so they were by far 
the most eminent. They were caused re- 
spectively by the Arian, Apollinarian, Nes- 
torian, and Eutychian controversies ; and 
their decrees are in high esteem among both 
Papists and orthodox Protestants. 

The fifth general council, and the second 
of Constantinople, was called in the year 
553, by the emperor Justinian. The 
principal transaction of this council, was 
the condemnation of the Three Chapters: 
by these were meant, 1. the books of 
Theodore, who lived 150 years before, 
and was said to have led the way to the 
Nestorian heresy; 2. those of Theodoret 
against Cyril ; and 3. an epistle of Ibis to 
Maris the Persian, in which the ortho- 
doxy of the council of Ephesus was at- 
tacked. Some say, that this council also 
condemned certain doctrines of Origen ; 
but we do not find this mentioned in any 
acts of this council. The tenets of Origen, 
which gave the most offence, were those 
which considered the Father as greater 
than the Son, and the Son than the Holy 
Ghost; those which taught the pre-exist- 
ence of souls, which Origen believed to 
be sent into mortal bodies for the punish- 
ment of sins committed in a former state 
of being ; the plurality of worlds ; that 
the torments of the damned will have an 
end; and that as Christ had been cru- 
cified in this world to save mankind, 
312 



he is to be crucified in the next to save the 
devils. 

The sixth general council was held in 680, 
at Constantinople, and is called the third 
of that city. This council condemned the 
heresy of the Monothelites, who main- 
tained that in Christ were two distinct 
natures, which were so united as to form 
only one person ; that the soul of Christ was 
endowed with a will or faculty of volition ; 
that this faculty of volition co-operated with 
the divine will ; and though they thus attri- 
buted to our Lord two wills, yet they affirm- 
ed that in Christ were only one will and one 
manner of operation. 

The seventh general council was called 
to compose the disputes, which had arisen 
respecting the worship and use of images, 
and met at Constantinople, in 754. This 
council was afterwards convened at Nice, 
in 786, and is known by the name of the 
second Nicene council. In this assembly, 
whilst it sat at Constantinople, the wor- 
ship and use of images were condemned ; 
but at Nice, through the influence of the 
Roman pontiff, the decrees of the council of 
Constantinople were reversed, the worship 
of images and of the cross were restored, 
and severe punishments denounced against 
such as maintained that God was the only 
object of religious adoration. 

The eighth general council was assembled 
at Constantinople, in 869 ; and in it the 
worship of images was confirmed, and 
the religious disputes between the Latins 
and the Greeks were concluded, or at least 
suspended. 

The last general council was that held 
at Trent, for the purpose of checking 
the progress of the reformation. It 
first met by the command of pope 
Paul the Third; it was suspended du- 
ring the latter part of the pontificate 
of his successor Julius the Third, and 
the whole of the pontificates of Mar- 
cellus the Second, and Paul the Fourth, 
that is, from 1552 to 1562. In this last 
mentioned year it met again by the autho- 
rity of pope Pius the Fourth ; and it ended 
while he was pope, in 1563. 

The first four general councils were 
summoned by the emperors of the East, 
whose dominions included the whole, or 
nearly the whole, of Christendom, and 
who continued to exercise the same power 
for several succeeding centuries ; but 
at length the popes of Rome, among 
other usurpations, assumed to themselves 
the right of summoning general councils, 
and the first, which met by their authority, 
was the first Lateran council, in the year 
1123. 

A general council composed of men, every 
one of whom is fallible, must be liable to 
error ; and that they have actually erred is 
hence sufficiently evident, that different 
councils have made decrees directly oppo- 



cou 



cou 



site to each other, particularly in the Arian 
and Eutychian controversies, which were 
upon subjects immediately ' pertaining 
unto God.' Indeed, neither the first general 
counoils themselves, nor those who de- 
fended their decisions, ever pretended to 
infallibility. This claim was of a much 
more recent date, and suited to the dark 
ages, in which it was asserted and main- 
tained, but is now considered equally 
groundless and absurd. If God had been 
pleased to exempt them from a possibility 
of error, he would have announced that 
important privilege in his written word ; 
but no such promise or assurance is men- 
tioned in the New Testament. The Scrip- 
tures being the only source, from which we 
can learn the terms of salvation, it follows, 
as our church observes in her articles, 
that ' things ordained by general councils 
as necessary to salvation, have neither 
strength nor authority, unless it may be de- 
clared that they betaken out of Holy Scrip- 
ture.' It is upon this ground we receive the 
decisions of the first four general councils, in 
which we find the truths revealed in the 
Scriptures, and therefore we believe them. 
At Nice it was declared that the Son is truly 
God, of the same substance with the Father ; 
at Constantinople, that the Holy Ghost is 
also truly God ; at Ephesus, that the divine 
was truly united to the human nature in 
Christ, in one person; at Chalcedon, that 
both natures remained distinct, and that the 
human nature was not lost or absorbed in the 
divine. We reverence the councils for the 
sake of the doctrines, which they declared and 
maintained ; but we do not believe the doc- 
trines on the authority of the councils. The 
deliberations of most councils were dis- 
graced by violence, disorder, and intrigue ; 
and their decisions were usually formed un- 
der the influence of some ruling party. Dr. 
Jortin says, ' they have been too much ex- 
tolled by Papists, and by some Protestants, 
they were a collection of men frail and falli- 
ble. Some of those councils were not as- 
semblies of pious and learned divines, but 
cabals, the majority of which were quarrel- 
some, fanatical, domineering, dishonest pre- 
lates, who wanted to compel men to approve 
all their opinions, of which they themselves 
had no clear conceptions, and to anathema- 
tize and oppress those, who would not impli- 
citly submit to their determinations.' 

Provincial councils were very numerous ; 
Baxter enumerates 481, and Dufresnoy 
many more. Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christ. Theology, vol. ii. p. 341, Sec. ; Jortin's 
Works, vol. vii. charge 2; Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. i. pp. 337-434. 457- 4GI ; ii. p. 93 ; 
Oregon/ s History of the Christian Church, 
vol. i. p. 305; Du Pins Hist vol. iii. p. 11. 

COURT. The courts belonging to the 

temple of Jerusalem were three : first, the 

court of the Gentiles, because the Gentiles 

were not allowed to enter farther ; second, 

313 



the court of Israel, because Israelites, if pu- 
rified, had a right of admission; third, that 
of the priests, where stood the altar of burnt- 
offerings, and where the priests and Levites 
exercised their ministry. Israelites, who 
offered sacrifices, might bring their victims 
to the inner part of the court, but could not 
pass a certain separation, which divided it ; 
and they withdrew 7 as soon as they had deli- 
vered their sacrifices and offerings to the 
priest, or had made their confession, laying 
their hands on the head of the victim, if it 
were a sin-offering. See Temple. 

Before the temple was built, there was a 
court around the tabernacle, but not large, 
and formed only of pillars, and veils hung 
by cords. See Tabernacle. 

These courts were like those of the 
Egyptian temples, which were surrounded 
by large courts with colonnades. The pa- 
laces of kings, and of great men, had great 
courts, as appears from those of Solomon, 
and of king Ahasuerus. The historian has 
taken great pains to describe correctly the 
situation of Esther, when she went and stood 
within view of king Ahasuerus. ' The 
queen,' says he, ' stood in the inner court,' 
that is, within the third gate of the ambassa- 
dors' entrance, as is described by Knolles in 
his History of the Turks, ' over against the 
king's house,' where, says Knolles, sat 
Selimus, the Turkish emperor, ' and the 
king sat upon his royal throne IN the royal 
house over against the gale (or door) of the 
house ;' so that through the portal of his 
chamber he could see any person, who ap- 
proached him, or who was standing in the 
court adjacent to him. 

This disposition of the courts of a royal 
palace may illustrate the history of the pri- 
vate interview of Isaiah with Hezekiah, (2 
Kings xx.) Isaiah having been admitted 
into the third court, on special business, had 
scarcely quitted the royal presence, or had 
gone into the middle court, when he was or- 
dered to return, and revive the dying king. 
It may also serve to illustrate the history 
of Peter's denial of Christ; as it shows, that 
the outer hall mentioned by St. Matthew, 
(xxvi. 69 .) and the loiver hall mentioned by 
St. Mark, (xiv. 66.) are the same; and that 
Jesus, having been examined in the apart- 
ment, in which sat the council, was remand- 
ed into the lower or outer hall, where he 
heard Peter deny him, and whence Peter, 
after he had received from his divine Master 
the significant look, retired to a fit place for 
his penitent weeping. This construction of 
courts seems to afford ample opportunities 
for many incidents attending the examina- 
tion and exposure of Jesus by Pilate : the 
governor might maintain his dignity by keep- 
ing within hispalace ; the priests satisfy their 
scruples, by preserving a proper distance 
from polluting heathens ; there might be a 
terrace, or raised pavement ; the priests might 

fill the courts with their creatures, who were 



CRE 



CRE 



ready to clamour according to their orders ; 
the governor could perceive this manage- 
ment of the priests; and Jesus might be 
easily brought forth, and Pilate retire. 

This idea of an extensive palace may also 
serve to illustrate the history of the decolla- 
tion of John the Baptist, as related by 
Mark, (vi. 21, &c.) Herod, on his birth-day, 
made a supper to his lords, high captains, 
and chief estates of Galilee (in the Great 
Hall of his palace,) into which the daughter 
of Herodias came, and danced before them : 
the king was so pleased with her performance, 
that he sware to give her whatever she would 
ask. She went forth, slipped away, out of 
that hall to her mother, who was either 
close by, or in the harem of the palace ; 
and returning straightway, in haste, before 
she could be missed by the king, or he 
could suspect, where she had been for 
advice, demanded forthwith, instantly, the 
head of John the Baptist. John, who was in 
prison, in another part of the palace (a 
common thing in the East), was slain di- 
rectly by a person sent by Herod. The 
whole of this history, therefore, passed in 
a very rapid manner, was soon over, and 
was transacted as it were on the very spot. 
The account, thus understood, agrees more 
precisely to that of Matthew, (xiv.) : the 
' pre -instruction' of the daughter, by the 
mother, becomes perfectly easy; and the 
words, ' give me here (not presently, but 
instantly, at the present time) the head of 
John,' are an entire coincidence. Fragments 
attached to Calmet's Dictionary, No. L p. 97, 
&c. 

CREATION, the producing of some- 
thing from nothing ; and this can be effect- 
ed by the power of God alone, all other 
creations being only transformations, or 
change of shape. The schoolmen observe, 
that creation from no pre-existing matter 
may be differently understood. 1. That 
is said to be created from no pre-existing 
matter, in the production of which no mat- 
ter is employed, as an angel. 2. Though 
matter may be employed in the creation 
of a thing, yet it may be so created, that 
both its matter and form shall be produced 
at the same time, by the same agent. They 
who deny that God made the chaos, think 
that the heaven and the earth were created 
in this manner. 3. Though matter may be 
the subject in producing a thing, yet that 
thing may not depend on matter with 
respect either to its future or present ex- 
istence ; of this nature is the human soul, 
which, though created in pre-existing 
matter, is not created from pre-existing 
matter, but from nothing, and cannot 
therefore be dependent on matter for ex- 
istence. 

Of the creation of all things, Moses has 
given a summary account, not in a philo- 
sophical manner, but such as to afford the 
people of the age, in which he wrote, just 
314 



and affecting notions of this first and most 
stupendous work of God, so far as was 
necessary to the purposes of true religion, 
and no further. It is, therefore, sufficient 
that his account is true, so far as it goes, 
and in no respect inconsistent with the 
most accurate discoveries, which have been 
made in later ages concerning the system 
of the universe, or any of its parts. ' In 
the beginning God created the heaven and 
the earth.' (Gen. i. 1, &c.) The heaven 
and the earth may comprehend the whole 
universe, or all things visible and invisible. 
It does not therefore follow, that the whole 
universe was created at once, or at some 
one period of time ; but the meaning of 
Moses is, that at first when the universe 
was produced, it was brought into existence 
by the sole power and wisdom of the al- 
mighty and eternal God. Though the 
several parts of the universe may have been 
produced at different times, and though 
God may still be creating new worlds in the 
immense bosom of space, yet the whole 
universe of beings, whenever created, doth 
not exist by necessity or chance, but is the 
production of God. As Moses, however, 
here gives us a particular account of the 
formation of our earth, the phrase, in the 
beginning, may have a special reference to 
the time when our earth was created. The 
matter, of which it consists, was produced 
in the state of a chaos, (ver. 2.) without 
form and void, that is, shapeless, waste, and 
useless ; all the parts, solids, and fluids, 
were confounded together, surrounded with 
darkness, and unadorned and uninhabited. 
The ' Spirit of God moved upon the face of 
the waters,' that is, the influences and exer- 
tions of the divine power actuated this dark 
confused mass, and digested and reduced 
its parts to the beautiful state and order, in 
which we now behold them. On the first 
day, and the first thing after the production 
of the chaos, the element of light was 
created, (ver. 3, 4, 5.) On the second day 
was created the element of air, or that body 
of air, which we call the atmosphere, jrp-» 
the firmament, or rather spacious expansion 
of air, where the fowls do fly. (ver. 20.) 
This is spread above and around the earth, 
and includes meteors and clouds, which are 
the waters above, or at the upper extremity 
of the atmosphere, in contradistinction to 
the waters of the sea and rivers, which are 
under it. (ver. 6, 7, 8.) On the third day, 
God formed the element of water, by drain- 
ing off the fluids of the chaos, and causing 
them to flow into large cavities, prepared to 
receive them; that the earth might thus 
become one firm, compact, and voluble 
globe, and be rendered fit to produce grass, 
herbs, trees, and plants, which were then 
created, (ver. 9. 10, 11, 12.) On the fourth 
day, God created the sun and moon. (ver. 
14, 19.) The sun being the centre of our 
system, it seems probable, that the whole 



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solar system was produced at the same time 
with the earth, though the design of the 
writer did not lead him to notice its other 
parts. But, from the account of Moses, we 
have no just reason to suppose that the 
stars, each of which is probably the centre 
of a distinct system, were all of them 
created on this day. Most Of them might 
have been created long before, and some of 
them since our world was brought into 
existence. For that clause, (ver. 16.) ' he 
made the stars also,' denotes in the Hebrew 
only ' and the stars ;' and therefore the 
passage might be rendered, 'the greater 
light to rule the day, and the lesser light to 
rule the night with the stars.' Hitherto, 
our globe, and perhaps the other planets, 
might, by the power of God, be suspended 
in the empty space, in a state of rest. But 
now, when the sun, the centre of our system, 
was created, and the earth was reduced to a 
proper state of firmness and solidity, they 
might be thrown into those regular and 
rapid motions, around the sun and their 
own centres, which, by the same power im- 
pressed on them, continue to this day ; and 
by their exact periodical revolutions pro- 
duce that grateful and necessary variety of 
day and night, spring and summer, autumn 
and winter. These are effected by the 
annual and diurnal motions of the earth ; 
and, therefore the annual and diurnal mo- 
tions might on this day commence. On 
the fifth day, fish and fowl ; and on the 
sixth day, beasts and man, were created, 
(ver. 20, &c.) 

One difficulty may appear in its being 
said, that light was created before the sun, 
because the sun has been supposed to be 
the sole fountain of light, by emitting 
luminous particles from its body. But in 
this Moses may be found a more accurate 
philosopher than is commonly imagined. 
Light is a distinct substance from all others, 
as much as air is from water, By light is 
not meant that sensation, which we ex- 
perience in ourselves, on the presence of 
any illuminated body, but that inconceivably 
subtile matter, which makes an impression 
on the organs of sight, and paints on the 
optic nerve those objects, from the surfaces 
of which it was reflected to us. Light then, 
taken in this sense, is a body quite different 
from the sun, and independent of it, and 
might have existed before it, as it now does 
exist when the sun is absent, as well as 
when present. It is diffused from one end 
of the creation to the other, traverses the 
whole universe, forms a communication with 
the most remote spheres, penetrates into the 
inmost recesses of the earth, and only waits 
to be put in a proper motion to render itself 
visible. Light is to the eye what the air is 
to the ear. Air may be called the body 
of sound, and equally exists all around us, 
though there be no sonorous body to put it 
in motion. In like manner, the extremely 
315 



agile particles of light equally extend at all 
times, from the most distant fixed stars to 
us, though they do not strike our eyes, till 
impelled by the sun, or by some other mass 
of fire. The account of Moses therefore, as 
to this particular, is agreeable to truth, as 
well as an useful lesson of caution, when he 
informs us, that God, and not the sun, was 
the author and parent of light, and that it 
was created by his almighty word, before a 
sun existed to dart it on one part of 
the earth, and a moon to reflect it on the 
other. 

The account, which Moses has delivered 
concerning the creation of the world, is 
short, and suited rather to the capacities of 
the people he intended to instruct, than to 
satisiy a philosophical inquirer. It has 
therefore left room for various explications, 
and for several different hypotheses, of which 
the most remarkable are those of Descartes, 
Burnet, and Whiston. Descartes has en- 
deavoured to form a fine system of his own, 
rather than to explain the Mosaic descrip- 
tion, and reconcile it with philosophy. He 
agrees with Epicurus in considering matter 
and motion as the principles of nature ; but 
he acknowledges the existence of a God, 
who has created matter, and impressed on it 
the first motion. After this motion is once 
commenced, he leaves the vast machine, 
without any farther assistance from the 
first impressor, to the laws of mecha- 
nism, which affect all things, both celes- 
tial and terrestrial. 1. He supposes, that 
the matter of which the world is com- 
posed, being at first of one uniform nature, 
and infinitely divisible, was actually di- 
vided into many particles of a moderate 
size, which had all such a motion, as 
is now observed in the world. 2. He 
thinks that all these particles were not 
at first spherical, because many such glo- 
bules will not fill up a continued space, 
but that whatever might be their original 
figure, their angles would be cut off", and 
they become spherical, by their continual 
motion, and occursions against each other. 
3. He asserts that no space is left empty, 
and therefore, when these round parti- 
cles united, leave some intervals between 
them, he supposes that other less particles 
arise from the angles cut oft', and by the 
force and celerity of their motion become 
divided into innumerable lesser fragments, 
which fill up all the interstices. 4. He sup- 
poses, that some of these fragments taken 
from the angles of the spherical particles, 
will necessarily possess very angular 
figures, and, therefore, being less capable 
of motion, will be apt to unite, and trans- 
fer a great part of their motion to such 
particles as are smaller, and consequently 
move swifter. He then proceeds to the 
formation of the world from three elements, 
consisting of the three kinds of particles 
above-mentioned. The first element, or 



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the subtile matter, separated from the an- 
gles of the greater particles, is that of the 
sun and fixed stars, and susceptible of a 
much quicker motion than the two others ; 
the second element consists of the spherical 
particles themselves, of which the heavens 
were formed ; the third element consists of 
those angular particles, which are less 
adapted to motion, and from which pro- 
ceeded the earth, planets, comets, and other 
appearances of nature. He supposes tbat 
the solar system is a vortex continually 
turning round, the matter of which, except 
the earth and planets, is very liquid and 
transparent, consisting entirely of the first 
and second elements, and containing a 
greater quantity of the first than is sufficient 
to fill the spaces between the particles of 
the second ; and since all bodies, which move 
in a circular manner endeavour to recede 
from the centre of their motion, and the 
more gross and solid parts, such as the 
particles of the second element, fly off with 
a greater force tban the rest, the particles 
of the second element must necessarily re- 
cede from the common centre, and approach 
each other as much as their figure and mo- 
tion will permit. After their interstices, 
therefore, are filled, the remaining matter 
of the first element assumes the place left 
by the second ; by which means a mass or 
heap of the first element settles, and is 
formed in the middle of the vortex, and this 
mass we call the sun, and the centre of a 
vortex. Descartes also supposes, that each 
of the fixed stars is a sun, and the centre 
of a vortex. He thinks that the earth was 
originally such a star, whose vortex ad- 
joined that of the sun, but that it was gra- 
dually covered or encrusted with spots, which 
arose on its surface like the scum on a 
boiling pot, and which continuing to in- 
crease and grow thicker, the star lost its 
light and activity, and the motion of the 
celestial vortex around it became more 
weak, languid, and unable to resist the vi- 
gorous encroachments of the sun's vortex. 
Hence it was at length drawn in, and wholly 
absorbed by the sun, one of whose satellites 
it became. Both philosophers and divines 
have justly objected to the hypothesis of 
Descartes. 

Dr. Burnet, omitting to discuss the origin 
of the universe, or even of the solar system, 
as completed long before the Mosaic crea- 
tion, confines himself to the formation of 
the earth only, which he supposes to have 
been produced from a chaos, or confused 
mass, consisting of the principles of all 
terrestrial bodies. He is of opinion, that 
the heaviest and grossest part would sink 
downwards, towards the middle of the mass, 
which he supposes to be the centre of gra- 
vity, and that being more and more com- 
pressed, they would gradually harden, and 
constitute the interior parts of the earth ; 
that the rest of the mass would also be di- 
316 



vided from above by the same principle of 
gravity into two orders of bodies, the one 
liquid like water, the other volatile like air, 
and that the more fine and active parts 
would mount upwards, and constitute that 
body we call air ; that the grosser parts 
settled in a mass under the air, on the body 
of the earth, and composed not only water, 
strictly so called, but the whole of the lir 
quid bodies belonging to the earth ; that as 
there are two principal kinds of terrestrial 
liquids, the oily and the light, and those 
which are more earthy, the oily and light 
part of this mass would consequently swim 
on the surface of the other. He proceeds 
to suppose, that the air was as yet gross, 
thick, and dark ; that the lesser and 
lighter particles, which remained after the 
grossest had sunk down by their weight, 
would naturally descend slowly till they 
met with the oily liquid on the face of the 
deep, or on the watery mass, which would 
stop their progress any farther, and that on 
mixing with that unctuous substance, they 
composed a soft and light earth spread on 
the face of the waters ; that this thin and 
tender orb of the earth continued to in- 
crease, till, all the light particles being col- 
lected and incorporated with it, it attained a 
firm and consistent substance, which arose 
on the face of the chaos, and became an 
habitable earth, such as nature designed it. 
The form of this first earth, both external 
and internal, may be easily conceived from 
the manner of its creation. Its external 
form would be smooth, regular, and uni- 
form, without mountains, and without a 
sea. Its internal form would consist of 
several regions involving each other, like 
orbs about the same centre, the water 
being contained entirely under the upper 
crust of the earth, which formed a won- 
derful vault, and was sustained above 
the deep by its own manner of construc- 
tion only. To prove that the first earth 
must have been different from the pre- 
sent, Dr. Burnet endeavours to show, 
that, if the earth had been in its pre- 
sent form, it would not have been capa- 
ble of a deluge, which could not have been 
effected without such an immense quan- 
tity of water, as could neither be brought 
on the earth, nor removed from it ; and 
that the chaos as a fluid body, would na- 
turally and necessarily settle and become 
every where a smooth surface, not broken 
into irregularities like our earth, nor imi- 
tating its cavities, dens, and holes. He 
attempts to confirm these arguments by the 
authority of Scripture, which plainly inti- 
mates, he says, a difference in the form and 
constitution of the old, and of the present 
world ; and by reason of this difference, the 
former was subject to perish by a deluge, 
as the latter is by a conflagration. (2 Pet. 
iii. 5. 7-) Besides, several passages seem 
to describe the structure of the antediluvian 



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world as founded on the waters, (Psalm 
xxiv. 2.; cxxxvi. 6.) and as an orb on the 
face of the deep, (Prov. viii. 27-) ; conform- 
ably to which, on the renovation or restitu- 
tion of nature to its primaeval state, the new 
earth will appear without a sea. (Rev. 
xxi. 1.) To these he adds the testimony of 
ancient tradition, that the world was in the 
form of an egg. This, says he, was true of 
the original earth, in respect not only to 
its outward figure, but also to its inward 
composition ; the central parts being repre- 
sented by the yolk of an egg, the exterior 
region of the earth by the shell, and the 
abyss of water by the white under the shell. 
Among the many objections that will occur 
to a philosophic reader against this hypo- 
thesis, those which regard the author's laws 
of gravitation, destroy the whole scheme ; 
for if every thing subsided according to 
its specific gravity, the earth, which is 
heavier than the water, must necessarily 
place itself nearer the centre, and thus 
leave the waters to cover the face of the 
whole orb. Nor is the Scriptural account 
of the antediluvian world less contradic- 
tory to this theory, which supposes that 
the earth in its external form was smooth, 
regular, uniform, and without mountains ; 
for it is expressly said, (Gen. vii. 19, 20.) 
that ' the waters prevailed exceedingly upon 
the earth, and all the high hills that were 
under the whole heaven were covered. Fif- 
teen cubits upward did the waters prevail, 
and the mountains were covered.' 

Mr. Whiston not only shows a greater 
regard to Scripture, but has avoided many 
difficulties chargeable on the last theorist, 
and proceeds on more philosophical prin- 
ciples. He first lays down this proposition, 
that the Mosaic narrative of the creation 
is not a nice and philosophical account of 
the origin of all things, but an historical 
and a true representation of the formation 
of our earth alone from a confused chaos, 
and of its successive and visible changes 
each day, till it became the habitation of 
mankind. This he proves from the first 
words of Moses, ' In the beginning God 
created the heaven and the earth,' which 
plainly imply that the creation of the 
universe from nothing, commonly called 
creation, preceded the work of six days. 
Moses immediately thence descends to the 
chaos of our earth, to which he confines 
himself; and he mentions the formation of 
the sun and of other celestial bodies, to 
accommodate his narrative to common ap- 
prehension, and render it complete, but 
chiefly to secure the Jews from worship- 
ping the host of heaven. Mr. Whiston, 
therefore, supposes that the sun, moon, 
and stars, had been previously created, 
and were only rendered visible on the 
fourth day; that the ancient chaos, the 
origin of the earth, was the atmosphere 
of a comet, or an unformed planet in its 
317 



original state, placed in a very eccentric 
orbit. To support this proposition, he 
endeavours to show, that the atmosphere 
of a comet possesses the several proper- 
ties recorded of the ancient chaos ; that 
it possesses such other peculiar properties 
as lay a foundation for some of those 
phenomena of our earth, which can 
scarcely be otherwise explained in a phi- 
losophical manner ; and that no other 
body, or mass of bodies, will bear a 
comparison, or can pretend to the same 
character. He proceeds to suppose, that 
the six days of the creation are equal to 
six years ; and that a day and a year sig- 
nify the same before the fall of man, 
when, as he thinks, the diurnal rotation of 
the earth about its axis first commenced. 
This supposition agrees with the letter of 
Moses, and with some other parts of 
Scripture, in which a day frequently 
denotes a year ; it allows a convenient time 
for the works of the creation, which ap- 
pear to have been regular and gradual, 
and not accelerated by any miraculous 
power on every occasion ; and it might 
be still farther strengthened by arguments 
deduced from the peculiar characters of 
the state of nature before the fall. On 
these foundations, Mr. Whiston attempts 
to account for the formation of the earth, 
which, he thinks, was not a mere result 
from any necessary laws of mechanism, 
independent of the Divine power, but the 
effect of the interposition of God, and 
always under his peculiar care ; and that 
God not only created the matter, of 
which the universe, and particularly the 
earth, was to consist, from a non-existent 
state, and endued it with its several pro- 
perties and powers, but that he interposed 
more particularly in the formation of the 
earth, by changing the course and orbit 
of the chaos into that of a planet, by 
immediately forming the seeds of all 
animals and vegetables, by ordering every 
distinct day's work to be completed in its 
proper period, and principally in the cre- 
ation of our first parents. At the 
time immediately preceding the creation 
of six days, the face of the abyss, or supe- 
rior regions of the chaos, were involved in 
thick darkness, agreeably to the nature of 
a comet, which is represented as contain- 
ing a central, solid, hot body, of many 
hundred or thousand miles in diameter ; 
and also a very large fluid, or heteroge- 
neous mass, or congeries of bodies, in a 
rare, separate, and expanded condition, 
the diameter of which was ten or eleven 
times as large as that of the central solid, 
and which is the atmosphere or chaos 
itself. On the change of the comet from 
a very eccentric to a moderately elliptic 
orbit, the commencement of the Mosaic 
creation, and the influence of the Divine 
Spirit, all things would assume their re- 



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spective places, and every species of bodies 
rank themselves according to the laws of 
specific gravity. By this means, the mass 
of dense fluids, which composed one part of 
the entire chaos, and were heavier than the 
masses of earth, water, and air, would de- 
scend with the greatest velocity, and ele- 
vate the masses enclosed among them. 
This must distinguish the chaos into two 
distinct regions : the lower and larger would 
be a collection of dense and heavy fluids, 
or a vast abyss immediately encompassing 
the central solid ; the higher and lesser, a 
collection of earthy, watery, and aerial 
parts, confusedly mixed, and encompassing 
the great abyss. This Mr. Whiston con- 
siders as the state of darkness, since the 
collecting of those opaque bodies, which 
had hitherto floated in the immense atmos- 
phere, would consequently more exclude 
the sun's rays. Among other objections to 
this theory, Dr. Keil observes, that it is a 
paradox to say, that the diurnal rotation of 
the earth did not commence till after the 
fall, and that till that period the days 
and years were exactly the same. If we 
consider the extreme cold which must have 
been occasioned by the absence of the sun 
during one half of the year, and the intense 
heat during the other, we must acknow- 
ledge, that these immoderate degrees of 
heat and cold would be pernicious to the 
antediluvian plants and animals, unless their 
bodies were of a very different construc- 
tion from what they are at present. Nor 
is there any necessity to lengthen a day 
into a year, for the sake of a regular and 
gradual formation, without precipitance or 
acceleration, since an almighty agent is 
acknowledged to be concerned. The pri- 
mitive chaos could not be the atmosphere 
of a comet, which is not an obscure, but a 
bright, pellucid fluid, in consequence of 
the intense heat of the central solid ; and 
by the comet's near approach to the sun, 
the greatest part of the bodies, which com- 
pose the upper stratum of the earth, would 
have been vitrified. It is pretty certain 
that, at the time of the Mosaic creation, 
the moon was formed, or at least placed in 
its orbit, and made to turn round the 
sun ; for no comets have any secondary 
planets, and, therefore, more must be meant 
by Moses than merely rendering the moon 
visible. Besides, the word made is equally 
applied to both the sun and moon, and 
therefore ought in both places to be un- 
derstood in the same, that is, in a literal 
sense. 

Professor Jameson, one of the most pro- 
found geologists and practical philosophers 
of the present day, observes, that ' the struc- 
ture of the earth, and the mode of distribu- 
tion of extraneous fossils or petrifactions, 
are so many direct evidences of the truth of 
the Scripture account of the formation of 
the earth ; and they might be used as proofs 
318 



of its author having been inspired ; because 
the mineralogical facts discovered by modem 
naturalists were unknown to the sacred his- 
torian. Even the periods of time, the six days 
of the Mosaic description, are not incon- 
sistent with our theories of the earth.' Nor 
are the phenomena of the heavenly bodies 
at all contradictory to the Mosaic history. 
Modern opposers of revelation have objected 
(as has been already noticed,) that the his- 
torian talks of light before there was any 
such thing as the sun, and calls the moon 
a great light, when every one knows it to be 
an opaque body. But Moses seems to have 
known what philosophy did not till very 
lately discover, that the sun is not the ori- 
ginal source of light, and, therefore, he does 
not call either the sun or the moon a great 
light, though he represents them both as great 
luminaries or light-bearers. Had these objec- 
tors looked into a Hebrew, Greek or Latin 
Bible, they would have found that the word 
which in Gen. i. 3, our translators have pro- 
perly rendered light, is different from that 
which in the fourteenth verse they have im- 
properly rendered light also. In the third 
verse the original word is TIN aur, the Greek 
(pwg, and the Latin Vulgate lux ; in the four- 
teenth verse the corresponding words are 
mxo, {mart) <pu><TT ripeg, and luminaria. Each 
of the former set of words means that subtile 
elastic matter, to which in English we give 
the name of light ; each of the latter, the in- 
struments, or means, by which light is 
transmitted to men. But surely the moon 
is as much an instrument of this kind, as 
the reflector placed behind the lamp of a 
light-house, for the purpose of transmitting 
to the mariner at sea the light of that lamp, 
which would otherwise have passed in an 
opposite direction to the land. Though the 
moon is not a light in itself, yet is that 
planet a light in its effects, as it reflects the 
light of the sun to us. And both the sun 
and moon are with propriety called great, — 
not as being absolutely greater than all 
other stars and planets, but because they 
appear greater to us, and are of greater use 
and consequence to this world. Even now, 
after all our improvements in philosophy 
and astronomy, we still speak of the light 
of the moon, as well as of the sun's motion, 
rising and setting ; and the man, who in a 
moral, theological, or historical discourse, 
should use a different language, would only 
render himself ridiculous. 

Moses represents the earth at first in a 
state of fluidity. 'The Spirit of God,' says 
he, ' moved upon the face (or surface) of the 
waters.' (Gen. i. 2.) The apostle Peter also 
speaks of the earth as being formed out of 
a fluid. The earth standing out of the 
water (or more correctly, consisting of 
water), and in the midst of the water.' The 
Brachmins, Indian philosophers, also agreed 
that the world was made of water ; and 
Thales, one of the seven wise men, and the 



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wisest of them all, as Cicero informs us, 
said, that all things were made out of water. 
Others after him taught the same doctrine ; 
and is it in the least degree contradicted or 
disproved by modern discoveries. On the 
contrary, the present form of the earth de- 
monstrates the truth of the Mosaic account. 
It is well known that if a soft or elastic glo- 
bular body be rapidly whirled round on its 
axis, the parts on the poles will be flattened, 
and the parts on the equator, midway be- 
tween the north and south poles, will be 
raised up. This is precisely the shape of our 
earth ; it has the figure of an oblate spheroid, 
a figure bearing a close resemblance to that 
of an orange. Now, if the earth was ever 
in a state of fluidity, its revolution round its 
axis must necessarily induce such a figure, 
because the greatest centrifugal force must 
necessarily be near the equatorial parts, 
and, consequently, there the fluid must rise 
and swell most. It has been demonstrated 
by admeasurement, that the earth is flat- 
tened at the poles, and raised at the equator. 
This was first conjectured by Sir Isaac 
Newton, and afterwards confirmed by M. 
Cassini and others, who measured several 
degrees of latitude at the equator and near 
the north pole, and found that the difference 
perfectly justified Sir Isaac Newton's con- 
jecture, and consequently confirmed the 
Mosaic account. The result of the experi- 
ments instituted to determine this point, 
proved, that the diameter of the earth at 
the equator is greater by more than twenty- 
three and a half miles, than it is at the poles. 
Thus do the Scriptures and philosophy 
agree together, and confirm each other. 
The Scriptures assert that the earth was in 
a state of fluidity ; and philosophy evinces 
that it must have been in such a state from 
its very figure. 

Philo, Origen, St. Austin, Procopius, 
and some modern writers, maintain, that 
God created at once not only the earth, 
but the whole world, by a single word, 
without waiting for the term of six days ; 
that the account Moses gives of the creation, 
and of the distribution of the Creator's 
works, is not a succession of time, but of 
order ; and that the intention of Moses was 
to render the subject intelligible to the peo- 
ple, and to afford them a distinct notion of the 
material creation, by dividing it into parts, 
and a certain disposition or order. Home's 
Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 554 — 556 ; Dr. 
Adam Clarke's Commentary on Gen. i. 10 ; 
Watson's Theolog. Tracts, vol. i. p. 18, &c. 

CRE'TE, Kpi]rt], signifies carnal, or fleshly 
in Hebrew, the Isle of the Caphtorim, Cre- 
iim, or Kerethians. Crete is an island in 
the Mediterranean, and is now called Can- 
dia. Paul sent Titus, his beloved disciple, 
to Crete, and in an Epistle to him, charges 
him to rebuke the people severely, and in 
strong terms, to prevent their adherence to 
Jewish fables, human ordinances, and legal 
319 



observances. He adds, that the Cretans, 
as one of their own prophets, (or poets,) 
witnesses, ' are always liars, evil beasts, 
slow bellies.' (Titus i. 12, 13.) This Cretan 
poet is Epimenides. See Caphtor. 

CROSIERS, or Cross-bearers, an 
order in the church of Rome, founded in 
honour of the discovery of the cross, upon 
which our Saviour suffered, by Helena, 
mother of Constantine the Great. Till of 
late, they were to be found in several parts 
of Europe. They wore a cross of red cloth 
on their breasts. Before the reformation, 
they had several houses in England, in par- 
ticular one in London, on the spot now 
called Crutched-friars, which ought to be 
denominated Crossed-friars. The superior 
of this order received episcopal ordination, 
and wore a mitre, with a golden cross, in 
the same manner as a bishop. Hurd on Re- 
ligious Rites, 8$c. p. 214. 

CROSS, a kind of gibbet made of pieces 
of wood placed crosswise, whether crossing 
at right angles, at the top like a T, or in 
the middle like an X. The cross, upon 
which our Saviour died, was of the former 
kind, or rather it represented a line cross- 
ing another at right angles, and transvers- 
ing it thus, f . In this manner it is described 
in old documents, on the coins of the em- 
peror Constantine, &c. ; and St. Jerom com- 
pares it to a bird flying, to a man swimming 
or praying with his arms extended, like a 
cross with the head piece above the trans- 
verse beam. 

The death of the cross was the most 
dreadful of all others, both for the shame 
and pain of it ; and it was so scandalous, 
that it was inflicted as the last mark of de- 
testation on the vilest persons. It was the 
punishment of robbers and murderers, pro- 
vided they were also slaves ; but if they 
were free, and had the privileges of the 
city of Rome, crucifixion was thought a 
prostitution of that honour, and too infamous 
a punishment for any one, whatever were 
his crimes. The form of a cross being such 
as has been already described, the body of 
the criminal was fastened to the upright 
piece, by nailing to it the feet, and on the 
transverse beam, commonly by nailing the 
hands on each side. As these parts of the 
body are the instruments of action and 
motion, they are provided by nature with 
a much greater number of nerves than 
others ; and as all sensation is performed 
by the spirit contained in these nerves, it 
will follow, as Stanhope observes, that 
wherever they abound, the sense of pain 
must in proportion be more quick and 
tender. 

The Jews confess that they crucified peo- 
ple, but not whilst living. They say, they 
first put them to death, and thou fastened 
them to a cross, either by the hands or 
neck ; but there are indisputable proofs 
of their frequently crucifying nun alive. 



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The worshippers of Baal-peor (Numh. xxv. 
4.) and the king of Ai (Josh. viii. 20.) were 
hanged alive ; as were also the descendants 
of Saul, who were put into the hands of the 
Gibeonites. (2 Sam. xxi. 9.)^ Before cruci- 
fixion, the criminal was generally scourged 
with cords ; sometimes small bones, or 
pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, 
that the condemned person might suffer 
more severely. It was also a custom, that 
he, who was to be crucified, should bear his 
cross to the place of execution. After this 
manner, we find Christ was compelled to 
bear his cross ; and as he sunk under the 
burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained 
to carry it after him, and with him. It is 
generally supposed, that our Lord bore the 
whole cross, that is, both the long and 
transverse parts ; but this seems impossible, 
and therefore Lipsius, in his treatise Be 
Supplicio Cruets, tells us, that he carried 
only the transverse beam, and that the long 
beam, or body of the cross, was either al- 
ready fixed in the ground, or ready for that 
purpose when the criminal came. Hence 
he observes, that painters are very much 
mistaken in their description of our Saviour 
carrying the whole cross. 

There were several modes of crucifying. 
Sometimes the criminal was crucified upon 
a tree, and fastened to it with cords. Some- 
times he was crucified with his head down- 
wards ; and this was the way St. Peter chose 
from respect to his master Jesus Christ, not 
thinking himself worthy to be fixed to a 
cross in the same manner as he had been. 
The common way of crucifying was by fasten- 
ing the criminal with nails, one at each hand, 
and one at both his feet, or one at each foot ; 
for this was not always the same. The an- 
cients represent Jesus Christ as' crucified 
sometimes with four, and sometimes with 
three nails. The criminal was crucified quite 
naked ; and in all probability the Saviour of 
the world was not used with any greater ten- 
derness than others, who suffered this pu- 
nishment. The text of the Gospel, (John 
xx. 25. Luke xxiv. 39.) clearly shows, that 
Jesus Christ was fastened to the cross with 
nails ; and the Psalmist, (Psalm xxii. 16.) 
had long before foretold, that they should 
pierce his hands and his feet. 

Sometimes, those, who were fastened upon 
the cross, lived long in that condition. St. 
Andrew is believed to have lived three days 
upon it; others, nine days. Eusebius speaks 
of certain martyrs in Egypt, who were kept 
upon the cross till they were starved to death. 
Pilate was amazed that Jesus Christ died so 
soon, because naturally he must have lived 
longer, (Mark xv. 44.) if he had not pos- 
sessed the power of laying down his life, and 
of taking it again. The thighs of the two 
thieves were broken, to hasten their death, 
that their bodies might not remain upon the 
cross on the sabbath-day, and to comply 
with the law, which forbade the bodies to 
320 



hang after sun-set. Among other nations, 
they were suffered to continue a long time, 
and sometimes till they were devoured 
alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards 
were appointed to observe that none 
should take them down, and bury them. 
The Roman soldiers, who had crucified 
Jesus Christ and the two thieves, kept 
guard near the crosses till the bodies were 
taken down. 

Our Saviour says, that his disciples must 
take up his cross and follow him, (Matt. 
xvi. 24.) ; that is, they must readily submit 
to any afflictions which God lays upon 
them, or to any sufferings that befal them in 
the service of God. Cross is also used for the 
whole of Christ's sufferings from his birth to 
his death, but especially for those upon the 
tree. 

Soon after the death of St. John, the 
last of the apostles, the primitive Christ- 
ians began to take some notice of the cross ; 
for they signed every person at baptism 
with it, and prayed with their arms folded 
in the manner of a cross. These ceremo- 
nies, however, were not carried farther, 
till towards the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury, when Christianity received the sanc- 
tion of the civil power, and its priests were 
laden with honours. During the reign of 
Constantine the Great, his mother Helena, 
supposed to have been a courtezan, and 
much addicted to superstition, went on a 
pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where it is 
pretended she found the real cross, upon 
which our Saviour suffered. Her son, the 
emperor, ordered the figure of the cross to 
be stamped on his coins, displayed on his 
standards, and painted on his shields, hel- 
mets, and crown ; but it does not appear 
that it was set up in churches till some 
years after. The great universal council, 
held at Constantinople towards the close of 
the seventh century, decreed, that Jesus 
Christ should be painted in a human form 
upon the cross, in order to represent, in 
the most lively manner, to all Christians, 
the sufferings and death of Christ. In 
memory of the empress Helena's finding 
the cross, a solemn festival was instituted 
by pope Gregory the Great, in the sixth 
century ; and it is observed in all Roman 
Catholic countries on the third of May. 
Another festival is observed in honour of 
the cross, on the fourteenth of September, 
and was occasioned by the following event : 
— In the reign of Heraclitus, the Greek em- 
peror, Cosroes, king of Persia, plundered 
Jerusalem, and took away that part of the 
cross which Helena had left there, but 
which Heraclitus having recovered, it was 
carried by him in great solemnity to Mount 
Calvary, whence it had been taken. 
Many miracles were said to have been 
wrought on this occasion: and the festi- 
val in memory of it is called the Exal- 
tation of the Cross. The number of cru- 



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cifixes used by the Roman Catholics in 
churches, on the highways, in the market- 
places, in private houses, &c. is almost 
incredible. Hurd's History of Religious Rites, 
&c. p. 235, &c. 

CROWN, an ornament frequently men- 
tioned in Scripture, the use of which was 
very common among the Hebrews. The 
high-priest wore a crown about his mitre, 
or the lower part of his bonnet, tied behind 
his head. It would seem that private 
priests, and even common Israelites, wore 
a sort of crown : God commands Ezekiel not 
to take off his crown (tire), nor assume the 
marks of mourning. (Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23.) 
This crown was a ribbon, or fillet, which 
surrounded the head ; it was a custom 
practised by others in the East, who wore 
upon their heads merely such a fillet or 
ribbon, which differed only in colour and 
value from the diadems of princes. When 
Moses commands the Israelites to bind the 
words of the law on their hands, and between 
their frontlets, he intimates the use of crowns 
and bracelets among them. (Deut. vi. 8 ) 

Newly married people of both sexes wore 
crowns, which were richer and more beauti- 
ful than those commonly used. (Isaiah lxi. 
10. Cant. iii. 11.) On festival and other 
joyful occasions, it was customary to wear 
crowns of flowers. 

The crown, mitre, and diadem, royal fil- 
let, and tiara, are frequently confounded. 
Crowns were bestowed on gods, kings, and 
princes, as marks of dignity. David took 
the crown from the god Moloch, or Mil- 
com, which was of gold, and enriched with 
jewels, and placed it on his own head, (1 
Chron. xx. 2. 2 Sam. xii. 30.) ; or rather, 
he held it suspended over his head, for it 
weighed a talent ; unless he took out the 
jewels for his own crown. In our transla- 
tion of the Bible, it is said that he took 
the crown from the head of the king of the 
Ammonites ; but it seems impossible that 
a man could carry the weight of a talent 
upon his head. Besides, it is not probable 
that the king of Rabbah would present him- 
self before David, wearing this immense 
crown. There is also an error in the ren- 
dering of the precious stones, which ought to 
be stove, the word in the original not being 
in the plural, but in the singular number. 
The passage in 1 Chron. xx. 2. may be thus 
analyzed: ' And David took the crown 
(otherot) off (not Melecum, their king, but) 
Milcom, the deity which they worshipped, 
(quasi Molec-um their Molec, or Moloch) from 
off his head, that is, from the head of the 
image, which wore it ; and found its weight 
to be a talent of gold ; and in it the precious 
aben (stone as usually understood), and it was 
upon the head of David.' This meaning of 
the passage is confirmed by a medal, which 
describes the god Milcom or Moloch, wear- 
ing such a crown. Fragments attached to 
Cttlmefs Dictionary, No. cclxxxii. p. 184. 
321 



The Amalekite, who valued himself on 
killing Saul, brought that prince's diadem 
or fillet to David. (2 Sam. i. 10.) The dia- 
dem was placed upon the head of the young 
king Josiah. when he was presented to the 
people. (2 Chron. xxiii. 11.) Baruch (vi. 9.) 
says, that the idols of the Babylonians wore 
golden crowns. Queens also among the Per- 
sians wore diadems. (Esth. ii. 17-) God says, 
that he had put a crown of gold upon the 
head of the Jewish nation, which is repre- 
sented as his spouse, (Ezek. xvi. 12.) Kings 
sometimes used several diadems, when they 
possessed several kingdoms. St. John, (Rev. 
xix. 12.) speaking of Christ's governing the 
affairs of his church, says, that ' on his head 
were many crowns ; which denotes his abso- 
lute sovereignty and many triumphs. Pilate's 
guards set a crown of thorns upon the head 
of Jesus Christ, with intention to insult him 
under the character of the king of the Jews, 
(Matt, xxvii. 29.); but it is unknown of what 
species of thorn this crown was composed. 

Crown, figuratively understood, signifies 
honour, joy : ' Ye are my joy and my crown,' 
says St. Paul to the Philippians, (iv. 1.) 
Crown is also used for reward, because con- 
querors in the public games were crowned 
with wreaths, garlands, Sec. 

CRUSADES, or Croisades, was a name 
given to the holy wars carried on against 
the infidels for the conquest of Palestine. 
These expeditions were distinguished in 
the French language by the name of croi- 
sades, and all who embarked in them were 
called croises, or cross-bearers ; not only 
because the design of these holy wars was 
to wrest the cross of Christ from the hands 
of the infidels, but also en account of the 
consecrated cross of red or other colour, 
which every soldier wore upon his breast or 
right shoulder. 

In the tenth century, the European kings 
and princes formed the project of a holy war 
against the Mahometans, who were masters 
of Palestine. They considered it as an in- 
tolerable reproach to Christians, that the 
land, in which the divine Author of their re- 
ligion had received his birth, exercised his 
ministry, and made expiation for the sins of 
men, should be abandoned to the enemies of 
the Christian profession. They also thought 
it highly just, and suited to the majesty of 
the Christian religion, to avenge the calami- 
ties and injuries, the persecution and re- 
proach, which its professors had suffered 
under the Mahometan yoke. Accordingly, 
towards the conclusion of the tenth century, 
the bloody signal was given by the Roman 
pontiff, Silvester II. who wrote an epistle, in 
the name of the church of Jerusalem, to the 
church universal throughout the world, in 
which the European powers were solemnly 
exhorted and entreated to succour and deli- 
ver the Christians in Palestine. This exhor- 
tation, however, failed in producing the dj- 
sired effect. 



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From the time of Silvester II. the popes 
were employed in forming plans for extend- 
ing the limits of the church of Asia, and 
especially for expelling the Mahometans 
from Palestine ; but the troubles, in which 
Europe was so long involved, prevented the 
execution of these arduous designs. Gre- 
gory VII., the most enterprising pontiff that 
ever filled the apostolic chair, animated and 
inflamed by the complaints, which the Asia- 
tic Christians made of the cruelty of the Sa- 
racens, resolved to undertake in person a 
holy war for the deliverance of the church ; 
and upwards of fifty thousand men were al- 
ready mustered to follow him in this bold 
expedition. But his quarrel with the empe- 
ror Henry IV., and other unforeseen occur- 
rences, obliged him to lay aside his intended 
invasion of the Holy Land. The project, 
however, was renewed towards the conclu- 
sion of the eleventh century, by the enthu- 
siastic zeal of an inhabitant of Amiens, who 
was known by the name of Peter the Hermit, 
and who suggested to the Roman pontiff, 
Urban II., the means of accomplishing 
what had been unfortunately suspended. 
In a journey which Peter made through 
Palestine, in 1093, he had observed with 
inexpressible anguish the vexations and 
persecutions, whirh the Christians, who 
visited the holy places, suffered from the 
barbarous and tyrannic Saracens. Inflamed, 
therefore, with indignation and zeal, which 
he considered as the effect of a divine im- 
pulse, he implored the assistance of Simeon, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and Urban 
II., but without success. Far from being 
discouraged by this, he renewed his efforts, 
and went through all the countries of 
Europe, exhorting all Christian princes to 
draw the sword against the tyrants of Pales- 
tine. With a view to engage the super- 
stitious and ignorant multitude in his cause, 
he carried about with him a letter, which he 
affirmed was written in heaven, and ad- 
dressed to all true Christians to animate 
their zeal for the deliverance of their 
brethren who groaned under the burthen of 
a Mahometan yoke. 

The minds of the people being thus pre- 
pared by the exhortations of the hermit, a 
grand and numerous council was assembled 
by Urban at Placentia, A.D. 1095 ; and the 
pontiff warmly recommended, for the first 
time, the sacred expedition against the in- 
fidel Saracens. But notwithstanding the 
presence of the emperor's legates, this 
arduous enterprise was far from being ap- 
proved by the greatest part of this nume- 
rous assembly. Though disappointed at 
Placentia, Urban renewed his proposal for 
a holy war in a council, which was afterwards 
assembled at Clermont, where he himself 
was present. The pompous and pathetic 
speech, which he delivered on the occasion, 
made a deep and powerful impression on 
the minds of his auditors, especially of the 
322 



French, whose natural character renders 
them much superior to the Italians, in en- 
countering difficulties, facing danger, and 
attempting the execution of the most peril- 
ous designs. An incredible multitude, 
among whom were many persons of rank, 
devoted themselves to the service of the 
cross, which was made the symbol of the 
expedition, and which, worked in red 
worsted, was worn on the breasts or shoul- 
ders of the adventurers. Every motive was 
used by the court of Rome to increase the 
numbers. A plenary indulgence was pro- 
claimed in the council of Clermont to all 
those who should enlist under the cross, and 
a full absolution of all their sins. 

The 15th of August, A.D. 1096, had been 
fixed in the council of Clermont, for the 
departure of the pilgrims: but the day 
was anticipated by a thoughtless and 
needy crowd of plebeians. Early in the 
spring, from the confines of France and 
Lorraine, above sixty thousand of the po- 
pulace of both sexes flocked round the 
first missionary of the crusade, and pressed 
him with clamorous importunity to lead 
them to the holy sepulchre. The hermit, 
assuming the character, without the talents 
or authority of a general, impelled or 
obeyed the forward impulse of his votaries 
along the banks of the Rhine and the 
Danube. Their wants and number soon 
compelled them to separate ; and his lieu- 
tenant, Walter the Pennyless, a valiant 
though needy soldier, conducted a vanguard 
of pilgrims, whose condition may be deter- 
mined from the proportion of eight horse- 
men to fifteen thousand foot. The example 
and footsteps of Peter were closely followed 
by another fanatic, the monk Godescal, 
whose sermons had drawn fifteen or twenty 
thousand peasants from the villages of Ger- 
many. The rear of these was pressed by a 
herd of two hundred thousand, the most 
stupid and savage refuse of the people, who 
mingled with their devotion a brutal licence 
of rapine, prostitution, and drunkenness. 
Some counts and gentlemen, at the head of 
three thousand horse, attended the motions 
of the multitude to partake in the spoil. 
Of this rabble, more than two-thirds were 
killed by the Hungarians, &c. during their 
journey. The remainder who escaped to 
Constantinople, were overwhelmed in the 
plains of Nice, by the Turkish arrows ; 
and from the beginning to the end of this 
expedition, 300,000 perished, before a 
single city was rescued from the Infidels, 
and even before their graver and more 
noble brethren had completed their prepa- 
rations. 

The armies, which were conducted by 
illustrious commanders, distinguished by 
their birth and military endowments, ar- 
rived more happily at the capital of the 
Grecian empire. That which was com- 
manded by Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of 



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Lorraine, who deserves a place amongst the 
greatest heroes, whether of ancient or 
modern times, and by his brother Baldwin, 
was composed of eighty thousand well- 
chosen troops, horse and foot, and directed 
its march through Germany and Hungary. 
Another, which was headed by Raimond, 
earl of Toulouse, passed through the Scla- 
vonian territories. Robert earl of Flanders, 
Robert Duke of Normandy, Hugo, brother 
to Philip I. king of France, embarked their 
respective forces in a fleet, which was as- 
sembled at Brindisi and Tarento, whence 
they were transported to Durazzo, anciently 
Dyrrachium. These armies were followed 
by Boemond, duke of Apulia and Calabria, 
at the head of a chosen and numerous 
body of valiant Normans. This army was 
the greatest, and apparently the most for- 
midable, that had been known in the 
memory of man. The first successful en- 
terprise, which was formed against the In- 
fidels, was the siege of Nice, the capital of 
Bithynia. This city was taken in the year 
1097, and the victorious army thence pro- 
ceeded into Syria, and, in the following 
year, subdued Antioch, which, with its fer- 
tile territory, was granted by the assembled 
chiefs to Boemond, duke of Apulia. Edessa 
fell next into the hands of the victors, and 
became the property of Baldwin, brother to 
Godfrey of Bouillon. The conquest of 
Jerusalem, which, after a siege of five weeks, 
submitted to their arms in the year 1099, 
seemed to crown their expedition with the 
desired success. In this city were laid the 
foundations of a new kingdom, at the head 
of which was placed the famous Godfrey, 
whom the army saluted king of Jerusalem, 
with an unanimous voice. 

The new kingdom of Jerusalem, which 
had been thus erected by the holy warriors, 
appeared at first to flourish considerably, 
and to rest on firm and solid foundations ; 
but this prosperous scene was transitory, 
and was soon succeeded by the most terri- 
ble calamities and desolations. The Ma- 
hometans, who had recovered from their 
first surprise, collected troops, and harassed 
and exhausted the Christians by incessant 
invasions and wars. In the most despond- 
ing strain, the Christians implored the as- 
sistance of the European princes, and re- 
quested a fresh army to support their 
tottering empire in the Holy Land. A new 
expedition was the subject of long delibera- 
tion, and its expediency was strenuously 
debated in both the cabinets of princes and 
the assemblies of the clergy and the people. 
At length, through the eloquence of Ber- 
nard, the celebrated abbot of ClairvaJ, a 
man of the boldest resolution and of the 
greatest authority, these disputes were ter- 
minated under the pontificate of Eugenius 
III. This eloquent and zealous ecclesiastic 
preached the cross with much ardour and 
success. In the grand parliament assembled 
323 



at Vezelai, in 114G, at which Lewis VII. 
king of France, his queen, and a prodigious 
concourse of the nobility, were present, 
Bernard recommended this holy expedition 
with such persuasive powers, and declared 
with such assurance that he had a divine 
commission to foretell its glorious result, 
that the king, the queen, and all the nobles, 
immediately put on the military cross, and 
prepared themselves for the voyage to Pales- 
tine. The orator next directed his exhorta- 
tions to Conrad III. emperor of Germany, 
who, after some hesitation, complied with 
his fervent solicitations ; and such was the 
pathetic vehemence of the tone and gestures 
of the indefatigable Bernard, that a phleg- 
matic people, who were ignorant of his 
language, were induced to follow their 
sovereign to the fields of Palestine. The 
nobles of France and Germany were ani- 
mated by the example and presence of 
their sovereigns; and, in 1147, Lewis VII. 
and Conrad III. were followed by armies 
which might have claimed the conquest of 
Asia. Their united cavalry was composed 
of seventy thousand knights, and their at- 
tendants ; and the whole number, including 
women and children, is computed to have 
amounted to at least four hundred thousand 
souls. As it was impossible to procure 
necessaries for such numbers in the coun- 
tries through which they were to pass, each 
army pursued a different road. But before 
their arrival in the Holy Land, the greater 
part of their forces were melted away, 
and perished miserably, by famine, by the 
sword of the Mahometans, by shipwreck, 
or by the perfidious cruelty of the Greeks. 
In 1149, the two princes led back into 
Europe the miserable remnant of troops 
that had survived the disasters they had 
encountered in this expedition. Such was 
the unhappy issue of the second crusade, 
which was rendered ineffectual by a variety 
of causes, but more particularly by the 
jealousies and divisions, which distracted the 
Christians in Palestine. 

In 1187, Saladin, viceroy, or rather 
sultan of Egypt and Syria, took prisoner 
Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem ; and 
in the same year, he reduced Jerusalem it- 
self, which he filled with carnage and deso- 
lation. At the instigation of the Roman 
pontiff, the third expedition was undertaken, 
in 1189, by Frederic I. surnamed Barba- 
rossa, emperor of Germany. This prince 
marched a prodigious army through several 
Grecian provinces into the Lesser Asia, 
whence, after having defeated the sultan of 
Iconium, he penetrated into Syria. His 
valour and conduct promised successful 
campaigns to his army ; but he, by an un • 
happy accident, lost his life in the river 
Saleph, which runs through Seleucia. His 
son Frederic, who succeeded to the com- 
mand, died in 1191 of a pestilential disorder, 
which destroyed the greatest part of the 



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troops. The example of Frederic Barba- 
rossa was followed, in the year 1190, by 
Philip Augustus, king of France, and Ri- 
chard I. king of England. These two mo- 
narchs proceeded from their respective do- 
minions with a considerable number of ships 
of war and transports, arrived in Palestine 
in the year 1191, each at the head of a se- 
parate army, and were successful in their 
first encounters with the Infidels. After 
the reduction of the strong city of Acre or 
Ptolemais, the French monarch returned 
into Europe, in the month of July, 1191. 
However, the king of England pursued 
the war, exhibited daily marks of he- 
roic intrepidity and military skill, and 
not only defeated Saladin in several en- 
gagements, but rendered himself master 
of Yaffa (Jaffa, or Joppa) and Caesa- 
rea. In 1192, Richard concluded with 
Saladin a truce of three years, three 
months, and as many days, and evacu- 
ated Palestine with his army. Such was 
the issue of the third expedition against the 
Infidels, which exhausted England, France, 
and Germany, of both men and money, 
without producing any solid advantage, 
or giving even a favourable turn to the 
affairs of the Christians in the Holy 
Land. 

The Roman pontiffs employed their most 
zealous and assiduous efforts in support 
of the Christian cause in Palestine, which 
was now in a most declining, or rather in a 
desperate state. Innocent III. sounded 
the charge ; but the greater part of the 
European princes and nations were deaf to 
the voice of the holy trumpet. However, 
after many unsuccessful attempts in differ- 
ent countries, a number of the French nobi- 
lity entered into an alliance with the repub- 
lic of Venice, and set sail for the east, with 
an army which was far from being formid- 
able. The French and Venetians, instead 
of steering their course towards Palestine, 
sailed directly for Constantinople, and, in 
the year 1203, took that imperial city by 
storm. The next year, they elected Bald- 
win, Count of Flanders, emperor of the 
Greeks ; and this empire of the Franks at 
Constantinople continued till A.D. 1261. 
The event of the fourth crusade did not, 
therefore, equal the expectations of the 
Roman pontiff. 

In 1228, the emperor Frederic II., after 
having been excommunicated, on account 
of his delay, by Pope Gregory IX., pro- 
ceeded, with a small train of attendants, to 
the troops, who expected his arrival in Pa- 
lestine. No sooner, however, did the em- 
peror reach that disputed kingdom, than, 
partly from the discord of the Mahometans, 
and partly from their personal esteem for 
him, he turned all his thoughts towards 
peace ; and he was enabled to conclude an 
advantageous treaty with the sultan of 
Egypt in the following year. By this treaty, 
324 



he obtained possession of the city and king- 
dom of Jerusalem, of Tyre and Sidon ; and 
entering into the holy city with unparalleled 
pomp, and accompanied by a numerous 
train, he placed the crown upon his head 
with his own hands. Having regulated 
with much prudence and moderation the 
governments of Palestine, Frederick re- 
turned into Italy ; and, notwithstanding all 
the reproaches cast upon the emperor by 
the pope and his agents, the fifth crusade 
was by far the most successful expedition 
that had hitherto been undertaken against 
the infidels. 

The sixth crusade was undertaken by 
Lewis IX., king of France, in consequence 
of a vow which that prince had made in the 
year 1248, when he was seized with a painful 
and dangerous sickness. In 1249, Lewis 
embarked for Egypt with a numerous army, 
and a formidable fleet, and took the cele- 
brated city of Damietta. However, tiie 
progress of the war presented one uniform 
scene of calamity and desolation. The 
united horrors of famine and pestilence 
overwhelmed the royal army ; and Lewis, 
with two of his brothers, and the greater 
part of his troops, was taken prisoner by 
the Mahometans. This pious and valiant 
monarch was ransomed at an immense ex- 
pense, and, in 1254, returned into France 
with a handful of men, the miserable re- 
mains of his formidable army. 

The seventh and last crusade was under- 
taken by the same prince, who fitted out a 
formidable fleet, with which he set sail for 
Africa, and made himself master of the 
fort of Carthage. Soon after, a pestilen- 
tial disease broke out in the fleet, in the 
harbour of Tunis, carried off the greatest 
part of the army, and, at length, seized the 
monarch himself, who fell a victim to its 
rage, in the year 1270. Lewis was the 
last of the European princes who em- 
barked in the holy war ; the dangers and 
difficulties, the calamities and disorders, and 
the enormous expenses, which accompa- 
nied each crusade, disgusted the most zea- 
lous, and discouraged the most intrepid 
promoters of these fanatical expeditions. 
In consequence of this, the Latin empire in 
the East declined with rapidity ; and, not- 
withstanding the efforts of the Roman pon- 
tiffs, it was entirely overthrown in the year 
1291. 

These holy wars were not less prejudicial 
to the cause of religion, and the true inter- 
ests of the Christian church, than to the 
temporal concerns of men. One of the 
first and most pernicious effects was the 
enormous augmentation of the influence and 
authority of the Roman pontiffs. They also 
contributed, in various ways, to enrich the 
churches and monasteries with daily acces- 
sions of wealth, and to open new sources of 
opulence to all the sacerdotal orders. Those 
who assumed the cross, disposed of their 



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property as if they were at the point of 
death, and left a considerable part of their 
possessions to the priests and monks, with 
a view of obtaining, by these pious lega- 
cies, the favour and protection of the Al- 
mighty in their new undertaking. Such of 
them as had been engaged in suits of law 
with the priests and monks, renounced 
their pretensions, and submissively resigned 
whatever had been the subject of debate ; 
and those who had possessed themselves of 
the churches or convents, or heard of any 
injury, which had been committed against 
the clergy by the remotest of their ances- 
tors, made the most liberal restitution, or 
the most ample satisfaction, by rich and 
costly donations to the church. Whilst 
whole legions of bishops and abbots girded 
the sword on their thigh, and proceeded as 
generals, volunteers, or chaplains, into Pa- 
lestine, the priests and monks, who had 
lived under their jurisdiction, and were 
awed by their authority, felt themselves re- 
leased from restraint, and lived without 
order or discipline. The list of pretended 
saints was also greatly augmented ; and the 
greatest impositions arose from the impor- 
tation of an immense quantity of relics by 
the adventurers in the crusades. How- 
ever, something was eventually gained in 
science, and something in freedom, by these 
warlike pilgrimages. The arts and manu- 
factures of the East were introduced into 
Europe, and a spirit of enterprise, which 
probably led to the cultivation of commerce, 
was excited. Mr. Gibbon observes that, 
before the aera of the crusades, ' the larger 
portion of the inhabitants in Europe was 
chained to the soil, without freedom, or 
property, or knowledge ; and the two orders 
of ecclesiastics and nobles, whose numbers 
were comparatively small, alone deserved 
the name of citizens and men. This op- 
pressive system was supported by the arts 
of the clergy, and the swords of the barons. 
Among the causes that undermined this 
Gothic edifice, a conspicuous place must be 
allowed to the crusades. The estates of the 
barons were dissipated, and their race was 
often extinguished, in these costly and pe- 
rilous expeditions. Their poverty extorted 
from their pride those charters of freedom, 
which unlocked the fetters of the slave, se- 
cured the farm of the peasant, and the shop 
of the artificer, and gradually restored a 
substance and a soul to the most numerous 
and useful part of the community. The 
conflagration, which destroyed the tall and 
barren trees of the forest, gave air and 
scope to the vegetation of the smaller and 
nutritive plants of the soil.' Gibbon's De- 
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Mp- 
aheim's Ecclesiast. Hist ; Gregory's Hist, of 
the Christian Church, vol. ii. pp. 80. 91, &c. 
fee. 

CUBIT, a measure used by the ancients. 
Originally, a cubit was the distance from 
325 



the elbow to the extremity of the middle 
finger ; this is the fourth part of the stature 
of a well-proportioned man. The common 
cubit is eighteen inches. According to 
Bishop Cumberland, and M. Pelletier of 
Rohan, the Hebrew cubit is twenty-one 
inches ; but others fix it at eighteen inches. 
Lucius Capellus, and some others, have as- 
serted, that there were two sorts of cubits 
among the Hebrews, one sacred, the other 
common ; the sacred containing three feet, 
and the common a foot and a half. Both 
these are mentioned in 1 Kings vii. 15. and 
2 Chron. iii. 15. In the former the two 
columns of brass, in Solomon's temple, are 
reckoned eighteen cubits high ; and in 
Chronicles, thirty-five cubits. Moses, 
(Numb. xxxv. 4.) assigns to the Levites 
1000 sacred cubits of land, about their city ; 
and in the next verse, he gives them 2000 
common cubits. 

Villalpandus, and the learned Dr. Ar- 
buthnot, are of opinion, that the Jews used 
two sorts of cubits ; a sacred, and a pro- 
fane, or common cubit. In Deut. iii. 11, 
the bed of Og is said to have been nine 
cubits long, and four broad, after the cubit 
of a man. But Ezekiel's reed, (Ezek. xl. 
5.) is said to be six cubits long, by the 
cubit and hand's breadth ; and hence it ap- 
pears, that the larger cubit, by which the 
reed was measured, was longer than the 
common cubit, by a hand's breadth, or three 
inches. 

Notwithstanding these reasons, Calmet 
is of opinion, that there was only one cubit 
among the Hebrews, from the Exodus to 
the Babylonish captivity, and this was the 
Egyptian cubit ; and that only after the 
captivity, the Scripture notices two sorts 
of measures, to distinguish the ancient He- 
brew cubit from that of Babylon, which the 
captives had used during their abode in 
that city. On this is founded the precau- 
tion of Ezekiel, in observing, that the cubit, 
of which he is speaking, is the true old cu- 
bit, larger by a hand's breadth than the 
common cubit. 

Mr. Greaves, and after him Dr. Arbuth- 
not, has computed the ancient cubit to be 
21 888 inches, or nearly twenty-two inches. 
Dr. Jrbuthnofs Tables of Ancient Coins, 
Weights, and Measures, p. liG, &c. 

CUP is used in Scripture in a proper, 
and in a figurative sense. In a proper 
sense it signifies a common cup, out of 
which persons drink at meals ; or a cup of 
ceremony, used at solemn and religious 
meals, as at the Passover, when the father 
of the family pronounces certain blessings 
over the cup, and having tasted it, passes 
it round to the company and his whole 
family, who partake of it. In a figurative 
sense, it is taken, 1. for the wine in the 
cup. (1 Cor. xi. 27.) 2. It imports afflic- 
tions or sufferings: 'Stand up, O Jerusa- 
lem, which hast drunk at the hand of the 



CUP 



cus 



Lord the cup of his fury.' (Isa. li. 17-) 
And the Psalmist (lxxv. 8) : ' In the hand 
of the Lord there is a cup, the dregs thereof 
all the wicked of the earth shall wring them 
out, and drink them.' Our Saviour prays, 
(Matt. xxyi. 39.) « Let this cup pass from 
me;' that is, let me be freed from these 
sufferings. 3. Cup denotes the blessings 
and favours of God. (Ps. xxiii. 5.) The 
cup of salvation, (Ps. cxvi. 13.) is a cup of 
thanksgiving, of blessing the Lord for his 
mercies. We see this practice in 3 Mace, 
vi. 27, in which the Jews of Egypt, in their 
festivals for their deliverance, offered cups 
of salvation. The cup of blessing (1 Cor. 
x. 16.) is that which was blessed in enter- 
tainments of ceremony, or solemn services, 
in which the company drank round. Our 
Saviour, in the Last Supper, blessed the 
cup, and gave it to each of the apostles to 
drink. (Luke xxii. 20.) At this day, the 
Jews have cups of thanksgiving, which 
are blessed, in their marriage ceremonies, 
and in entertainments made at the circum- 
cision of their children. Some commen- 
tators think the cup of salvation to be a 
libation of wine poured on the victim sa- 
crificed on thanksgiving occasions, ac- 
cording to the law of Moses. (Exod. xxix. 
40. Numb. xv. 5. ; xxviii. 7- 14.) 4. Cup 
also denotes share or portion : ' The Lord 
is the portion of my cup,' because at meals 
each had his cup ; or, the prophet alludes 
to those cups, which were drunk by each in 
his turn. 

In respect to Joseph's cup is a difficulty, 
which has appeared to some persons consi- 
derable. (Gen. xliv. 5.) In our translation, 
it is said, ' Is not this it (the cup) in which 
my Lord drinketh, and whereby, indeed, 
he divineth ?' As divination is not a study 
which reflects any honour on the character 
of Joseph, some have rendered the passage 
' for which he would search accurately.'' In- 
stead of ' wot ye not, that such a man as 
I can certainly divine?' they render, ' I 
would search carefully] that is, for the cup. 
It was, and perhaps is still, the custom for 
the town of Madras in the East Indies, to 
present every new governor with a cup, out 
of which to drink his arrack after dinner. 
This cup, on which were engraven, pro- 
bably, the governor's name and titles, was 
used at table, in the cheerful hours of 
drinking, after the meal was ended, and 
was a cup of privilege, and such as the town 
could not furnish another, in any of the 
shops. Now the word nachesh in Genesis 
signifies to view, to eye, to observe attentively, 
that is, to distinguish one thing from another. 
We may, therefore, render the passage, 
* And distinguishing, he is distinguished by 
it.' As if it had been said, « He is emi- 
nently distinguished by this cup ; this is 
his particular cup ; no other person dares 
have such a one ; it appertains to his office, 
and therefore he highly values it.' Joseph's 
326 



reprimand may also be thus rendered : 
' Could you not perceive that this formed 
one of the distinctions appertaining to my 
station V In Bruce's Travels is an account 
of a golden cup, which was given to Ras 
Michael, governor of Tigre, by the king. 
This proves, that a particular cup, as an 
appendage to his office, was peculiar nei- 
ther to the governor of the metropolis of 
Egypt, nor to the governor of Madras. 
Bruce's Travels, vol. ii. p. 657 ; Fragments 
attached to Calmet's Diet. No. xxi. p. 43. 

CURSES. God denounced his curse 
against the serpent, which had seduced Eve, 
(Gen. iii. 14.) and against Cain, who had 
embrued his hands in his brother Abel's 
blood. (Gen. iv. 11.) The Lord promised 
to bless those, who should bless Abraham, 
and to curse those, who should curse him. 
The divine maledictions are not merely 
imprecations, or impotent wishes, they 
carry their effect with them, and are 
attended with all the miseries denounced. 

Holy men sometimes prophetically cursed 
particular persons. Noah cursed Canaan 
(Gen. ix. 25.) Jacob, the fury of his two 
sons, Simeon and Levi, (Gen. xlix. 7-) 
Moses enjoins the people of Israel to curse 
the violators of the law, (Deut. xxvii. 15.) 
Joshua cursed him, who should undertake 
to rebuild Jericho, (Josh. vi. 26.) and our 
Saviour, the barren fig-tree. (Mark xi. 21.) 
These imprecations had their effect. They 
were not, however, produced by passion, 
impatience, or revenge, but were predic- 
tions, and therefore not such curses as 
God condemns. No one shall presume to 
curse his father or his mother, on pain of 
death, (Exod. xxi. 17-) nor the ruler of 
his people (Exod. xxii. 28) ; nor one that 
is deaf, (Levit. xix. 14.) whether is meant 
a man really deaf, or one that is absent, 
and therefore cannot hear what is said 
against him. Blasphemy, or cursing God, 
is punished with death. (Levit. xxiv. 10, 
11.) In the Gospel, (Matt. v. 11.) Jesus 
Christ pronounces a blessing upon those 
disciples, who are falsely loaded with curses ; 
and he requires his followers to bless those 
who curse them, to render blessing for 
cursing, &c. 

CUSH, m3, Xovffl, signifies an Ethiopian, 
or black, and was the name of the eldest son 
of Ham. The sons of Cush were Seba, 
Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, Sabtecha, and 
Nimrod. (Gen. x. 6, 7, 8.) The Vulgate, 
Septuagint, and other interpreters, ancient 
and modern, generally translate Cush, 
Ethiopia ; but there are many passages, in 
which this translation is certainly errone- 
ous. It is, therefore, necessary to ex- 
amine the several acceptations of the 
word Cush, and to be well advised on 
that particular Cush. to which any passage 
of Scripture refers. 

1. Cush is found in Bactria, in the vici- 
nage of the river Indus. This was the 



cus 



CYP 



original Ethiopia, or Ethiopia in the East, 
in which the family of Cush was first si- 
tuated. Strabo calls the Ethiopians a two- 
fold people, who lie extended in a long 
tract, from the rising to the setting of the 
sun. It is evident from Apuleius, Arrian, 
and other writers, that Ethiopia was very 
far east, and in the neighbourhood of India. 
It is impossible to suppose, that the Afri- 
can Ethiopians sent colonies to such a dis- 
tance east; but we have testimony that 
the Western Ethiopians emigrated from 
the vicinity of the river Indus, that is, 
from a situation north-west of that river, 
Bactria is west of the Gihon. (Gen. ii. 13.) 
The Syriac in 2 Chron. xvi. 8. for Cushites, 
or Ethiopians, reads Indians ; and both the 
Svriac and Chaldee in Isa. xi. 11. and Zeph. 
iil. 10. for Cush read India. 

2. We find Cush in Assyria, west of the 
Caspian Sea As the dispersion of the 
Jews was principally in Assyria, it is not 
improbable, that to this dispersion the pro- 
phet Zephaniah refers, fin. 10.) where he 
speaks of the return of Judah from cap- 
tivity, ' from beyond the rivers of Cushan, 
my suppliants, even the daughters of my 
dispersed, shall bring mine offering.' It 
appears, however, that this dispersion ex- 
tended even to the ancient Hindoostan. St. 
Jerom, in his Catalogue of Ecclesiastical 
Writers, mentions that St. Andrew preached 
the Gospel on the rivers of Colchis, the 
Apsarus, and the Phasis ; and he calls the 
natives Ethiopians, that is, Cushites. 

3. We find Cush in Arabia Petraea, border- 
ing on Egypt ; this country extended itself 
principally on the eastern shore of the Red 
Sea. The proofs are these : — Zipporah, the 
wife of Moses, who was a native of Midian, is 
called a Cushite, or Ethiopian. (Numb. xii. 
1.) Now, Midian, as Josephus, Ptolemy, and 
Jerom all agree, was situated on the east 
of the Red Sea in Arabia. Habakkuk (iii. 
7.) mentions the land of Cush, or Cushan, 
as synonymous with that of Midian : ■ I saw 
the tents of Cushan in affliction : and the 
curtains of the land of Midian did tremble.' 
We know the land of Midian, connected by 
this prophet with Cushan, too well to be 
mistaken. 

4. Ethiopia, south of Egypt, in Africa, is 
designated by the name of Cush. The 
eunuch of queen Candace is rendered in the 
Syriac, the Cushite. (Acts viii. 27 ) Ethi- 
opia is frequently in the Hebrew called 
Cush. Jeremiah (xiii. 23 ) says, ' Can the 
Cushaean, or Ethiopian, change his skin?' 
Isaiah (xi. 11.) says, ' He will recover the 
remnant of his people from Egypt, and 
from Pathros, and from Cush ;' and, in 
another place (xviii. 1.) rivers of Cush 
are rivers of Ethiopia, that is, south of 

It. therefore, appears, that in Scripture 
are four countries named Cush. Great con- 
fusion has arisen in the descriptions of 
327 



Ethiopia (Cush,) from the different fami- 
lies of the Cushites, which by various 
removals inhabited these places so widely 
separated from each other. Sacred Geogra- 
phy ; Additions to CalmeVs Diet. 

CUTH, or Cuth'ah with the Chaldee 
termination, the same as Cush. (2 Kings, 
xvii. 24. 30.) Shalmaneser, king of As- 
syria, carried away Israel into Assyria, 
and replaced them by other people out of 
Cuthah. Josephus observes, that Cuthah 
is the name of a country in Persia, which 
also possesses a river of the same name. 
Of the Cuthaeans, he says, there were five 
tribes or nations, each of which had their 
own gods, which they brought with them 
into Samaria. These were the people 
afterwards called Samaritans, who, though 
they had no pretensions, affected to be 
related to the Jews ; and hence proba- 
bly arose the violent animosity, which 
subsisted between the two nations. The 
Cuthaeans, Josephus observes, had formerly 
belonged to the inner parts of Persia and 
Media. 

The Cuthaeans worshipped their idol Ner- 
gal. After their arrival in Samaria, they 
continued to worship the gods they had 
formerly adored. The Lord being pro-, 
voked, sent among them lions, which 
destroyed them. This being reported to 
Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, who suc- 
ceeded Sennacherib, he appointed an Is- 
raelitish priest to instruct them in that 
worship, which was pleasing to God. But 
these people thought they might reconcile 
their old superstitions with the worship of 
the God of Israel. They therefore wor- 
shipped both the Lord and their false gods, 
and chose the lowest of the people for 
priests of the high places. Afterwards, 
however, they forsook idols, and adhered 
to the law of Moses, as the Samaritans, 
their descendants, do at this day. See 
Samaritans. 

CY'PRUS, Kuttooc, signifies fair, beau- 
tiful, and is the name of the largest island 
in the Mediterranean, situated between 
Cilicia and Syria. It is thought, by a very 
judicious writer, in opposition to Calmet, 
that the Philistines did not people, from 
Cyprus and Crete, that part of the shores 
of the Holy Land called Philistia ; but that 
the Philistines, migrating from the shores 
of Egypt, or of Judea, peopled the islands 
of Crete, Cyprus, and others in the Medi- 
terranean Sea. It seems, indeed, con- 
firmed by some ancient medals, that the 
Philistines were a Hindoo nation, first 
settled on the coast of the Red Sea, 
afterwards removing thence to Canaan, and 
so to Cyprus, Crete, Sec. See Caphtor. 

The inhabitants of this island were im- 
mersed in all manner of luxury and de- 
bauchery. Their principal deity was Venus. 
The apostles Paul and Barnabas landed in 
Cyprus, A. D. 44. (Acts xiii. 4, 5, &c.) 



CYR 



CYR 



Whilst they continued at Salamis, they 
preached Jesus Christ in the Jewish syna- 
gogues; and from that place they visited all 
the cities in the island, preaching the Gospel. 
At Paphos, they found Bar-jesus, a false 
prophet, with Sergius Paulus, the governor. 
Paul struck Bar-jesus with blindness ; and 
the proconsul embraced Christianity. Some 
time after, Barnabas went again into this 
island, with John, surnamed Mark. (Acts xv. 
39.) Barnabas is considered as the principal 
apostle and first bishop of Cyprus, where, it 
is said, he suffered martyrdom, being stoned 
to death by the Jews of Salamis. Sacred 
Geography. 

C YRE'NE, n*rp, Kvprjvr], signifies a wall, 
or beam; otherwise, cold, or a meeting. Cyrene 
was a city of Libya in Africa, which, as it 
was the principal city of that province, was 
sometimes denominated Cyrenaica, and by 
St. Luke, (Acts ii. 10.) is paraphrastically 
called Libya about Cyrene, This city was 
once so powerful as to contend with Car- 
thage for pre-eminence. In profane writers, 
it is mentioned as the birth-place of Erato- 
sthenes, the mathematician, and Callimachus, 
the poet; and in Holy Writ, of Simon, whom 
the Jews compelled to bear our Saviour's 
cross. (Matt, xxvii. 32. Luke xxiii. 26.) 

At Cyrene resided many Jews, a great 
part of whom embraced the Christian re- 
ligion ; but others opposed it with much 
obstinacy. Among the most inveterate 
enemies of Christianity, Luke reckons 
those of this province, who had a synagogue 
at Jerusalem, and excited the people against 
St. Stephen. (Acts vi. 9 ; but see Acts xi. 20.) 
Wells's Geography, vol. ii. pp. 140. 303. 

CYRE'NIUS, governor of Syria. (Luke 
ii. 1, 2.) Great difficulties have been raised 
on this history of taxing under Cyrenius, 
because Cyrenius was not governor of Syria 
till nine or ten years after our Saviour's 
birth. . Indeed, it is granted on all hands, 
that Cyrenius was not properly governor of 
Syria at the time of our Saviour's birth, 
though he was afterwards ; but Saturninus 
was governor at that time. Yet, for the pur- 
poses of this enrolment, Cyrenius might be 
associated with Saturninus ; or, though now 
sent into Syria as an extraordinary officer, 
yet being afterwards governor of this pro- 
vince, he might be called governor of Syria, 
as we call an officer during his life by the 
title he has borne, even after he has laid 
down his commission. On a medal of An- 
tioch appear the names of Saturninus and 
Volumnius, who were the emperor's chief 
officers in Syria. It would seem, therefore, 
that Volumnius was the colleague of Satur- 
ninus in the government of Syria ; that Sa- 
turninus was properly president, and Vo- 
lumnius procurator of the province ; and 
that, whilst Saturninus kept his court at 
Antioch, where he remained stationary, his 
associate was engaged in other districts of 
the province, as circumstances required. 
328 



What we suppose of Volumnius, we may 
also suppose of Cyrenius, who, after him, 
held the same office. Thus, this medal vin- 
dicates Josephus, who describes Saturninus 
and Volumnius as governors of Syria ; and 
it may justify both St. Luke and Tertullian, 
of whom the former affirmed that Cyrenius, 
and the latter that Saturninus, executed the 
enrolment. It may also justify the words of 
the Evangelist, which may be thus under- 
stood: ' This was the first enrolment of 
Cyrenius, he being then governor of Syria 
associated with Saturninus ; and it should be 
distinguished from that, which he made eleven 
years after, when he was the chief, the pre- 
cedential governor of the same province.' 
Dr. Campbell and Mr. Parkhurst translate 
the words as follows : ' This first register took 
effect when Cyrenius was president of Syria.' 

It may be observed on the passage in 
Luke (ii. 1, 2.) first, that the word oiKSfikvrf 
rendered all the world, sometimes signifies 
the whole of a country, region, or district, 
as perhaps Acts xi. 28, and certainly Luke 
xxi. 26. The expression, all the country, is 
peculiarly proper in this place, because Ga- 
lilee, as well as Judea, was included, and 
perhaps all other parts, in which were Jews. 
Secondly, the word airoypcHpi), rendered tax- 
ing, should have been translated enrolment ; 
as a taxation did not always really follow 
such enrolment, though such enrolment ge- 
nerally preceded a taxation. The difficulty 
of the passage is in the word TrpArr), ' first,' 
because, ten or eleven years after, there was 
actually a taxation, which, as a decisive mark 
of subjection to the Roman power, was very 
mortifying to the Jewish nation. To this 
taxation Gamaliel alludes, (Acts v. 37-) 
' Judas of Galilee rose up in the days of the 
taxing,' when mobs and riots were frequent, 
under pretence of liberty. 

The narrative of St. Luke may be com- 
bined in the following order, which is pro- 
bably not far from its true import. ' In 
those days Caesar Augustus,' who was dis- 
pleased with the conduct of Herod, and 
wished him to feel his dependence on the 
Roman empire, ' issued a decree that the 
whole land' of Judea, ' should be enrolled,* 
as well persons as possessions, that the true 
state of the inhabitants, their families, and 
their property, might be known and record- 
ed. Accordingly, ' all were enrolled,' but 
the taxation did not immediately follow this 
enrolment, because Augustus was recon- 
ciled to Herod; and this accounts for the 
silence of Josephus on an assessment not car- 
ried into effect. ' And this was the first 
assessment (or enrolment) of Cyrenius, 
governor of Syria. And all went to be en- 
rolled, each to his own city ;' and, as the 
emperor's order was urgent, and Cyrenius 
was known to be active in the dispatch of bu- 
siness, ' even Mary, though tar advanced in 
her pregnancy, went with Joseph, and while 
they waited' for their turn, to be enrolled, 



CYR 



CYR 



4 Mary was delivered of Jesus.' It is not, 
however, improbable, that Mary had some 
small landed estate, for which her appear- 
ance was necessary. Jesus, therefore, was 
enrolled with Mary and Joseph, as Julian 
the Apostate expressly says. 

An officer being sent from Rome to enrol 
and assess the subjects of a king, implied that 
such king was dependent on the Roman em- 
peror, and demonstrates that the sceptre 
was departed from Judah. This occurrence, 
added to the alarm of Herod on the inquiry 
of the Magi respecting the birth place of the 
Messiah, might sufficiently exasperate He- 
rod, not merely to slay the infants of Beth- 
lehem, but to every act of cruelty. Hence, 
after such an occurrence, all Jerusalem 
might well be alarmed with Herod, (Matt. 
ii. 3.) and the priests, &c. study caution in 
their answers to him. This occurrence would 
quicken the attention of all, who expected 
temporal redemption in Israel, as it would 
extremely mortify every Jewish national 
feeling. 

The over-ruling providence of God ap- 
pointed, that at the time of Christ's birth, 
there should be a public, authentic, and gene- 
ral production of titles, pedigrees, &c. which 
should prove, that Jesus was descended from 
the house and direct family line of David ; 
and that this should be proved judicially on 
such a scrutinizing occasion. This occurrence 
brought about the birth of the Messiah, at 
the very place appointed by prophecy long 
before, though the usual residence of Joseph 
and Mary was at Nazareth. Among so 
much confusion, and such vexation, as this 
enrolment would occasion, the slaughter of 
the infants at Bethlehem might be passed 
over without much noise. Perhaps Herod 
represented publicly (whatever he knew pri- 
vately,) that Bethlehem was a turbulent dis- 
affected place, and ought to be punished for 
the disloyalty shown by it on occasion of this 
enrolment. Additions to Calmet's Diet.; 
Parkhurst's Greek and English Lexicon. 

CY'RUS, wto, signifies as miserable ; 
otherwise, belly : in Persian, the sun. Cyrus, 
son of Cambyses, the Persian, and of Man- 
dane, daughter of Astyages, king of the 
Medes. Astyages dreamed, that a vine is- 
sued from his daughter's womb, the branches 
of which covered all Asia. The soothsayers 
told him, that this signified the future power 
and greatness of a child that should be born 
of his daughter ; and that the same child 
should deprive him of his kingdom. Asty- 
to prevent the accomplishment of this 
prediction, instead of marrying his daughter 
to some powerful prince, gave her to Cam- 
byses, a Persian of mean condition. Besides, 
as soon as he understood that his daughter 
was pregnant, he commanded Harpagus, 
one of his officers, to kill the infant the mo- 
ment it was born. Harpagus, fearing the 
resentment of Mandane, preserved the child, 
and gave it to the king's chief shepherd lobe 



exposed. The shepherd's wife, touched 
with the beauty of Cyrus, persuaded her 
husband to preserve the young prince; and 
thus Cyrus was brought up among the king's 
shepherds. 

One day, as the neighbouring children 
were playing together, Cyrus was chosen 
king, and having treated with too much 
authority one of his little play-fellows, the 
parents of the child complained to Asty- 
ages. This prince sent for Cyrus, and, 
observing something great, in his air, and 
some features of his daughter Mandane, 
he inquired particularly into the matter, 
and discovered that Cyrus was in reality 
his grandson. Harpagus, who had pre- 
served him, was punished with the death of 
his own son ; and Astyages concluded, that 
the royalty, which the soothsayers had pro- 
mised to young Cyrus, was that which he 
had lately exercised among the shepherds' 
children. When Cyrus was grown up, Har- 
pagus discovered to him the secret of his 
birth, encouraged him to come into Media, 
and promised him forces in order to depose 
Astyages. Cyrus engaged the Persians to 
take arms against the Medes, marched at 
their head against Astyages, defeated him, 
and possessed himself of Media. After many 
other wars, he sat down before Babylon, 
which he took after a long siege. 

This is a summary account of Cyrus from 
Herodotus and Justin ; but the learned con- 
fess, that this recital is so blended with 
fable that it is difficult to distinguish 
truth from falsehood. Xenophon has 
given us a very different history of Cyrus. 
It is possible, that these different histories 
may refer to different persons of the same 
name ; or it is more probable, that this con- 
fusion has been increased, if not occasioned, 
by the misunderstanding of foreigners, the 
Greeks, through whom we have received our 
information on these points of history. 

According to Xenophon, Astyages mar- 
ried his daughter Mandane to Cambyses, 
king of Persia, son to Achaemenes, king of 
that nation. Cyrus was born in the court 
of the king his father, and was educated 
with the greatest care. When he was 
about twelve years old, his grandfather 
Astyages sent for him into Media, with his 
daughter Mandane. Some time al'u r, 
the king of Assyria's son aaving invaded 
Media, Astyages, with his son Cyaxarcs, 
and his grandson Cyrus, marched against 
him. Cyrus distinguished himself in this 
war, and defeated the Assyrians. Cam- 
byses afterwards recalled him, that he 
might have him near his own person ; and 
Astyages dying, his son Cyaxaros, mule 
by the mother's side to Cyrus, succeeded 
him in the kingdom of Media. 

At the age of thirty, Cyrus was made 
general of the Persian troops, by his father 
Cambyses, and was sent at the bead ot 
thirty thousand men to assist his uncle 



CYR 



CYR 



Cyaxares, whom the king of Babylon, 
with his allies, was preparing to attack. 
Cyaxares and Cyrus prevented them, by 
attacking and dispersing them. 

After this, Cyrus carried the war into 
the countries beyond the river Halys, and 
subdued Cappadocia ; and, having marched 
against Croesus, king of Lydia, defeated 
Crcesus, and besieged him in Sardis, his 
capital. After a siege of fourteen days, 
Croesus was obliged to surrender. 

Cyrus having reduced almost all Asia, 
repassed the Euphrates, and waged war 
against the Assyrians. He marched to 
Babylon, took it, and there prepared a 
palace for his uncle Cyaxares. After these 
expeditions, Cyrus returned to his father 
and mother in Persia. He afterwards mar- 
ried his cousin, the only daughter and 
heiress of Cyaxares's dominions, and went 
with her to Babylon. He engaged again in 
several wars, and subdued all the nations 
between Syria and the Red Sea. He died 
at the age of seventy, after a reign of thirty 
years. Authors differ concerning his death ; 
and we are only imperfectly acquainted with 
the history of this great prince, who was 
the founder of the Persian, and the de- 
stroyer of the Chaldaean, empire. 

From Scripture we learn few particulars 
respecting Cyrus ; but they are more cer- 
tain than any others. Daniel, in the famous 
vision, (viii. 3. 20.) in which God showed 
him the ruin of several great empires, that 
preceded the birth of the Messiah, repre- 
sents Cyrus as ' a ram which had two horns, 
both high, but one rose higher than the 
other, and the higher came up last. This 
ram pushed westward, and northward, and 
southward, so that no beasts might stand 
before him, neither was there any that could 
deliver out of his hands, but he did accord- 



ing to his will, and became great.' The two 
horns signify the two empires which Cyrus 
united in his person ; that of the Medes, 
and that of the Persians. In chap. vii. 5, 
Daniel compares Cyrus to a bear, with three 
ribs in its mouth, to which it was said, 
' Arise, devour much flesh.' 

Cyrus succeeded Cambyses in the king- 
dom of Persia, and Darius the Mede, by 
Xenophon called Cyaxares, and Astyages 
in the apocryphal chapter (xiii. 1.) of 
Daniel, in the kingdom of the Medes, and 
the empire of Babylon. He was monarch, 
as he speaks (2 Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23. Ezra 
i. 1, 2.) ' of all the earth,' when he permit- 
ted the Jews to return into their own coun- 
try, in the year of the world 3466, and 
before Jesus Christ 538. 

The prophets foretold the coming of 
Cyrus. Isaiah (xliv. 28.) particularly de- 
clares his name above a century before he 
was born. Josephus (Antiq. lib. ii. c. 2.) 
says, that the Jews of Babylon showed this 
passage to Cynis ; and that this prince, in 
the edict which he granted for their return, 
acknowledged, that he received the empire 
of the world from the God of Israel ; and 
that the same God had described him by 
name in the writings of the prophets, and 
foretold that he should build a temple to 
him in Jerusalem. 

The taking of Babylon by Cyrus is 
clearly foretold in Scripture. (Isaiah xiii. 
xiv. xxi. xli. xiii. xlv. Jerem. 1. Ii. Dan. 
vii. viii.) Archbishop Usher fixes the birth 
of Cyrus to the year of the world 3405 ; his 
first year at Babylon, to 3466 ; and his 
death to 3475. The eastern people say, 
that one of Cyrus's wives was a Jewess; 
and hence they account for his favour to 
the Jews. 



D. 



D 



DAG 



A'GON, rm, signifies corn from its 
increase, and fish from its fertility. Dagon 
may also at the same time allude to pre- 
servation, as a fish is preserved in the 
waters, and corn in the earth ; both in re- 
ference to newness of life. 

Dagon, the god of the Philistines, was 
represented like a woman, with the lower 
parts of a fish : — 

Desinit in piscem mulier formosa su- 
perne, 

A handsome woman with a fish's tail. 

(Horat. de Art. Poet.) 
330 



DAG 

The Great Etymologicum says, that 
Dagon was Saturn ; others, Jupiter ; others, 
Venus. Bochart is of opinion, that the god 
Dagon was Japheth, the third son of Noah ; 
and that to him was given the divinity of 
the sea, because his lot, and that of his 
descendants, was the islands, peninsulas, 
and countries beyond the sea, or the conti- 
nent of Europe. Mr. Jurieu, ai.d some 
others, think, that Noah himself may pro- 
bably be concealed under the name of 
Dagon, or Neptune, since he who floated 
several months on the waters of the deluge, 



DAG 



DAM 



and who alone escaped from that flood, 
which destroyed the rest of mankind, might 
with propriety be said to possess the empire 
of the sea. They who favour this last 
opinion, think that the name by transposi- 
tion should be Dag-NAV, which may signify 
the Dag of Nau, or Noah, that is the fish of 
Noah, as the Hebrew word dag imports, or 
figuratively the vessel, or preserver, of 
Noah. 

An ancient fable says, that 'Qavvsg, 
Oannes, a creature half man and half fish, 
rose out of the Red Sea, and came to Baby- 
lon, where he taught the people several 
arts, and then returned again to the sea. 
There were several of these Oannes, the 
name of one of which was 'QSolkojv, Odacon, 
that is 6 Dagon, the Dagon. Berosus says, 
that Oannes had the body and head of a 
fish ; and above the head of the fish a 
human head ; and below the tail of the fish, 
he had human feet. This is the true figure 
of Dagon. The Red Sea, in very ancient 
authors, means the Indian Ocean. Now 
who could teach several arts, or who could 
first teach letters and astronomy ? No other 
person than Noah. Oannes is said to have 
come on shore, and taught, and returned to 
the sea at night. To what could he return, 
but to some embarkation, or vessel, out of 
which he came by day 1 For Berosus ex- 
pressly represents Oannes as coming out 
of the fish. It is, therefore, clear, that this 
personage is described as coming out from, 
and returning to, something, which swam 
on the waters, and which could be no other 
than a ship of some kind, symbolized under 
the figure of a fish, or designated by that 
class of animals, whose constant residence is 
in the waters. Besides, as a fish passes in 
safety along the mighty deep, and is secure 
amidst storms and tempests, so the idea of 
that structure, in which a person, or per- 
sons, were preserved from the perils of the 
boisterous waves, easily became connected 
with that of a fish. 

The Scripture shows pretty clearly, that 
the statue of Dagon was human, at least the 
upper part of it. (1 Sam. v.) ' And the 
Philistines took the ark of God, and intro- 
duced it into the temple of Dagon, and 
placed it before Dagon. And the Ashdod- 
ites rose on the morrow morning, and be- 
hold ! Dagon fallen ; his face to the earth, 
before the face of the ark of Jehovah. And 
they took up Dagon, and restored him to 
his place. And they rose early on the 
next morrow morning,. and behold ! Dagon 
fallen ; his face to the earth, before the 
face of the ark of Jehovah : and the head 
of Dagon, and the two bendings of his arms 
(palms of his hands) were broken off, on the 
threshold : the empty, concave, hollow, fish 
part of the compound of Dagon, remained 
unto him.' They who suppose that the 
word dag figuratively denotes a ship or 
vessel, seem inclined to think, that Jonah, 
331 



when fleeing to Tarshish, was miraculously 
preserved by a vessel, and not by a whale. 
Fragments annexed to Cahnet's Diet. No. 
cxlv. p. 97, &c. 

DALMANU'THA, AaXfiava^d, signi- 
fies a bucket prepared ; exhaustion of what is 
numbered; otherwise, leanness, or branches 
prepared, or numbered. St. Mark (viii. 10.) 
says, that Jesus Christ embarked with his 
disciples on the sea of Tiberias, and came 
to Dalmanutha. St Matthew (xv. 39,) re- 
lating the same event, says, that our Savi- 
our went to Magdala. Dr. Doddridge 
explains the passages as follows: He came 
into the parts of Dalmanutha, which, with 
several neighbouring cities, stood in the 
coast of Magdala, not far from Gadara, on 
the eastern shore of the sea of Galilee. 
Wells 1 's Geography, vol. ii. p. 185 ; Doddridge's 
Family Expositor, vol. i. p. 454, edit. 1810. 

DAMAS'CUS, pWDri, Domeshech, 
Aafiaaicbg,, signifies the sack of blood, or 
cup of blood, otherwise blood of the thigh, or 
of fires, or of the procurator, or of stewards. 
Damascus was a celebrated city of Syria, 
and was for a long time the capital of a 
kingdom of Damascus, or Aram of Damas- 
cus, or Syria of Damascus. It was a city 
in the time of Abraham ; and some of the 
ancients say, that patriarch reigned there 
immediately after Damascus its founder. 
The Scripture says nothing more of this 
city till the time of David ; when Hadad, 
king of Damascus, sending troops to Hada- 
dezer, king of Zobah, David defeated both 
kings, and subdued their country, in the 
year of the world 2092, and before Christ 
1912. Josephus says, that this Hadad was 
the first that took the title of king in this 
city. 

Toward the end of Solomon's reign, God 
stirred up Rezin, the son of Eliadab, who 
restored the kingdom of Damascus, and 
shook off the yoke of the Jewish kings. 
Asa, king of Judah, implored the assistance 
of Benhadad, son of Tabrimon, king of 
Damascus, against Baasha, king of Israel, 
and engaged him by subsidies to invade 
Baasha's territories. After this time, the 
kings of Damascus were generally called 
Benhadad, which they probably assumed as 
a surname. 

Jeroboam II. king of Israel, resumed the 
ancient superiority over the kings of Syria. 
He conquered Damascus and Hamath, the 
two principal cities of Syria, (2 Kings xiv. 
25.) ; but, after the death of Jeroboam II., 
the Syrians re-established their monarchy. 
Rezin assumed the title of king of Damas- 
cus ; entered into a confederacy with Pekah, 
the usurper of the kingdom of Israel ; and, 
in conjunction with him, made great havoc 
in the territories of Jotham and Ahaz, kings 
of Judah. (2 Kings xvi. 5, &c.) Ahaz, sen- 
sible that he was not sufficiently strong to 
oppose them, desired the assistance of 
Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria. This 



DAM 



DAM 



prince, in order to relieve Ahaz, invaded 
the dominions of Rezin, took Damascus, 
which he destroyed, killed Rezin, and sent 
the Syrians his subjects into captivity, be- 
yond the Euphrates, according to the pre- 
dictions of the prophets Isaiah and Amos. 
(2 Kings xvi. 7- 9- Isaiah vii. 4. 8. ; viii. 4. ; 
x. 9. ; xvii. 1, 2, 3. Amos i. 3.) 

However, after a time, Damascus re- 
covered from these misfortunes. Calmet 
thinks, that Sennacherib took this city, 
when he marched against Hezekiah. (Isaiah 
ix. 9, &c.) Holofernes also took it. (Judith 
ii. 17-) Ezekiel (xxvii. 18.) speaks of it 
as a flourishing city. Jeremiah (xxv. 9, 
10.; xxvii. 8.; xlix. 23, 24.) threatens it 
with the attacks of Nebuchadnezzar. After 
the return from the captivity, Zechariah, 
(ix. 1.) foretold several calamities, which 
should befal it, and which, in all probabi- 
lity, did befal it, when it was conquered 
by the generals of Alexander the Great. 
The Romans took Damascus about the 
year of the world, 3939, when Pompey 
warred against Tigranes, and sent thither 
Metellus and Laelius, by whom it was 
seized. 

Damascus remained under the Roman 
government, till it fell into the hands of the 
Arabians. Obodas, father of Aretas, king 
of Arabia, whom St. Paul mentions, (2 Cor. 
xi. 32.; was master of Damascus, in the 
reign of Augustus ; but he was not inde- 
pendent, being subject to the Romans. 
Aretas, whose officer was governor of Da- 
mascus, when St. Paul came thither, quar- 
relled with the Romans, with whom he was 
then at war, A.D. 37- Aretas was a name 
common to many kings of Damascus, at 
least, from the second century before Christ, 
and it appears to have been retained by 
them after that period. 

Damascus is situated in a very fertile 
plain, at the foot of Mount Libanus, being 
surrounded by hills in the manner of a tri- 
umphal arch. It is bounded by a river, 
which the ancients named Chrysorrhoas, 
as if it flowed with gold ; and it is divided 
into several channels. Damascus has still a 
great number of fountains, which render it 
extremely agreeable. Its fertile and de- 
lightful meadows, covered with fruits and 
flowers, contribute also to its fame. Volney 
thus describes it: — ' Damascus is the capital 
and residence of the Pacha ; the Arabs call 
it El Shams, agreeably to their custom of 
bestowing the name of the country on its 
capital. The eminent oriental name of 
Dameshk is known only to geographers. 
This city is situated in a vast plain, open to 
the south and east, and shut in, towards the 
west and north, by mountains, which render 
the territory of Damascus the best watered, 
and most delicious province of all Syria: 
the Arabs speak of it with enthusiasm, and 
think they can never sufficiently extol the 
verdure and freshness of its fruits, its nu- 
332 



merous streams, and the clearness of its 
rills and fountains. This is also the only 
part of Syria where there are detached 
pleasure-houses in the open country. The 
natives must set a higher value on these 
advantages, as they are the more rare in the" 
adjacent provinces. In other respects the 
soil is poor, generally, and of a reddish co- 
lour., and ill adapted for corn ; but is, on 
that account, more suitable to fruits, which 
are there excellently flavoured. No city 
contains so many canals and fountains ; 
each house has one ; and all these waters 
are furnished by three rivulets, or branches 
of the same river, which, after fertilizing 
the gardens for the course of three leagues, 
flow into a hollow of the desert to the south- 
east, where they form a morass called Be- 
hairat-el-Mardj, or the Lake of the Meadow. 
With such a situation, it cannot be disputed 
that Damascus is one of the most agreeable 
cities in Turkey ; but it is still deficient in 
point of salubrity: the inhabitants com- 
plain, with reason, that the white waters of 
the Barrada are cold and hard ; and it is 
observed that the natives are subject to 
obstructions ; that the whiteness of their 
skin is rather the paleness of sickness than 
the colour of health ; and that the too great 
use of fruits, particularly of apricots, occa- 
sions there, every summer and autumn, in- 
termittent fevers and dysenteries.' The 
street, still called Straight, where St. Paul 
dwelt, is entered by the road from Jerusa- 
lem : it is as straight as an arrow, a mile in 
length, broad, and well paved. Folney's 
Travels through Syria and Egypt ; Sacred 
Geography ; Home's Introduction. 

DAMIANISTS, a denomination in the 
sixth century, that derived their name from 
Damian, bishop of Alexandria. They dis- 
tinguished the Divine Essence from the 
Three Persons; Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost. They denied that each Person was 
God, when considered in himself, and ab- 
stractedly from the other two ; but they 
affirmed, at the same time, that there was a 
common Divinity, by the joint participa- 
tion of which each Person was God. They, 
therefore, called the Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost, hypostases, or persons, and the 
Godhead, which was common to them all, 
substance, or nature. Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. i. p. 473. 

DAMNATION. This word is used in a 
theological sense, to express the total loss of 
the soul ; or a state of suffering under spiri- 
tual punishment. But this is not its proper 
import in all passages, in which it occurs in 
Scripture ; and the use of this word, in 
some parts of our translation, is extremely 
unfortunate. We read, (John v. 29.) of 
the ' resurrection to damnation,' (Mark iii. 
29.) of 'eternal damnation,' and (Matt. 
xxiii. 33.) of ' the damnation of hell.' In 
these instances, the stronger sense of the 
word, is required by the import and tenor 



DAN 



DAN 



of the context. On the other hand, we 
read (Matt, xxiii. 14.) of the 'greater 
damnation,' which evidently implies a lesser 
damnation; and, (Rom. xiii. 2.) 'Whoso- 
ever resisteth — shall receive damnation,' for 
which should be substituted condemnation. 
St. Paul, in speaking of the holy sacrament, 
says, (1 Cor. xi. 29.) 'He that eateth and 
drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh 
damnation to himself.' For the word dam- 
nation should be substituted condemnation, 
judgment ; and the apostle teaches that this 
conduct is highly reprehensible, and shall 
terminate in his personal punishment. Dr. 
Calamy observes, ' the original word, here 
translated damnation, signifies no more 
than judgment, or punishment in general. 
So that there is no necessity for translating 
it by the word damnation ; nay, there are 
two plain reasons, why it ought to be un- 
derstood only of temporal evils and chas- 
tisements. 1. Because the judgments in- 
flicted on the Corinthians, for the profana- 
tion of this holy sacrament, were ordy tem- 
poral. ' For this cause many are weak and 
sickly among you, and many sleep.' 2. Be- 
cause the reason assigned for these judg- 
ments is, that the Corinthians might not be 
condemned in the other world ; ' but when we 
are judged, we are chastened of the Lord, 
that we should not be condemned with the 
world.' God inflicted these evils on the 
Corinthians, that being reformed by stripes 
in this life, they might escape that future 
vengeance, which is reserved for the impe- 
nitent ; and therefore it could not be eter- 
nal damnation, that was either threatened 
or inflicted upon them for their receiving 
unworthily.' In the first Epistle to Timo- 
thy (v. 12.) ' Younger widows will marry: 
having damnation,' read condemnation, or 
judgment, because they cast off their first 
faith. In the Epistle to the Romans, (xiv. 
23.) ' He that doubteth is damned, — read 
self-condemned — if he eat flesh or any other 
thing' which may offend a weak brother. 
Eternal damnation cannot be the penalty of 
doing an action, which is lawful in itself, 
though it may offend an uninstructed fel- 
low Christian, who, in fact, has no right to 
be offended, but should rather seek instruc- 
tion, and practise that charity, which one 
Christian should bear to another, in respect 
to his sentiments, his words, and actions. 
Warner's System of Divinity, vol. iii. p. 2 ; 
Supplementary Addenda to Calmet's Dic- 
tiunarii. 

DAN, p, signifies judgment, or the judge, 
and was the name of the fifth son of Jacob, 
nnd the eldest by Bilhah, Rachel's hand- 
maid. Dan had only one son, named Hu- 
shim. (Gen. xlvi. 23.) Yet, at the time 
the Israelites went out of Egypt, this tribe 
contained (52,700 men. (Numb. i. 38.) Ja- 
cob blessed Dan in the following words, 
((Jen. xlix. 1G, 17.) :— ' Dan shall judge his 
people, as one of the tribes of Israel ; Dan 
333 



shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in 
the path that biteth the horse's heels, so 
that his rider shall fall backwards.' Jacob's 
meaning is, that though this tribe was not 
the most powerful, or the most celebrated 
in Israel, yet it would produce one, who 
should be the prince of his people ; and this 
prediction was accomplished in Samson, 
who was descended from Dan. The tribe 
of Dan possessed a very fat and fertile tract, 
between the tribe of Judah east, and the 
country of the Philistines west; but the li- 
mits of their land were very narrow, be- 
cause it was only part of the territories of 
Judah divided from the rest. In what man- 
ner they proceeded, and their success in 
enlarging their territories, may be seen in 
Judges, (xviii.) 

Dan, a town at the northern extremity 
of Israel, in the tribe of Naphtali. From 
Dan to Beersheba, denotes the two extre- 
mities of the land of promise ; Dan being 
the northern, and Beersheba the southern 
city. Dan was seated at the foot of Mount 
Libanus, on the spring of Dan or Jordan. 
Several authors have thought, that the river 
Jordan took its name from the Hebrew 
Jor, a spring, and Dan, a town near its 
source. Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, set 
up one of his golden calves in Dan. (1 
Kings xii. 29.) 

DANCERS, a denomination that arose 
in the year 1373 at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
whence they spread through the district 
of Liege, Hainault, and other parts of 
Flanders. It was their custom to begin 
dancing on a sudden ; and, holding each 
other's hands, they continued their mo- 
tions, till, suffocated with the extraordi- 
nary violence, they fell down breathless 
together. They affirmed, that during these 
intervals of vehement agitation, they were 
favoured with wonderful visions. Like 
the Flagellants, they wandered from place 
to place, had recourse to begging for their 
subsistence, treated with the utmost con- 
tempt both the priesthood and the public 
rites and worship of the church, and 
held secret assemblies. Thus it appears, 
that the French Convulsionists, and the 
Welsh Jumpers, have had predecessors 
of the same kind. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. iii. p. 20G, 207. 

DAN'IEL, bN-n, signifies judgment of 
God, and was the name of a prophet who, 
if not descended from the royal family of 
David, (as the Jews say) was of noble birth. 
When Daniel was very young, he was car- 
ried captive to Babylon, in the fourth year 
of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, in the year 
of the world 3398, and before Jesus 
Christ GOG. He, with his three compa- 
nions, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariab, 
was chosen to continue in Nebuchad- 
nezzar's court ; and he received a suitable 
education, and made great progress in all 
the sciences of the C haidaeans. but de- 



DAN 



DAN 



clined to pollute himself, by eating provisions 
from the king's table. 

If we may believe the Apocrypha, the 
first occasion, on which Daniel discovered 
his wisdom, was in the deliverance of Su- 
sanna. (Dan. xiii. Apoc.) Some time 
after, Nebuchadnezzar, having dreamed 
that a large image, composed of several 
metals, was beaten to pieces by a stone, and 
believing this dream to be prophetical, 
was very desirous that it should be ex- 
plained ; but, as he had lost the recollec- 
tion of it, he insisted that the Magi should 
recal it to his mind, as well as explain its 
meaning. This being impossible, they 
were condemned to death. Daniel re- 
covered and explained the dream, and 
was, therefore, established governor of 
the province of Babylon, and chief of the 
Magi. 

Another time, Nebuchadnezzar having 
dreamed that a large tree was cut down, but 
that its roots remained in the earth, Daniel 
explained it of the king himself, whose fate 
it prefigured. 

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by Evil- 
merodach, under whose reign Daniel main- 
tained his credit. Belshazzar succeeded 
Evil-merodach. In the reign of Belshazzar, 
Daniel had a vision of four beasts, which re- 
presented the four great empires of the Ba- 
bylonians, the Persians, the Greeks, and the 
Romans. (Dan. vii.) In the following chap- 
ter, Daniel saw in a vision a ram and a he- 
goat pushing at each other with their horns. 
The he-goat denoted Alexander the Great ; 
and the ram, Darius Codomannus, the 
last king of Persia. The ram was overcome ; 
and the he-goat became extremely powerful. 
The prophet also describes the successors of 
Alexander. 

Darius the Mede having succeeded Bel- 
shazzar, in the year of the world 3448, 
this prince promoted Daniel above all his 
governors, and designed to give him the 
general administration of his kingdom. 
This state of favour exciting the envy of 
the grandees, they engaged the king to 
make an edict, forbidding every one, du- 
ring a time, to ask any thing from God or 
man, except from the king. However, 
Daniel continued his prayers to God three 
times a day, turning his face towards Je- 
rusalem. His enemies, glad of this dis- 
obedience, informed the king, who was 
obliged to order him to be thrown into the 
lions' den. Early the next morning, Darius 
went thither, and finding Daniel safe, 
commanded him to be taken out, and his 
accusers, with their wives and families, to be 
thrown into the same den. 

Daniel having read in Jeremiah, that 
seventy years would be accomplished in 
the desolation of Jerusalem, ardently 
prayed that God would remember his 
people, and restore them to their native 
land. After his devotion, the angel Ga- 
334 



briel appeared to him, and revealed to him 
something of much greater importance, 
even the death and sacrifice of the Mes- 
siah ; which was to happen after seventy 
weeks of years, or four hundred and 
ninety years. 

In the year of the world 3448, and in 
the third year of Cyrus's reign in Persia, 
which coincides with the first year of Da- 
rius at Babylon, Daniel had another re- 
markable vision, in which the angel Ga- 
briel discovered to him, in a manner al- 
most as clear as if he had related a history, 
what was to happen in Persia after Cyrus, 
(Dan. x.) he revealed to Daniel the coming 
of Alexander the Great, the overthrow of the 
Persian empire, the Greek dominion in Asia, 
the continued wars between the kingdoms of 
Syria and Egypt, the tyranny of the papal 
antichrist, which was to spring up under the 
Roman empire, the general resurrection, 
and the time of the accomplishment of these 
great events. 

After the death of Darius the Mede, Cyrus 
ascended the throne of the Medes and Per- 
sians. Daniel continued to enjoy great au- 
thority in his dominions. 

The reputation of Daniel was so great 
even during his life, that it became a pro- 
verb ; ' Thou art wiser than Daniel,' says 
Ezekiel, (xxviii. 3.) ironically, to the king 
of Tyre. In another part of the same 
prophet, (xiv. 14, 20.) God says, ' Though 
these three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job, 
were in it, they should deliver but their own 
souls by their righteousness.' It is be- 
lieved that Daniel died in Chaldaea, and that 
he did not return to his own country, when 
Cyrus permitted the Jews to revisit their 
native land. Epiphanius says, that he died 
at Babylon ; and in this sentiment he is fol- 
lowed by the generality of historians ; but as 
the last of his visions took place at Susa on 
the Tigris, when he was ninety-four years of 
age, it is not improbable that he died in that 
city. 

The name of Daniel is not prefixed to his 
book ; but, as Dr. Prideaux observes, the 
many passages, in which he speaks in the 
first person, sufficiently prove that he was 
the author. The style of Daniel is not so 
lofty and figurative as that of the other pro- 
phets: it is clear and concise, and his narra- 
tives and descriptions are simple and natu- 
ral. In short, he writes more like an histo- 
rian than a prophet. He was a yery extra- 
ordinary personage, and was more favoured 
by God, and honoured by men, than any who 
lived in his time. His prophecies concern- 
ing the coming of the Messiah, and the other 
great events of succeeding times, are so clear 
and explicit, that Porphyry objects, they 
must have been written after the events took 
place. The Jews do not reckon Daniel 
among the prophets ; and they say, that 
he lived the life of a courtier in the palace of 
the king of Babylon, rather than that of a 



DAR 



DAR 



prophet. They add, that though he receiv- 
ed divine revelations, yet these were only by 
dreams and visions of the night, which they 
consider as the most imperfect mode of reve- 
lation, and not strictly prophetical. How- 
ever, Josephus, one of the most ancient wri- 
ters of that nation, accounts him one of the 
greatest of the prophets, and says, that he 
conversed familiarly with God, and not only 
foretold future events, but also mentioned 
the time, in which they would happen. Our 
Saviour, by acknowledging Daniel as a pro- 
phet, (Matt. xxiv. 15.) fully establishes his 
prophetic character. 

Part of the book of Daniel, from the 
fourth verse of the second, to the end of the 
seventh chapter, was originally written in 
the Chaldee language, because that portion 
treats of the Chaldaean or Babylonish affairs ; 
but the rest of the book is in Hebrew. The 
Greek translation, used by the Greek church 
in the East, was that of Theodotion. In the 
Vulgate Bible, are added, in the third chap- 
ter, after the twenty-third verse, The Song 
of the Three Children ; and, at the end of the 
book, The History of Susannah, and of Bel and 
the Dragon, the former constituting the thir- 
teenth, and the latter the fourteenth chapter. 
These additions were never received into 
the Jewish canon ; and they are not extant 
in the Hebrew or Chaldee language. 

Sir Isaac Newton observes, that of the old 
prophets Daniel is most distinct in order of 
time, and the easiest to be understood ; and, 
therefore, in those events, which relate to the 
last times, he must be the interpreter of the 
rest. All his prophecies refer to each other, 
as if they were only several parts of one ge- 
neral prophecy. The first is the easiest to 
be understood, and every succeeding pro- 
phecy adds something to the former. 

DARI'US,U'WT, signifies he that inquires 
and informs himself, and was the name of seve- 
ral princes in history, some of whom are 
mentioned in Scripture. 

1. Darius the Mede, spoken of in Da- 
niel, (v. 31. ; ix. 1. ; xi. 1, &c.) was the son of 
Astyages, king of the Medes, and brother to 
Mundane, the mother of Cyrus, and to 
Amyit, the mother of Evil-merodach, and 
grandmother of Belshazzar. Darius the 
Mede, therefore, was uncle by the mo- 
ther's side to Evil-merodach and Cyrus. 
The Septuagint, in Daniel vi. give him 
the name of Artaxerxes; the thirteenth, 
or apocryphal chapter, of Daniel, calls 
him Astyages; and Xenophon designates 
him by the name of Cyaxares. He suc- 
ceeded Belshazzar, king of Babylon, his 
nephew's son, or his sister's grandson, in 
the year of the world 3448, according to 
Calmet, or in 34G8, according to Usher. 
Daniel does not inform us of any previous 
war between them: but the prophets 
Isaiah and Jeremiah supply this deficiency ; 
whether they mean the wars between Darius 
the Mede and the Babylonians, or that which 
335 



Cyrus declared against them. (Isaiah xiii. 
xiv. xlv. xlvi. xlvii. ; Jeremiah 1. li.) 

2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, has 
been supposed by some, on the authority of 
Archbishop Usher and Calmet, to be the 
Ahasuerus of Scripture, and the husband of 
Esther ; but Dr. Prideaux thinks that 
Ahasuerus was Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
This prince recovered Babylon after a 
siege of twenty months. This city, which 
had been formerly the capital of the East, 
revolted from Persia, taking advantage of 
the revolutions that happened, first at the 
death of Cambyses, and afterwards on the 
massacre of the Magi. The Babylonians 
employed four years in preparations, and 
when they thought that their city was fur- 
nished with provisions for a long time, they 
raised the standard of rebellion. Darius 
levied an army in great haste, and besieged 
Babylon. The Babylonians shut them- 
selves up within their walls, whose height 
and thickness secured them from assault; 
and as they had nothing to fear but famine, 
they assembled all their women and chil- 
dren, and strangled them, each reserving 
only his most beloved wife, and one ser- 
vant. Thus was fulfilled the prophecy of 
Isaiah, (xlvii. 7 — 9.) Some believe that 
the Jews were either expelled by the Ba- 
bylonians, as being too much in the in- 
terest of Darius ; or that, in obedience to 
the frequent admonitions of the prophets, 
they quitted that city, when they saw the 
people determined to rebel, (Isa. xlviii. 20. 
Jer. 1. 8. ; li. 6—9. Zech. xi. 6, 7) Da- 
rius lay twenty months before Babylon, 
without making any considerable pro- 
gress ; but, at length, Zopyrus, one of 
his generals, obtained possession of the 
city by stratagem. Darius ordered the 
hundred gates of brass to be taken away, 
according to the prediction of Jeremiah, 
(li. 58.) : — ' Thus saith the Lord, the broad 
walls of Babylon shall be utterly broken, 
and her high gates shall be burnt with fire, 
and the people shall labour in vain.' This 
is related in Herodotus, (lib. iii.) 

3. Darius Codomannus was of the royal 
family of Persia, but very remote from the 
crown. He was in a low condition, when 
Bagoas, the eunuch, who had procured the 
destruction of two kings, Ochus and Arses, 
placed him on the throne. His true name was 
Codoman, and he did not take that of Darius 
till he was king. He was descended from 
Darius Nothus, whose son, Ostanes, was fa- 
ther to Arsames, that begat Codomannus. 
He was at first only a courtier to the emperor 
Ochus. But one day when he was with this 
prince's army, one of their enemies chal- 
lenged the bravest of the Persians. Codo- 
mannus offered himself for the combat, 
and overcame the challenger, and was 
made governor of Armenia. From this 
situation, Bagoas placed him on the throne 
of Persia. 



DAR 

Alexander the Great invaded the Persian 
empire, and defeated Darius in three suc- 
cessive battles. After the third battle, 
Darius fled towards Media, in hopes of 
raising another army. At Ecbatane, the 
capital of Media, he gathered the remains 
of his forces, and some new levies. Alex- 
ander, having wintered at Babylon and 
Persepolis, took the field in search of Da- 
rius, who quitted Ecbatane, with an in- 
tention of retreating into Bactria ; but, 
changing his resolution, Darius stopped 
short, and determined to hazard a battle, 
though his army at this time consisted only 
of forty thousand men. While he was pre- 
paring for this conflict, Bessus, governor of 
Bactria, and Narbazanes, a grandee of 
Persia, seized him, loaded him with chains, 
forced him into a covered chariot, and fled, 
carrying him with them, towards Bactria. 
If Alexander pursued them, they intended 
to purchase their peace by delivering 
Darius into his hands ; but if not, to 
kill him, seize the crown, and renew the 
war. 

Eight days after their departure, Alex- 
ander arrived at Ecbatane, and set out in 
pursuit of them, which he continued for 
eleven days ; at length he stopped at Rages, 
in Media, despairing to overtake Darius. 
Thence he went into Parthia, where he 
learned what had happened to that unfor- 
tunate prince. After a precipitate march 
of many days, he overtook the traitors, who 
seeing themselves pressed, endeavoured to 
compel Darius to get upon horseback, and 
save himself with them ; but he refusing, 
they stabbed him in several places, and left 
him expiring in his chariot. He was dead 
when Alexander arrived, who could not 
forbear weeping at so sad a spectacle. 
Alexander covered Darius with his own 
cloak, and sent him to Sisygambis his wife, 
that she might bury him in the tombs of the 
kings of Persia. 

Thus were verified the prophecies of 
Daniel, (viii.) who had foretold the destruc- 
tion of the Persian monarchy, under the 
idea of a ram, which butted with his horns 
westward, northward, and southward, and 
which nothing could resist: but a goat 
which had a very large horn between his 
eyes, and which denoted Alexander the 
Great, came from the west, and overran 
the world without touching the earth ; spring- 
ing forward with impetuosity, the goat ran 
against the ram with all his force, attacked 
him with fury, struck him, broke his two 
horns, trampled him under foot, and no 
one could rescue the ram. Nothing can 
be clearer than these prophecies. 

DAR,KNESS, absence, privation, or want 
of natural light. We are told in Genesis, 
(i. 2.) that ' darkness was on the face of 
the deep,' that is, chaos was immersed in 
thick darkness, because light was withheld 
from it. The most terrible darkness was 
336 



DAR 

that brought on Egypt as a plague. (Exod. 
x. 21, 22.) The inhabitants of England 
and Holland, says a commentator on this 
place, have frequent opportunities of con- 
templating darkness, by means of fogs, &c. 
which in the climate of Egypt would be 
altogether miraculous. Where the air is 
so clear as scarcely to form clouds, those 
clouds can much less appear in the state of 
that thick vapour, which a fog in London 
sometimes assumes. We frequently say, 
' the fog is so thick that it may be cut with 
a knife ;' and this phrase appears to be per- 
fectly analogous to the expression of the 
sacred writer, ' darkness which may be 
felt.' The duration of this fog is marked as 
being three days ; which is probably to be 
taken in the Hebrew sense as denoting 
the close of the first day, the whole of 
the second, and beginning of the third 
day. The expressions, ' they could not see 
each other, nor did they rise from their 
places,' are to be understood rather at 
large, because artificial lights, as lamps, 
flambeaux, &c. were in use, though these 
probably afforded only an obscure solemnity 
of illumination. This kind of dim half 
light would astonish the inhabitants of 
Egypt, who would rather sit at home, than 
venture abroad, and endeavour at their 
personal risk to visit their friends, or to 
follow their occupations : 

and through the palpable obscure, 

Find out their uncouth way. 

The author of the Book of Wisdom has 
indulged his fancy on the subject of this 
darkness. 

The darkness at our Saviour's death, 
began at the sixth hour, that is, at noon ; 
and it ended at the ninth hour, that is, at 
three o'clock in the afternoon. It therefore 
continued nearly the whole time that our 
Saviour was upon the cross. Compare 
Matt, xxvii. 45. with John xix. 14. and 
Mark xv. 25. It is generally thought that 
this darkness covered Judea only, which 
is sometimes expressed by all the land, 
&c. By what was this darkness occasioned ? 
The nature of eclipses is so well known 
among us, that we need not explain how 
they are occasioned by the intervention of 
the moon, hiding the face of the sun ; or 
by the shadow of the earth falling on the 
moon. It is also well known, that the 
Jewish feasts were regulated by the moon's 
course and age; and that at this time a 
natural eclipse of the sun by the moon was 
impossible, the moon being now at full. 
What was the real secondary cause of this 
suspension of the solar light in this country, 
we cannot determine. Was it a cometary 
body passing so near the earth as to hide 
the face of the sun for a time ? Was it a 
body of extremely dense clouds 1 Was it a 
foggy exhalation rising from the earth, and 
enveloping the atmosphere in gloom and 
obscurity 1 It may be rationally inquired, 



DAV 



DAV 



whether the cause of this darkness was not 
in the earth, or in its atmosphere, rather than 
in the sun, or occasioned by any celestial 
body. Is it quite certain, that the word 
scotos, used by three of the Evangelists, sig- 
nifies an eclipse of the sun ? Might not 
such dense vapours, as our fogs sometimes 
are, cause an obscurity impenetrable by the 
solar light, or at least very little penetrable 
by it 1 We are not obliged to suppose that 
it was a pitchy darkness ; and, therefore, we 
may venture to incline to the opinion, that 
our earth, or its atmosphere, or both, fur- 
nished the principles of that interposing 
medium, which shadowed Jerusalem at this 
time, and kept the rays of the sun from 
that city and its neighbourhood. 

' It may be ascribed,' says Mr. Bloom- 
field, ' to an extraordinary and preterna- 
tural obscuration of the solar light, which 
might precede and accompany the earth- 
quake. For before an earthquake, say the 
naturalists, such a mist arises from sulphure- 
ous vapours, as to occasion a darkness almost 
nocturnal.' Bloomfield , s Recensio Synoptica, vol. 
i. p. 511. Scripture Illustrated; Doddridge's 
Family Expositor, vol. iii. p. 413, edit. 1810. 

DAVID, Tin, signifies well-beloved, dear, 
and was the name of the son of Jesse, of 
the tribe of Judah, and town of Bethlehem. 
After the rejection of Saul, the first king of 
Israel, as to the descent of the crown in his 
family, the Lord sent Samuel to Bethlehem, 
to anoint a son of Jesse to be the future 
king. Samuel coming to Jesse, Jesse pro- 
duced his seven sons, one after another ; 
but he who was to reign was not among 
them. Jesse, therefore, sent for David, 
who, according to Calmet, was about fifteen, 
or, as Usher thinks, twenty- two years of 
age, and on whom Samuel conferred an 
unction in the midst of his brethren. After 
this, David returned to his ordinary occu- 
pation of feeding his father's flocks. (1 Sam. 
xvi. 1, 2, &c.) The birth of David took 
place in the year of the world 2919, and his 
anointing by Samuel, according to Calmet, 
in 2934, or, according to Usher, in 2941. 

In the same year, in which Samuel went 
to Bethlehem, in the opinion of Usher, 
Saul fell into a dismal state of melancholy, 
and was advised to send for David, who, 
by playing on some musical instrument, 
might relieve him. David had obtained 
the reputation of an expert musician, and 
also of a sober, discreet, and valiant youth. 
David acquitted himself so well before Saul, 
that the king appointed him his armour- 
bearer; an office probably in some respects 
similar to that of our aid-de-camp to the 
king, but perhaps of no great advantage, 
except when in actual service. When Saul 
became better, David returned to his father's 
house. 

Some time after, the Philistines encamped 
at Ephes-dammim, between Shochoh and 
Azekah. Goliath, a giant in their army, 
337 



of extraordinary strength, insulted Israel 
by a challenge. At this time, Jesse sent 
David to the camp, where he had three 
sons, to inquire after their welfare. David, 
hearing that this giant had defied Israel, 
declared he would encounter him. This 
declaration being reported to the king, he 
sent for him, and told him he was too young 
to attack such a man. But David answered 
by relating instances of his success against 
wild beasts, and observed, that the same 
Almighty power, which had formerly de- 
livered him, would at this time protect 
and preserve him. Saul admiring David's 
courage, would have accoutred him in his 
own armour, but David declined it as too 
heavy, and impeding his free motion. With 
his sling and five well chosen stones, he 
marched against Goliath, who, advancing, 
and observing him to be a youth of a beau- 
tiful and fresh complexion, despised him. 
David, undismayed, slung at him a stone, 
which struck him so violently in the mid- 
dle of his forehead, that he fell on the 
ground. David immediately ran upon him, 
drew Goliath's sword, and cut off his head. 
The Philistines seeing their hero killed, 
fled, and were pursued by the Hebrews. 

When Saul saw David going against this 
Philistine, he inquired of Abner who he 
was? Abner answered that he did not 
know. It has seemed strange to commen- 
tators, that Saul, to whom David had so 
lately played on the harp, and who had ap- 
pointed him armour-bearer, should not now 
know David. But it does not appear that 
David had been a regular attendant on the 
person of Saul ; nor whether he had often 
played before Saul ; nor under what cir- 
cumstances of dress, place, &c. Perhaps, 
Saul, like insane persons among us, was 
kept private in some dark apartment; or, 
it is not improbable, that David played in a 
separate apartment, &c. Any of these 
ideas resolve this difficulty. It does not 
appear, that even Jonathan had previously 
seen David, at least not familiarly. Abner 
presented David to the king, with the head 
and sword of Goliath in his hands. From 
this instant, Jonathan, son of Saul, con- 
ceived for David a great affection, which 
continued ever after. 

When Saul and David returned from this 
expedition, the women of Israel met them, 
singing, • Saul has killed his thousands, and 
David his ten thousands.' This so enraged 
Saul against David, that from this time be 
looked on him with an evil eye. Though 
he retained David in his service, and gave 
him the command of some troops, yet he 
refused to bestow on him his daughter in 
marriage, agreeably to the promise he bad 
made to the person that should kill Goliath. 
(1 Sam. xvii. 25.) The next day Saul be- 
ing returned home, his distemper seized 
him, and David played on a harp before 
him. Saul had in his hand I spear, with 

z 



DAY 



DAV 



which he attempted twice to kill David ; but 
David avoided the blow, and this increased 
Saul's aversion to him. 

Michal, Saul's second daughter, enter- 
taining kind thoughts of David, her father 
was extremely pleased, and signified to 
him, that to merit the honour of becoming 
the king's son-in-law, he required only 
an hundred foreskins of the Philistines. 
Saul's design in this was, that David might 
fall by the hands of the Philistines. David, 
with his people, killed two hundred Phi- 
listines, and brought their foreskins to the 
king. Saul, therefore, could no longer re- 
fuse him his daughter ; but he did not lay 
aside the intention of destroying him. 
His distemper again possessing Saul, David 
played on the harp before him. The king 
endeavoured to pierce him with his lance ; 
but he avoided the blow, and fled to his 
house. (1 Sam. xix. 10.) 

David having thus repeatedly escaped 
from Saul's malice, went to Samuel at 
Ramah, and related to him what had 
passed ; and they went together to Naioth. 
David, not thinking himself secure at 
Naioth, secretly visited Jonathan, who 
encouraged him, and promised to discover 
Saul's real disposition towards him, dis- 
tinct from his disease. As this proved al- 
together inimical to David, the two friends 
renewed protestations of perpetual kind- 
ness ; and David retired to the high-priest 
Ahimelech, at Nob, to whom he pretended 
that the king had sent him on business that 
required haste. (1 Sam. xxi.) Ahimelech 
gave him Goliath's sword, which was de- 
posited in the tabernacle, and some of the 
shew-bread, taken the preceding day from 
the golden table. 

David, not thinking himself safe in 
Saul's territories, retired to Achish, king of 
Gath. He was soon known, and was pre- 
served either by counterfeiting madness, as 
some think, or by a real epilepsy, as others 
suppose. Hence he went to Adullam, 
where his relations and others resorted to 
him, and formed an army of about four 
hundred men. The prophet Gad advised 
him to return into the land of Judah, 
where Abiathar the priest joined him, 
bringing the priestly ornaments. The 
Philistines having invaded the threshing 
floors of Keilah, David immediately at- 
tacked and dispersed them. Saul under- 
standing that David was at Keilah, marched 
against him; but David retreated into 
the deserts of Maon. Saul pursued him ; 
but being informed that the Philistines had 
invaded the land, he desisted from the 
pursuit. 

David being delivered from this danger, 
retired to the wilderness of Engedi, whi- 
ther Saul soon followed him with three 
thousand men. Saul entering a cave, on 
some natural necessity, David, who lay 
there concealed with his men, went softly, 
338 



and cut off the skirts of his robe, without 
his perceiving it. When Saul was got to 
some distance, David went out, and calling 
to him, showed him the skirt of his raiment, 
and remonstrated with him on his inno- 
cence. Saul was so touched with what Da- 
vid said, that he shed tears, and acknow- 
ledged David's integrity ; but he made him 
swear that he would not exterminate his 
family, when he should be advanced to the 
throne. (1 Sam. xxiv.) 

David, in the wilderness of Maon, pro- 
tected the flocks of Nabal, not only from 
his own people, but also from the thievish 
tribes of wandering Arabs, who seize as 
prey every thing they can find. For this 
service he requested a present from Nabal ; 
but Nabal refusing, David's anger prompted 
him to destroy Nabal and all his family. 
With this resolution he set forward ; but 
Abigail, Nabal's wife, made presents to 
David, and stopped his indignation. For 
this David was very thankful to God. Na- 
bal died, and David married Abigail. 

The Ziphites, knowing that David lay 
concealed in the hill of Hachilah, informed 
Saul, who marched against him with three 
thousand men. (1 Sam. xxvi.) But David 
by night got into Saul's tent, and took his 
spear and cruse of water, and went away 
without discovery. When on the other side 
of the hill, he called to Abner, and repri- 
manded him as a bad centinel, but told him 
that the king was safe. 

After this, Achish, king of Gath, (1 Sam. 
xxvii.) gave David Ziklagfor an habitation. 
From this place he made several excursions 
against the Amalekites, and the people of 
Geshur and Gezri ; and in these expeditions 
he killed all with whom he fought, that no 
one might discover where he had been. He 
brought all the cattle to Achish, and re- 
ported that they were from the south of 
Judah, &c. Achish did not scruple to carry 
David with him to war against Saul ; but 
the other princes of the Philistines prevailed 
with Achish to dismiss him. This dismis- 
sion was, doubtless, very agreeable to Da- 
vid. (1 Sam. xxviii. xxix.) On his re- 
turn to Ziklag, after a march of three days, 
David discovered that the Amalekites, in 
revenge for his incursions, had, during his 
absence, pillaged and burned it, and car- 
ried away all the property and all the per- 
sons. David and his people pursued and 
attacked them, cut them in pieces, and re- 
covered the booty. 

In the battle fought between the Philis- 
tines and Hebrews, upon Mount Gilboa, 
Saul was slain, with Jonathan his son. (1 
Sam. xxxi.) Three days after, an Amale- 
kite brought the news to David, boasted 
that he had assisted Saul in dispatching 
himself, and prasented David with Saul's 
diadem and bracelet. David and all his 
people lamented the death of Saul, and the 
defeat of the Israelites. David composed a 



DAV 



DAV 



mournful song in honour of Saul and Jona- 
than ; and he ordered the Amalekite to be 
slain, who boasted that he had laid hands 
on the Lord's anointed. 

David, by God's direction, removed with 
his family and forces to Hebron, where the 
tribe of Judah acknowledged him as their 
king. (2 Sam. ii.) Ishbosheth, son of 
Saul, reigned at Mahanaim over the other 
tribes. Ishbosheth having reprimanded 
Abner, his general, the latter went to Da- 
vid, and promised to render him master of 
all Israel ; but he was treacherously killed 
by Joab, at the gate of Hebron. David 
was extremely displeased with this action ; 
but Joab had so much influence over his 
soldiers, that he could not avenge it. He, 
therefore, contented himself with declaring 
publicly his detestation of it, and with 
making a magnificent funeral for Abner. 

Ishbosheth being assassinated soon after, 
David punished the murderers, and was 
proclaimed king over all the tribes, in the 
year of the world 2957. He expelled the 
Jebusites from Jerusalem, where he fixed 
his residence. The Philistines advanced 
twice to Jerusalem, and encamped near the 
city ; but they were defeated by David, and 
obliged to return home. Some time after, 
David removed the ark of the Lord from 
Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem; but on the 
death of Uzzah, he left it near the city in 
the house of Obededom. However, he 
brought it soon after to his own palace ; 
and when Michal rallied him for dancing, 
as she thought, in an indecent manner be- 
fore it, he reproved her with equal humility 
and zeal. David finding himself at peace, 
formed the design of building a temple to 
the Lord ; and the prophet Nathan ap- 
plauded his intention. However, the night 
following, God discovered to this prophet 
that this honour was reserved for David's 
son, because David had shed blood. Yet, 
David prepared gold, silver, copper, iron, 
and wood, for that edifice. 

After this, David fought the Philistines, 
(2 Sam. viii.) and freed Israel from these 
enemies, and also from the Moabites, whom 
he treated with a severity, for which we 
are not well acquainted with the motives, 
nor indeed with the circumstances. He 
likewise subdued all Syria ; made an expe- 
dition as far as the Euphrates ; and con- 
quered the eastern Edomites in the valley 
of Salt. 

Nahash, king of the Ammonites, being 
dead, David sent compliments of condo- 
lence to his son and successor. But the 
great men about that king persuaded him, 
that David sent these men as spies to ob- 
serve his forces, and that he intended to 
wage war against him. The credulous 
young prince affronted the ambassadors ; 
and David sent against Nahash an army 
under the command of Joab, by whom the 
Ammonites, together with the Syrians, 
339 



were routed. The next year, which was 
the year of the world 29G8, David marched 
in person against the Ammonites, who had 
received succours from the Syrians beyond 
the Euphrates. These were entirely dis- 
persed. However, David the year follow- 
ing resolved to subdue Rabbah, the capital 
of the Ammonites ; and he sent Joab with 
the army, whilst he continued at Jerusa- 
lem. 

David rising one day from his bed, after 
reposing at noon, and walking upon his 
terrace, saw Bathsheba bathing herself in a 
place belonging to her house. She was the 
wife of Uriah the Hittite, who was at that 
time with Joab. (2 Sam. xi.) David sent 
for her, and lay with her. Soon after, she 
sent him intelligence that she was with 
child. To conceal his crime, and secure 
her honour, David sent for Uriah, and ad- 
vised him to pass the night with his wife ; 
but as he did not comply, the king sent him 
with letters to Joab, who was commanded 
so to manage, that Uriah might be killed 
by the Ammonites. These orders were 
punctually executed. When David was 
informed of this, he married Bathsheba, and 
took her home. This misdeed was ex- 
tremely displeasing to God. All Israel was 
scandalized at it ; and the very strangers 
took occasion of blaspheming the name of 
the Lord. (2 Sam. xii. 14.) Nathan, by 
God's appointment, visited David, and, un- 
der the parable of a rich man, who had taken 
from a poor man the only ewe-lamb he had, 
obliged David to condemn himself. (2 Sam. 
xii.) Nathan foretold, that, as a punish- 
ment for this crime, his house should be 
filled with blood, that his wives should be 
abused in the sight of the world, and that 
the child born of this adultery should die, as 
it accordingly did a few days after. 

Joab having reduced Rabbah to ex- 
tremity, invited David to come and take 
the place. David went, took the city, and 
plundered it, and ordered the people to be 
subjected to the most cruel labours. This 
was probably before he was brought to re- 
pentance on account of his criminal connec- 
tion with Bathsheba. 

As the beginning of David's predicted 
punishment, Amnon having ravished Ta- 
mar, was slain by Absalom, who fled, but 
after two years was brought back by 
Joab's management. Yet, Absalom soon 
abused his father's indulgence, and aspired 
to the royal dignitv, in the year of the 
world 2980, and before Jesus Christ 1024. 
He went to Hebron with a number of 
people, and was there acknowledged king. 
David fled from Jerusalem with a design 
of crossing Jordan. Hushai the Arehite, 
intended to accompany him ; but David 
told him he would be more serviceable in 
the city, by pretending to adhere to Ab- 
salom, and defeating the counsels of Ahi- 
thophel. David had scarcely passed Mount 



DAV 

Olivet, when Ziba, the servant of Mephi- 
bosheth, a son of Saul, met him with a 
couple of asses laden with provisions, 
which he presented to the king. (2 Sam. 
xvi.) David asked why Mephibosheth 
did not come ? Ziba replied, that he stayed 
in Jerusalem, in hopes of being made 
king. David too credulously, in his con- 
fusion of mind, gave the crafty Ziba the 
whole inheritance of his master. David 
having arrived near Bahurim, Shimei loaded 
him with curses; but David endured all 
with a patience, which showed his remorse 
for his past iniquity. Absalom followed 
David to Mahanaim, and a battle ensued, 
in which Absalom's army was defeated, 
and he hanging by the hair upon a tree, 
was run through and killed by Joab. The 
news of Absalom's death overwhelmed 
the king with sorrow ; but Joab representing 
to him how much his interests would suffer 
by this conduct, he showed himself publicly 
to the people, and began his return to Jeru- 
salem. The tribe of Judah met him ; but 
Sheba, son of Bichri, sounded the trumpet, 
(2 Sam. xx.) saying, 'We have no part in 
David, neither have we inheritance in the 
son of Jesse. Every man to his tents, O 
Israel.' Israel, therefore, followed Sheba ; 
but Judah adhered to David, and Sheba was 
afterwards slain in Abel. 

The land being afflicted by a famine of 
three years' continuance, the oracle of the 
Lord reminded David of the blood of the 
Gibeonites unjustly shed by Saul. David, 
therefore, asked the Gibeonites what sa- 
tisfaction they required ; and they demand- 
ed seven of Saul's sons to be hanged in 
Gibeah. With this David complied, in the 
year of the world 2983, and before Jesus 
Christ 1021. (2 Sam. xxi.) 

Some years after, David proudly and 
obstinately commanded the people to be 
numbered. On this enumeration Mr. 
Baruch observes, " It is said in Samuel, 
(2 Sam. xxiv.) that Joab found the Israel- 
ites to be eight hundred thousand men, 
and the men of Judah five hundred thou- 
sand; whereas Chronicles, (1 Chron. xxi.) 
says, that Joab found Israel to be one 
million one hundred thousand, and those 
of Judah only four hundred and seventy 
thousand. — Let it be observed, that it ap- 
pears by Chronicles, (xxvii.) that there 
were twelve divisions of generals, who 
commanded monthly, and whose duty 
was to keep guard near the king's person, 
each having a body of troops consisting 
of twenty-four thousand men, which, 
jointly, formed a grand army of two hun- 
dred and eighty-eight thousand; and 
as a separate body of twelve thousand 
men naturally attended on the twelve 
princes of the twelve tribes, men- 
tioned in the same chapter, the whole will 
be three hundred thousand; which is 
the difference between the two accounts, 
340 



DAV 






of eight hundred thousand, and of one mil- 
lion one hundred thousand. As to the 
men of Israel, the author of Samuel 
does not take notice of the three hun- 
dred thousand, because they were in the 
actual service of the king, as a stand- 
ing army, and therefore there was no 
need to number them; but Chroni- 
cles joins them to the rest, saying ex- 
pressly, 'all those of Israel were one 
million one hundred thousand;' whereas 
the author of Samuel, who reckons only 
the eight hundred thousand, does not 
say 'all those of Israel,' but barely, 'and 
Israel were,' &c. It must also be observed 
that, exclusive of the troops before men- 
tioned, there was an army of observation 
on the frontiers of the Philistines' country, 
composed of thirty thousand men, as ap- 
pears by 2 Sam. vi. 1, which, it seems, 
were included in the number of five hun- 
dred thousand of the people of Judah, 
by the author of Samuel; but the author 
of Chronicles, who mentions only four 
hundred and seventy thousand, gives the 
number of that tribe, exclusive of those 
thirty thousand men, because they were 
not all of the tribe of Judah, and therefore 
does not say ' all those of Judah,' as he had 
said ' all those of Israel,' but only ' and 
those of Judah ;' and thus both accounts may 
be reconciled, by only having recourse to 
other parts of Scripture, treating on the 
same subject, which will ever be found the 
best method of explaining difficult passages." 

God being much offended at this num- 
bering of the people by David, sent the 
prophet Gad to him to offer him the 
choice of three punishments ; either that 
the land should be afflicted with a famine 
during seven years, or that he should flee 
three months before his enemies, or that a 
pestilence should rage during three days. 
David chose the last ; and, during the three 
days of pestilence, seventy thousand persons 
died. Yet, the sentence was not executed 
with full rigour. David, as an act of thanks- 
giving, erected an altar in the threshing 
floor, where, some are of opinion, the temple 
was afterwards built. (2 Sam. xxiv.) 

The king, being old, could scarcely receive 
any warmth. A young woman, therefore, 
named Abishag, being brought to him, lay 
with him, and attended him, but continued 
a virgin. At this time, Adonijah, his fourth 
son, set up the equipage of a king, and form- 
ed a party. Nathan, knowing the promises 
of David in favour of Solomon, informed 
Bathsheba, who claimed those promises. 
David, therefore, gave orders that Solomon 
should be mounted upon his own mule, con- 
ducted to Gihon, and there anointed king. 

David, perceiving himself near his end, 
sent for Solomon, put into his hands 
the plans and models of the temple, 
with the gold and silver prepared for it, 
charged him to be constantly faithful to 



DAV 



DEA 



God, and advised him not to suffer Joab to 
go unpunished, and to punish Shimei. Dr. 
Kennicott, however, suggests that the nega- 
tive should be repeated, so as to give a quite 
opposite sense to the injunction respecting 
Shimei. 

He died at the age of 71, in the year of the 
world 2990, and before Jesus Christ 1014. 
He reigned seven years and a half at He- 
bron, and thirty- three in Jerusalem, in all 
forty years Fragments attached to Calmet's 
Dictionary. No. xxxvii. p. 62. 

DAVIDISTS, a singular and ridiculous 
sect, founded by David George, a native of 
Delft, and a member of the Anabaptists. 
This enthusiast, after having founded the 
Davidists, or David-Georgians, deserted the 
Anabaptists, and removed in 1544 to Basil in 
Switzerland, where he changed his name to 
John Bruck. He is said to have called him- 
self the Son of God, the Fountain of divine 
wisdom ; to have denied the existence of an- 
gels, good and evil, of heaven and hell ; to 
have rejected the doctrine of a future 
judgment; and to have trampled on all 
the rules of decency and morality with 
the greatest contempt. In all this, however, 
it is possible that there may be much exag- 
geration. Yet, he was led to such a high de- 
gree of fanaticism, that, rejecting as mean 
and useless the external services of piety, he 
reduced religion to contemplation, silence, 
and a certain frame or habit of soul, which it 
is equally difficult to define and to under- 
stand. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iv. p. 164. 

DAY is distinguished into natural, astro- 
nomical, civil, and artificial. Another dis- 
tinction of the day maybe termed prophetical. 

The prophets are the only persons, who 
call years days ; of this is an example in the 
explanation, which is given of Daniel's 
seventy weeks. The natural day is one re- 
volution of the sun. The astronomical day is 
one revolution of the equator, added to that 
portion of it through which the sun has pass- 
ed in one natural day. The civil day is that 
whose beginning and end are determined by 
the custom of any nation. 

The Hebrews began their day in the even- 
ing, (Levit. xxiii. 32.) ' From even unto 
even shall ye celebrate your sabbath.' The 
Babylonians reckoned their days from sun- 
rising ; some reckon from sun set ; but the 
greatest part of Europe, from midnight. 

This day, or to-day, not only signifies the 
particular day, on which we are speaking, but 
any indefinite time ; as we say, the people of 
the present day, or time. 

DEACON, Siclkovoc, signifies a ?ninister, 
servant, or attendant. This word is sometimes 
used in the New Testament to denote any 
one that ministers in the service of God; and 
in this sense bishops and presbyters are styled 
deacons. It is, however, generally used to 
signify the third order of the clergy. The first 
seven deacons were Stephen, Philip, Procho- 
rus, Nicanor,Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. 
341 



These were presented to the apostles, and 
ordained by prayer, and the imposition of 
hands. (Acts vi. 1, &c.) St. Paul, (1 Tim. 
iii. 8, 12.) requires, that a deacon should be 
chaste, sincere, and blameless, neither a 
great drinker, nor given to filthy lucre; 
that he should hold the mystery of the faith 
in a pure conscience ; be well approved be- 
fore admission ; be the husband of one wife, 
and rule well his own house and family, &c. 

The apostles, before they left any city, in 
which they had preached and made converts, 
selected from their congregations a certain 
number of proper persons, whom they or- 
dained deacons and presbyters. The forms 
of ordination, and the power, which they 
communicated, were different. The deacons 
were inferior to the presbyters; and their 
office consisted in taking care of such things 
as belonged to the public service. They also 
assisted the presbyters in the administration 
of the eucharist; but they were not allowed 
to consecrate the elements. They were per- 
mitted to baptize ; and it was their peculiar 
duty to attend to every thing which related 
to the poor. Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christ. Theology ; Dr. Gregory's Church Hist. ; 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 83. 

DEACONESS, a woman that served the 
church in those offices, which the deacons 
could not with propriety exercise them- 
selves. This order was also appointed 
in the apostolic age. They were generally 
widows, who had been only once married, 
though this employment was sometimes ex- 
ercised by virgins. Their office consisted 
in assisting at the baptism of women, in 
previously catechising and instructing 
them, in visiting sick persons of their own 
sex, and in performing all those inferior 
offices towards the female part of the congre- 
gation, which the deacons were designed to 
execute for the men. 

St. Paul, (Rom. xvi.) speaks of Phebe as 
servant, or deaconess, of the church at 
Cenchrea, which was a haven of Corinth. 
Deaconesses appear to be the same persons 
as those, whom Pliny in his famous letter 
to Trajan styles, ' Ancillis quae ministry 
dicebantur,' that is, \ female attendants, who 
were called assistants, ministers, or servants.' 
It appears, then, that these were customary 
officers throughout the churches ; and when 
the fury of persecution fell on Christians, 
these were among the first to suffer. They 
underwent the most cruel tortures, and even 
extreme old age was not spared. Suicer's 
Thesaurus ; Lardncr's Test. vol. ii. p. 42. 

DEAD SEA. See Asphar. 

DEATH is generally defined the sepa- 
ration of the soul from the body. Adam, 
having eaten of the forbidden fruit, in- 
curred the penalty of death for himself and 
all his posterity. Had he continued obe- 
dient to God, in all probability he had not 
died; and the fruit of the tree of life might 
be intended to preserve bin) in a happy 



DEA 



DEA 



state of constant health. Perhaps too, after a 
long life, God might have translated him, by 
some easy mutation, into a life absolutely 
immortal. 

It was natural that the Hebrews should 
have great consideration for the dead, 
since they believed the soul's immortality, 
and a resurrection of the body. When an 
Israelite died in any house or tent, all 
persons and furniture in it contracted a 
pollution. (Numb. xix. 14, 15, 16.) All 
who touched the body of one that died, or 
was killed, in the open fields ; and all who 
touched his bones, or his grave, were im- 
pure seven days. To expiate this pollu- 
tion, they formerly took the ashes of a 
red heifer, sacrificed by the high priest on 
the day of solemn expiation. (Numb. xix. 
3, 4, 5, 6.) These they threw into a vessel 
of water. A person who was clean then 
dipped a bunch of hyssop in the water, and 
sprinkled with it the furniture, the chamber, 
and those polluted. This ceremony was 
performed on the third and seventh day. 
It was also required, that the polluted per- 
son should bathe his whole body, and wash 
his clothes on the seventh day. Since the 
destruction of the temple, and the sacrifice 
of the red heifer has ceased, the Jews do 
not consider themselves as polluted by a 
dead body. Some modern Jews, however, 
affirm that they still constantly observe the 
prohibition ; and that they always quit the 
house, in which a death is expected, and 
avoid entering one, in which a death has re- 
cently happened. All present where any 
person has just expired, tear their clothes, 
according to the ancient custom of the 
Hebrews ; but they tear only the extremities 
about the breadth of their hand, and this 
more from ceremony than sorrow. It is an 
old custom with them to pour all the water 
in the house, &c. into the street. The 
Rabbins say, that the destroying angel 
washes in this water the sword with which 
he killed the sick person, and that by this 
means the water is rendered poisonous. 
Then they place the body on a sheet spread 
on the pavement, turn his thumb inward to 
his hand, and light a wax taper at his feet, 
or head. After this, they wash the body, 
put on it a shirt, and over the shirt a gar- 
ment of fine linen, which he wore on the 
day of solemn expiation; then his taled, 
which is a piece of square cloth with tufts. 
Lastly, they put a white cap on his head, 
and shut him up in his coffin. It appears 
to have been an ancient custom in Pales- 
tine, to embalm the bodies of persons of 
distinction and fortune ; but this was not 
general. St. John remarks, that our Savi- 
our was wrapped in linen cloths, and rubbed 
with perfumes, as the manner of the Jews is to 
bury. (John xix. 40.) We read that either 
with, or near, the bodies of some kings 
of Judah, abundance of spices was burnt, 
(2Chron. xxi. 19.) ; but it cannot be affirm- 
342 



ed that this was a custom. (Jerem. xxxiv. 
5.) 

Jesus Christ, by his death, has subdued 
the power of death, and merited for us 
a blessed immortality. Not that the soul, 
mortal before, has been rendered by him 
immortal, or that he has merited for us 
the privilege of not dying ; for he has not 
changed the nature of our souls, or ex- 
empted us from the necessity of dying. 
But he has given us the life of grace in 
this world, and has merited for us a happy 
immortality, provided the merits of his 
death be applied by faith. 

A frequent and attentive prospect of that 
moment, which must put a period to all our 
schemes, and deprive us of all our acquisi- 
tions, is of the utmost efficacy to the just 
and rational regulation of our lives; nor 
would ever any thing wicked, or often any 
thing absurd, be undertaken or prosecuted 
by him, who should begin every day with a 
serious reflection that he is born to die. The 
disturbers of our happiness in this world, are 
our desires, our griefs, and our fears, and 
to all these the consideration of mortality is 
a certain and adequate remedy. The fre- 
quent contemplation of death, as it shows 
the vanity of all human good, discovers also 
the lightness of all terrestrial evil, which 
certainly can last no longer than the sub- 
ject on which it acts, and must, therefore, 
be shorter in proportion to its violence. 
The most cruel calamity, which misfortune 
can produce, must by the necessity of nature 
be quickly at an end. The soul cannot long 
be held in prison, but will fly away, and 
leave a lifeless body to human malice. We 
ought, therefore, to mitigate the evil and 
terror of death, by considering the evils 
and miseries of life. If we look on death 
as a reprieve from all the evils and mi- 
series we endure, we shall be reconciled 
to it ; and if we are wise, we shall be 
glad to obtain a release from all the dan- 
gers and sufferings, to which we are lia- 
ble on earth. We should be even thankful 
to God that we were born to die, and that we 
may begin another and more happy life, which 
shall never have an end. We should also 
endeavour to maintain a lively sense of 
death in our minds, that we may be as much 
under its power, as if it were just approach- 
ing. We should be always thinking of that 
which may happen the next moment, that 
whenever our Lord comes we may be found 
watching. To do this effectually, it should 
be our constant prayer to God, that he 
would prepare us for our dissolution, 
and assist and comfort us in that particu- 
larly needful time. Without his gracious aid 
and support, the physicians and the minis- 
ters of God are only miserable comforters. 
It should be our daily petition to God, that 
he would enable us to perform this last act 
of our life with decency and constancy of 
mind, that neither our disease, nor our 



DEA 



DEC 



weakness, may destroy the firmness of our 
spirits, and cause us to be amazed with 
fear, or filled with peevishness. In general, 
death is not attended with much suffering ; 
and very frequently it is attended with no 
suffering. This, however, is uncertain, and 
we should be prepared to endure pain with 
patience and resignation, at whatever pe- 
riod of our lives it be sent to us. We know 
not the degree of pain, which we are ap- 
pointed to suffer in this life : but we do 
know, what is far more important, that 
after death dreadful sufferings are prepared 
for those, who do not repent. "We ought, 
therefore, to consider this, and seek the 
Lord while he may be found. Those, who 
enjoy health and strength, should never 
neglect the duty they owe to their dying 
friends, on account of any pain, which it 
may give to themselves. Many useful 
lessons are to be learned in the house of 
mourning. If an opportunity offer of show- 
ing them that death is not really terrible to 
a Christian, it may be to them a very useful 
lesson. They should learn never to flee 
from distress, which they can relieve, but 
to be kind and compassionate ; and they 
should learn the vanity of all earthly things, 
by seeing that they lead only to the grave. 
These reflections will not rob a man of happi- 
ness while he is young, and they will secure 
his possession of it when he is old. They 
will teach him to remember his Creator in 
the days of his youth ; they will teach him 
to fear God, and to know no other fear. 
Death is an awful change to all, but it 
should be an object of terror only to wicked 
men. To them, indeed, it is dreadful be- 
yond the power of language ; but it must 
be endured by them and by all. ' It is 
appointed to men once to die, but after 
this the judgment.' This ought to make 
every man tremble, who has not reason to 
hope for the mercy of God ; but only to such 
men death is terrible. To the humble fol- 
lower of Christ this last enemy appears as a 
kind friend. To him death is the road to 
life. It has no terror in the eyes of the 
true believer. He views it only as the gate 
of heaven, the appointed path to eternal 
joy. Death will end all his sorrows, con- 
firm all his hopes, seal the pardon of all 
his sins, and crown all his virtues. Death 
has no power to keep the Christian from his 
Saviour and his God. Like the great 
Captain of his salvation, he will rise trium- 
phant from the tomb ; he will look back on 
this world as on a dream when one awaketh ; 
he will view its pleasures with contempt, 
and its sorrows with a smile. These are 
the blessings of redeeming love, these are 
the hopes, and these the prospects of the 
dyins: Christian. 

In Scripture death denotes, first, the se- 
paration of the soul from the body, or 
the first death j secondly, the second death, 
that is eternal damnation ; thirdly, any 
343 



great danger or imminent risk of death ; 
fourthly, the plague, and contagious dis- 
eases ; and, fifthly, poison, and great calam- 
ity. ' The gates of death,' signify the 
grave ; ' instruments of death,' dangerous 
and deadly weapons ; ' bonds,' or snares 
of death, snares intended to produce death ; 
and ' the dust of death ' denotes the state of 
the body in the grave. Johnson's Rambler ; 
Tillotson's Sermons ; Sermons on the Doctrines 
and Duties of Christianity. 

DEBT, an obligation to be discharged by 
the party bound to perform it. This may 
be either special or general. Special obli- 
gations are those, by which the party has 
bound himself to perform something in re- 
turn for a favour received. General obli- 
gations are those, to which a man is bound 
by his situation as a man, as a member of 
civil society, as a member of Christian so- 
ciety, &c. Whoso shall swear by the gold 
of the temple, by the gift on the altar, is a 
debtor, is bound by his oath, and obliged to 
fulfil his vow. (Matt, xxiii. 16.) Paul was 
debtor to both Jews and Gentiles ; under 
obligations to persons of all nations. (Rom. 
i. 14.) ' He is a debtor — is bound — to per- 
form the whole law.' (Gal. v. 3.) Men may 
be debtors to human justice, or to divine 
justice ; that is, bound to obedience, and if 
that be not complied with, bound to suffer 
the penalties annexed to transgression. Sup- 
plement. Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 

DECALOGUE, the ten commandments 
delivered by God to Moses. They were 
engraven by God on two tables of stone, 
and delivered to the Hebrews as the basis 
of their religion. The Jews, by way of 
eminence, call these commandments the 
ten words ; and hence they afterwards ob- 
tained the name of Decalogue. The Jews, 
however, joined the first and second into 
one, and divided the last into two. They 
understand that against stealing to relate to 
the stealing of men, or kidnapping, and 
allege that the stealing of another per- 
son's goods or property is forbidden in 
the last commandment. 

Most divines, says the learned Spencer, 
seem to think, that God gave the Deca- 
logue to be a general rule of life and 
manners, and as a summary to which all 
other precepts, either of the Law or the 
Gospel, may be reduced. ' To offer my 
opinion in a few words,' continues he, 
1 the chief scope and intent of the Deca- 
logue were to root out idolatry and its 
more immediate effects, and to add force 
and authority to the other laws contained in 
the Pentateuch. For who can persuade him- 
self, that God would have collected into one 
short system those ten precepts, which have 
scarcely any connection with each other, 
had they not .all naturally tended to destroy 
idolatry and its primary effects !' 

DECREE, a determination, or appoint- 
ment, judicial, civil, ecclesiastical, or di- 



DEC 



DEF 



vine. Judicial decrees are intended to de- 
termine litigation and controversy between 
one man and another ; civil decrees refer to 
the purposes of society ; ecclesiastical de- 
crees are appointments for the promotion of 
piety. All these, though well intended, may 
err ; but the divine appointments never err, 
being founded on truth, judgment, perfect 
wisdom, and perfect knowledge, united with 
perfect goodness, kindness, and grace. 

Calvin contended for absolute unconditional 
decrees of God, and irresistible grace, and 
asserted that God, in predestinating from all 
eternity one part of mankind to everlasting 
happiness, and another to endless misery, 
was led to make this distinction solely by 
his own good pleasure and free will. But, 
observes Bishop Tomline, " We are not 
required to believe that God, from all eter- 
nity, absolutely decreed, that certain persons 
only should be saved, or that he gives an ir- 
resistible grace to some men which he denies 
to others : such a mode of proceeding would 
be as destructive of human freedom, as it 
would be repugnant to the perfections of the 
divine nature. If we believe that God is in- 
finitely just and merciful, we must believe 
that he has equally enabled every man born 
into the world to work out his salvation, 
though we know so little of the divine go- 
vernment, that in many cases we cannot 
discern how that impartiality is maintained. 
This ignorance should lead us to be very 
cautious in what we pronounce concerning 
the decrees and counsels of God ; it 
should make us reluctant to speculate 
upon these awful and mysterious subjects, 
and solicitous to avoid the pernicious 
error of aiming at being ' wise above that 
which is written.' The prescience of 
God, as extending to every instance of 
human conduct, from the creation of man, 
to the final consummation of all things, is a 
fit object of our belief; but we are utterly 
incapable of comprehending how this pre- 
science consists with the other attributes of 
the Deity, and with the free-agency of man ; 
nor can we conceive how those future contin- 
gencies, which depend upon the determina- 
tion of the human will, should be certain 
and infallible ; and yet, that they are so, is 
fully proved by the accurate accomplishment 
of prophecies. Rather than bewilder our- 
selves in the inextricable difficulties of such 
contemplations, to which our limited facul- 
ties are by no means competent, we should 
exclaim with the pious and humble Psalmist, 
* Such knowledge is too wonderful and 
excellent for us, we cannot attain unto it' " 
Bishop Tomline' s Elements of Christ. Theology, 
vol. ii. p. 300 ; Supplement. Addenda to CaU 
met's Dictionary. 

DECRETALS, letters said to have been 
written by the pontiffs of primitive times, on 
certain points or questions in the ecclesiasti- 
cal law. The Decretal Epistles were the 
productions of an obscure writer, who fraudu- 
344 



lently prefixed to them the name of Isidore, 
bishop of Seville, that it might be thought 
they had been collected by that illustrious 
and learned prelate. Some of them had ap- 
peared in the eighth century, but in the 
ninth century they were entirely drawn from 
their obscurity, and produced with an air of 
ostentation and triumph, to demonstrate the 
supremacy of the Roman pontiffs. There is 
every reason to believe, that those Decretals 
were forged with the knowledge and consent 
of the Roman pontiffs ; since it is utterly in- 
credible, that those pontiffs should, for many 
ages, have constantly appealed, in support of 
their pretended rights and privileges, to 
acts and records, which were only the fic- 
tions of private persons. Public deeds 
were necessary to accomplish the views of 
papal ambition. In the ninth century, 
forgeries were considered lawful, on ac- 
count of their supposed tendency to pro- 
mote the glory of God, and to advance 
the prosperity of the church. It is, there- 
fore, not surprising, that the good pontiffs 
should feel no remorse in imposing on the 
world frauds and forgeries, which were in- 
tended to enrich the patrimony of St. Peter, 
and to aggrandize his successors in the apos- 
tolic see. At the desire of Gregory IX., the 
Decretals were collected into five books in 
the thirteenth century ; and towards the con- 
clusion of the same century, Boniface VIII. 
caused another collection to be made, which 
was intituled The Sixth Book of Decretals. 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. ii. p. 126 ; iii. p. 
28 ; Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, 
vol. i. p. 474. 

DEDICATION, a religious ceremony by 
which any person or thing is solemnly conse- 
crated, or set apart to the service of God, 
and the purposes of religion. Moses dedi- 
cated the tabernacle built in the wilderness, 
(Exod. xl. Numb, vii.) Solomon dedicated 
the temple, which he erected. ( 1 Kings viii.) 
The Israelites, who returned from the Baby- 
lonish captivity, dedicated their new temple, 
and on the day of this dedication sacrificed a 
great number of victims. (Ezra vi. 1C, 17.) 
The Maccabees having cleansed the temple, 
which had been polluted by Antiochus Epi- 
phanes, again dedicated the altar. (1 Mace, 
iv.) When Nehemiah had finished the gates 
and walls of Jerusalem, he dedicated them. 
(Nehem. xii. 27.) The dedication of houses, 
according to the Rabbins, was performed 
by pronouncing a certain blessing, while 
some particular words of the law written on 
parchment, rolled up in a cane, or hollow 
stick, were fastened to the door-post. From 
the Jews is derived the custom of dedicating 
churches and chapels among Christians. 
Selden says, that the practice of dedicating 
was derived from the Jews to the Heathens. 
On the contrary, Spencer ascribes the dedi- 
cations of the Jews to a Pagan origin. 

DEFILEMENT. Under the laiv, many 
were those blemishes of person and conduct, 



DEG 



DEI 



which were considered as defilements : some 
were voluntary, others involuntary ; some 
originated with the party, others were receiv- 
ed by him ; some were inevitable, and the 
effect of nature itself, others arose from per- 
sonal transgression. Under the Gospel, de- 
filements are those of the heart, of the mind, 
the temper, and conduct Moral unclean- 
nesses are equally as numerous, and as 
much prohibited ; but ceremonial unclean- 
nesses are superseded, as religious rites; 
though many of them claim attention as 
usages of health, decency, and civility. 
Supplement. Addenda to Calmefs Diet. 

DEGREES. Psalms of Degrees is a name 
given to fifteen psalms, from the 1 20th to the 
134th inclusive. The Hebrew text calls 
them a song of ascents. Junius and Tremel- 
lius translate the Hebrew, a song of excel- 
lences, or an excellent song, from the excellent 
matter they contain. Some call them psalms 
of elevation, because they were sung with an 
exalted voice, or because at every psalm the 
voice was raised; but the translation of 
psalms of degrees has more generally obtain- 
ed. Some think that they were called psalms 
of degrees, because they were sung upon the 
fifteen steps of the temple ; but they are not 
agreed where these steps were. Some are 
of opinion, that they were so denominated, 
because sung in a gallery, which was in the 
court of Israel, where the Levites sometimes 
read the law. Calmet thinks that they were 
called songs of degrees, or of ascent, because 
they were composed on occasion of the deli- 
verance of the Jews from the captivity of 
Babylon, either to implore this deliverance 
from God, or to return thanks for it after it 
had been obtained ; and that the Hebrews 
used the term to go up, when they spoke of 
their journeying from Babylon to Jerusalem. 
Others are of opinion that these psalms 
were sung during the time of service, whilst 
the flesh, &c. were consuming on the altar, 
and whilst the fume and smoke ascended to- 
wards heaven; and that the title Psalms of 
Ascent seems to favour this supposition. 
Supplement. Addenda to Calmefs Diet. 

DEISTS, those who deny the existence and 
necessity of any revelation, and profess to 
acknowledge that the being of a God is the 
chief article of their belief. The term Deist 
is derived from the Latin word Deus, God. 
The same persons are frequently called infi- 
dels, on account of their incredulity, or want 
of belief in the Christian dispensation of 
religion. 

Dr. Hodges supposes that Deism was 
nearly coeval with revelation. On the 
declaration of God's will to Adam, and 
the terms of his acceptance, the founder 
of Deism appeared to contradict and op- 
pose the divine precepts. In most ages 
of the church Deism has attended the tri- 
umphs of Christianity, either as a captive, 
a rebel, or an enemy. ' Irreligion and 
even atheism appeared in Italy at the 
345 



revival of letters, partly from an exces- 
sive fondness for the ancient philology, 
and principally from the disgust which 
elegant and polished minds always feel at 
the follies of popular superstition, then at 
their height in the unreformed dominion 
ofpopery. In England, the modern Deism 
is the offspring of that luxury and impiety 
which succeeded the great rebellion. The 
first assaults on revealed religion were 
rude and tumultuary, like those of pea- 
sants and barbarians. Libertinism began 
the attack, which was supported by the 
aid of learning. Much erudition was 
employed on both sides, in the conduct of 
this interesting controversy with a Her- 
bert, a Blount, a Toland, a Woolston, a 
Collins. While the philosopher of Mal- 
mesbury (Hobbes) attempted to reason Bri- 
tons out of their faith and freedom, Shafts- 
bury employed the finer weapons of wit 
and ridicule. All in their turns have been 
disarmed of the power of doing mischief. 
It was reserved for the times in which we 
live, to assault Christianity with the shining 
and specious arms of eloquence. To the 
plebeian style of Chubb and Morgan, to 
the thorny erudition of "Woolston and 
Collins, to the wit and ribaldry of Shafts- 
bury and Mandeville, have succeeded the 
purity and elegance of Voltaire, the cold 
correctness of Hume, and the impassioned 
delicacy of Rousseau. In this great ques- 
tion, Bolingbroke, like another Messala, 
has displayed the richness and harmony of 
the English language. Chesterfield, leaving 
the debate about principles to the meta- 
physic of his noble predecessor, has availed 
himself of equal eloquence to subvert our 
morals. His popular letters are a complete 
example of human corruption, veiling 
itself under the decent exterior of false 
virtue, false science, and accomplishments 
equally brilliant and deceitful. Our anta- 
gonists have been as various in their mode 
of assault, as in their style and erudition. 
The first, and still the most considerable 
of the writers against revelation, made 
their objections in form to its capital 
proofs, the evidence of prophecy, mira- 
cles, and doctrine ; and they gave occa- 
sion to a complete defence of each. Since 
religion has been found impregnable in 
her citadel, her enemies have been con- 
tent to make desultory attacks on the mere 
outworks, and have exchanged the open 
war for the more insidious and destructive 
way of stratagem. Not to wear out a 
metaphor too obvious in polemic litera- 
ture, objections to revelation have been of 
late proposed obliquely, and where the 
unsuspecting reader would not think to 
find them. Writers of civil history (as 
Gibbon, &c.) have stept out of their way, 
to asperse both primitive and reformed 
Christianity. Irreligion hath appeared in 
the flowery dress of fable and romance; 



DEI 



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and, like another Circe, hath held forth 
her enchanted cup, to transform men into 
brutes. At this very time (1778), we see 
the archimage of infidelity (Voltaire) 
presenting to a dissipated public the 
dotages of a worn-out imagination, in 
every fantastic form that fiction can 
assume.' It may be added, that the same 
insidious mode of assault has been conti- 
nued to this day, and that it has been so 
far successful, as, for a time, to unchristian 
France. 

Dr. Clarke divides the Deists into four 
classes, according to the number of arti- 
cles comprised in their creed : 1. Those 
who pretend to believe in God as Creator 
of the world, but deny his providence. 
2. Those who admit a providence in na- 
tural things, but deny it in the moral 
world. 3. Those who seem to have right 
apprehensions respecting the being and 
providence of God, but deny a future 
state, and believe that men perish entirely 
at death. 4. Those who believe in the 
existence of a Supreme Being, together 
with his providence, and all the obliga- 
tions of natural religion, so far only as 
these things are discoverable by the light of 
nature alone, without believing any Divine 
revelation. These last, Dr. Clarke ob- 
serves, are the only true Deists ; but as 
the principles of these men would natu- 
rally lead them to embrace the Christian 
revelation, he concludes, that there is now 
no consistent scheme of Deism in the 
world. 

The objections which Deists have fre- 
quently made to revelation affect not so 
much the religion of Jesus Christ, deli- 
vered in the Gospel, as the abuses of Christ- 
ianity. Hence reiterated accusations of 
unfairness, in their objections or cavils, 
have been brought against the generality of 
deistical writers ; and with this palpable in- 
justice, lord Bolingbroke, Voltaire, and 
Thomas Paine, stand particularly charged. 
To regard the superstition, the avarice, the 
ambition, the intolerance, of Antichristian- 
ism as Christianity itself, has been the great 
error on which infidelity has built its sys- 
tem, both at home and abroad. The only 
just and honourable way, either of attack- 
ing or defending our religion, is to consider 
it simply as it is contained in the sacred 
writings, and divested of all human appen- 
dages. Every true Deist must admit the 
possibility of a revelation, and, therefore, 
our dispute with them turns chiefly on the 
necessity and the evidences of a revelation 
from Heaven, both of which they deny. 
Dr. Kant and Dupuis, indeed, deny the 
possibility of it ; and, therefore, they must, 
at the same time, deny the existence of a 
God. It is, perhaps, no inconsiderable 
argument for the necessity, if not a full evi- 
dence of the actual existence, at some time 
or other, of a revelation from Heaven, that 
346 



a belief in it has so generally prevailed in 
the world, for oracles as well as sacrifices, 
have been found in almost all nations of the 
earth. 

The principles of Deism admit of no 
Sunday or Sabbath, and of no Bible but 
the universe. ' The word of God,' says 
T. Paine, ' is the creation we behold.' The 
late Reverend William Jones observes, 
that ' Deism, so called, is a religion 
without Christianity ; it has neither the 
Father, the Son, nor the Holy Ghost, 
into whose name Christians are baptized. 
It has no sacraments, no redemption, no 
church communion, and, consequently, no 
charity ; for charity is the love and unity 
of Christians as such. Natural religion 
is but another name for Deism ; it is the 
same thing in all respects.' The Bishop of 
Llandaff, in answer to Thomas Paine, 
observes, ' Deism, you say, consists in a 
belief of one God, and an imitation of his 
moral character, or the practice of what 
is called virtue ; and in this (as far as 
religion is concerned) you rest all your 
hopes. There is nothing in Deism but 
what is in Christianity ; but there is much 
in Christianity, which is not in Deism. 
The Christian has no doubt concerning 
a future state ; every Deist, from Plato 
to Thomas Paine, is on this subject over- 
whelmed with doubts insuperable by human 
reason. The Christian has no misgivings 
as to the pardon of penitent sinners, 
through the intercession of a mediator ; 
the Deist is harassed with apprehension 
lest the moral justice of God should de- 
mand, with inexorable rigour, punish- 
ment for transgression. The Christian 
has no doubt concerning the lawfulness 
and the efficacy of prayer ; the Deist is dis- 
turbed on this point by abstract considera- 
tions concerning the goodness of God, which 
wants not to be entreated ; concerning his 
foresight, which has no need of our in- 
formation; concerning his immutability, 
which cannot be changed through our sup- 
plication. The Christian admits the pro- 
vidence of God, and the liberty of human 
actions ; the Deist is involved in great dif- 
ficulties, when he undertakes the proof of 
either. The Christian has assurance that 
the Spirit of God will help his infirmities ; 
the Deist does not deny the possibility that 
God may have access to the human mind, 
but he has no ground to believe the fact of 
his either enlightening the understanding, 
influencing the will, or purifying the 
heart.' 

The more distinguished advocates for 
Deism, on the continent, are Bayle, Vol- 
taire, Frederick II. king of Prussia, 
Boindin, Helvetius, Diderot, Mauper- 
tuis, D'Argens, Raynal, Rousseau, Con- 
dorcet, D'Alembert, Mirabeau, Boulan- 
villiers, Duke de Choiseul, with a long 
list of disciples of the new philosophy. 



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The late constituent assembly at Paris was 
almost wholly formed of Atheists or Deists. 
Those in Great Britain are Lord Her- 
bert, Natalis Comes, Hobbes, Toland, 
Mandeville, "Woolston, Collins, lords Shafts- 
bury and Bolingbroke, Chubb, Tindal, 
Toulmin, Morgan, Blount, Middleton, Hal- 
ley, Hume, Gibbon, Paine, &c. The last 
of these was a man, who, from the lowest 
origin, raised himself to some distinction 
in the political and literary world, by his 
bold and impious libels against govern- 
ment, and against religion and the Holy 
Scriptures. In these writings were con- 
centrated all the malignity, the shrewd- 
ness, and the sophistry, of his numerous 
predecessors ; and, from their brevity, 
their plainness, their familiarity, their 
vulgar ribaldry, their bold assertions, and 
artful misrepresentations, they were more 
likely to impose on the ignorant and unin- 
formed, and to endanger the principles of 
the great mass of mankind, than any other 
publications produced in this country. 
Certain it is, that having been distributed 
with the greatest industry through every 
part of the kingdom, they for a time made 
a strong and fatal impression on the mul- 
titude. Happily, however, they at length 
met with talents infinitely superior to those 
of their illiterate author. The learned Bi- 
shop of LlandafF's Apology for the Bible, 
accompanied by the blessing of God, gave a 
sudden and effectual check to the progress 
of this mischief, and afforded a striking 
proof of the truth of that prophecy re- 
specting the stability of our religion, 'that 
the gates of hell shall never prevail against 
it.' 

If the Celsi and Porphyrii have been 
thus numerous, equally numerous have been 
the Justins and Origens, who have defended 
Christianity. Among the latter may be 
ranked the venerable names of Grotius, 
Leslie, Ellis, Addison, Bentley, Tillotson, 
Stillingfleet, Butler, Waterland, Leland, 
Clarke, Sherlock, Campbell, Beattie, Bry- 
ant, Newton, Home, Watson, and Paley. 
Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. p. 449, &:c. ; 
Bishop Watson's Apology for the Bible ; War- 
ner's System of Divinity and Morality, vol. i. 
p. 188. 

DELUGE, the flood or inundation of 
waters, by which God destroyed mankind 
and animals in the time of Noah, and in 
which, as St. Peter says, only eight persons 
were saved. The word Von, in its primary 
sense, does not include the idea of a 
flood ; it is derived from Vn3, which, re- 
specting plants and animals, originally sig- 
nifies to be so exhausted of natural mois- 
ture and spirits, in which their life consists, 
as to be withered or dead. It is applied 
peculiarly to the Deluge, and only to that, 
under the idea of extinction of life; and the 
phrase may be translated an extinction of 
life by waters. It is used only in Genesis 
347 



vi. vii. ix. x. ; and in Psalm xxix. 10. The 

Lord sitteth (sat, or did sit; upon, or at, 
the flood, the extinction of life at the de- 
luge. He then sat upon the seat of judg- 
ment, executing vengeance upon that 
wicked generation ; yea, the Lord sitteth 
King for ever. 

The following is the calendar of this me- 
lancholy year, according to M. Basnage : 

The year of the world 1656. 
Month. 

I. September. Methuselah died, aged 969 
years. 

II. October. Noah and his family entered 
the ark. 

III. November 17- The fountains of the 
great deep broken open. 

IV. December 26. The rain began, and 
continued forty days and forty nights. 

V. January. The earth buried under the 
waters. 

VI. February. The rain continued. 

VII. March. The waters at their height 
till the 27th, when they began to abate. 

VIII. April 17. The ark rested upon 
mount Ararat in Armenia. 

IX. May. They waited the retiring of 
the waters. 

X. June 1. The tops of the mountains 
appeared. 

XL July 11. Noah let go a raven, which 
did not return. 

18. He let go a dove, which re- 
turned. 

■ 25. The dove being sent a se- 
cond time, brought back an olive branch. 

XII. August 2. The dove sent out a third 
time, and returned no more. 

The year of the world 1657- 

I. September 1. The dry land appeared. 

II. October 27. Noah went out of the 
ark. 

However, archbishop Usher and some 
others compute, that Noah and his family 
entered the ark on the 18th of December; 
that, on the 17th of May, the waters be- 
gan to decrease ; that, on the 21st of July, 
the tops of the mountains appeared ; that, 
about the 8th of September, Noah let go 
the raven ; and that, on the 29th of Decem- 
ber, he and his family went out of the ark, 
in which they had remained, according to 
the antediluvian computation, a year and 
ten days, or, according to our present mode 
of computing, a full year, or three hundred 
and sixty-five days. Dr. Hales thinks 
that the Deluge commenced in the second 
month of the sacred year, which began 
about the vernal equinox; and that Noah 
continued in the ark from the 17th of the 
second month, till the 27th of the same 
month, in the next year. 

With respect to the universality of the 
deluge, men have always been solicitous to 
account for it in a philosophical manner, 
and to discover whence such an amazing 
quantity of water could be brought, as might 



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cover the whole earth to the height of fifteen 
cubits above the highest hills, to which 
height the waters are said to have prevailed. 
(Gen. vii. 20.) The immense quantity of 
water necessary for this purpose has induced 
several authors to think that the deluge was 
only partial. These are of opinion, that it 
was sufficient to deluge those countries in 
which there were men, especially as the 
world was only new, and the people not 
numerous, the Scriptures reckoning only 
eight generations from Adam to Noah. 
They add, that, in the language of Scripture, 
the whole earth means no more than all the 
inhabitants ; and, therefore, that an overflow- 
ing of the neighbouring rivers, by a vehe- 
ment rain, &c. might occasion all tbe 
phenomena of the Deluge. But how do they 
know that the earth was not then fully 
peopled ? Supposing a partial deluge only, 
what necessity was there to build at great 
expense a prodigious ark ? to bring into it 
all sorts of animals for preservation ? to 
oblige eight persons to enter into it '? Would 
it not have been more easy to direct these 
people, &c. to travel into those countries 
which the deluge was not to reach ? If the 
deluge was only partial, how could the 
waters continue above the mountains, with- 
out spreading into the neighbouring coun- 
tries ? How could the ark float many months 
upon a mountain of water, and not slide down 
its declivity? That the Deluge was uni- 
versal is sufficiently evident. God declared 
to Noah, that he was resolved to destroy by 
a flood of waters every thing that had breath 
under heaven, or life on the earth. Such 
was the menace, and such the execution. 
Moses assures us, that the waters covered 
the whole earth, and buried all the moun- 
tains; and that every thing that had life 
perished, except Noah and those with him 
in the ark. 

The strongest objection against the uni- 
versality of the Deluge is the quantity of 
water requisite to cover the whole earth, to 
the height of fifteen cubits above the moun- 
tains. Moses says (Gen. vii. 11.) that 
' the fountains of the great deep were broken 
up, and the windows of heaven were open- 
ed;' as if he meant to describe a rising of 
waters from beneath the earth, as well as a 
falling of waters from above on the earth. 
Dr. Thomas Burnet, in his Telluris Theoria 
Sacra, has attempted to explain, physically, 
in what manner the Deluge was produced. 
He supposes that the earth was in its begin- 
ning round, smooth, and even throughout, 
without mountains or valleys ; that the 
centre of the earth contained a great 
abyss of water ; that the earth by sinking 
in many places, and by rising in others, in 
consequence of different shocks and of divers 
earthquakes, opened a passage for the inter- 
nal waters, which issued impetuously from 
the centre where they had been enclosed, 
and spread over all the earth ; that, in the 
343 



beginning, the axis of the earth was parallel 
with the axis of the world, moving directly 
under the equator, and producing a perpe- 
tual equinox ; and that in the first world 
there were neither seas, nor rain, nor rain- 
bow. The objections to Dr. Burnet's system 
arise rather from the extremes to which he 
pushed his supposition, than from the gene- 
ral idea itself. If, instead of saying that 
the earth was uniformly level, he had ad- 
mitted hills and valleys, though not such 
high mountains as at present ; if he had 
admitted lakes or small seas, but not 
such oceans as at present; much might 
have been urged in support of his hypothe- 
sis. For it is every way credible, that the 
state of the globe before the Deluge was 
very different from what it is at present : 
but to show in what those differences might 
consist, requires, besides a lively fancy, a 
correct judgment, and much scientific in- 
formation. 

The drifting of the ark northwards, from 
the settlement of Noah to Mount Ararat, 
leads us to infer, that the main current of 
the waters of the deluge came from the 
south. This inference is strongly supported 
by the present appearances of the great 
continents of the terraqueous globe ; which 
are such as might naturally be supposed to 
have arisen from tremendous disruptions of 
* the fountains of the great abyss,' princi- 
pally in the higher southern regions, the 
waters issuing northwards with inconceiva- 
ble fury at first, but becoming less violent 
toward the end of their progress. Thus the 
deep indentations of the southern coasts of 
Asia, Africa, and America, and the bold 
projecting capes of the peninsula of Hin- 
dostan, of Good Hope, and of Horn, with 
the disruptions of Ceylon, Madagascar, and 
of Terra del Fuego, from the continents ; the 
chaotic appearances of the ghauts of Hin- 
dostan, of the mountains of Abyssinia and 
Caffraria, and of those in the neighbour- 
hood of the straits of Magellan ; and the 
mountains of Northern Asia, Europe, and 
North America, which assume tamer as- 
pects and more regular forms ; all conspire 
to prove the northerly progress of the cata- 
racts of the Deluge from high southern 
regions. There are also traces of prodigi- 
ous disruptions of the earth in high northern 
regions, as if on purpose to absorb the 
redundant waters from the south. In some 
parts, whole countries have been uplifted 
on one side, and half buried on the other, 
in vast gulphs which opened to receive 
them. Thus, the coasts of Norway are the 
most abrupt, and the highest known, on the 
ocean, and rise from the level of the sea to 
the height of from 300 to 900 toises or 
fathoms. From these, the general face of 
the country slopes till it reaches the Baltic, 
under whose basin part of its former sur- 
face lies deeply buried. To these facts it 
may be added, that all the researches of the 



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most eminent geologists tend to prove the 
recent population of the world, and that its 
present surface is not of very ancient form- 
ation. 

The universality and northerly course, in 
general, of the Deluge, appear to be fully 
established by well attested accounts of the 
fossil remains of foreign animals and vege- 
tables, found in every quarter of the globe, 
in places and at elevations where they could 
not have been naturally produced. Thus, 
the highest eminences of the earth, as the 
Andes, the Alps, the Apennines, the Pyre- 
nees, Libanus, Atlas, and Ararat, in short, 
all the mountains of every region under 
heaven, where search has been made, con- 
spire in one uniform and universal proof 
that the sea was spread over their highest 
summits ; for they are found to contain 
shells, skeletons of lish, and marine animals 
of every kind. The bones of extinct animals 
hive been found in America, at an elevation 
of 7-800 feet, and in the Cordilleras, at 7,200 
feet above the level of the sea. In central Asia, 
the evidence is still more decisive, the fos- 
silized remains of the horse, deer, and bear 
species having been brought to England from 
the Himalaya mountains, from an elevation 
of more than 16,000 feet. Further, skele- 
tons of the elephant and rhinoceros, natives 
of Africa and Southern Asia, have been dug 
up on the steppes or table-lands of Tartary 
and Siberia ; and remains of elephants have 
been found in various parts of England. 
Most of the fossil crocodiles which have been 
discovered in different parts of Europe, 
are referred by St. Fond to the Govial or 
tic species. The gigantic mammoth, 
an animal which has hitherto been supposed 
to belong exclusively to the antediluvian 
world, has been found in the most northern 
parts of Russia, and also in North America, 
and in Ireland. The fossil bones and teeth 
of the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tiger, and 
hyaena, (animals found only in Africa and 
the East.) and of the bear, and numerous 
other animals, have been discovered in Eng- 
land. Trees of vast dimensions, with their 
roots and tops, and some also with leaves 
and fruit, have been discovered in the 
bottom of mines and marie pits, not only in 
regions where no trees of such kind were 
ever known to grow, but likewise where it 
is demonstrably impossible that they should 
grow ; and this effect could be produced 
only by the fountains of the great deep be- 
ing broken up. 

Dr. Woodward was of opinion, that the 
whole mass of the earth being dissolved by 
the waters of the Deluge, a new earth was 
afterwards formed, composed of different 
beds, or layers, of terrestrial matter which 
had floated in this fluid ; that these layers 
were disposed one over the other, almost 
according to their different gravities ; and, 
therefore, that plants or animals, and par- 
ticularly shell fish, which were not dissolved 
349 



like others, remained inclosed by mineral 
and fossil matters, which preserved them 
entire, or at least have retained impressions 
of them. These are what we now call fossils. 
By this hypothesis Dr. Woodward explains 
the shells found in places very distant from 
the sea, the teeth of elephants, the bones of 
animals, the petrified fishes, and other 
things found upon the tops of mountains, 
Sec. In his work are many very curious 
facts and observations relative to the 
Deluge. This author is ranked among the 
first, who, by inquiring into the actual 
appearances of nature, produce proofs of 
this great event, still remaining in sufficient 
abundance. He opened those memorials of 
evidence which have been enlarged by 
others ; and Mr, Whitehurst, in particular, 
has since trodden in the same path. 

That the Greeks and western nations 
had some knowledge of the flood, has never 
been denied ; and the Mussulmen, Chinese, 
and Americans, have traditions of the De- 
luge. The ingenious Mr. Bryant, in his 
mythology, has pretty clearly proved that 
the Deluge, so far from being unknown to 
the heathen world at large, is in reality 
conspicuous in every one of their acts of 
religious worship. In India, also, Sir 
William Jones has discovered, that in the 
oldest mythological books of that country, 
there is such an account of the Deluge as 
sufficiently corresponds with that of Moses. 
How erroneous then is that opinion, which 
denied the universality of the Deluge, be- 
cause of the supposed ignorance of that 
event in India ! Asiatic Researches, vol. i. 
Hates' s Neic Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. 
p. 329, Sec. ; Ainsworth on Psalm xxix. 10 ; 
Watson's Theolog. Tracts, vol. i. p. 77 ; 
Home's Introduction, vol. i. p. 159, 160 ; 
Cuvier's Essay on the Theory of the Earth, 
sec. 22; Prof. Buckland's Reliquia Dilu- 
viance. 

DEMETRIUS, Ajjjur/rpioc, signifies be- 
longing to Ceres. Demetrius Soter reign- 
ed in Syria twelve years, from the year of 
the world 3842, to the year of the world 
3854. He was son of Seleucus IV. sur- 
named Philopater. Demetrius being a hos- 
tage at Rome when his father died, his 
uncle, Antiochus Epiphanes, who in the 
interim arrived in Syria, procured himself 
to be acknowledged king, and reigned 
eleven years ; after him, his son Antiochus 
Eupater reigned two years. At length, 
Demetrius Soter regained his father's throne. 
He is frequently mentioned in the books of 
the Maccabees. 

DEMETRIUS XICAXOR, or Xicator, 
son of Demetrius Soter, in the beginning 
of the war against Balas, was sent by his 
father into the isle of Cindus, to secure 
him against accidents. After the death of 
his father, he continued waiting for an 
opportunity of recovering his kingdom. 
At length, in the year of the world 3856, 



DEM 



DEM 



young Nicanor passed into Cilicia with 
troops. Soon after, Apollonius, governor 
of Ccele- Syria, joined him ; and as Jonathan 
Maccabaeus persisted in his alliance with 
Balas, Apollonius waged war against him, 
but with little success. (1 Mace. x. 76 — 
89.) In the mean time Balas's affairs be- 
came still less prosperous ; and Nicanor 
strengthened himself in Syria, till at length, 
by the assistance of Ptolemy Philometor, 
his father-in-law, he recovered the throne 
of his ancestors. When seated in security, 
he became voluptuous and contemptible. 
Diodotus or Tryphon expelled him, and 
placed on the throne Antiochus, son of 
Alexander Balas. Tryphon murdered An- 
tiochus, and seized the throne himself; but 
he became odious to the soldiery, who even- 
tually abandoned him. 

Jonathan Maccabaeus, solicited by 
Tryphon, abandoned the party of Deme- 
trius, and espoused that of young Antio- 
chus, who permitted him to attack those 
cities of Phoenicia and Syria which held 
out for Demetrius. Tryphon had a little 
before treacherously killed Judas Macca- 
baeus, who was one of the most powerful 
supporters of Antiochus. Simon, Jona- 
than's brother and successor, abhorring the 
cruelty of this usurper, sent a crown to 
Demetrius Nicanor, acknowledged him 
king, and entreated him to exempt the 
Jews from tribute. This prince, banished 
as it were to Seleucia, in a corner of his 
dominions, readily consented ; and in the 
year of the world 3861, the Jews were 
entirely freed from subjection to the Gen- 
tiles. 

Demetrius resolved to make war against 
the Parthians ; but he was treacherously 
taken, and delivered to the king of Parthia, 
who treated him with honour, and gave him 
his own daughter in marriage. Cleopatra, 
his first wife, whom he had left at Seleucia 
with his children, seeing him engaged in 
another marriage, offered the kingdom of 
Syria to Antiochus Sidetes, brother to De- 
metrius, if he would make her his wife. 
Antiochus consented, and, coming into 
Syria, assumed the title of king. He began 
his reign in the year 3865 ; and in an at- 
tempt to rescue his brother from the Par- 
thians, he perished in the year 3874. De- 
metrius returned into Syria, and was again 
placed on the throne. He reigned four 
years after this, and was killed in the year 
of the world 3878. He was succeeded by 
his eldest son Seleucus. 

DEMETRIUS, a goldsmith of Ephesus, 
who made niches, or little chapels, for 
Diana of Ephesus, which he sold to 
foreigners. (Acts xix. 24.) This man 
observing the progress of the Gospel, not 
in Ephesus only, but in all Asia, assembled 
his fellow-craftsmen, and represented that 
by this new doctrine, not only their trade 
would suffer, but the worship of the great 
350 



Diana of Ephesus was in danger of being 
entirely forsaken. This produced an 
uproar and confusion in the city. At 
length the town-clerk (the grammateus) 
addressed them, 'Ye men of Ephesus, is 
there any man who does not know that the 
city of Ephesus is the existing (or estab- 
lished, appointed) neokoron of the great 
Diana ! and of the Jove descended V Our 
translators render it Jove-fallen image, sup- 
plying the word image. The city of Ephe- 
sus enjoying the office of superintendent of 
sacra to the temple of Diana, was bound to 
promote its interests. The city could not, 
therefore, be unaffected, when this great 
and famous edifice was about to become 
contemptible through the impiety of a few 
hated Jews. Demetrius was a worker in 
silver (a chaser perhaps), who made repre- 
sentations, some on medals, some in alto- 
relievo, or other kinds of wrought or cast 
work, of the portico and temple (the naos) 
of the goddess Diana. When, therefore, 
there was a tumult, the grammateus, or 
town-clerk, harangued the people on the 
subject of their riot. He stated, ' that the 
honour of their city as neokoron, guardian 
of the temple and its contents, or super- 
intendent of the sacra, was incontroverti- 
ble ; that the persons in custody were nei- 
ther guilty of sacrilege, nor of blaspheming 
the gods ; that if they were guilty of any 
misdemeanour, they should be properly in- 
dicted for it ; and that if the people were 
desirous of extending their measures be- 
yond merely ensuring the honour and se- 
curity of Diana, they should call a general 
meeting of the town, because the honour 
of the neokorate appertained to the whole 
town, and not to any individuals.' Per- 
haps the grammateus, town-clerk, employed 
an ambiguity in speaking of the goddess, 
or her image (dio7rsrovg, it descended, or 
it fell.) He might wish to say, the things 
signified by the image of the goddess, that 
is, the powers of nature, descended from 
Jove ; and taking Jove to denote the su- 
preme deity, this would be the truth. 
Without doubt, however, the popular be- 
lief was, and the people would understand 
the speaker, that the image itself fell down 
from Jove. If this be the fact, it is an in- 
stance of the esoteric and exoteric doctrines, 
and proves that the philosophers, by ex- 
pressions capable of two senses, meant to 
convey ideas of different principles when 
they spoke as philosophers, from those 
which they taught the people. Fragments 
annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, No. exxvii. 
p. 43, 44. 

DEMONS, a name given by the ancients 
to certain spirits or genii, which, they say, 
appeared to men, either to render them 
service, or to injure them. Several of the 
heathen philosophers were of opinion, that 
there were different kinds of demons ; that 
some of them were spiritual substances of a 



DEM 



DEM 



more noble origin than the human race, 
and that others had once been men. But 
those demons which were the more imme- 
diate objects of the established worship 
among the ancient nations were human 
spirits, such as were believed to become 
demons, or deities, after their departure 
from their bodies. 

It has been generally thought, that by 
demons, in the Septuagint version of the 
Old Testament, we are to understand de- 
vils. It appears, however, that the word 
in that version is certainly applied to the 
ghosts of such dead men as the heathens 
deified. (Deut. xxxii. 17- Psalm cvi. 37.) 
Mr. Farmer observes, that ' the Greek 
language, in the age of the Gospel, was 
generally spoken in all the cultivated parts 
of the world, not only by the Gentiles, but 
by the Jews also, who were dispersed 
amongst them, and even by the inhabitants 
of Judea. It is the language in which the 
New Testament was written, which was 
designed for the use of the bulk of man- 
kind. Demon in this language was not a 
new word, invented by the sacred writers, 
to express their own peculiar opinions, 
but was in daily use with all men in their 
age, as it had been for ages before. Now, 
can it be reasonably supposed, that these 
writers, when they adopted this word, 
were ignorant of its usual signification, 
which was that of a pagan deity, or deified 
man ? We are certain they were not igno- 
rant of this signification of it : for they 
have recorded an instance amongst the 
heathens, in which it could not be applied 
to any other than deified human spirits. 
(Acts xvii. 18.) To such spirits they like- 
wise knew the word was applied in the 
Jewish Scriptures, I mean, in the Septua- 
gint version of them, with which they 
were intimately acquainted. Nay, it is 
allowed, that they do themselves employ 
this term to describe the heathen gods, 
(1 Cor. x. 20, 21.) and other deified or bea- 
tified human spirits. (1 Tim. iv. 1.) It 
is no inconsiderable confirmation of all 
that has been offered concerning possess- 
ing demons, that the primitive Christians 
understood hereby human spirits, and re- 
present this as the general opinion of the 
world.' 

In opposition, however, to the opinions 
of Mr. Joseph Mede, Dr. Bekker, and Mr. 
Farmer, Dr. Doddridge and others think, 
that the demons mentioned in the New 
Testament were fallen angels, or evil spi- 
rits, under the direction of Satan, their 
prince. That these demons, however un- 
derstood in profane authors, do belong to 
the devil's retinue, and may be his angels 
or under agents, over whom he is chief or 
prince, will appear by comparing Matt. xii. 
22. 24—28. Luke x. 17, 18. ; xi. 15. 18. 
Those who in the Gospels are said to be 
possessed by demons, are represented as 
351 



oppressed of the devil, from their being 
under the power of his agents. (Acts x. 
38.) Thus we may conceive of the devil 
and his angels, (Matt. xxv. 41.); of the 
dragon and his angels. (Rev. xii. 7-) He 
is the prince and head, and those demons 
are his subjects. They are often spoken of 
in the plural number, as being many ; but 
Satan, or the devil, is always in the singu- 
lar, as being one single spirit, and chief of 
the rest Farmer's Essay on the Demoniacs 
of the New Testament; Doddridge's Family 
Expositor ; Watson's Theolog. Tracts, vol. i. 
p. 51. 

DEMONIAC, a human being whose 
volition and other mental faculties are 
overpowered and restrained, and his body 
possessed and actuated, by some created 
spiritual being of superior power. This 
appears to be the determinate sense of the 
word : but it is disputed whether any of 
mankind were ever in this unfortunate con- 
dition. The following are the principal ar- 
guments on each side of the question. 

1. Arguments against the existence of de- 
moniacs. — The Greeks and Romans be- 
lieved in the reality of demoniacal posses- 
sion. They supposed that spiritual beings 
sometimes entered into the sons or daugh- 
ters of men, and distinguished themselves 
by capricious freaks, deeds of wanton mis- 
chief, or prophetic enunciations. But in 
the instances in which they supposed this 
to happen, it is evident that no such thing 
took place. Their accounts of the state 
and condition of those persons whom they 
believed to be possessed in this superna- 
tural manner, plainly show that what they 
ascribed to the influence of demons was 
merely the effect of natural diseases. 
Among the Latins, all the words which 
describe demoniacs, or persons possessed 
by ghosts, include in them the idea of mad- 
ness. Their larvati, cerriti, and lymphatici, 
were all madmen, persons of a disordered 
mind, and in the same unfortunate situa- 
tion as those madmen, idiots, or melan- 
choly persons, whom we have among our- 
selves. To be full of larva, or the ghosts 
of wicked men, was a phrase expressive 
of the most outrageous madness. In like 
manner among the Greeks, rage and 
frenzy were the usual attendants of in- 
spiration and possession ; and the same 
word denoted both the being mad, and 
having a demon. The highest degrees ot 
rage and distraction are expressed by a 
term borrowed from evil demons. Lucian 
describes demoniacs as lunatic, and as 
staring with their eyes, foaming at the 
mouth, and being speechless. It appears 
still more evident, that all the persons 
spoken of in the New Testament as pos- 
sessed with devils, were either mad or 
epileptic, and precisely in the same con- 
dition with the madmen and epileptics of 
modern times. Some of the Jews, offended 



DEM 



DEM 



with Christ's discourses, said, He hath a 
devil, and is mad : why hear ye him t The 
expressions he hath a devil, and is mad, 
were certainly used on this occasion as 
synonymous. With all their virulence, 
they would not surely ascribe to him at 
once two things that were inconsistent and 
contradictory. Those who thought more 
favourably of Christ, replied to the calumny 
of his enemies, These are not the words of 
him that hath a devil; meaning that they 
did not discover in his discourse the rav- 
ings of a madman, or of one disordered in 
his understanding. The Jews ascribed to 
demons not only raving, but also melancholy 
madness. Of John, who secluded him- 
self from intercourse with the world, and 
was distinguished by abstinence and acts 
of mortification, they said, He hath a demon. 
The youth, whose father applied to Jesus, 
to cure him, was plainly epileptic ; and 
the disorder was attended with a depri- 
vation of the understanding, or loss of 
sense, and with the signs of frenzy. 
This appears from the language of his 
father: Have mercy on my son, for he is lu- 
natic, and sore vexed wi th a demon : for oft- 
times he falleth into the fire, and oft into the 
water. In the interval of his fits, the 
demon was supposed to depart from him. 
Indeed, every thing related in the New 
Testament concerning demoniacs, proves 
that they were persons affected with such 
natural diseases as are not uncommon 
among mankind in the present age. When 
the symptoms of the disorders cured by 
our Saviour and his apostles, as cases of 
demoniacal possession, correspond so ex- 
actly with those of diseases well known as 
natural at the present time, it would be 
absurd to impute them to a supernatural 
cause. It is much more consistent with 
common sense and sound philosophy, to 
suppose that our Saviour and his apostles 
adopted the vulgar language in speak- 
ing of those unfortunate persons, who, 
without any foundation, were imagined to be 
possessed with demons. It is customary 
with the sacred writers, and our Saviour 
himself, to speak on many subjects in the 
language of the vulgar, though known 
and admitted to have been originally 
grounded on a false philosophy. When, 
therefore, the sacred historians tell us, 
that one person was possessed by seven 
demons, and another by a legion, is it not 
more probable to suppose that they adopt- 
ed the phraseology of the Jews, than to 
imagine that diseases which arise at pre- 
sent from natural causes, were produced 
in ancient times by the intervention of 
demons, or that evil spirits still continue 
to enter into mankind in all cases of mad- 
ness, melancholy, or epilepsy? Besides, 
it is by no means a sufficient reason for 
receiving any doctrine as true, that it has 
been generally received through the world. 
352 



Error, like an epidemical disease, is com- 
municated from one to another. In cer- 
tain circumstances, too, the influence of 
imagination predominates, and restrains 
the exertions of reason. Many false opi- 
nions have extended their influence through 
a very wide circle, and for a long time 
maintained it. On all such occasions, 
therefore, it becomes us to inquire, not so 
much how generally any opinion has been 
received, or how long it has prevailed, as 
from what cause it has originated, and on 
what evidence it rests. In every part of 
the world that falls under our observation, 
we perceive a fixed order of causes and 
effects, which is not disturbed by any in- 
visible beings ; and the preservation of 
this order appears to be essential to the 
happiness of the creation. May we not 
hence conclude, that the human system, 
in particular, is governed in the same man- 
ner, and subjected to invariable laws, 
which God alone can control? Are we 
to take it for granted, that God will per- 
mit these laws to be controlled, merely 
for the sake of subjecting the healths, the 
understandings, and the lives of mankind, 
to the caprice and malice of evil spirits ? 
This appears utterly repugnant to all our 
ideas of the equity, the goodness, and the 
mercy, of the gracious Parent of man- 
kind. 

2. Arguments for the existence of demo- 
niacs. — It would appear, that, in the time 
of our Saviour, demoniacal possession was 
very common among the Jews, and also in 
the neighbouring nations. Many were the 
evil spirits that Jesus is related in the Gos- 
pels to have ejected from patients, who 
were brought to him as possessed and tor- 
mented by those malevolent demons. His 
apostles, too, and the first Christians, who 
were very active and successful in the pro- 
pagation of Christianity, frequently exert- 
ed on similar occasions the miraculous 
powers with which they were endowed. 
The demons displayed a degree of know- 
ledge and malevolence which sufficiently 
distinguished them from human beings. 
The language in which the demoniacs are 
mentioned, and the actions and sentiments 
ascribed to them in the New Testament, 
show that our Saviour and his apostles did 
not consider the idea of demoniacal pos- 
session merely as a vulgar error concern- 
ing the origin of a disease or diseases pro- 
duced by natural causes. The more en- 
lightened cannot always avoid the use of 
metaphorical expressions, which, though 
founded on error, yet have been so estab- 
lished in language by the influence of 
custom, that they cannot be suddenly dis- 
missed. However, in descriptions of cha- 
racters, in a narrative of facts, and in lay- 
ing down systems of doctrine, we require 
different rules to be observed. If any per- 
son, in compliance with popular opinions, 



DEM 



DES 



should talk seriously of the existence, dis- 
positions, declarations, and actions, of a 
race of beings whom he knew to be en- 
tirely fabulous, we certainly could not 
praise him for his integrity ; we must sup- 
pose, that he either exults in irony over the 
weak credulity of those around him, or 
that he takes advantage of their weakness, 
with the dishonesty and selfish views of an 
impostor. If he himself should pretend to 
any connexion with this imaginary system 
of beings, and should claim, in consequence 
of his connexion with them, particular 
honours from his contemporaries, what- 
ever might be the dignity of his character 
in all other respects, no person would he- 
sitate to brand him as an impostor. In this 
light we must regard the conduct of our 
Saviour and his apostles, if the idea of de- 
moniacal possession be considered merely 
as a vulgar error. They talked and acted 
as if they believed that evil spirits had ac- 
tually entered into those who were brought 
to them as possessed with devils, and as if 
those spirits had been actually expelled by 
their authority from the unhappy persons 
possessed. They also demanded that their 
authority and declarations should be be- 
lieved, in consequence of their performing 
such mighty works, and thus triumphing 
over the powers of hell. The reality of 
demoniacal possession rests on the same 
evidence as the Gospel system in general. 
There is nothing unreasonable in this doc- 
trine. It does not appear to contradict 
those ideas which the general appearances 
of nature and the series of events suggest, 
concerning the benevolence and wisdom 
of the Deity, by which he regulates the 
affairs of the universe. We often fancy 
ourselves able to comprehend things to 
which our understanding is wholly inade- 
quate ; we frequently persuade ourselves 
that the whole extent of the works of the 
Deity must be well known to us, and that 
his designs must always be such as we can 
understand. We are then ready, when- 
ever any difficulty arises in considering 
the conduct of Providence, to model 
things according to our own idea, to deny 
that the Deity can be the author of things 
for which we are not able to account, and 
to assert that he must act on every occa- 
sion in a manner consistent with our narrow 
views. This is a pride of reason, which 
seems to have suggested the strongest ob- 
jections against the reality of demoniacal 
possession. But the Deity may certainly 
connect one order of his creatures with 
another. We perceive mutual relations 
and a beautiful connexion in every part 
of nautre within the sphere of our obser- 
vation. The inferior animals are con- 
nected with mankind, and subjected to 
their authority, not only in instances in 
which it is exerted for their advantage, but 
even where it is tyrannically abused to 
353 



their destruction. Among the evils to 
which mankind have been subjected, might 
not demoniacal possession be one? The 
Supreme Being may employ whatever 
agents he thinks proper in the execution of 
his purposes; he may either commission 
an angel or let loose a devil, as well as bend 
the human will, or communicate any par- 
ticular impulse to matter. All that reve- 
lation makes known, all that human reason 
can conjecture, concerning the existence 
of various orders of spiritual beings, good 
and bad, is perfectly consistent with, and 
favourable to, the doctrine of demoniacal 
possession. It is mentioned in the New 
Testament in such language, and such nar- 
ratives are related concerning it, that the 
Gospels can be regarded only as parts of an 
imposture, and Jesus Christ be considered 
as a person who took advantage of the 
weakness and ignorance of his contempora- 
ries, if this doctrine be only a vulgar error. 
In short, it teaches nothing inconsistent 
with the general conduct of Providence ; 
and the pride of reason alone, not the cau- 
tion of philosophy, suggests objections 
against this doctrine. Farmer's Essay on 
the Demoniacs of the New Testament ; Dr. 
Worthington' s Impartial Inquiry into the case of 
the Gospel Demoniacs ; Fell's Inquiry into the 
Heathen and the Scripture Doctrine of Demons. 

DESTRUCTIONISTS, those who hold 
a kind of middle scheme between the sys- 
tem of universal restoration'and that of end- 
less misery, or who maintain that the wicked 
shall neither be for ever miserable, nor 
finally saved, but that after undergoing an 
awful judgment, and a condemnation pro- 
portioned to their crimes, they shall be pu- 
nished with an utter extinction of being. 
They say, that the Scripture positively as- 
serts this doctrine of destruction ; that the 
nature of future punishment, which the 
Scripture terms death, determines the 
meaning of the words everlasting, eternal, 
for ever, &c. as denoting endless duration, 
because no law ever did or can inflict the 
punishment of death for a limited period ; 
that the punishment cannot be corrective, 
because no man was ever put to death, 
either to convince his judgment, or to re- 
form his conduct ; that if the wicked re- 
ceive a punishment apportioned to their 
crimes, their deliverance is not to be at- 
tributed either to the mercy of God, or the 
mediation of Jesus Christ, but is an act of 
absolute justice ; and, finally, that the me- 
diatorial kingdom of Christ will never be 
delivered up, since the Scripture asserts, 
that ' of his kingdom there shall be no end.' 
Those who maintain this doctrine of the 
distraction of Lite wicked, are accused of es- 
pousing the doctrine of annihilation. This, 
however, they deny, and allege that, 'philo- 
sophically speaking, there can he no annihi- 
lation, and that destruction is the express 
phrase used in the New Testament' 

Aa 



DET 



DET 



Several advocates for this doctrine have 
been distinguished for their erudition and 
piety. Among these may be ranked Dr. 
John Taylor, of Norwich, the Rev. J. 
Bourn, of Birmingham, from whom they are 
sometimes called Bourneans, Mr. J. Nicol 
Scott, Dr. Price, and Mr. J. Marsom. If 
the doctrine of annihilation be connected 
with that of destruction, as many seem to 
think, the learned Dr. Watts may be con- 
sidered, in some measure, as a destruc- 
tionist ; since it was his opinion that the 
children of ungodly parents, which die in 
infancy, are annihilated. Mr. Forsyth, in 
his Principles of Moral Science, argues 
against a future state of rewards and pu- 
nishments, confers immortality on the elect 
few who have cultivated their intellectual 
powers in this life, and 'very charitably 
consigns the multitude to inevitable an- 
nihilation !' Bourn's Sermons ; Dr. Ed- 
wards on the Salvation of all Men strictly 
examined; Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. 
pp. 390, 392. 

DETRACTION is the impairing or 
lessening of another man's reputation. He 
who is given to detraction is always very 
solicitous to discover some infusion of bit- 
terness in the most delicious sweet, some 
hidden defect in the most perfect quality, 
some latent vice in the most transcendent 
virtue. The detractor is always vigilant 
in tracing the best actions to the worst mo- 
tives ; he ascribes the purest waters to the 
foulest springs. The mind of the detractor 
seems to be so circumscribed as to per- 
ceive only deformity in beauty, treachery in 
frankness, interestedness in liberality, and 
hypocrisy in piety. Such is the general 
character of the detractor, and such the 
general nature of detraction. 

Detraction differs from slander in this, 
that the latter is a wrongful imputation of 
some vice, the former a wilful lessening of 
another's virtue. The one consists in ac- 
cusing our neighbour of evil, the other in 
undervaluing and obscuring his good deeds. 
Detraction is a fault not less frequent than 
injurious. A detractor is always disposed 
to view the best actions in the least favour- 
able aspect, or that in which they seem 
liable to the most objections. In the best 
actions will be some defects, which are 
owing either to the imperfection of our 
nature, or to the invincible necessity of our 
circumstances. On those defects which 
the benevolent would not see, or would 
not notice, the detractor will almost exclu- 
sively fix his attention, and render them the 
theme of his remarks. Unlucky accidents, 
or fortuitous combinations, will often oblige 
us against our inclination, and contrary to 
our endeavours, to omit the most favour- 
able opportunities of action. Such occa- 
sions will frequently furnish the detractor 
with the means of gratifying his malevo- 
lent disposition, by lowering the merit, 
354 



and depreciating the worth, of his fellow- 
creatures. Good endeavours are always 
in our power, but we cannot command 
the issue of events. Yet the detractor 
usually speaks as if these things were sub- 
ject to the arbitrary disposal of the in- 
dividual ; and he is always ready to sug- 
gest that the will was less than the 
means, the inclination less favourable than 
the opportunity, and that where much 
good has been done, more might have 
been performed. Almost every action has 
some extenuating circumstances ; but while 
the detractor carefully conceals those cir- 
cumstances which may palliate a bad action, 
he industriously discloses others, which can 
in any degree detract from the merit of 
a good action. The detractor is continu- 
ally endeavouring to overturn the force of 
facts, by improbable suppositions. Though 
a man's conduct be distinguished by uni- 
form integrity, yet the detractor will affect 
to know that the person has more virtue 
in appearance than in reality ; and that he 
assumes a fictitious sanctity of character for 
the purpose of effecting some black design, 
or compassing some interested end. 

When we consider the motives in which 
detraction originates, we shall find that 
most of them spring from, or centre in, 
malevolence. In some persons is a lust of 
distinction, which cannot endure an equal, 
and burns with a vehement desire to level 
the pre-eminence of every superior. In 
whatever degree this disposition may pre- 
vail, it is combined with a desire to eclipse 
the worth, or to deduct from the excellence 
of those above, or those on a level of ability 
or merit with itself. Hence, if we would 
eradicate every propensity to detraction, 
it is essentially requisite that we cultivate 
an humble spirit, and that, impressed with 
a consciousness of our own unworthiness, 
we learn to think and to speak of others 
more justly as well as more charitably, 
Some persons of mean talents, slender ca- 
pacity, grovelling desires, or little indus- 
try, who are too timid to undertake any 
thing good or great, or too feeble, or too 
indolent, to execute it, are continually en- 
deavouring to screen themselves from con- 
tempt, or to hide their own individual in- 
significance, by depreciating the worth, 
railing at the audacity, or ridiculing the 
exertions of those who have more ability, 
more enterprise, more intellect, and more 
activity, than themselves. There is no in- 
tegrity, however pure, no worth, however 
genuine, which is not exposed to invidious 
obscuration, to unjust surmises, and wily 
misrepresentation ; and designing and in- 
terested men, who abound in the wisdom 
of this world, well know how to convert 
these practices to their own advantage, 
and to the injury of their neighbour. If 
detraction be found in a greater degree, 
or of a more mischievous kind, in a court 



DEV 



DEV 



than in a village, it is only because in the 
former there is a stronger incitement to its 
exercise, and more ample space for its 
operations. 

Detraction tends to reduce the best men 
to a level with the worst, and thus to 
bring worth itself into disrepute. It tends 
to chill the ardour of doing good, and to 
produce a general belief that all the virtue 
which exists among men, is imaginary and 
counterfeit. It involves in itself a high 
degree of depravity, and is connected with 
the violation of every moral tie. Is it not 
adverse to justice ? Is it not incompatible 
with chanty ? Is it not a plain dereliction 
of our duty to God ? For, is it not princi- 
pally occupied in lessening the estimation 
of the good and wise, who are more espe- 
cially the objects of his favour, and the 
excellence of his rational creation ? Must 
not the practice, therefore, bring us under 
the divine displeasure ? Is there not in 
the habit so large a mixture of malevolence, 
as necessarily implies that we are strangers 
to the love of God ; and, if we will persist 
in so hateful a practice, can we hope to 
escape that place of torment, in which there 
are weeping and gnashing of teeth ? Fel- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 352. 367 ; 
Warner's System of Divinity and Morality, 
vol. ii. p. 90. 

DEVIL, Aia(3o\og, signifies an accuser, 
a calumniator. This word seldom occurs 
in the Old Testament. Sometimes it an- 
swers to the Hebrew Belial ; and some- 
times, to Satan. The former signifies a 
libertine ; the latter, an adversary, or an 
accuser. 

That there are wicked and malignant 
spirits, is undeniably true from Scripture. 
' If God spared not the angels that sinned, 
but cast them down to hell, and delivered 
them into chains of darkness, to be reserved 
unto judgment.' (2 Pet. ii. 4.)—' The 
angels which kept not their first estate, 
but left their own habitation, he hath re- 
served in everlasting chains under dark- 
ness unto the judgment of the great day.' 
(Jude 6.) To be cast down to hell, and 
delivered into chains of darkness, in St. 
Peter, is the same as to be reserved in 
perpetual chains under darkness, in St. 
Jude ; and each may signify no more than 
that they are degraded from their former 
high and glorious state, and chained, or 
confined to, a much lower, narrower, and 
darker situation, without any hope of fa- 
vour, unto the judgment of the great day, 
when they, with all workers of iniquity, 
shall be cast into everlasting fire. (Matt. 
xxv. 41. Rev. xx. 10. 15.) For any thing, 
therefore, advanced in these places, those 
fallen angels may at present reside in our 
air, and be permitted to wander about on 
the earth. 

It must be observed, that there is an 
ambiguity in the words Satan and Devil. 
355 



The former denotes any adversary among 
men and good angels, as well as among 
evil spirits. ' And the angel of the Lord 
said, Behold, I went out to withstand 
thee,' for an adversary, a satan. (Numb, 
xxii. 32.) ' Ye sons of Zeruiah are adver- 
saries,' in the original, satans. (2 Sam. xix. 
22.) Peter was Satan, an adversary, to 
our Lord. (Matt. xvi. 23.) Devil signifies 
an accuser, slanderer : — ' And one of you 
is a devil ;' this is spoken of Judas. (John 
vi. 70.) 

These two words, Satan and Devil, are 
used in Scripture to signify the same 
wicked spirit, who, with many others, his 
angels, or under-agents, is conversant in 
our world, and endeavours to draw men 
into sin, and to do us mischief. This is 
very evident from revelation, as in the 
case of our first parents ; of Job, whose 
children and substance were destroyed, 
and his body afflicted with a grievous dis- 
order, by Satan, (Job i. 12, &c. ; ii. 6, 7 ;) 
and of Christ, who was tempted of the 
Devil or Satan. (Matt. iv. 1. 3. 10. Mark 
i. 13. Luke iv. 2.) This temptation, under 
all its circumstances, cannot be resolved 
into an allegory ; much less can it be sup- 
posed to have been transacted within our 
Saviour's own mind, as if the Devil or 
Satan was no other than the suggestions, 
or thoughts, that arose in his own heart. 
The following texts also cannot be un- 
derstood of any other than a real Devil 
or Satan : ' The enemy that sowed the tares 
is the Devil.' (Matt. xiii. 39.)—' Ye are of 
your father the Devil.' (John viii. 44.) — 
' For such are false apostles, deceitful 
workers, transforming themselves into the 
apostles of Christ. And no marvel ; for 
Satan himself is transformed into an angel 
of light.' (2 Cor.xi. 13, 14.)— 'That through 
death he might destroy him that had the 
power of subjecting our first parents, and 
their posterity, to ' death, that is, the Devil.' 
(Heb. ii. 14.) — ' Recover themselves out 
of the snares of the Devil.' (2 Tim. ii. 26.) 
— ' Resist the Devil, and he will flee from 
you.' (Jam. iv. 7-) Many other passages 
of a similar nature might be added. 

The characters which the Devil or Satan 
sustains in Scripture are, the great Dragon, 
or fierce Devourer, the old Serpent, full 
of villanous subtilty, (Rev. xii. 9.) ; the 
Wicked One, (Matt. xiii. 38. 1 John iii. 
12.) ; a Murderer and Liar, (John viii. 44.) ; 
' Ye are of your father the Devil, and the 
lusts of your father ye will do. He was 
a murderer from the beginning,' in effect- 
ing the death of Adam and his posterity ; 
and thus he may be said to have had the 
power of death. (Heb. ii. 14.) 'When be 
speaketh a lie, he speaketh of his own, 
for he is a liar,' as he was to Eve, ' and the 
father of it.' He is also called the Accuser 
of the brethren, (Rev. xii. 10.); a roaring 
Lion, seeking whom he may devour ; the 
a a 2 



DEV 



DEV 



Prince of the World, as it is now corrupt 
and wicked, (John xii. 31. ; xiv. 30. ; xvi. 
11.); the Prince of the Power of the Air, 
the Spirit that now worketh in the chil- 
dren of disobedience, the idolatrous hea- 
thens. (Ephes. ii. 2.) Here the Devil is 
represented as a prince, or sovereign, at 
the head of a kingdom, which stands in 
opposition to, and is at war with, the king- 
dom of Christ, who was manifested as his 
antagonist, that he might destroy the works 
of the Devil. (1 John iii. 8.) 

These vicious spirits, the Devil and his 
angels, when permitted, are capable of 
doing any mischief to the estate, body, or 
mind. (1 Sam. xvi. 14. Job i. 12. ; ii. 6, 7- 
Mark iii. 23. 26. Luke xiii. 16. 1 Cor. v. 
5. 1 Tim. i. 20.) Nor is there any absur- 
dity, any thing inconsistent with the divine 
goodness, in supposing that evil spirits 
may inflict calamities and disorders on 
mankind. They are only instruments in 
God's hands, and under his direction and 
control, as much as any other cause what- 
ever ; and they must, therefore, be subject 
to the same rules, as any other means 
which Providence may employ in distress- 
ing or destroying human life, as storms, 
inundations, the passions and powers of 
wicked men, a putrid air, vitiated humours 
in the body, &c. In all these cases, what- 
ever is the instrumental, God is the appoint- 
ing and directing cause. 

That which most of all requires our atten- 
tion is, that the Devil delighteth in seducing 
mankind; he takes every advantage and 
employs every art, to effect his wicked pur- 
pose. Of this we have a proof in his temp- 
tation of our first parents. It was the Devil 
or Satan, an evil or malignant spirit, which 
tempted Eve, in the body, or assuming the 
form and shape, of a Serpent; which then 
might be a very beautiful as well as sagacious 
animal, familiar with Adam and Eve, and 
much admired by them. Dr. Taylor's Scheme 
of Scripture Divinity, in Bishop Watson's Theo. 
Tracts, vol. i. p. 49. 

DEVOTION, a religious and fervent 
exercise of some public act of religion, 
or a temper and disposition of the mind 
rightly affected with such exercises. A 
taste and relish for religious exercise are 
marks by which we may judge whether 
our heart be right towards God. The Al- 
mighty is unquestionably an object of de- 
votion to every creature, whom he has 
made capable of devotion ; and, therefore, 
our minds can never be right towards him, 
unless they be in a devotional frame. 
That devotion to God is a duty, rests on 
the same proof as that God exists. The 
author and giver of all things, on whose 
will and whose mercy we depend for every 
blessing we possess, and for whatever we 
look for or expect, ought to live in the 
thoughts and affections of his rational 
creatures. ' Through thee,' says the Psalm- 
356 



ist, ' have I been holden up ever since 
I was born : thou art he that took me out 
of my mother's womb: my praise shall 
be always of thee.' Devotion is strictly an 
act of the mind. In a certain sense, duty 
to a fellow- creature may be discharged if the 
outward act be performed. But it is not so 
with devotion, which is altogether an act of 
the mind. God is a Spirit, and must be wor- 
shipped in spirit, that is, in mind and 
thought. The devotion of the mind may be, 
and ought to be, testified and accompanied 
by outward performances and expressions ; 
but unless the mind accompany these out- 
ward performances and expressions, no 
form, no solemnity can avail, as a service to 
God. 

If a devotional frame of mind be with- 
in us, it will show itself in our meditations ; 
in the warmth, the earnestness, and the fre- 
quency of our secret applications to God in 
prayer ; in the deep, unfeigned, and heart- 
piercing sorrow of our confessions and our 
penitence ; in the sincerity of our gratitude 
and our praise ; in our admiration of the 
divine bounty to his creatures ; and in our 
sense of particular mercies to ourselves. We 
shall pray much in secret. We shall address 
ourselves to God of our own accord, in our 
walks, and in our closets. In these ad- 
dresses, form will be nothing ; every thing 
will proceed from the heart. We shall feed 
the flame of devotion by continually return- 
ing to the subject. No person endued with 
the taste and relish of devotion will have God 
for any length of time out of his mind. 
Under one view or other, God will be conti- 
nually present to a devout heart. The true 
taste for devotion will bring a man to the 
public worship of God ; and, what is more, it 
will bring him in such a frame of mind, as to 
enable him to join in public worship, with 
effect as to his own soul. 

A spirit of devotion is one of the greatest 
blessings, and the want of it one of the 
greatest misfortunes, that a Christian 
can experience. When it is present, it 
gives life to every act of worship we per- 
form ; it renders every such act interesting 
and comfortable to ourselves. It is expe- 
rienced in our most retired moments ; in 
our beds, in our closets, our rides, and 
our walks. It is felt within us, when we 
are assembled with our children and ser- 
vants in family prayer. It leads us to 
church, to the congregation of our fellow 
Christians there assembled. In an especial 
manner, it accompanies us in our joint 
offices of religion ; and it returns us to our 
homes holier, happier, and better. But 
that which greatly enhances its value to 
every anxious Christian, is, that it affords 
to himself a proof that his heart is right to- 
wards God. When it is followed by an ab- 
stinence from sin, and endeavours after vir- 
tue, by avoiding evil and doing good, the 
proof and the satisfaction to be drawn from 



DEU 



DIA 



it are complete. Dr. Foley's Sermons, 
Serm. vi. 

DEUTERONOMY, the fifth book of 
Moses, and the last of the Pentateuch. 
The Greeks gave it the name of Deutero- 
nomy, which signifies the second law, or a 
repetition of the law, because in it Moses 
recapitulates what he had ordained in the 
preceding books. The Hebrews call it 
elle haddebarim, which are the first words 
of the book. Some Rabbins call it Mish- 
nah, the second law ; others, the book of 
reprehensions, because of the reproaches 
which occur in chap. i. viii. ix. xxviii. 
xxx. xxxii. This book also contains the 
history of what passed in the wilderness, 
from the beginning of the eleventh month, 
to the seventh day of the twelfth month, in 
the fortieth year after their departure from 
Egypt, that is, about six weeks. 

In the book of Deuteronomy, Moses ad- 
dresses the people, and recites what had 
passed since their coming out of Egypt. 
He states to them the laws of God which 
he had received at Sinai, and which he ex- 
plains, and adds some others. He also ex- 
horts the people to obedience, and declares 
that Joshua was appointed by God to suc- 
ceed him. He wrote this transaction, 
committed the writing to the Levites and 
elders, and commanded them to read it every 
seven years, in a general assembly of the 
people, at the feast of tabernacles. (Deut. 
xxxi. 9, 10. 14.) It also includes his last 
song, to which is added the history of his 
death. 

Some have questioned whether this book 
was written by Moses, because it mentions 
his death, and the author speaks of the 
land beyond Jordan, as if the writer had 
been on this side, west of that river. The 
account of Moses's death was certainly 
added to this book by some other person, 
very probably by Joshua. The word heber, 
translated beyond Jordan, may also be trans- 
lated on this side, or rather alongside of the 
place to which it refers. 

DEW. Dews in Palestine are very 
plentiful , like a small shower of rain every 
morning. Gideon filled a basin with the 
dew which fell on a fleece of wool. (Judg. 
vi. 38.) Isaac, blessing Jacob, wished him 
the dew of heaven, which fattens the fields. 
(Gen. xxvii. 28.) In those warm countries 
where it seldom rains, the night-dews supply 
the want of showers. Isaiah speaks of rain 
as if it were a dew, (xviii. 4.) He also says, 
that the dew which God causes to fall on 
his people, is a bright dew: a dew which 
revives, enlightens, and restores liberty to 
the captives, (xxvi. 19.) 

DIAL is not mentioned in Scripture be- 
fore the reign of Ahaz, in the year of the 
world 3278, and before Christ 726. It is 
not clearly ascertained, that, even after 
his reign, the Jews generally divided their 
time by hours, but continued to reckon it 
357 



after their former manner. The word 
hour, or perhaps only the parts of an hour, 
occur first in Daniel and Tobit : Tobit and 
Tobias continued prostrate three hours, 
says the Vulgate ; and this is also the read- 
ing of the Chaldee. This may confirm the 
opinion of those who maintain, that the 
invention of dials came from beyond the 
Euphrates. But others believe, that this 
invention was derived from the Phoeni- 
cians, and that the first traces of it are 
discoverable in Homer, (Odyss. xv. 402,) 
who speaks of 'an island called Syria, 
lying above Ortygia, where the revolutions 
of the sun are observed.' As the Phoeni- 
cians are thought to have inhabited this 
island of Syria, it is presumed that they 
left there this monument of their skill in 
astronomy. About three hundred years 
after Homer, Pherecydes, as we are told 
by Laertius, set up a dial in the same 
island to distinguish the hours. The 
Greeks confess that Anaximander first di- 
vided time by hours, and introduced sun- 
dials into Greece. Usher fixes the death 
of Anaximander to the year of the world 
3457, before Christ 547, under the reign of 
Cyrus, and during the captivity of Babylon. 
Vitruvius, mentioning the various kinds 
of dials, places first of all, as most ancient, 
that of Berosus the Chaldsean. Berosus 
lived above three hundred years before 
Christ. He was a priest of Belus at Babylon ; 
and passing thence into Greece, he taught 
astronomy first at Cos, and afterwards 
at Athens. His history contained astro- 
nomical observations for 480 years, which 
carry us higher than the date of Ahaz : but 
we must allow some time for these dials to 
have reached Israel from Babylon, if we 
suppose the invention to be adopted at that 
period of time. 

Interpreters differ concerning the form 
of the dial of Ahaz, (2 Kings xx.) The 
generality of expositors think that it 
was a stair- case so disposed, that the sun 
showed the hours upon it by the shadow. 
Others suppose, that it was a pillar erected 
in the middle of a very level and smooth 
pavement, on which the hours were en- 
graven. According to these authors, the 
lines marked on this pavement are what 
the Scripture calls degrees. Grotius de- 
scribes it as follows: It was a concave 
hemisphere, and in the midst was a globe, 
the shadow of which fell on several lines, 
engraven in the concavity of the hemis- 
phere ; these lines were twenty-eight in 
number. This description answers pretty 
nearly to that kind of dial, which the 
Greeks called scapha, a boat or hemis- 
phere, the invention (rather introduction) 
of which Vitruvius ascribes to Berosus 
the Chaidseap. It would seem, indeed, 
that the most ancient sun-dial known is 
in the form of a half circle, hollowed into 
the stone, and the stone cut down to an 



DIA 



DIO 



angle. This kind of dial was invented in 
Babylon, and was very probably the same 
as that of Ahaz. It appears, that on some 
ancient sun-dials in the East, every hour 
is divided into three parts, which, varying 
with the season, contain from twenty to 
twenty-four of our minutes each, according 
to the length of the day. These divisions 
are called ghuri. Now, supposing that 
the dial of Ahaz was in the form of a 
half circle, and that each hour was di- 
vided into three parts, the shadow in the 
morning would move down till it would 
be nearly noon when Isaiah spake to He- 
zekiah. Perhaps Isaiah had said, that 
Hezekiah should die at noon, as his sick- 
ness was in its nature mortal. If so, 
Isaiah's instant return was necessary, and 
the instant beginning of the shadow to 
retrograde. The shadow retrograded then 
ten stations or degrees, or one-fourth of 
the circle ; and having reached this station, 
it thence re-assumed, and re-accomplished, 
its natural course. This sign aptly al- 
luded to the period of Hezekiah's life : 
Hezekiah was not quite thirty years of 
age, the meridian of life ; the shadow 
going back one quarter of a circle added 
to his days fifteen years, so that he died 
about the age of forty-five years. He 
did not entirely reach the semicircle of 
the dial ; but he stopped short at one quar- 
ter's distance of the sun-setting, or even- 
ing of life. Commentators are divided 
in opinion respecting the retrogradation 
on the shadow of this dial, and the man- 
ner of it, whether the sun did really go 
back, or whether the reflection of his 
rays was occasioned by some cloud formed 
suddenly, which produced this effect su- 
pernaturally. The opinion of the an- 
cients, both Jews and Christians, was, 
that this miracle was wrought not on the 
shadow, but on the body of the sun ; 
or, as archbishop Usher expresses it, 
that the sun and all the heavenly bodies 
went back, and as much was taken from 
the night, as was added to this day. On 
the other hand, Le Clerc, Lowth, the 
authors of the Universal History, and 
some others, maintain, that the whole 
miracle was wrought on the dial, and oc- 
casioned only by a reflection of the sun's 
rays, or by a peculiar refraction of the at- 
mosphere for a time, while the sun pro- 
ceeded in its ordinary course. Fragments 
annexed to Calmei's Diet. Nos. ii. p. 5. ; cii. 
P . 3. 

DIA'NA/'Aprc/uc, a celebrated goddess 
of the Heathens, who was honoured espe- 
cially at Ephesus. She was one of the 
twelve superior deities, and was also called 
Hebe, Trivia, and Hecate. In the hea- 
vens she was the moon, on earth Diana, 
and in hell Hecate. She was invoked by 
women in child-birth under the name of 
Lucina. She was painted with a crescent 
358 



upon her head, a bow in her hand, and 
dressed in a hunting habit. She passed for 
a virgin ; and bees were consecrated to 
her. 

Diana of Ephesus was otherwise repre- 
sented. Her statue was covered with 
breasts, sometimes from head to foot ; 
sometimes her bosom only and her belly, 
and all below was a kind of pedestal, adorned 
with heads of stags, dogs, oxen, &c. The 
breasts were an emblem of her fertility, as 
sustaining men and beasts. 

Diana was said to be the daughter of 
Jupiter and Latona, and twin sister to 
Apollo. She was worshipped in Palestine, 
in the times of Isaiah and Jeremiah, under 
the name of Meni, the goddess of months, 
the moon. She was also adored as the 
queen of heaven ; and cakes were offered to 
her on -terraces upon the tops of houses, at 
the corners of the streets, or doors of 
houses. ' The children gather wood, and 
the fathers kindle the fire, and the women 
knead their dough, to make cakes to the 
queen of heaven,' says Jeremiah, (vii. 18.) 
See also Jerem. xi. 13. ; xliv. 17, 18. Ezek. 
xvi. 25. 

D I'N AH, n3*i, signifies judgment, or who 
judges, and was the name of the daughter 
of Jacob and Leah. (Gen. xxx. 21.) She 
was born after Zebulun, about the year of 
the world 2250. When Jacob returned 
into the land of Canaan, Dinah, who was 
at that time about the age of fifteen or 
sixteen, had the curiosity to attend a fes- 
tival of the Shechemites, and see the wo- 
men of the country. (Gen. xxxiv. 1, 2.) 
Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, prince 
of the city, having seen her, conceived a 
great affection for her, and ravished her. 
He afterwards desired his father Hamor 
to procure this young woman for his wife. 
Dinah's brothers being informed of what 
had passed, were strongly exasperated. 
They offered insidious proposals to She- 
chem, to his father Hamor, and to the 
inhabitants of their city, whom they after- 
wards slew and plundered, and thus re- 
venged the affront offered to their sister. 
All this they performed without the know- 
ledge of their father Jacob, who cursed 
them for their conduct. What became of 
Dinah after this affair is unknown. The 
Hebrews assert, that she was married to 
Job ; but of this there is no proof. May 
not this opinion, however, suggest their 
idea of Dinah's inconsiderate character? 
See Job ii. 9. 

DIOCESE, the circuit of every bishop's 
jurisdiction. It is derived from the Greek 
word Sio'iKnaig, government. In the first 
century, the bishops who resided in large 
and populous cities, prompted by the neigh- 
bouring converts, whose attendance on 
public worship was always" inconvenient, 
and sometimes impossible, erected new 
churches in the adjacent towns and vil- 



DIR 



DIS 



lages. These naturally continuing under 
their care and inspection, the districts grew 
imperceptibly into ecclesiastical provinces, 
and obtained the name of dioceses. Gre- 
gory's History of the Christian Church, vol. 
i. p. 50. 

DIRECTORY, a kind of regulation for 
the performance of religious worship, drawn 
up by the assembly of divines in England, 
at the instance of the parliament, in 1645 
It was intended to supply the use of the 
Liturgy, or Book of Common Prayer, the 
use of which had been abolished. It pre- 
scribed no form of prayer, or circum- 
stances of external worship, and did not 
oblige the people to any responses except 
Amen. 

The Directory enjoins, that the peo- 
ple shall enter the churches reverently, 
and in a grave and becoming manner, with- 
out adoration, or bowing towards one place 
or another ; that the minister is to begin 
with prayer, to which all present are 
to give due attention, and to abstain from 
all private conferences or salutations ; that 
the reading of the Scriptures in the con- 
gregation, which is a part of the worship 
of God, be performed by the pastors 
and teachers ; that all the canonical books 
of the Old and New Testament, but none 
of those called Apocryphal, be publicly 
read in the vulgar tongue, and in the best 
allowed translation ; that the portion to 
be read at once be left to the minister, 
but that commonly one chapter of each 
Testament be read at every meeting ; 
that all the canonical books be read over 
in order, that the people may be the 
better acquainted with the Scriptures ; 
that when the minister shall judge it ne- 
cessary to expound any part of what is 
read, he is not to begin his exposition till 
the whole chapter or psalm be ended, and 
that after reading the Scripture, and sing- 
ing the psalm, the minister who preaches 
is to begin with prayer. It then prescribes 
heads for the prayer ; enjoins that the 
subject of the sermon be a text of Scrip- 
ture, which teaches some principle or 
head of religion, or is otherwise suitable 
to the occasion ; and recommends that 
the introduction to the text be brief and 
perspicuous, and drawn from the words 
or context, or from some parallel passage 
of Scripture. In dividing the text, the 
minister is to regard the order of the mat- 
ter, rather than that of the words ; he is 
not to burden the memory of his hearers 
with too many divisions, nor perplex their 
understandings with logical phrases, and 
terms of art ; he is chiefly to insist on 
those doctrines which are principally in- 
tended, and most likely to edify his hear- 
ers ; he is not to propose nor answer any 
unnecessary objections, but to confute 
error, and satisfy the judgments of his 
audience; and he is to be very sparing in 
359 



quotations from ecclesiastical or other 
human writers, ancient or modern, &c. 
The Directory recommends the use of 
the Lord's Prayer, as a perfect model of 
devotion. It forbids private or lay per- 
sons to administer baptism, and enjoins 
it to be performed in the face of the con- 
gregation. It orders, that the communion- 
table at the Lord's Supper be so conve- 
niently placed, that the communicants 
may sit about it. It enjoins that the Sab- 
bath be observed with the greatest strict- 
ness, both in public and private ; that mar- 
riage be solemnized by a lawful minister 
of the word, who is to give counsel to, and 
pray for the parties ; that the minister 
teach the people not only in public, but in 
private ; that the sick be visited by the 
minister, under whose charge they are, 
and who shall administer spiritual good 
to their souls; that the dead be buried 
without any prayers or religious ceremo- 
nies ; that days of fasting be observed 
when the judgments of God are abroad 
in the world, or when some important 
blessings are desired ; that days of thanks- 
giving for mercies received be also kept ; 
and, lastly, that as it is the duty of 
Christians to praise God publicly, the 
whole congregation join together in singing 
psalms. 

In an Appendix to this Directory, it 
is enjoined, that all festivals, vulgarly 
called holy days, be abolished, and that 
no day be observed except the Lord's 
day ; and that, as no place is capable of 
any holiness under pretence of conse- 
cration, or subject to pollution by any 
superstition formerly employed, the places 
of worship now used be still continued. 

This Directory, which is still partly, but 
by no means strictly, adhered to by Pres- 
byterians in general, is commonly bound 
with the Westminster Confession of Faith, 
and may be also found at the end of Neale's 
History of the Puritans. 

DISCIPLE. The proper signification 
of this word is well known. Absolutely 
taken, it signifies, in the New Testament, a 
believer, a Christian, a scholar, a follower of 
Christ. It is often used instead of apostle, 
in the Gospels ; but in other places, apos- 
tles are distinguished from disciples. The 
apostles were twelve in number. 

The seventy- two, who followed our Sa- 
viour from the beginning, were called dis- 
ciples ; and this name is also given to those 
who were merely professors, and bore no 
office, and to some who for a time only 
professed to follow Christ 

DISCONTENT, dissatisfaction with 
our condition. Distrust in the Divine 
goodness is the most frequent and the 
most fetal origin of despondency. The 
mind easily brings itself to endure those 
temporal evils and corporeal pangs, ol 
which it feels a rational persuasion that 



DIS 



DIS 



they are designed for its good, and must be 
ultimately subservient to its happiness. 
One of the principal sources of discontent 
is worldly care, of which our Saviour 
seems to attribute the origin to our distrust, 
and which of course will be diminished, in 
proportion as our faith is established in 
the good providence of God. Reproving 
the temporal solicitude of his followers, our 
Saviour says, ' Consider the lilies of the 
field, how they grow, they toil not, neither 
do they spin ; but I say unto you, that 
Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed 
like one of these. If God then so clothe 
the herb of the field, which to-day is, and 
to-morrow is cast into the oven, how much 
more will he clothe you, O ye of little 
faith ? Take, therefore, no anxious thought, 
saying, what shall we eat, or what shall 
we drink, or wherewithal shall we be cloth- 
ed, for your heavenly Father knoweth that 
ye have need of all these things.' (Matt. vi. 
28 — 32.) Our Saviour does not prohibit 
the moderate, but only the immoderate 
pursuit of sensual and perishable things. 
He forbids us to seek them with that rapa- 
city which is the effect of covetousness, or 
the operation of distrust. When we have 
so many tokens of God's goodness, in the 
ample provision he has made for the infe- 
rior, we surely ought not to question his 
affectionate concern for the rational crea- 
tion. He who shows himself so paternally 
mindful of the fowls of the air, and even of 
the flowers of the field, cannot be indiffe- 
rent to the welfare of sentient and intellec- 
tual man ! Besides, is not the life more 
than meat? Is it not absurd to suppose, 
that God should bestow the greater, and 
then refuse the lesser gift ? God has not 
conferred life, without affording the means 
of supporting it. 

In the hour of sickness or misfortune, or 
under any of the manifold afflictions of life, 
we are apt to vent expressions of impati- 
ence, and exclamations of discontent; and 
in our hearts, if not with our lips, we are 
prone to accuse the divine justice or bene- 
ficence. We ought, however, to consider, 
that what God freely gave, he may as freely 
take away ; that health and affluence are 
not so much due to our desert, as the effect 
of his beneficence ; and that therefore we 
ought not to repine at any sufferings or 
deprivations which he, in his wisdom, may 
inflict, even though these visitations of his 
providence had no immediate reference to 
our advantage. But when we consider 
that God, so unbounded in love, never ex- 
poses us to any pain or misery which is 
not expressly designed for our advantage, 
and has a tendency to increase the aggre- 
gate of our enjoyment at some future pe- 
riod of our lives, we have every reason to 
acquiesce, with a cordial satisfaction, even 
in those measures of his government, which 
are, at the time, the most contrary to 



our hopes, and tfte most adverse to our 
inclinations, and to say, even under the 
most grievous pressure of calamity, ' It 
is the Lord, let him do what seemeth him 
good.' 

It is probable that the discontent, which 
is greatest in degree, and most corrosive in 
kind, proceeds not so much from the sense 
of actual ills, as from the dread of those 
which are imaginary; not so much from 
the privation of what is necessary, as from 
the impatient desire of what is superfluous. 
It is a maxim of our Saviour, of which the 
truth is established by common experience, 
that f sufficient for the day is the evil 
thereof.' To vex ourselves about evils 
which may never happen, and of which we 
cannot avert the issue, but may increase 
the pain by anticipation, is not only to 
disquiet ourselves in vain, but to distrust 
the good providence of God, and to lose 
the enjoyment of those things which we 
possess, in the anticipation of calamity 
that we may never experience. It is incon- 
sistent with our trust in the providence of 
God, to anticipate distant and uncertain 
evils; and it behoves us to be satisfied 
with the good before us. 

If our sufferings in this life can be allevi- 
ated, or our condition be improved, by 
our natural exertions, we can reasonably 
impute the hardships which we experience, 
and the consequent discontent which we 
feel, only to ourselves. Why do we com- 
plain of hardships, which, if we will, we 
can remove, or of a disease, which, if we 
will, we can cure ? But if our wretched- 
ness, our indigence, or our pain, be beyond 
the power, or, in this life, beyond the hope 
of cure, still there is a patience, a fortitude, 
not impossible to be exercised, and capable 
of blunting the edge or lessening the pres- 
sure even of irremediable ills. There is a 
force of endurance, and a meekness of resig- 
nation, which both philosophy and religion, 
the perfection of philosophy, inculcate and 
inspire. 

In short, in whatever light we consider 
the subject, we shall find that the grounds of 
our discontent are generally to be attributed 
more to our minds than to our circumstances. 
Though there be much affliction in the world, 
we ought to remember, as Christianity 
teaches, that it is most beneficial to us ; 
that ' whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth;' 
and that whatever the immediate conse- 
quences of adversity may be, it will always 
in the end be found subservient to our 
happiness. The goodness of God is not 
subject to any capricious variations. His 
regard for his creatures is immutable ; and 
their happiness is the object of all his dis- 
pensations. Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol. ii. p. 436, &c. ; Richardson's Divine 
and Moral Essays, Essay xii. 

DISEASES. Diseases and death are 
the consequences of sin : this idea of them 



DIS 



DIS 



we receive from Scripture. The ancient 
Hebrews, who were not much accustomed 
to recur to physical causes, frequently im- 
puted diseases to evil spirits. If their 
infirmities appeared unusual, and especially 
if their cause was unknown to them, they 
concluded it was a blow from the avenging 
hand of God : to him the wisest and most 
religious had recourse for cure ; and king 
Asa is blamed for placing his confidence in 
physicians, under a very painful fit of the 
gout in his feet, and for not applying to the 
Lord. (2 Chron. xvi. 12.) Job's friends 
ascribed all his distempers to God's justice. 
Leprosies were treated as sacred diseases ; 
the priests judged of their nature and 
qualities, shut up the diseased, and declared 
them to be healed or still affected with 
leprosy. Miriam, Gehazi, and king Uzziah, 
were suddenly smitten with a leprosy : 
the first as a punishment for detraction ; 
the second, for avarice ; and the third, for 
presumption. 

In the Gospel many diseases are ascribed 
to the devil. ' Ought not this woman, being 
a daughter of Abraham, whom Satan hath 
bound, lo, these eighteen years, be loosed 
from this bond on the sabbath-day?' (Luke 
xiii. 16.) The same person is mentioned 
as having a spirit of infirmity, (ver. 11.) 
We hear of a dumb devil, and of another 
that could scarcely speak, that is, of demons 
who caused these infirmities ; and whenever 
Jesus Christ, or his apostles, restored such 
persons to health, they began with driving 
out the devil, and the cure of the person 
was quickly accomplished. 

St. Paul delivers the incestuous Corin- 
thian to Satan, ' for the destruction of his 
flesh/ that the evil spirit might afflict him 
with diseases. (1 Cor. v. 5.) The same 
apostle attributes the deaths and diseases 
of many Corinthians to their communi- 
cating unworthily. (1 Cor. xi. 30.) He 
also ascribes the infirmities with which he 
was afflicted to an evil angel: — ' a thorn in 
the flesh, the messenger of Satan, to buffet 
me.' (2 Cor. xii. 7-) An angel of death 
slew the first-born of the Egyptians ; a de- 
stroying angel wasted Sennacherib's army; 
and an avenging angel smote with a pesti- 
lence the people of Israel after David's sin. 
Saul fell into a fit of deep melancholy, an 
hypochondriacal depression ; and it is 
said, that • an evil spirit seized him.' 
Abimelech, king of Gerar, for taking Sarah, 
the wife of Abraham, was threatened with 
death. (Gen. xx. 3, 4.) The Philistines 
were smitten with an ignominious disease, 
because they did not treat the ark with 
adequate respect. These diseases, and 
others of which we read, were evident inter- 
positions of Providence, by whatever agency 
they were produced. 

DISSENTER is a very comprehensive 
negative term, and denotes every religionist, 
of whatever denomination, who dissents or 
361 



separates from the worship and commu- 
nion of the established church. Dissenters 
from the Church of England first ap- 
peared about the year 1565, in the reign 
of queen Elizabeth, when, from their re- 
fusing to subscribe to the articles, &c. 
and from their professing extraordinary 
purity in religious worship and conduct, 
they were reproached with the name of 
Puritans. Indeed, there were men of this 
description in the time of Edward VI. ; but 
that name was not given them before the 
sixth year of Elizabeth. By the Act of 
Uniformity, which took place on Bartho- 
lomew's Day, 1662, the Dissenters were 
greatly increased ; for two thousand minis- 
ters thought themselves in conscience 
obliged to quit the established church and 
refused to conform to certain conditions, 
whence they obtained the name of Non-con- 
formists. During the last century, their 
descendants have been usually called Pro- 
testant Dissenters, a moderate appellation, 
sanctioned by Acts of Parliament, and 
originally given at the Revolution, when 
they first received a legal security, by 
having the Act of Toleration extended to 
them. This Act, as amended by an Act 
passed in the fifty-third of his majesty 
king George the Third, includes Dis- 
senters of every denomination ; but the 
name Protestant Dissenters is now ge- 
nerally confined, or rather perhaps was 
at first given, to the three denominations 
of Presbyterians, Independents, and Bap- 
tists. 

It appears from Neale's History of the 
Puritans, that the sufferings of the Dissen- 
ters at different times have been exceeded 
only by their religious zeal. Ever since 
their first separation from the church, vari- 
ous disputes have arisen between Church- 
men and Dissenters ; and these disputes 
have not unfrequently been carried on with 
some degree of warmth on both sides. The 
Puritans first objected to the order of bishops, 
the liturgy, the clerical dress, the sign of 
the cross in baptism, &c. ; and the gene- 
ral principles on which their descendants 
declare that they dissent from the Church 
of England, are no other than those on 
which she separated from the Church of 
Rome. These principles are reduced by 
Mr. Evans to three : first, ' The right of 
private judgment ;' secondly, ' Liberty of 
conscience ;' and thirdly, ' The perfection 
of Scripture as a Christian's only rule 
of faith and practice.' 

The Test Act, which was passed in the 
reign of Charles II., excluded all from 
places of trust and profit under government, 
except those who took the oaths of allegi- 
ance and supremacy, made the declaration 
against transubstantiation, and received the 
sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to 
the usage of the Church of England, within 
six months after their appointment. This 



DIS 



DIS 



last qualification was considered by many of 
the Dissenters as burdensome to the consci- 
ence. Hence loud complaints were made 
respecting this exclusion, since, ' as mem- 
bers of the civil community, they conceived 
themselves entitled to all the common privi- 
leges of that community.' This Act, indeed, 
was originally intended against the Roman 
Catholics, of whom several had been pro- 
moted by the court ; but it was so expressed 
as to exclude also the Protestant Dissenters, 
who made several unsuccessful applications 
for its repeal. In 1787, the question was 
warmly agitated in the House of Commons; 
and numerous publications on each side 
issued from the press. In 1828, the Dissen- 
ters were more successful ; and an Act was 
passed for repealing so much of several Acts 
as imposed the necessity of receiving the sa- 
crament of the Lord's Supper as a qualifica- 
tion for certain offices and employments.' 
By this Act, in lieu of the sacramental test, a 
declaration is to be made, signed, and sub- 
scribed, in the presence of such person or 
persons who ought to administer the oath for 
the due execution of the offices or places. 
The person appointed to any office, or place, 
is *■ solemnly and sincerely, in the presence 
of God, to profess, testify, and declare, upon 
the true faith of a Christian, that he will 
never exercise any power, authority, or influ- 
ence, which he may possess by virtue of the 
said office, to injure or weaken the Pro- 
testant Church as it is by law established in 
England, or to disturb the said Church, or 
the Bishops and Clergy of the said Church, 
in the possession of any rights or privileges 
to which such Church, or the said Bishops 
and Clergy, are or may be by law entitled.' 
In neglect of making and subscribing this 
declaration, it is not lawful for any person 
to execute the office or place to which he is 
appointed ; and every person who shall be 
admitted into any office or employment, 
which before the passing of this Act required 
him to take the Sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper according to the usage of the Church 
of England, is to make and subscribe the 
said declaration within six months, or his* 
appointment to be wholly void. This Act did 
not pass without much debate. The principal 
argument urged for the continuance of the 
Test Act, was ' the safety of the Established 
Church ;' and the chief arguments for its 
repeal were, that it is 'a prostitution of the 
Lord's Supper,' and that ' to withhold civil 
rights on account of religious opinions, is a 
species of persecution.' 

By the Act of Toleration, which was 
passed at the Revolution, the statutes of 
Queen Elizabeth, and of King James I., 
concerning the discipline of the church, 
were not to extend to Protestant Dissen- 
ters, who were by this means exempted from 
suffering the penalties which the law in- 
flicted, and permitted, on certain condi- 
tions, to worship God according to their 
362 



own consciences. The conditions by 
which the Act was limited, and to which 
the Dissenters themselves in general con- 
sented, are as follows: all dissenting minis- 
ters are required ' not only to take the 
oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to 
make the declaration against popery, but 
also to subscribe to the doctrinal articles 
of the Church of England ;' they are not 
to hold their meetings till their place of 
worship is certified to the bishop of the 
diocese, or to the justices of the quarter 
sessions, and registered, and not to keep 
the doors of their meeting-houses locked 
during the time of worship ; and to secure 
to them the free exercise of their religion, 
whoever disturbs or molests them in the 
performance of divine worship, on con- 
viction at the sessions, is to forfeit 201., by 
the statute first of William and Mary. 
As this Act provided no relief to dissenting 
tutors and school-masters, who, before 
they could be legally qualified to keep a 
school, or instruct youth, were obliged to 
obtain a licence from the archbishop, 
bishop, or ordinary, and to make a declara- 
tion of conformity to the church of Eng- 
land; and as the subscription to the doc- 
trinal articles of the established church 
was afterwards considered by the Dissen- 
ters as another grievance ; the Dissenters 
applied to parliament in 1772, and again 
in 1773, without effect, for the redress of 
these grievances. However, without any 
farther application on their part, an Act 
of Parliament passed in 1779 5 ' by which 
the benefits of the Toleration Act were 
granted to Protestant Dissenting ministers 
and school-masters, on condition of their 
taking the oaths of allegiance and supre- 
macy, making the declaration against 
popery, and declaring their belief of 
the Holy Scriptures as containing a divine 
revelation.' By an Act passed in the 52d 
year of his majesty George the Third, seve- 
ral former acts are repealed, and the follow- 
ing regulations substituted : 'All places for 
religious worship shall be certified and re- 
gistered, and every person knowingly per- 
mitting such assembly to meet in any place 
not registered, to forfeit not exceeding 201. 
nor less than 20s. ; any person preaching in 
a place, without the owner's consent, to for- 
feit not more than 30Z. nor less than 40s. ; 
and preachers and persons resorting to reli- 
gious assemblies so certified and registered, 
are exempted from penalties in 1 William 
and Mary, and preachers on taking the 
oaths in 19 George the Third, from civil 
offices and the militia.' By an Act passed in 
the 53d year of his majesty George the 
Third, so much of the Act of Toleration as 
provides that the said Act should not extend 
to give any ease, benefit, or advantage to 
persons denying the Trinity, is repealed ; 
and the provisions of another Act, passed in 
the ninth and tenth years of King William, 



DIS 



DIS 



and intituled, ' An Act for the more effectu- 
ally suppressing Blasphemy and Profane- 
ness,' so far as relates to persons denying 
the Trinity, are also repealed. 

Dissenting ministers, except those of the 
Particular Baptists, are, in general, wholly 
supported by the voluntary contributions 
of their congregations. They may per- 
form any clerical function, except that of 
marriage, which, by an Act of Parliament, 
is limited to parish churches, and the es- 
tablished clergy only. Their baptisms are 
registered in a book, in the public library 
of Dissenters, in Red Cross Street, London ; 
and, by Act of Parliament, these registers are 
held valid in law. They are not entitled to 
a steeple and bells for their places of wor- 
ship ; and Jews, Quakers, and all denomina- 
tions of Dissenters, must, as well as the 
members of the established church, pay their 
church rates and tithes, and serve parish 
offices, or forfeit the penalty. 

As a body, the Dissenters are not more 
respectable in point of numbers, than of 
virtue and talents. Among them have ap- 
peared many, who have been eminently 
conspicuous for both piety and learning ; 
and those of the present time by no means 
seem to discredit their predecessors. Among 
their ornaments may be reckoned Baxter, 
Bates, Howe, Owen, Williams, Neale, 
Henry, Stennet, Evans, Gale, Foster, Le- 
land, Grosvenor, Watts, Lardner, Abernethy, 
Doddridge, Grove, Chandler, Gill, Orton, 
Furneaux, Farmer, Towgood, Robinson, 
Price, Kippis, and Priestley. Adam's Religi- 
ous World, vol. iii. p. 33, &c. Evans's Sketch, 
p. 127- &c. ; Brewster's Secular Essay, pp. 
261, 275, &c. 

DISSOLUTION of the World is an 
article of our faith, frequently alluded to in 
the Old, and clearly predicted in the New 
Testament. It is an article of faith so far 
from being incredible, that many appear- 
ances in nature lead to its belief. All ter- 
restrial substances change their form; and 
nothing which consists of matter is formed 
for perpetual duration. Every thing around 
us is impaired and consumed by time, waxes 
old by degrees, and tends to decay. There 
is reason, therefore, to believe, that a struc- 
ture, so complex as the world, must be liable 
to the same law, and shall, at some period, 
undergo the same fate. It appears, from 
various proofs, that a great portion of what 
is now dry land, was once covered with water. 
Continents bear the marks of having been 
violently rent, and torn asunder from each 
other. New islands, thrown up by the force 
of subterraneous fire, have risen from the 
bottom of the ocean. In different quarters, 
formidable earthquakes have shaken the 
globe, and at this hour terrify many parte 
of it with their alarms. For ages, burning 
mountains have been discharging torrents 
of flame ; and, from time to time, they re- 
new their explosions in various regions. 
3G3 



All these circumstances show, that in the 
bowels of the earth the instruments of its 
dissolution are formed. To our view, 
who behold only its surface, it may ap- 
pear firm and unshaken ; whilst its de- 
struction is preparing in secret. The 
ground on which we tread is undermined. 
Combustible materials are stored. The 
train is laid. When the mine is to spring 
none of us can foresee. The Scripture 
mentions the presages of the approaching 
fatal day ; ' There shall be signs in the 
sun, and in the moon, and in the stars ; and 
upon the earth distress of nations, with per- 
plexity ; the sea and the waves roaring." 
(Luke xxi. 25.) The race of nten then 
living shall clearly perceive, that universal 
nature is tending to ruin. They shall feel 
the globe shake ; shall behold their cities 
fall ; and the final conflagration begin to 
kindle around them. 

The Supreme Being will direct the dis- 
solution, as he directed the original for- 
mation, of the world. He is the great 
agent in this wonderful transaction. By 
him it was foreseen ; by him it was in- 
tended ; and it entered into his plan from 
the moment of creation. From the begin- 
ning, this world was destined to fulfil a 
certain period, when its duration was to 
terminate. This dissolution is thus de- 
scribed by Moses: 'A fire is kindled in 
mine anger, and shall burn unto the lowest 
hell, and shall consume the earth with her 
increase, and set on fire the foundations 
of the mountains." The prophet Isaiah says, 
' Lift up your eyes to the heavens, and 
look upon the earth beneath ; for the 
heavens shall vanish away like smoke, 
and the earth shall wax old like a garment, 
and they that dwell therein shall die in 
like manner.' St Paul assures us, ' that 
the Lord Jesus shall be revealed from 
heaven, with his mighty angels, in flaming 
fire, taking vengeance on them that know 
not God, and that obey not the Gospel of 
our Lord Jesus Christ.' St. Peter also 
expressly tells us, ' that the heavens and 
the earth which are now, are kept in store, 
reserved unto fire against the day of 
judgment, and perdition of ungodly men ; 
and that the day of the Lord will come 
as a thief in the night, in which the 
heavens will pass away with a great noise, 
and the elements shall melt with fervent 
heat, the earth also, and the works that 
are therein, shall be burnt up.' The dis- 
solution of the world by fire is one of the 
most ancient traditions, and an opinion 
that has universally prevailed. It was 
sung of by poets. The ancient philoso- 
phers, of different sects and countries, 
taught that lire and water wire the two 
elements which should destroy the world , 
and that as God Buffered the waters to 
overflow the eanh, bo he will permit fire 
to consume the habitable globe. This was 



DIV 



DIV 



the commonly received opinion, and the 
ancient belief of the heathen part of man- 
kind. 

The Almighty saw it meet, that after the 
probationary course was finished, which 
the generations of men were to accomplish, 
their present habitation should be made to 
pass away. The dissolution of the world 
will be the introduction to a greater and 
nobler system in the government of God. 
' We look, according to his promise, for a 
new heaven and a new earth, wherein 
dwelleth righteousness.' Temporal things 
will give place to things eternal. ' Seeing 
then that all these things shall be dissolved, 
what manner of persons ought we to be in 
all holy conversation and godliness?' The 
important discoveries which have been 
made to us of the designs of the Almighty, 
and of the destiny of man, ought to exalt 
our sentiments, and purify our life from 
what is vicious or vain. Whilst we pursue 
the business and cares of our present sta- 
tion, and partake of the innocent pleasures 
which the world affords, let us maintain 
that dignity of character which becomes us 
as immortal beings; let us study to be what 
we would wish to be found, if to us the day 
of the Lord should come. Many prophe- 
cies yet remain to be fulfilled, many prepa- 
ratory events must take place, before the 
world is ripe for final judgment; but the 
day of death is to every one the same as 
the day of the dissolution of the world. 
Blair's Sermons, Serm. 50. ; Warner's Sys- 
tem of Divinity and Morality, vol. iv. p. 
341. 

DIVINATION, a conjecture or surmise, 
formed concerning future events, from 
things which are supposed to presage 
them. 

The eastern people were always fond of 
divination, magic, the curious arts of in- 
terpreting dreams, and of obtaining a 
knowledge of future events. When Moses 
published the law, this disposition had long 
been common in Egypt, and the neighbour- 
ing countries. To prevent the Israelites 
from consulting diviners, fortune-tellers, 
interpreters of dreams, &c. he forbade 
them, under very severe penalties, to con- 
sult persons of this description, and pro- 
mised to them the true spirit of prophecy 
as infinitely superior. He commanded 
those to be stoned who pretended to have 
a familiar spirit, or the spirit of divination. 
(Deut. xviii. 9, 10, 11.) The writings of 
the prophets are full of invectives against 
the Israelites who consulted diviners, and 
against false prophets who by such means 
seduced the people. 

Divination was of several kinds, by wa- 
ter, fire, earth, air ; by the flight of birds, 
and their singing ; by lots, by dreams, and 
by the wand, &c. 

DIVORCE, or repudiation, is the disso- 
lution of marriage, or the separation of 
36-4 



husband and wife. Moses tolerated di- 
vorce for very good reasons. ' When a 
man hath taken a wife, and married her, 
and it come to pass that she find no fa- 
vour in his eyes, because he hath found 
some uncleanness in her, then let him write 
her a bill of divorcement, and give it in 
her hand, and send her out of his house.' 
(Deut. xxiv. 1, 2, &c.) Commentators are 
much divided on the sense of these words, 
' because he hath found some uncleanness,' 
or, as it is in the Hebrew, ' matter of na- 
kedness in her.' The school of Shammah, 
who lived a little before our Saviour, 
taught that it imported some action really 
infamous, and inconsistent with virtue. On 
the contrary, the school of Hillel, Sham- 
mah's disciple, taught that small reasons 
authorized divorce ; for instance, if the wife 
did not dress meat well, or if the husband 
found any other woman whom he liked 
better. Akibah, another famous Rabbin, 
was still more indulgent than Hillel. He 
explained the text of Moses thus, ' If she 
find no favour in his eyes;' this was the 
first reason : the second was, ' If he find any 
uncleanness in her.' Josephus and Philo 
show sufficiently, that in their time the 
Jews practised divorce for very trivial 
causes. That the Pharisees explained this 
toleration of Moses in the same extensive 
manner, is evident from the question which 
they proposed to our Saviour, ' Is it lawful 
for a man to put away his wife for every 
cause V (Matt. xix. 3.) Our Saviour, in 
answer, referred them to the first institu- 
tion of marriage, and shows that such di- 
vorce was a transgression of the moral law, 
and therefore a sin against God. In an- 
other place, he limits divorce to the single 
case of adultery : ' Whosoever shall put 
away his wife, except it be for fornication, 
and shall marry another, committeth adul- 
tery.' (Matt. v. 32.) These words of our 
Saviour have been interpreted different 
ways. Some by adultery, or fornication, 
have understood any kind of great crimes, 
idolatry, infidelity, &c. which in Scripture 
are frequently called fornication : but al- 
most all interpreters have taken our Sa- 
viour's words in their literal sense. 

The late Dr. Paley observes, that the 
law of Moses, for reasons of local expe- 
diency, permitted the Jewish husband to 
put away his wife ; but whether for every 
cause, or for what cause, appears to have 
been controverted amongst the interpret- 
ers of those times. Christ, the precepts 
of whose religion were calculated for more 
general use and observance, revokes his 
permission as given to the Jews for their 
hardness of heart, and promulges a law 
which was thenceforward to confine di- 
vorces to the single case of adultery in the 
wife. (Matt. xix. 9.) — Inferior causes may 
justify the separation of husband and wife, 
although they will not authorize such a dis- 



DIV 



DOC 



solution of the marriage contract as would 
leave either at liberty to marry again ; for 
it is that liberty in which the danger and 
mischief of divorces principally consist 
The law of this country, in conformity to 
our Saviour's injunction, confines the dis- 
solution of the marriage contract to the 
single case of adultery in the wife ; and 
a divorce even in that case can only be 
effected by an Act of Parliament founded 
on a previous sentence in the spiritual 
court, and a verdict against the adul- 
terer at common law. These proceedings, 
taken together, compose as complete an in- 
vestigation of the complaint as a cause can 
receive. 

Among the Jews, divorces have become 
less common since their dispersion among 
nations which do not permit the dissolu- 
tion of marriage on light occasions ; yet, 
some divorces obtain among the Jews. To 
prevent the Jewish men from abusing their 
liberty of divorcing, the Rabbins appoint 
many formalities, which consume much 
time, and give the married couple leisure 
to be reconciled. When there is no hope 
of accommodation, a woman, a deaf man, 
or a notary, draws the letter of divorce. 
He writes it in the presence of one or more 
Kabbins, on vellum which is ruled, and 
contains only twelve lines, in square let- 
ters ; and abundance of little trifling parti- 
culars are observed, as well in the charac- 
ters as in the manner of writing, and in 
the names and surnames of the husband 
and wife. Besides, neither he who writes 
the letter, nor the Rabbins, nor the wit- 
nesses, ought to be relations either to the 
husband or wife, or to one another. The 
substance of this letter, which they call 
Gheth, is as follows : ' On such a day, 
month, year, and place, I N. divorce you 
voluntarily, put you away, restore you to 
your liberty, even you N. who were here- 
tofore my wife, and I permit you to marry 
whom you please.' The letter being written, 
the Rabbi examines the husband closely, 
in order to learn whether he acts from vo- 
luntary inclination in divorcing his wife. 
The Jews endeavour to have at least ten 
persons present at this action, without 
reckoning the two witnesses who sign, and 
two other witnesses to the date. If the 
Rabbi finds the husband fully determined, 
he commands the wife to open her hands, 
and bring them close to each other, in order 
to receive the deed, lest it fall to the ground. 
He then examines the wife again ; and the 
husband gives her the parchment, and de- 
clares her free. Afterwards, the Rabbi 
cautions the woman against marrying 
within three months, lest she should be 
with child. From this time the man and 
woman are not to continue in private to- 
gether in any place, and either of them 
may marry again. 

Among the Jews, a girl betrothed under 
365 



ten j r ears of age, whether she has a father 
or not, if her husband be not agreeable to 
her, may be unmarried at any time previ- 
ously to her reaching the age of twelve 
years and a day, at which period she is re- 
puled a woman. She declares that she is 
not willing to have such a person for her 
husband, and takes two witnesses of this 
declaration, who authenticate it in writing ; 
after which, she may marry whom she 
pleases. Paleifs Moral and Polit. Philoso- 
phy, vol. i. p. 327, edit. 1810. 

DOCTOR, or teacher, of the law, may 
perhaps be distinguished from scribe, as 
teaching vivd voce, rather than giving 
written opinions. When the expression 
' counsel in the law ' is used among us, it is 
not easy to divest ourselves of the idea that 
the political law, and administration of the 
country, are intended ; but if we could re- 
strict the phrase to learned in the divine law, 
we should not be far from forming a toler- 
ably accurate conception of the doctors of 
the law in Judea. They had studied the 
law of Moses in its various branches, and 
the numerous comments which had arisen 
from it, or had been grafted on it, in later 
times ; and, on various occasions, they gave 
their opinion on cases referred to them for 
advice. Nicodemus, himself a doctor (di- 
d&GKcikog, teacher) of the law, comes to 
consult Jesus, whom he compliments in 
the same terms as he was accustomed to 
receive from his clients : ' Rabbi, we know 
that thou art didascalos, a competent 
teacher, from God ;' and he probably 
added, ' What is your opinion of such and 
such matters V As if he had said, ' Our 
glosses have been too much strained, and 
have never satisfied my mind ; I am de- 
sirous of hearing your sentiments.' In 
like manner, our Lord, (Luke ii. 46.) not 
only heard the opinions of the doctors, 
but asked them questions, and examined 
their answers whether they were agree- 
able to the law of God; and the doctors 
were in ecstasies at the intelligence of his 
mind, and the propriety of his language and 
replies. 

Doctors of the law were chiefly of the 
sect of the Pharisees : but they are some- 
times distinguished from that sect. (Luke 
v. 17-) Doctors, or teachers, are men- 
tioned among divine gifts. (Ephes. iv. 11.) 
It would seem that the apostle, in this 
place, does not mean such ordinary teach- 
ers (or pastors) as the church now pos- 
sesses ; but as he reckons them among 
the extraordinary gifts of God, and uses 
no mark of distinction between the apos- 
tles and them, he appears to refer to the 
nature of the office of the Jewish doctors, 
as above stated. He probably meant well- 
informed persons, to whom inquiring 
Christian converts might have recourse, 
for clearing their doubts and difficulties, and 
for receiving from Scripture thedemonstru- 



DOG 



DOM 



tion that ' this is the very Christ.' Such 
a gift would he very serviceable in that 
infant state of the church; which, indeed, 
without it, would have seemed, in this 
particular, inferior to the Jewish institu- 
tions. With this agrees the distinction 
between doctors (teaching, didaaicajv) and 
exhorters. (Rom. xii. 7-) As if the 
apostle had said, ' He who gives advice 
privately, and resolves doubts, &c. let him 
attend to that duty ; he who exhorts with 
a loud voice (7rapaKaXwv), let him ex- 
hort ' his hearers, with proper piety. In 
another place (1 Cor. xii. 28.) the same 
apostle ranges, first, apostles, public in- 
structors ; secondly, prophets, occasional 
instructors ; thirdly, didascalous, doctors, or 
teachers, private instructors. Supplem. 
Addenda to Calmefs Dictionary. 

DOG, a domestic animal, well known. 
By the law the dog was unclean, and 
was despised among the Jews. To com- 
pare a person to a dog, living or dead, 
was a most degrading expression, and is 
so used by David : (1 Sam. xxiv. 14.) ' After 
whom is the king of Israel come out? 
after whom dost thou pursue ? after a dead 
dog.' Mephibosheth also says, (2 Sam. ix. 
8.) ' What is thy servant, that thou 
shouldest look upon such a dead dog as 
I am?' 

The name of dog is also used for one 
who has lost all modesty ; one who prosti- 
tutes himself to abominable actions. In 
this sense several understand the injunc- 
tion (Deut. xxiii. 18.) of not offering ' the 
hire of a whore, or the price of a dog.' 
Christ in the Revelation (xxii. 15.) ex- 
cludes ' dogs, sorcerers, whoremongers, and 
idolaters,' &c. St. Paul (Philip, iii. 2.) 
says, ' Beware of dogs,' of impudent, sor- 
did, greedy professors. Solomon (Prov. 
xxvi. 11.) and St. Peter (2 Pet. ii. 22.) 
compare sinners, who continually relapse 
into sins, to dogs returning to their vomit. 
By the law of Moses, game killed by dogs 
would have been unclean, and not to be 
used. (Levit. xvii. 15.) Dogs are not 
mentioned in Scripture, when hunting is 
spoken of; nor hunting, when dogs are 
mentioned. 

Dog is used for persecutor. (Psalm xxii. 
20.) The Jews gave degrading names to 
other nations, whom they called hogs, (Dan.) 
and dogs. Our Lord, in a certain degree, 
adopts their language to the Syrophceni- 
cian woman, and calls the Jews children, 
and the Gentiles dogs. (Mark vii. 27.) It 
is probable that in Judea formerly, as 
now in the East, dogs had no owners, but 
ran about the streets in troops, and were 
fed by charity, or by caprice, or on such 
offal as they could obtain. They appear to 
have been numerous in Jezreel, when di- 
rected to fulfil the prophecy of Elijah. Sup- 
plem. Addenda to Calmet's Diet. 

DOMINICANS, an order of monks, 

366 



sometimes called Jacobins, sometimes Pre- 
dicatores, or preaching Friars, and in Eng- 
land Black Friars. They were denominated 
Dominicans from their founder Dominic, a 
Spaniard, who was a descendant of the 
illustrious house of Guzman, and regular 
canon ofOsma. He attacked the Albigenses, 
and other enemies of the church, with 
the power of eloquence, the force of arms, 
the subtilty of controversial writings, and 
the terrors of the Inquisition, which owed 
its form to this violent and sanguinary 
priest. He was honoured by the Roman 
pontiffs, Innocent III. and Honorius III., 
with the most distinguished marks of 
favour; and from them he obtained the 
privilege of erecting this new fraternity, 
whose principal design was the extirpation 
of error, and the destruction of heretics. 
The first rule which he adopted for the 
new society was that of the Canons of 
St. Augustin, to which he added several 
austere precepts and observances. After- 
wards he changed the discipline of the 
canons for that of the monks ; and, in a 
chapter of the order at Bologna, in 1220, 
he obliged the brethren to take a vow of 
absolute poverty, and to abandon entirely 
all their revenues and possessions. To this 
vow, however, as a society, they by no 
means adhered. 

The first monastery of this order was 
established at Toulouse, whence Dominic 
sent missionaries to procure converts to 
his rules in every part of Europe. In the 
year 1218, he founded a convent in St. 
James's-street, in Paris ; and hence they 
obtained the name of Jacobins. Within 
four years after, there were upwards of 
forty convents of Dominicans in Italy, 
France, Germany, and Spain. At Rome 
he obtained from pope Honorius III. the 
church of St. Sabina, in which he and his 
companions took the habit that they pre- 
tended the Blessed Virgin showed to the 
holy Renaud of Orleans. This habit was 
composed of a white garment and scapular, 
to which were added a black mantle and 
hood, ending in a point. St. Dominic died 
at Bologna in 1221, and his order increased 
so fast, that they had many convents in 
every European nation. The same year 
in which Dominic died, twelve of his 
followers came over to England, and 
founded a convent at Oxford, and another 
in London. In 1276, the mayor and 
aldermen of London gave them two streets 
near the Thames, where they had a most 
magnificent monastery, of which now no- 
thing remains besides the name, the place 
where it stood being still called Blackfriars. 
There have been of the order of Domi- 
nicans four popes, sixty-three cardinals, 
one hundred and fifty archbishops, and 
eight hundred bishops, besides the lords of 
the Inquisition. 

Of all the monastic orders, none enjoyed 



DON 



DOR 



a higher degree of power and authority 
than the Dominican friars, whose credit 
was great, and their influence universal. 
But the measures they employed to main- 
tain and extend their authority were so 
perfidious and cruel, that their influence 
began to decline towards the beginning of 
the sixteenth century. The Franciscans 
maintained, that the Virgin Mary was 
born without the blemish of original sin ; 
the Dominicans asserted the contrary. 
The tragedy acted at Bern in 1509, for de- 
termining this uninteresting dispute re- 
specting the immaculate conception, reflects 
indelible disgrace on the order of the Domi- 
nicans. They were perpetually employed in 
stigmatizing with the name of heresy num- 
bers of learned and pious men ; in encroach- 
ing upon the rights and properties of 
others, to augment their possessions ; and 
in laying the most iniquitous snares and 
stratagems for the destruction of their 
adversaries. They were the principal 
counsellors, by whose instigation and 
advice Leo X. was determined to the 
public condemnation of Luther. The 
papal see never had more active and 
useful abettors than this order, and that of 
the Jesuits. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iii. 
p. 54. ; Hurti's Hist, of Religious Rites, Cere- 
monies, Sfc. p. 193. 

DONATISTS, a sect that arose in 
Africa about the beginning of the fourth 
century, and derived their name from 
Donatus, their leader. The doctrines of 
this body, however, were strictly con- 
formable to those of the church from 
which they separated. Caecilianus, the 
archdeacon of Carthage, had, on the de- 
mise of the bishop, been consecrated to 
the vacant see by some of the African 
bishops, without waiting for the assent of 
the bishops of Numidia. These offended 
prelates convened a council, consisting of 
seventy bishops, by whom Caecilianus 
was deposed, and Majorinus, his deacon, 
declared his successor. This sentence, 
which divided into factions the Carthaginian 
church, and in fact gave it two bishops at 
the same time, was occasioned by a 
variety of causes, independent of the 
irregularity attending the consecration of 
Caecilianus. Constantine appointed this 
controversy to be examined by the bishop 
of Rome, assisted by three others; and 
the result of their deliberations was 
favourable to Caecilianus. But the resto- 
ration of the degraded bishop was not 
calculated to satisfy the minds of his 
adversaries ; who, headed by Donatus, an 
African bishop, fomented fresh discontents, 
and occasioned the emperor to convene a 
council at Aries, where they were again 
^condemned. Their dissatisfaction still 
continued ; and two years afterwards, 
Constantine, to whom the different parties 
had consented to refer their cause, ap- 
367 



proved the consecration of Caecilianus. 
The resentment and contumely with which 
the Donatists received this decision, 
added to their former behaviour, exaspe- 
rated the emperor so much, that he de- 
prived them of their churches, banished 
the seditious bishops, and even condemned 
to death some of the party. This violent, 
and perhaps imprudent, resentment was 
not calculated to produce peace. The 
Donatists asserted that the apostolical 
succession had been interrupted; that the 
whole ecclesiastical body in Europe and 
Asia was infected with guilt and schism, 
since they held communion with the de- 
praved African church ; that the preserva- 
tion of the catholic church was confined to 
those African believers who had preserved 
their faith and discipline inviolate ; and that 
all communion with other churches ought to 
be avoided, lest they should be contami- 
nated by their impurity. This rigid theory 
was accompanied by conduct equally 
austere. Every proselyte was carefully 
re-baptized and re-ordained ; and all 
who had communicated with other churches 
were obliged to perform public penance, 
previously to their admission into this im- 
maculate church. The Circumcellians, ex- 
asperated by the severe execution of the 
laws of Constantine against the Donatists, 
collected in formidable bodies, assumed the 
titles of captains and saints, rushed out as 
the avengers of those who had been the vic- 
tims of the law, and spread consternation 
and terror throughout the African provinces. 
Constantine, hoping that time might be more 
conducive than force in calming these dis- 
turbances, abrogated the laws against the 
Donatists ; and his son Constans laboured 
earnestly to heal the divisions of the Afri- 
can church. These efforts, however, were in 
vain. Donatus the Great, who had suc- 
ceeded Majorinus, and from whom the 
party derived its name, with the other 
factious prelates, opposed every attempt 
towards a reconciliation. The whole 
party rose in arms, and were defeated by 
the imperial army : numbers fled, a consi- 
derable part were sent into banishment, 
and many were punished with extreme 
severity. The Donatists divided into 
many sects, of whom the Rogatians con- 
tended that the church of Christ ex- 
isted only in their community. Gregory's 
Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. i. p. 197, 
&c 

DORT, Synod of, a national synod 
assembled by the authority of the states- 
general, and held at Dort in 1G18. The 
states, indeed, were not unanimous ; three 
of the seven provinces, namely, Holland, 
Utrecht, and Overyssel, protested against 
the holding of this Synod. The most 
eminent divines of the United Provinces, 
and also deputies from the rlnnvlus of 
England, Scotland, Switzerland, Bremen, 



DOV 



DOW 



Hessia, and the Palatinate, assembled on 
this occasion, in order to decide the con- 
troversy between the Calvinists and the 
Arminians. The leading men among the 
Arminians appeared in this famous assem- 
bly to defend their cause ; and at the head 
of them was Simon Episcopius, professor of 
divinity at Leyden, who had been a disci- 
ple of Arminius, and was justly admired on 
account of his eloquence, his great judg- 
ment, and extensive learning. The synod 
had scarcely commenced its deliberations 
before a dispute on the mode of proceeding 
prevented the conference which the Armi- 
nians had demanded, and obliged the Armi- 
nian party to leave the assembly. The 
Arminians proposed to begin the defence of 
their cause with a refutation of the Calvin- 
istic doctrines, especially that of reproba- 
tion. This proposal was rejected by the 
synod, who determined, that, as the Armi- 
nians were accused of departing from the 
reformed faith, they ought first to justify 
their own opinions by producing proofs 
from Scripture. All means to persuade the 
Arminians to submit to this manner of 
proceeding having failed, they were ba- 
nished the synod for their refusal. How- 
ever, the synod proceeded in their exami- 
nation of the tenets of the Arminians, who 
were pronounced guilty of pestilential 
errors, and condemned as corrupters of the 
true religion. This sentence was followed 
by the excommunication of the Arminians, 
the suppression of their religious assem- 
blies, and the deprivation of their minis- 
ters. 

The supralapsarian doctors were desirous 
of imposing their tenets on the synod, but 
the moderation of the British divines pre- 
vented their establishment. The authority 
of this synod was far from being acknow- 
ledged either in Holland or England. The 
provinces of Friesland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
Guelderland, and Groningen, could not be 
persuaded to adopt its decisions, which were 
also opposed in England by king James I. 
and archbishop Laud. Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. iv. pp. 498, 499 ; v. pp. 13, 14 ; 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. 
ii. p. 494. 

DOVE, a tame bird, declared pure by 
the law. In Leviticus, (xii. 8.) it is or- 
dained, that when a woman went to the 
temple after child-bearing, she should offer 
a lamb, and a dove, or turtle ; or else a 
young pigeon, or a young turtle. (Numb. 
vi. 10.) The lamb was offered as a burnt- 
offering, the pigeon as a sin-offering. If 
she could not afford a lamb, she might offer 
two pigeons or two turtles, of either sex. 
As it was difficult for all who came from 
distant places to bring doves with them, 
the priests permitted the selling of these 
birds in the courts of the temple. One day 
Jesus Christ entered the temple, and with a 
scourge of cords drove out those who traded 
368 



there in pigeons. (Matt. xxi. 12. Mark 
xi. 15.) 

On other occasions, also, birds might be 
offered. The rich offered four-footed ani- 
mals ; but the poor, only pigeons for the 
ceremonies. (Levit. i. 14, 15, &c.) The 
priest took the turtle-dove, and wrung its 
neck. Some expositors think that he 
plucked off the head entirely ; but others 
more truly, that he only wrung the neck. 

The dove is used as a symbol of simpli- 
city and innocence. At the baptism of Je- 
sus, the Holy Spirit appeared in the form 
of a dove. (Malt. iii. 16.) Jesus Christ 
recommends to his disciples the wisdom of 
the serpent, and the harmlessness of the 
dove. (Matt. x. 16.) The prophet Hosea, 
(vii. 11.) compares the Israelites to a silly 
dove, which had no heart or understanding. 
The spouse in the Canticles is compared to 
a dove, by reason of her innocence, gentle- 
ness, and fidelity. Noah sent a dove out 
of the ark to discover whether the waters 
?f the deluge were abaied. (Gen. viii. 8. 
10.) He chose a dove, which is a tame 
bird, and an enemy to carrion and ordure. 

It is said in the Second Book of Kings, 
(vi. 25.) that, during the siege of Samaria, 
the fourth part of a cab (a little more than 
half a pint) of dove's dung was sold for five 
pieces of silver, or about twelve shillings. 
It is well known that dove's dung is not a 
nourishment for man. Josephus and The- 
odoret were of opinion, that this dove's 
dung was bought instead of salt, to serve as 
a kind of manure, for the purpose of raising 
esculent plants of quick vegetation. The 
Rabbins think it was not the dung of pi- 
geons, but the corn in their crops, which 
they had gathered in the fields, whither, 
during the siege, they went to feed. Junius 
and Fuller suppose the dove's belly to be 
meant. Bochart thinks, that we should 
understand a sort of moss growing on trees. 
The general opinion of writers, since Bo- 
chart, is, that this signifies a kind of chick- 
pea, or tare, which has very much the ap- 
pearance of dove's dung, and might thence 
be so named. In the Arab writers, the 
words kali and ugnen denote equally the 
dung of pigeons and chick-peas. Great 
quantities of chick-peas are sold in Cairo, 
to the pilgrims going to Mecca. At Da- 
mascus, says Belon, ' there are many shops 
where nothing else is done but preparing 
chick-peas. These peas, parched in a 
copper pan, are of great service to those 
who take long journeys.' This accounts 
for the stock of them stored up in the city 
of Samaria. Scheuzer inclines, instead of 
pigeon's dung, to render pigeon's food, which 
consists in pulse, peas, &c. See the article 
Ass. Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, p. 
116. 

DOWRY. In Europe, the father usu- 
ally gives a portion to his daughter, which 
becomes the property of her husband, and 



DRE 



DRE 



which often forms a considerable propor- 
tion of his aggregate possessions : but in 
the East, the bridegroom offers to the 
father of the bride a sum of money, or 
value to his satisfaction, before he can ex- 
pect to receive his daughter in marriage. 
The Scriptures afford instances of this 
mode of proceeding in the earliest times. 
When Jacob had nothing which he could 
immediately give, or pay down for a wife, 
as it would have been a disgrace to his in- 
tended spouse to suppose that she was not 
worth buying, he purchases her by his skill 
and attention in the service of her father 
Laban. Shechem, when proposing to Ja- 
cob's family, notwithstanding what had hap- 
pened, to treat for Dinah in an honourable 
manner, offers to pay any value as a dowry : 
' Ask me never so much dowry and gift.' 
(Gen. xxxiv. 12.) In this passage is men- 
tioned a distinction, which is still observed 
in the East: 1. a dowry to the family, as a 
token of honour, to engage their favourable 
interest in the desired alliance; 2. a gift to 
the bride herself, e. g. of jewels, and other 
decorations, as a compliment of honour, as 
Abraham's servant gave to Rebecca. King 
Saul, (1 Sam. xviii. 25.) instead of wishing 
for a pecuniary dowry from David, which 
David was sensible he could not pay in 
proportion to the value of the bride, re- 
quired one hundred foreskins of he Philis- 
tines, and by that means proposed his daugh- 
ter as the reward of valour. In like manner, 
Caleb promised his daughter Achsah to the 
man who should take Kirjath-sepher. 

The dowry was considered as so essen- 
tial, that Moses orders it even in a case in 
which it might otherwise, perhaps, have 
been dispensed with. (Exod. xxii. 16.) ' If 
a man entice a maid, that is not betrothed, 
he shall endow her as his wife ;' he shall 
make her the usual nuptial present. Sup- 
plem. Addenda to Calmet's Diet. 

DREAM, Oibn chalom, ivvirviov. 
Dreams which were prophetical, or signi- 
ficative of future events, are thus denomi- 
nated. The eastern people, and particu- 
larly the Jews, greatly regarded dreams, 
and applied for their interpretation to those 
who professed to explain them. The an- 
cient Greeks and Romans held the same 
opinion. The antiquity of this attention to 
dreams is seen in the history of Pha- 
raoh's butler and baker ; Pharaoh himself, 
and Nebuchadnezzar, are instances of the 
same. God expressly forbad his people to 
observe dreams, or to consult those who 
pretended to explain them. He condemned 
to death all who pretended to have prophetic 
dreams, or to foretel events, even though 
what they foretold came to pass ; if they had 
any tendency to promote idolatry. But 
they were not forbidden, when they thought 
they had a significative dream, to address 
the prophets of the Lord, or the high-priest 
in his ephod, to have it explained. 
3C9 



Saul, before the battle of Gilhoa, con- 
sulted a woman who had a familiar spirit, 
because the Lord would not answer him by 
dreams, or by prophets. (1 Sam. xxviii. 6. 
15.) 

The Lord sometimes discovered his will 
in dreams, and enabled persons to explain 
them. He informed Ahimelech in a dream, 
that Sarah was the wife of Abraham. (Gen. 
xx. 3. 6.) He showed Jacob the myste- 
rious ladder in a dream, (Gen. xxviii. 12, 13.) 
and in a dream an angel revealed to Jacob 
a way of multiplying his flocks. (Gen. 
xxxi. 11, 12.) Joseph was favoured very 
early with prophetic dreams, the significa- 
tion of which was easily discovered by Ja- 
cob. (Gen. xxxvii. 5.) God said, that he 
spake to other prophets in dreams, but to 
Moses face to face. The Midianites gave 
credit to dreams ; as appears from that which 
a Midianite related to his companion, from 
whose interpretation Gideon took a happy 
omen. (Judg. vii. 13. 15.) The prophet 
Jeremiah, (xxiii. 25. 28.) exclaims against 
impostors who pretended to have had 
dreams, and abused the credulity of the 
people. Joel, (ii. 28.) promises from God, 
that in the reign of the Messiah the effusion 
of the Holy Spirit should be so copious, that 
the old men should have prophetic dreams, 
and the young men receive visions. 

Dreams ought carefully to be distinguished 
from visions. The former happen during 
sleep, and are therefore liable to much am- 
biguity and uncertainty ; the latter, when 
the person is awake, and has full possession 
of his natural powers and faculties. God 
spake to Ahimelech in a dream, but to 
Abraham by vision. Jacob saw in a dream 
the method of producing certain effects on 
his cattle. God told Laban in a dream not 
to injure Jacob. In these, and other in- 
stances of dreams, the subjects dreamed of 
appear to be the very matters which had 
occupied the minds of these persons whilst 
awake, and, when asleep, Providence over- 
ruled, or 'improved, their natural thoughts 
to answer the intended purposes. In the 
case of visions, the thing seen was unex- 
pected ; the mind was not prepared for it, 
and could not previously imagine what was 
about to occur. It is not easy, nor neces- 
sary, to distinguish always, when the word 
dream is used in Scripture, whether it may 
not denote a vision ; but it would seem pro- 
bable, that, when the interference of an 
angel is mentioned, as giving counsel, or 
advice, or direction, more than a mere 
dream is implied ; as, to Jacob, (Gen. xxxi. 
II.) to Joseph, (Matt. i. 20.; ii. 13, 19.) ; 
&c. 

The subject of dreams is among the most 
curious that belong to human nature ; and 
to understand it thoroughly demands no 
mean skill in the affections, dispositions, 
sympathies, and agitations, of the human 
mind. Wolfius was of opinion, that every 
B b 



DRU 



DRU 



dream takes its rise from some sensation, 
and is continued by the succession of 
imaginary ideas. M. Formey adopted the 
opinion of Wolfius, and thought that every 
dream begins by a sensation, and is con- 
tinued by a series of acts of the imagina- 
tion, or of phantasms; and that the cause 
of this series is to be found in the law of the 
imagination. Hence he concludes those 
dreams to be supernatural, which either do 
not begin by sensation, or are not conti- 
nued by the law of the imagination. Mr. 
Baxter asserted that our dreams are 
prompted by separate immaterial beings; 
and that the phantasm, or what is properly 
called the vision, is not the work of the 
soul itself, nor the effect of mechanical 
causes. Hence he seems to conclude that 
this phantasm must be the work of separate 
spirits acting on our minds, and giving us 
ideas whilst we sleep. We shall not at- 
tempt to investigate the subject farther, 
but simply state the conviction, that, whilst 
the body rests, and is asleep, there is a 
something, which is distinct from the body, 
which is extremely active, volatile, and 
sensible ; which sees without employing the 
organs of sight, hears without employing 
the organ of hearing, and performs a thou- 
sand actions with all the appearance of 
reality, and without the intermediation of 
the bodily agents. What is this power, 
this something controlled yet uncontroll- 
able, dependent yet independent, retained 
by the tenement of clay, yet winging its 
devious course to regions, to events, and 
to actions, of which the tabernacle of the 
body is utterly unconscious ? Supplement. 
Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 

DRUIDS, the priests or ministers of 
the ancient religion of the Gauls, Britons, 
and Germans. The druidical religion was 
at first extremely simple, and consisted of 
the following leading principles : 1. The 
professors of this religion were to honour 
the Divine Being as the maker and governor 
of the universe ; but they were to seek 
the assistance of subordinate deities, who 
were supposed to act rather as messengers, 
than as having any power of their own. 
2. The Druids taught the people to be- 
lieve that the souls of men were immortal, 
but that they passed from one body to 
another; a sentiment which could never 
have existed, had they been reconciled to 
the events of Providence. 3. Those who 
had been found guilty of notorious blas- 
phemy were to be put to death; and, in 
such cases, the priests were the sole judges. 
4. Men were to do to others, as they would 
that others should do unto them; neither 
to wrong their neighbours, nor to injure 
themselves. 5. It was deemed highly 
criminal to eat flesh, milk, or eggs, be- 
cause it was supposed that human souls 
inhabited animal bodies. 6. The first ap- 
pearance of the new moon was reverently 
370 



observed, as that planet was supposed to 
have great influence on the actions of men. 
7- Women were common among them ; but 
he who deflowered a virgin was the responsi- 
ble father. 8. It was taught, that those who 
acted unjustly would be tormented in the 
bodies of snakes, or of other reptiles, till they 
should make an atonement for their sins, 
according to the directions of their priests. 

Such were the theological tenets which 
the Druids taught their followers, but 
which were soon debased by abominable 
rites and ceremonies. The Druids wor- 
shipped their gods in groves, and under 
tall oaks. On every great festival, the 
high-priest, or arch-druid, appeared under 
a tall, venerable oak, dressed in fine linen, 
with a cope or mitre upon his head, and 
attended by priests of subordinate rank. 
A prisoner taken in battle was sacrificed 
by him to the gods. The victim, stripped 
naked, and his head adorned with flowers, 
was chained with his back to an oak, op- 
posite to the place where the arch-druid 
stood. Whilst music was playing, the 
high-priest, having invoked the gods to 
accept of the sacrifice, walked forward 
with a knife in his hand, and stabbed the 
victim in the bowels. The people danced 
to the music; and the sacrificing Druid 
pretended to foretell events from the manner 
in which the blood flowed. 

The Druids had such regard for the 
mistletoe, which grows upon the oak, that, 
when the season of its appearance ap- 
proached, persons were sent to procure the 
most early intelligence of its being found. 
As soon as the Druids were informed of 
the fortunate discovery, the arch-druid, 
assisted by his inferior priests, cut off 
the mistletoe with a consecrated golden 
knife, or pruning hook, and carried it 
to the principal grove in triumph. The 
mistletoe was considered as a sovereign re- 
medy for all diseases, and the peculiar 
gift of Heaven. In all their ceremonies 
of a public nature, the priest turned his 
eyes to heaven, and his face towards the 
east. Hurd on Religious Rites, Ceremonies, 
&c. p. 37 ; Heckford's Account of Religions, 
p. 233. 

DRUNK, DRUNKENNESS, are words 
not always taken in Scripture in an odious 
sense. They often signify simply to drink 
to satisfaction, to exhilarate the spirits, 
as we freely may, at an entertainment 
made by a friend. 'Joseph's brethren 
drank, and were merry with him.' (Gen. 
xliii. 34.) Though the Hebrew word used 
in this place often signifies to drink to 
excess, yet it is not credible that they 
would forget themselves so far on this 
occasion, as to be really drunk before so 
great a man as Joseph, whom they did 
not know to be their brother. In John ii. 
10. it is said, * Every man at the begin- 
ning doth set forth good wine, and when 



DRU 



DUN 



men have well drunk,' &c. It is not 
to be believed, that our Saviour waited till 
the guests were drunk, in order to perform 
the miracle at Cana. St. Paul ( 1 Cor. 
xi. 21.) says, ' One is hungry, and another 
is drunken,' that is, one wants, and another 
abounds. 

The wise man (Pro v. v. 15.) exhorts his 
disciple ' to drink water out of his own 
cistern ;' to content himself with the law- 
ful pleasures of marriage, without wander- 
ing in his affections. ' To eat and to 
drink,' is used (Eccles. v. 18.) to signify 
people's enjoying themselves ; and in the 
Gospel for living in a common and ordi- 
nary manner. ' John (Matt. xi. 18.) came 
neither eating nor drinking, and they say 
He hath a devil : the Son of Man came eat- 
ing and drinking, and they say, Behold a 
gluttonous man and a wine-bibber.' The 
apostles say, they ate and drank with 
Christ after his resurrection ; that is, they 
conversed, they lived freely with him. (Acts 
x. 41.) Jesus Christ commands us to 
drink his blood and to eat his flesh : we eat 
and drink both, figuratively, in the eucha- 
rist. 

Drunkenness is a state which is as per- 
nicious to him who is led into it, as it is 
disgusting to those who calmly behold it. 
Considering this excess in itself, we may 
not, at first sight, think it a vice of so deep 
a die, because it is generally connected 
with a love of society. But, if we view 
it in a right light, we shall see it in 
all its horrors and deformities, and we 
shall decide as to the danger of that in- 
dulgence, which may be the parent of all 
the crimes of which human nature can be 
guilty. Is it not clear, that he must be 
prepared, and completely ready, for all 
manner of wickedness, for every degree of 
sin, whose passions and desires are inflamed 
to the highest pitch, and whose reason is ei- 
ther wholly banished, or so extremely weak- 
ened, as to deprive it of all authority and 
restraint over him ? The immediate effect of 
excessive drinking is, to render a man deaf 
to the voice of reason and of conscience, pre- 
pared to utter the most profane words, and 
open to the commission of the foulest and 
the blackest deeds. One of the first ill ef- 
fects which is likely to attend the drunkard, 
in what is called genteel or high life, is 
neglecting his affairs, and an unfitness to 
discharge his various duties. For the time 
which he wastes, and the talents which he 
buries, he is just as accountable to God as 
another man. If the drunkard belong to 
the middle class of life, by his neglect 
of business, and his extravagance, he cannot, 
for any length of time, support his family 
in the respectable manner to which they 
have been used. But when he, who has 
barely enough to supply the wants of the 
passing day, indulges in this vice, he soon 
wastes his little stock, and reduces himself 
371 



and his family to the greatest distress. 
Another evil which attaches itself to the 
drunkard, is, the general contempt of all 
sober and well-disposed persons. It is too 
sad a truth, that the poor man is often 
slighted and undervalued by the great, 
even if his low state be owing to no vice 
or fault of his own ; but when poverty is 
the effect of drunkenness and extrava- 
gance, contempt and disdain are justly 
its due. Indulgence in excessive drinking 
cannot long be continued, without making 
great ravages in a man's health ; the powers 
of life become gradually weakened, and 
nature gives way to intemperance. Vari- 
ous disorders prey upon the constitution 
of the drunkard, from which the sober are 
free. They may, indeed, not assail him 
at first; but the longer their attacks are 
delayed, the more violent is their assault 
at last. They either lead him by gradual 
steps, or hasten him to the grave. Some- 
times they bring on an untimely old age, 
and the man walks about as the ghost of 
what he was, deprived of strength of body, 
or of mind, feeble and tottering, a spec- 
tacle of misery, and a warning to all 
around to avoid his fatal excesses. Were 
the sorrows of the drunkard confined to 
these temporal evils, it might be enough, 
one would think, to deter him from a vice 
so very frightful and disastrous. But 
what are these when compared to the 
spiritual miseries, that are the fruits and 
punishments of this vice ? Is not he crimi- 
nal who destroys his health, and impairs 
his understanding 1 In destroying his 
health, he also shortens his life, and is so 
far guilty of self-murder, that he quits the 
world before his great Master calls him to 
do so ; and, by destroying his reason, he 
renders his life useless and burthensome 
to the world. Excessive drinking is not 
more apt to drown reason than to banish 
all sense of shame and modesty from the 
mind. It fans the passion of the drunkard 
into a raging flame, turns him out like a wild 
beast without any restraint, and drives him 
into every species of wickedness. Clapham's 
Selected Sermons, vol. ii. p. 323; Warner's 
Si/stem of Divinity and Morality, vol. iii. p. 
214. 

DUNKERS, a sect that arose in the 
year 1724. This sect was founded by a 
German, who, weary of the world, retired 
to an agreeable solitude within fifty miles 
of Philadelphia, for the more free exercise 
of religious contemplation. Curiosity at- 
tracted followers, and his simple and en- 
gaging manners rendered them proselytes. 
They soon settled a little colony called 
Euphrata, in allusion to the Hebrews, who 
used to sing psalms on the banks of the 
river Euphrates. This sect seem to have 
obtained their name from baptizing their 
converts by plunging. They are also 
called Dumplers and Tumblers. This 
b b 2 



DUN 



DUN 



last denomination they obtained from the 
manner in which they performed baptism, 
which is, by putting the head of the per- 
son, whilst kneeling, first under water, so 
as to resemble the motion of the body in 
the act Of tumbling. These contemplative 
persons did not amount in 1777 to more 
than 500 in number. At that time their 
territory was about 250 acres in extent, the 
boundaries of which are marked by a river, 
a piece of stagnant water, and a mountain 
covered with trees. 

Their life is spent in labour, prayer, and 
sleep. Twice every day and night they are 
called from their cells to attend divine ser- 
vice ; and even the dean or prior himself is 
said to go to church regularly at midnight. 
Like the Methodists and Quakers, they per- 
mit any individual among them to preach, 
who may think himself inspired ; and the fa- 
vourite subjects on which they discourse in 
their assemblies, are humility, temperance, 
chastity, and other Christian graces. They 
are strict observers of the Sabbath, and some 
of them keep the seventh day. They never 
allow any law-suits; and they may be 
cheated, robbed, and abused, without their 
retaliating, or uttering the least complaint. 
Religion seems to render them insensible 
to every kind of insult ; and hence they are 
sometimes called the Harmless Dunkers. 

Their dress, which is very plain, seems 
to be peculiar to themselves, and chiefly 
to resemble that of the Dominican friars. 
It consists of a long white tunic or coat, 
reaching down to their heels ; a sash, or 
leathern girdle, round their waist; a cap, or 
hood, hanging from the shoulders, which 
serves instead of a hat ; thick shoes ; and 
very wide breeches. The men never shave 
the head or beard. They live chiefly on 
roots and other vegetables; because they 
suppose that Christianity teaches an aver- 
sion to blood. However, on particular 
occasions, when they hold what they call 
a love-feast, the brethren and sisters dine 
together, and eat mutton, but no other 
kind of meat. In each of their little cells 
they have a bench fixed for the purpose of 
a bed, and a small block of wood for a pil- 
low. Each individual follows with cheer- 
fulness the branch of business allotted to 
him ; and the produce of their labour is 
deposited in a common stock, in order to 
supply the necessities of every member. 
Though the sexes live separate, the Dun- 
kers do not, on that account, foolishly 
renounce matrimony, and become like 
monks, as some have asserted; but they 



who are disposed to marry leave the 
town, and form an establishment in the 
country, which is supported at the pub- 
lic expence. This is afterwards repaid by 
the produce of their labours, which is put 
into the public treasury; and their chil- 
dren are sent to be educated in the mother 
country. 

The doctrines of the Dunkers seem to be 
a mixture of those of the Baptists, Univer- 
salists, Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews, Me- 
thodists, and Roman Catholics. They la- 
ment the fall of our first parent, which, 
they say, might have been avoided, if 
Adam had preferred the celestial Sophia to 
Eve for his wife; but they deny the im- 
putation of Adam's sin to his posterity. 
They use the trine immersion in baptism, 
with the laying on of hands in prayer, 
even when the person baptized is in the 
water. 

They deny the eternity of future punish- 
ments, and believe that the dead have the 
Gospel preached to them by our Saviour, 
and that the souls of the just are employed 
to preach the Gospel to those who have 
had no revelation in this life. But the 
following appears to be their principal 
tenet : — That future happiness is only to 
be obtained by penance and outward mor- 
tification in this life ; and that as Jesus 
Christ, by his meritorious sufferings, be- 
came the redeemer of mankind in general, 
so each individual of the human race, by a 
life of abstinence and restraint, may work 
out his own salvation. They even admit of 
works of supererogation, and declare that 
a man may do much more than he is in 
justice or equity obliged to do, and that, 
therefore, his superabundant works may 
be applied towards accomplishing the re- 
storation of others. They use the same 
form of government, and the same discipline, 
as the English Baptists, except that every 
person is allowed to speak in public, and 
the best speaker is usually ordained to 
be their minister. They have also dea- 
cons and deaconesses, from the num- 
ber of their ancient widows, who may 
employ their gifts, and exhort at appointed 
times. 

This sect is peculiar to America, and 
confined to Euphrata, or, at least, to the 
neighbourhood of Pennsylvania, and to 
Upper Canada, where a few Dunkers now 
reside. Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. p. 
429. Hannah Adams's View of Religions, 
p. 128. Gregory's Hist, of the Christian 
Church, vol. ii. p. 538. 



372 



EAG 



EAR 



E. 



E 



AGLE, iuO nescher, atrog. This bird 
is frequently mentioned in Scripture. It is 
unclean, with all its species, including the 
vulture, the hawk, kite, and other birds 
of prey. 

In Psalm ciii. 5. it is said, ' Thy youth 
is renewed like the eagle's.' Respecting 
the renewed youth of the eagle, the con- 
jectures of commentators have been vari- 
ous. But the youth of the eagle is, proba- 
bly, that renovation of health and spirits, 
which is experienced by this bird after 
moulting. The eagle is a long-lived bird ; 
and this renewal of youth might, perhaps, 
be a familiar phrase. 

Moses says (Exod. xix. 4.) that ' God 
delivered his people out of Egypt, and 
bore them upon eagles' wings;' and (Deut. 
xxxii. 11.) that the Lord led his people, 
4 as an eagle stirreth up her nest, fluttereth 
over her young, spreadeth abroad her 
wings, taketh them, beareth them on her 
wings.' It is, however, probable, that the 
word raeham, rendered eagle by translators, 
is by no means of this class of birds ; it 
should seem to be a water-bird. There 
is a bird in Egypt called raeham, which 
is supposed by many to be that alluded 
to by Moses. It is a kind of domesticated 
vulture, which feeds on the carrion and 
refuse of the city of Cairo ; but it does 
not appear that travellers have noticed 
any uncommon affection for its young, or 
any decisive manners which determine 
this bird to be that intended by Moses. 
Besides, the raeham of Moses should 
seem to be a water- fowl, which we are 
not told that this Egyptian raeham, or 
vulture is. Some have* thought that the 
flamingo, or phenicopteros of the Greeks, 
is the raeham of Moses. It is said to in- 
habit the Nile, to be common in Africa, 
and to be very careful of its nest and 
young. 

In Micah (i. 16.) it is said, ' Enlarge thy 
baldness as the eagle.' This may ref. r 
to the eagle which is mentioned by Mr. 
Bruce in his Travels, vol. v. p. 155, and 
the crown of whose head is said to have 
been bare or bald, as well as the front 
where the bill or skull joined. If so, the 
prophet advises to extend the baldness of 
mourning over the whole head, as this 
bird's baldness occupies not only the crown 
of his head, but also his forehead. How- 
ever, Onkelos renders the word naked, 
which leads us to the vulture ; and in 



this he is supported by the Septuagint 
and Vulgate. 

Our Saviour in the Gospel alludes to Job 
xxxix. 29, 30: 'Wheresoever the carcass 
is, there will the eagles be gathered toge- 
ther.' In common, eagles do not eat car- 
rion, but vultures do, and prefer it. This 
is the literal meaning of Job ; but our 
Saviour uses it figuratively, intimating that 
where the body of the Jewish people were 
assembled, that is, at Jerusalem, there 
would the Roman eagles follow, and con- 
sume them. Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Dictionary, No. eclxxxvii. p. 187- Scripture 
Illustrated. 

EARS. The servant who renounced the 
privilege of freedom, in the sabbatical year, 
had his ear pierced with an awl, at his 
master's door, in the presence of the 
judges. (Exod. xxi. 6. Deut xv. 16, 17-) 
The Psalmist, speaking in the person of 
the Messiah, says, ' Sacrifice and offering 
thou didst not desire ; mine ears hast thou 
opened.' The Hebrew reads, ' Mine ears 
hast thou digged,' hast thou opened, re- 
moved impediments, and made attentive ; 
or, thou hast pierced them, as those of 
such servants were pierced, who chose to 
remain with their masters ; or, thou hast 
dug my ears in their form and structure, 
as they are sunk deep in the head. St. 
Paul (Heb. x. 5.) reads, ' A body hast thou 
prepared me ;' and in this manner we find 
the passage in the Septuagint, and the ge- 
nerality of the ancient fathers. Is not to 
dig the ears by formation equivalent to 
preparing a body ? One action seems to 
imply the other. 

The Lord says to Isaiah (vi. 10.) ' Make 
the hearts of this people fat, and make 
their ears heavy :' perhaps, repeat thy 
admonitions to them till their ears are tired 
of them ; or, tell them, that I will suffer 
them to harden their hearts, and stop their 
ears against my word. The Scripture 
sometimes says, that the prophets do what 
they only foretell. 

EARTH is used in the following senses : 
1. For that gross element which sustains 
and nourishes us ; which nourishes plants 
and fruits ; is barren, watered, &c. ; for 
the continent as distinguished from the 
sea. ' God called the dry land earth. 1 
(Gen. i. 10.) 2. For that rude matter 
which existed in the beginning. ' God 
created the heaven and the earth ;' the 
matter of all sensible beings. (Gen. i. 1.) 



EAR 



EAS 



3. For the terraqueous globe, and its con- 
tents, men, animals, plants, metals, waters, 
&c. ' The earth is the Lord's, and the ful- 
ness thereof.' (Ps. xxiv. 1.) 4. For the 
inhabitants of the earth, or continent. 
' The whole earth was of one language.' 
(Gen. xi. 1.) 5. For Judea, or the whole 
empire of Chaldaea and Assyria. Thus 
Cyrus says, (Ezra i. 2.) ' The Lord God 
of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms 
of the earth.' The restricted sense of this 
word to Judea is more common in Scrip- 
ture than is usually supposed ; and this 
acceptation of it has great effect on several 
passages, in which it ought to be so un- 
derstood. 

Hence both in the old Old and New Test- 
aments, the word yrj, which is sometimes 
rendered earth, is by the context in many 
places determined to mean the promised 
land of Israel ; as, ' they be come to search 
out all the country,' (Septuagint rr)v yrjv, 
Josh. ii. 3.) ; ' the meek shall inherit the 
earth, {yrjv, the land, Matt. v. 5.) ; ' great 
famine was throughout all the land,' (inl 
iraaav rr)v yrjv, Luke iv. 25.) In like 
manner, oucovfisvr), which primarily means 
the inhabited world, and is often so ren- 
dered, is by the connexion of the dis- 
course restrained to a particular country, 
(Isaiah xiii. 5. Septuag.) and to the land of 
Judea. (Luke ii. 1. ; xxi. 26. Acts xi. 28. 
James v. 17-) See Cyrenius. 

Earth in a moral sense is opposed to 
heaven and spirit. ' He that is of the earth 
is earthly, and speaketh of the earth ; he 
that cometh from heaven is above all.' (John 
iii. 31.) ' If ye then be risen with Christ, 
set your affections on things above, not on 
things on the earth.' (Col. iii. 1, 2.) Home's 
Introduction, vol. iii. pp. 1, 2. 

EARTHQUAKE. The Scripture speaks 
of several earthquakes ; and, indeed, Pales- 
tine being mountainous and near the sea, is 
often shaken by earthquakes. One of the 
most remarkable is that which swallowed 
up Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, when the 
earth cleaving where their tents stood, 
engulphed them all. This was doubtless 
a miraculous event : but whether the mi- 
racle consisted in the earthquake itself, 
or in the circumstances attending it, is 
not clear. It is possible there would have 
been an earthquake, if Israel had not been 
encamped around that spot, or if Korah had 
not rebelled : but in that case Korah and 
his associates would have escaped from 
it. The punishment might be miraculous, 
though the earthquake was natural. Ano- 
ther earthquake is that which happened 
in the twenty-seventh year of Uzziah, king 
of Judah, in the year of the world 3221. 
This is mentioned in Amos, (i. 1.) and in 
Zechariah (xiv. 5.) Josephus says, that its 
violence divided a mountain which lay 
west of Jerusalem, and drove one part of it 
four furlongs. 
374 



A very memorable earthquake is that 
which happened at our Saviour's death, 
(Matt, xxvii. 51.) Many have thought 
that this was perceived throughout the 
world. Others are of opinion, that it 
was felt only in Judea, or even in the tem- 
ple at Jerusalem. St. Cyril of Jerusalem 
says, that the rocks upon Mount Calvary 
were shown in his time, which had been 
rent asunder by this earthquake. Maun- 
drell and Sandys testify the same, and 
say that they examined the breaches in the 
rock, and were convinced that they were 
the effects of an earthquake. It must 
have been terrible, since the centurion 
and those with him were so affected by it, 
as to acknowledge the innocence of our 
Saviour. (Luke xxiii. 47.) Phlegon, Adrian's 
freedman, relates that, together with the 
eclipse, which happened at noon-day, in 
the fourth year of the two hundred and 
second Olympiad, or A.D. 33, a very, great 
earthquake was also felt principally in Bi- 
thynia. 

Earthquake often alludes to prodigious 
agitations of mountains, shocks of the 
foundations of the universe, effects of 
God's power, wrath, and vengeance ; but 
these are figurative expressions, which de- 
note the greatness, strength, and power 
of God, (Psalm xviii. 7- ; xlvi. 2. ; cxiv. 4.) 

Earthquake signifies also dissolution of 
the powers of government in a country, or 
state, &c. 

EAST. The Hebrews express east, west, 
north, and south, by before, behind, left, 
and right, according to the situation of a 
man whose face is turned eastward. By 
the east they describe frequently not only 
Arabia Deserta, Moab, and Ammon, which 
are truly east of Palestine, but also Assyria, 
Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldaea, 
which lie north-east, and north of Judea. 

It is said, (Gen. xi. 1, 2.) that the sons 
of Noah ' departed from the east, and 
came into the land of Shinar.' Here 
difficulties have been raised ; for the land 
of Shinar is not west of Armenia, where 
the ark is supposed by some to have 
rested, nor Armenia east of Shinar or 
Babylon. On the contrary, it is north 
of that country. To obviate these diffi- 
culties, interpreters have given different 
explanations of this passage. Some by 
Kedem, or east, have understood the 
country afterwards peopled by Kedemah, 
the youngest son of Ishmael ; some, ' the 
beginning,' and that Moses intended to 
note the time, at which, after the deluge, 
men spread themselves into different coun- 
tries ; some, that Moses spoke according 
to the custom of the Assyrians, who called 
their provinces beyond the Tigris, Kedem, 
or east, and those on this side of that 
river, Arab, or west. Others, instead of 
they ' departed from the east,' translate, 
they ' departed eastward." This last inter- 



EAS 



EAS 



pretation appears to some to be the true im- 
port of the passage : as (Gen. ii. 8.) a garden 
in Eden eastward: and thus the idolatrous 
Jews are described, (Ezek. viii 10.) with 
their backs towards the temple of the 
Lord, and their faces towards the east, 
worshipping the rising sun, as the Gaurs, 
or Gabres, in Persia and India, do to this 
day. Yet this is not the only sense in 
which Kedem may be taken. 

It appears from many places in the Old 
and New Testaments, that the sacred 
writers called the provinces beyond the 
Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia, Ar- 
menia, and Persia,) Kedem or the east. 
Moses, who was educated in Egypt, and 
lived long in Arabia, might probably follow 
this custom ; especially as Babylonia, Chal- 
daea, Susiana, Persia, much of Mesopotamia, 
and the rivers of Euphrates and Tigris, for 
the greatest part of their course, are east of- 
Palestine, Egypt, and Arabia. 

Besides, as those who came from Armenia, 
Syria, Media, and Upper Mesopotamia, 
entered Palestine and Egypt on the east 
side, the Hebrews might say, that these 
people lay east of them. It is evident, 
that these countries were known among 
the Hebrews by the name of east. Ba- 
laam says, (Numb, xxiii. 7-) that ' Balak, 
king of Moab, had brought him from the 
mountains of the east,' that is, from Pethor 
on the Euphrates. Isaiah says, (xli. 2.) that 
Abraham came from the east into the 
land of Canaan ; and it is known, that he 
came from Mesopotamia and Chaldaea. 
The same prophet says, (xlvi. 11.) that 
Cyrus should come from the east against 
Babylon ; and (ix. 12.) he places Syria east 
of Judea. St. Matthew (ii. 1.) says, that 
the wise men, who came to worship Christ, 
came from the east. All this, observes 
Calmet, seems to confirm the opinion, that, 
in the language of Scripture, the east is 
often used for the provinces which lie 
easterly, though, perhaps, inclining to the 
north of Judea and Egypt. 

The verbal import of the word Kedem 
is ancient, primary, of old, the first, ori- 
ginally ; in which sense it is perhaps ap- 
plied geographically, and implies the 
primary province where mankind first 
settled. Now, if we accept the idea, 
which some have entertained, that the 
ark lodged upon the mountains of Cau- 
casus, it will appear, that mankind 
journeyed strictly from the east, (Gen.xi. 2.) 
There is, however, another acceptation of 
the word east, that it signifies a specific 
country, or province ; and this sense, in 
effect, will coincide with the other, since 
the present Bahkter signifies the east, and 
since Bactria, or Bactriana, was the most 
eastern province of the Persian empire. 
This province originally included other 
parts much more south and cast ; and the 
city Balk or Bactria, which formed a part 

' :*7r> 



of that province, might probably give name 
to it. If it be supposable, that the pro- 
vinces known in very early ages by the 
name of Kedem, ' the east,' were after- 
wards known by another word denoting 
the east, as they are now by the name 
Bactria, which also denotes ' the east,' 
then the idea that this very country was 
the place whence this portion of mankind 
journeyed, would be rendered still more pro- 
bable. Taylor's Sacred Geography ; Scrip- 
ture Illustrated, Exposit. Index, p. 27- 

EASTER, the day on which the Christ- 
ian church commemorates our Saviour's 
resurrection. It is not much to the ho- 
nour of our translation of the New Testa- 
ment, that it uses the word Easter, in- 
stead of Passover. Easter is a word of 
Saxon origin, and imports a goddess of 
the Saxons, or rather of the east. This 
goddess was Astarte, in honour of whom 
sacrifices were annually offered about the 
passover time of the year, the spring ; and 
hence the Saxon name Easter became 
attached by association of ideas to the 
Christian festival of the resurrection. 

About the middle of the second century, 
a considerable controversy arose between 
the eastern and western churches concern- 
ing the celebration of Easter. The Asiatic 
Christians, on the authority of a tradition 
which derived the custom from the apostle 
John, contended for the propriety of ob- 
serving this institution on the fourteenth 
day of the first Jewish month, on which 
the Jews celebrated their passover, when 
they distributed a lamb in remembrance 
of the Last Supper, and in three days 
after, they commemorated the resurrection 
of Christ. This regulation, which confined 
the observance of this institution precisely 
to the fourteenth day of the month, what- 
ever day of the week it might be, gave 
much offence to the western churches, 
who regarded it as extremely indecent to 
interrupt the solemn abstinence of the 
great week, and to commemorate the re- 
surrection on any other day of the week 
than that on which it actually took place. 
In their turn, they pleaded the example of 
the apostles Paul and Peter. Victor, 
bishop of Rome, demanded from the east- 
ern churches a compliance with the ritual 
of the west, and, on their resolute oppo- 
sition to his command, assailed them with 
numberless reproaches, anathemas, and 
excommunications. However, this dis- 
sension, so injurious and degrading to 
the church, was healed by the prudent 
counsels of some members of the different 
churches. Each party retained its pe- 
culiar practices and opinions till the fourth 
century, when the council of Nice abo- 
lished the CUStom bf the Asiatics, and 

ordered Easter to be celebrated at the 
same time by all the Christian churches. 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. 



EAT 



EBA 



i. p. 94 ; Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 
168, &c. ; Supplem. Addenda to Calmet's 
Dictionary. 

EATING. The ancient Hebrews did 
not eat indiscriminately with all persons. 
They would have esteemed themselves 
polluted and dishonoured by eating with 
people of another religion, or of an odi- 
ous profession. In the time of Joseph, 
they did not eat with the Egyptians, nor 
the Egyptians with them, (Gen. xliii. 32.); 
nor, in the time of our Saviour, with the 
Samaritans, (John iv. 9.) The Jews were 
scandalized that Christ ate with publicans 
and sinners, (Matt. ix. 11.) As there 
were several sorts of meats, the use of 
which was not allowed them, they could 
not conveniently eat with those who par- 
took of them, lest they should receive some 
pollution by touching such food, or any par- 
ticles of it should fall upon them. 

The ancient Hebrews, at their meals, 
had each his separate table. Joseph en- 
tertaining his brethren in Egypt, seated 
them separately, each at his particular 
table ; and he himself sat down separately 
from the Egyptians who ate with him: 
but he sent to his brethren portions out 
of the provisions which were before him, 
(Gen. xliii. 31, &c.) Elkanah, Samuel's fa- 
ther, who had two wives, distributed their 
portions to them separately. (1 Sam. i. 4, 
5.) The ancient manners observable in 
Homer, we see also in Scripture, with 
regard to eating, drinking, and entertain- 
ments. We find great plenty, but little 
delicacy; great respect and honour paid 
to the guests, by serving them plentifully. 
Joseph sent to his brother Benjamin a 
portion five times larger than those of 
his other brethren. Samuel set before 
Saul a whole quarter of a calf. In en- 
tertainments with the men, the women 
did not appear at table. This would 
have been thought an indecency, as it is 
this day throughout the east. 

The Hebrews anciently sat at table as 
we do at present ; but they afterwards 
imitated the Persians and Chaldasans, who 
lay down on table -beds while eating. That 
they sat at table is evident, (Prov. xxiii. 1, 
&c.) ; and it does not appear, that the use of 
beds at entertainments was general among 
the Hebrews. At the banquet of Ahasuerus, 
(Esth. i. 6.) the company lay on beds ; and 
also at that which Esther gave the king and 
Haman, (Esth. vii. 8.) In like manner, our 
Saviour lay at table when Mary Magdalene 
anointed his feet with perfume, (Matt. xxvi. 
7.) ; and when John, at the Last Supper, 
rested his head on his bosom, (John xiii. 
25.) 

For want of proper discrimination in 
respect to the attitude at table, seve- 
ral passages of the Gospels are rendered 
unintelligible. We are told in Luke, (vii. 
37-) that " a woman in the city who was 
376 



a sinner, when she knew that Jesus sat 
at meat in the Pharisee's house, brought 
an alabaster box of ointment, and stood 
at his feet behind him, and began to wash 
his feet with tears, and did wipe them with 
the hairs of her head, and kissed his feet, 
and anointed them with the ointment.' 
This is rendered intelligible only by consi- 
dering that our Saviour lay on the bed while 
eating; and that his feet being outermost, 
might be easily saluted, or otherwise 
treated, by a person standing behind them. 
See also John xii. 3. ; xiii. 5, &c. Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Diet. No. civ. 

E BAL, bl-j/, yej3))\, signifies a heap, or 
collection of old age ; or a mass that runs away, 
and disperses. Ebal was a mountain in 
Ephraim, near Shechem, over against 
Mount Gerizim. These two mountains are 
separated by a valley of about two hundred 
paces wide, in which stands the town of 
Shechem. Both mountains are much alike 
in length, height, and form. They are 
not more than half a league in length. 
But if they are alike in some particulars, 
in others they are very unlike ; for Ebal is 
barren, and Gerizim is beautiful and fertile. 

Moses commanded Israel, as soon as 
they had passed the Jordan, to go to She- 
chem, and divide into two bodies, each 
composed of six tribes, one placed upon, 
or adjacent to, Ebal, the other upon, or 
adjacent to, Gerizim. The six tribes upon, 
or at Gerizim, were to pronounce blessings 
on those who should faithfully observe the 
law ; and the six upon Mount Ebal were 
to pronounce curses against those who 
should violate it. This Joshua executed, 
in the year of the world 2553. (Josh. viii. 
30, 31.) Moses enjoined them to erect 
an altar of unhewn stones upon Mount 
Ebal, and to plaster them over that the law 
might be written on the altar. But the 
Samaritan Pentateuch, instead of Ebal, 
reads Gerizim ; because the altar, sanc- 
tuary, &c. of the Samaritans were, and 
are at this day, upon Mount Gerizim. 
The Scripture seems at first to intimate 
that six entire tribes were upon one moun- 
tain, and six upon the other ; but, besides 
that the tribes were too numerous to stand 
upon these two mountains, it was not 
possible for them to see the ceremony, 
nor to hear the blessings and curses, in 
order to answer to them. The Hebrew 
particle signifies near, over against, as 
well as at the top of. (Josh. viii. 33.) 
With respect to the great stones set up 
and plastered over, to receive the law, 
expositors are not agreed whether this 
monument was the altar on which the 
peace-offerings were sacrificed. It would 
appear, however, by comparing verses 30 — 
32. with Deut. xxvii. 2 — 5. that the altar is 
distinguished from the pile formed by the 
stones. 



EBI 



EDE 



EBIONITES, a sect who appeared in 
the second century, and whose tenets were 
considered as destructive of the fundamen- 
tal principles of Christianity. It is not 
certain whence the Ebionltes derived their 
name, whether from that of their leader, 
or from their poverty. Though they be- 
lieved the celestial mission of Christ, and 
his participation of a Divine nature, yet 
they regarded him as a man born of Jo- 
seph and Mary, according to the ordinary 
course of nature. They likewise asserted, 
that the ceremonial law instituted by Mo- 
ses, was obligatory not only upon the Jews, 
but also upon all others, and that the ob- 
servance of it was essential to salvation. 
They observed both the Jewish Sabbath, 
and the Lord's-day ; and in celebrating 
the eucharist, they used unleavened bread. 
They abstained from the flesh of animals, 
and even from milk. They rejected the 
Old Testament, and in the New Testament 
received only the Gospel of St. Matthew. 
They made great use of a book which they 
denominated ' The Gospel according to the 
Hebrews.' Traces of this sect appeared so 
late as the fourth century. It has been 
contended whether the Nazarenes and Ebi- 
onites were the same, or a different sect. 
Tracts in Controversy with Dr. Priestley, by 
Bishop Horsley ; Mosheim, vol. i. pp. 173, 
174. 

ECBAT'ANA,Nranx Achmetha, 'ErcjSd- 
rava, signifies brother of death. It was the 
name of a city of Media, built by Dejoces, 
king of the Medes, and encompassed with 
seven walls of unequal heights ; the largest, 
according to Herodotus, was equal in extent 
with those of Athens, being 178 furlongs, 
or nearly eight leagues. The battlements 
of these walls were of different colours. The 
first was white, the second black, the third 
red, the fourth blue, the fifth a deep red, 
the sixth overlaid with silver, and the se- 
venth gilded. The First Book of Judith 
attributes the building of this city to Ar- 
phaxad, whom Archbishop Usher and Dr. 
Prideaux suppose to be the same as Dejo- 
ces, but whom Calmet thinks to be the suc- 
cessor of Dejoces. 

In Ezra vi. 2. we read, that there was 
* found at Achmetha, in the palace (that is 
in the province) of the Mcdes, a roll,' &c. 
The word achmetha may denote, as is ob- 
served in the margin of our Bible, a coffer, 
or it may be an office for records ; but it is 
commonly understood to denote Ecbatana, 
the principal city of Media. 

ECCLESIAS'TES, a canonical book of 
the Old Testament. It is called ' the words 
of the preacher, the son of David, king of 
Jerusalem,' that is, of Solomon, who, from 
the great excellency of his instructions, was 
emphatically styled the preacher. The au- 
thor also describes his wisdom, his riches, 
his writings, and his works, in a manner 
applicable onlv to Solomon ; and to the in- 

377 



ternal evidence we may add the concurrent 
testimony both of Christian and Jewish 
tradition. It is generally thought that 
Solomon wrote this book, after he repented 
of the idolatry and sin into which he fell 
towards the end of his life. Though of the 
didactic kind, it differs from the preceding 
book, inasmuch as it seems to be confined 
to a single subject, namely, an inquiry into 
the chief good. Solomon here introduces 
himself as discussing this important ques- 
tion ; and by a just and comprehensive con- 
sideration of the circumstances of human 
life, he points out the vanity of all secular 
pursuits, in a manner not to excite a peev- 
ish disgust of this world, but to induce us 
to prepare for that state in which there will 
be no ' vanity or vexation of spirit.' It is 
very difficult to distinguish the arrangement 
and connexion of the parts of this work ; 
and there is so little of elevation or dignity 
in its language, that the Rabbins will not 
allow it to be reckoned among the poetical 
books of Scripture. That this work was 
written after Solomon repented of his idol- 
atry and sin, appears from the marks of 
repentance contained in it. He tells us 
that he had studied every gratification, and 
had denied himself no pleasure, but that he 
had found only vanity. He closes his in- 
quiry after worldly happiness, by saying, 
' Fear God, and keep his commandments, 
for this is the whole duty of man.' Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Theology, vol. i. p. 
103 ; Du Pin's History of the Canon. 

ECLECTICS, certain philosophers who, 
though they held Plato in the highest es- 
teem, yet scrupled not to join with his doc- 
trines whatever they thought conformable 
to reason in the tenets and opinions of 
others. The founder of this sect was Pota- 
mon, an Alexandrian, who had become 
weary of doubting of all things, with the 
Sceptics and Pyrrhonians. It appears that 
this philosophy was in a flourishing state 
at Alexandria in the time of our Saviour. 
Mosheim 's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 30, &c. 

ECTHESIS, an edict issued by the em- 
peror Heraclius, in the year 639, for the 
purpose of composing the troubles occa- 
sioned by the Eutychian heresy. This 
Ecthesis, or confession of faith, prohibited 
all controversies on the question whether in 
Christ there were one or two operations ; 
though in the same edict the doctrine of one 
will was plainly inculcated. A consider- 
able number of the eastern bishops de- 
clared their assent to this law, which was 
also submissively received by Pyrrhus, the 
new patriarch of Constantinople. In the 
west, the case was quite different. The 
Roman pontiff, John IV., assembled a 
council at Rome, A.D. 641, in which the 
Ecthesis was rejected, and the Monothe- 
lites were condemned. Mosheim' s Eccles. 
Hist. vol. ii. pp. 33, 34. 

E'DEN, py. signifies pleasure, or delights, 



EGL 



EGY 



and was a province of Asia, in which Para- 
dise was situated. (Gen. ii. 8.) Many 
attempts have heen made to fix the site of 
the garden of Eden. Some have placed it 
in Syria. Huetius supposed it to have been 
in Babylonia, near the mouth of the river 
Euphrates. Reland conjectured, that it 
was situated in Armenia, where issue the 
heads of the Euphrates and Tigris, two of 
the Paradisaical rivers, well ascertained; 
and two others whose springs are in the 
neighbourhood, agree in many respects 
with the third and fourth rivers mentioned 
by Moses. This last opinion has been 
chiefly adopted. Captain Wilford, how- 
ever, has given the Indian account of the 
situation of Eden, published in the Asiatic 
Researches. By this account it appears, 
that, ' according to an uniform tradition of 
very long standing, as it is countenanced 
by the Hindu sacred books, and Persian 
authors, the progenitors of mankind lived 
in that mountainous tract, which extends 
from Bdlkh and Canddhdr to the Ganges : 
we may then reasonably look for the ter- 
restrial Paradise in that country ; for it is 
not probable, that Adim'a and Iva should 
have retired to any great distance from it.' 
See Paradise. Sacred Geography. 

EG'LON, yhty, signifies heifer, chariot, 
round. Eglon, king of Moab, oppressed 
Israel eighteen years. (Judg. iii. 12, 13. 
15.) In conjunction with the Ammonites 
and Amalekites he advanced to the city of 
palm-trees, that is Jericho or Engedi, which 
he took, and where was his usual residence. 
The Lord delivered Israel from his oppres- 
sion by the hand of Ehud. 

E'GYPT, O s -)¥n, Mizraim, Aly VKTia, 
signifies that binds or straitens, or that trou- 
bles or oppresses. Egypt, a country of 
Africa, is situated between the forty-eighth 
and fifty- third degrees of longitude, and 
the twenty-fourth and thirty-third degrees 
of north latitude : its length, from north to 
south, is nearly six hundred miles ; and the 
breadth of its coast on the Mediterranean, 
from east to west, about three hundred 
miles ; but it grows much narrower about 
the division of the Nile. The boundaries 
of this country are, the kingdom of Sennar, 
and the cataracts of the Nile on the south ; 
the Mediterranean Sea on the north; the 
Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez on the 
east ; and a region of Libya, called Mar- 
marica, on the west. The name by which 
Egypt is commonly denoted in Scripture 
is the land of Mizraim, who was a son of 
Ham ; and hence the Arabians and other 
oriental nations still call it Misr. The 
reason of its being denominated Egypt is 
variously accounted for. 

Egypt is frequently divided into three 
parts, distinguished by the appellations of 
the Upper Egypt, or Thebais; the Middle 
Egypt, or Heptanomis ; and the Lower 
Egypt, which includes the Delta. If, how- 
378 



ever, we adhere to the opinion received 
among the Greeks, we are to consider 
the whole of Egypt, commencing from the 
Cataract, and the city Elephantina, as 
divided into two parts, with distinct 
appellations: the one belonging to Libya, 
and the other to Asia. These may be called 
Western and Eastern Egypt. This may 
throw some light on the expression, (Ezek. 
xxix. 10.) 'I will make the land of 
Egypt waste from the tower of Syene to 
the border of Cush," meaning the Cush on 
the Red Sea. This threat, therefore, in- 
cludes the eastern district of Egypt ac- 
cording to the Greeks ; and it begins as the 
Greeks began 'from the tower of Syene,' 
which is opposite to the island of Elephan- 
tina, along the confines of Cush, that is, 
running up the Red Sea, from the port of 
Berenice south, to Suez and Colsum north. 
This gives a different meaning to the 
denunciation of the prophet, ' no foot of 
man or beast shall pass through (rather 
across) it,' that is from the Nile to the Red 
Sea, from Coptos to Berenice or Kosseir, 
as the caravans of merchants with their 
goods used to pass, ' neither shall it be 
inhabited forty years.' We know of no 
interval in which this has happened to 
Egypt, generally taken ; but it is very cre- 
dible, that after the ravages of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and till the death of Cambyses, 
this tract of mercantile conveyance was 
stopped, and the foot of man or beast did 
not pass that way in conveying goods. 
The passage by this road was afterwards 
very much promoted by the Ptolemies, 
kings of Egypt. In confirmation of this 
division of Egypt into two parts, it is 
observable, that this country is usually 
spoken of in the dual number, even when 
the word land is connected with it. (Ezek. 
xxx. 13.) 

Besides the division of the country of 
Egypt into two parts, we ought also to 
notice one or more cities of this name. 
After Ezekiel had spoken of the land of 
Egypt with a double application, he men- 
tions several places in this country, as 
Pathros, Zoan, No, Sin, the strength of 
Egypt. He then mentions the following 
cities : ' I will cut off the multitude of 
No ; and I will set fire in Egypt ; Sin shall 
have great pain.' He also adds No, Noph, 
Aven, Pibeseth, and Tehaphnehes. It 
seems probable, that Coptos, whence some 
have thought the Egyptians were named 
Copts, is really an ancient city ; but whe- 
ther it might originally be denominated 
Misr is uncertain. The town now called 
Fostat, a little south of Cairo, is also de- 
nominated ' Misr el attik,' Old Misr : in 
situation it agrees sufficiently with the 
Misr of Moses, to justify the idea that not 
far from it stood, in ancient times, a city of 
the same name. It is evident, that in the 
early part of Exodus, a distinction is ob- 



EGY 



EGY 



observed. Sometimes ' Egypt' is men- 
tioned without addition ; and sometimes 
the phrase is ' the land of Egypt' Be- 
sides, the transactions are occasionally too 
rapid to admit of any interval of country 
between Pharaoh and Moses. In Exodus 
ix. 29, Moses says, ' As soon as I am 
gone out of the city,' and at verse 33, 
' Moses went out of the city ;' but no city 
is mentioned in this history, unless it be 
Misr. With this double acceptation of 
the word agrees also the Hindoo account ; 
and the Hebrew word aretz, rendered land, 
seems to be used like the Persian and Hin- 
doo sthan, which is of the same import. 
But, Misr a sthan denotes, 1. the country 
of Egypt at large ; 2. the city of Misr. It 
would seem, indeed, that one of these 
cities of Misr was on the island, called the 
land of Egypt ; the other on the eastern 
shore opposite to the former ; and that both 
together are denominated, in the dual, Miz- 
raim. 

The inhabitants of Egypt may be consi- 
dered as including three distinctions: 1. 
the Copts, or descendants of the anci- 
ent Egyptians; 2. the Fellahs or hus- 
bandmen, who probably represent the 
people called Phul in Scripture ; 3. the 
Arabs, or conquerors of the country, in- 
cluding the Turks, Mamelukes, &c. The 
Copts have seen so many revolutions in 
the governing powers, that they concern 
themselves very little with respect to the 
successes or misfortunes of those who 
aspire to dominion. The Fellahs suffer so 
much oppression, and are so despised by 
the Bedouins, or wandering Arabs, and 
by their despotic rulers, that they seldom 
acquire property, and very rarely enjoy it 
in security. The Arabs hate the Turks; 
yet the Turks fill most offices of govern- 
ment, but hold their authority by no very 
certain tenure. 

The fertility of Egypt, and the excel- 
lence of its productions and fruits, are 
much celebrated by ancient writers, and 
by Moses himself. (Gen. xiii. 10.) This fer- 
tility depends on the annual inundation of 
the Nile, which obtains its increase from 
Ethiopia and Abyssinia. 

The Scripture calls Egypt the land of 
Ham, (Psalm cv. 27-) but so was the whole 
of the African continent denominated. It is 
also called the land of Misr, in the singular, 
in the opinion of some of the most learned 
commentators, (2 Kings xix. 24. Isa. xix. 
6. ; xxxvii. 25. Micah vii. 12.) ; in every 
other place it is written Mizraim, in the plu- 
ral. This plural arose from the division of 
the country into north and south, or east and 
west; which division appears to be of the 
earliest antiquity. There can be no doubt 
that Egypt was peopled from the east ; but 
the tribes which first entered it seem to 
have been under no regular guide. After 
Ham had founded in Asia several potent 
379 



kingdoms, he might visit Africa, and his 
son Mizraim might govern Egypt. How- 
ever, we find that Egypt was peopled in 
the time of Abraham, and also governed 
by a Pharaoh. The Hamites, who settled 
in the provinces allotted to the posterity 
of Shem, probably expelled the Shemites, 
and were the cause of their transmigration 
into Egypt. At least, appearances indi- 
cate, that the Pharaohs of Egypt spoke 
the same language as Abraham, Jacob, and 
Joseph; and that Jehovah, the God of 
these patriarchs, was not to them unknown. 
Between the periods of Joseph's exaltation 
in Egypt, and the Exodus of Israel, per- 
haps an invasion of Egypt by the Palli or 
shepherds from India took place, and to 
this race we might probably refer that 
' king which knew not Joseph.' We read 
little more of Egypt in Scripture for 
many ages, till the kings of Israel had 
official intercourse with that country. 

The ancient history of Egypt is nar- 
rated in so fabulous a manner, that, how- 
ever it may be founded in truth, it is im- 
possible to separate truth from falsehood. 
The Egyptians claimed an antiquity of 
ten, twenty, or even fifty thousand years. 
They affirmed that their country was ori- 
ginally governed by gods, and that their 
first mortal king was Menes. We know 
not what length of time answered to that 
which is termed a year; nor whether the 
same word which is rendered gods did not 
also signify judges, as it does in the He- 
brew. It cannot be ascertained whether 
Noah was the Menes of the Egyptians ; 
or whether this term does not import son 
of Nueh, and consequently denote either 
Ham or Mizraim. Opinion may safely 
rest on the latter. From him the Egyptians 
deduced a list of kings, comprising about 
330 in 1400 years. Of these princes the 
Scripture has given us the proper names 
of four only ; Shishak, Necho, So, and Ho- 
phrah. Others are designated by the name 
of Pharaoh only, which is allowed to be a 
title of dignity, honour, exaltation, and 
is probably analogous to that of Highness 
among ourselves. 

In the government of Egypt, estab- 
lished by Selim, who conquered this coun- 
try in 1517, the Mamelukes possess a con- 
siderable share of power. It is impos- 
sible to be acquainted with the history of 
Egypt, without perceiving the import and 
fulfilment of the prediction recorded by 
Ezekiel, (xxx. 13.) who says, that there 
never should be any more a reigning prince 
of the Egyptian nation over this country. 
Egypt was to be a base kingdom : ami what 
can be more base than a government com- 
posed of rulers who have been slaves, and 
the property of others? The governon of 
Egypt are not hereditary, nor elective by 
the people, nor promoted through merit ; 
but, degraded by the foulest of crimes, as 



ELD 



ELD 



well political as personal, they raise them- 
selves by intrigue, from the lowest stations. 
Sacred Geography ; Fragments annexed to 
Calmet's Diet. No. lxxxix. p. 149. 

Egypt, River of. This stream was the 
limit of Judea towards Egypt. That which 
in Isaiah (xxvii. 12.) is rendered ' unto the 
river of Egypt,' is translated in the 
Septuagint ' to Rhinocolura.' This town 
was certainly distant from the Nile, the 
proper river of Egypt. In confirmation 
of this idea it may be observed, that it 
is very doubtful whether the power of 
the Hebrew nation ever extended to the 
Nile, and if it did, it was over a mere 
desert. As this desert is indisputably the 
natural boundary of the Syrian dominions, 
no reason can be assigned why the political 
boundary should exceed it. Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

ELCESAITES, a denomination in the 
reign of Trajan, in the second century. 
They derived their name from Elcesai, 
their leader. His fundamental doctrine 
was, that Jesus Christ, who was born 
from the beginning of the world, had ap- 
peared from time to time under different 
bodies. The Elcesaites were an absurd 
sect, who grafted many opinions derived 
from the oriental philosophy on a mix- 
ture of Judaism and Christianity. History 
of Religion, vol. iv. Gregory's Hist, of the 
Christ. Church, vol. i. p. 103. 

ELDERS of Israel, the heads of 
tribes, or rather of the great families in 
Israel, who, before the settlement of the 
Hebrew commonwealth, had a government 
and authority over their families, and the 
people. When Moses was sent into Egypt 
to deliver Israel, he assembled the elders 
of Israel, and told them that the God of 
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, had appeared 
to him. (Exod. xii. 16. 21. ; iv. 29, &c.) 
Moses and Aaron treat the elders of Israel 
as the representatives of the whole nation. 
When God gave the law to Moses, he said, 
(Exod. xxiv. 1. 9, 10.) ' Take Aaron, 
Nadab, and Abihu, his sons, and the 
seventy elders of Israel, and worship ye 
afar off.' They advanced to the foot of 
the mountain. On all subsequent occa- 
sions, we find this number of seventy elders 
is mentioned. But it has been thought pro- 
bable, that as there were twelve tribes, 
there were seventy-two elders, six from 
each tribe, and that seventy are men- 
tioned instead of seventy- two ; or that 
Moses and Aaron were added to the 
number of seventy, and there were only 
four elders of the tribe of Levi. Some, 
among whom is Grotius, have been of 
opinion, that these seventy elders formed 
a kind of senate in Egypt, and that 
hence was derived the famous Sanhe- 
drim in later ages. But Calmet thinks 
it more credible, that in the beginning, 
each of these elders exercised over his 



respective tribe, and all together over 
the whole people, a jurisdiction similar 
only to that which fathers of families 
exercise over their children, and which is 
founded on the respect and obedience due 
to parents. 

After Jethro's arrival in the camp of 
Israel, Moses made a considerable change 
in the government of the people. He 
established over Israel heads of thousands, 
hundreds, fifties, and tens, that justice 
might be readily administered ; and only 
difficult cases were referred to Moses. 
(Exod. xviii. 24, &c.) However, when 
the people murmured at the encampment 
called the Graves of Lust, (Numb, xi.) 
Moses appointed seventy elders of Israel, 
to whom God communicated part of that 
legislator's spirit, and who began to pro- 
phesy, and did not afterwards cease. 
This, according to the generality of inter- 
preters, was the beginning of the Sanhe- 
drim. The establishment of the seventy 
elders by Moses continued not only during 
his life, but also under Joshua, and the 
judges. But we are not much acquainted 
with the authority of these elders under 
the judges, and still less with it under the 
kings who succeeded the judges. See 
Sanhedrim. 

Elders is also a name given to cer- 
tain laymen in the Presbyterian disci- 
pline, who are ecclesiastical officers, and 
in conjunction with the ministers and dea- 
cons compose the kirk sessions in Scotland. 
The number of elders is proportioned to 
the extent and population of the parish, 
and is seldom less than two or three, but 
sometimes exceeds fifty. ' They are lay- 
men in this respect, that they have no right 
to teach, or to dispense the sacraments ; 
and on this account they form an office in 
the Presbyterian church inferior in rank 
and power to that of pastors. They ge- 
nerally discharge the office, which origi- 
nally belonged to the deacons, of attending 
to the interests of the poor. But their 
peculiar business is expressed by the name 
ruling elders ; for in every question of 
jurisdiction within the parish, they are the 
spiritual court, of which the minister is 
officially moderator ; and in the Pres- 
bytery, of which the pastors of all the 
parishes within its bounds are officially 
members, lay-elders sit as the represen- 
tatives of the several sessions or consis- 
tories.' 

It has long been a matter of dispute 
whether any such officers as lay-elders 
are mentioned in Scripture. It appears 
certain, however, that the elders men- 
tioned by St. Paul (1 Tim. v.) did not 
hold the same office as those in the 
Presbyterian churches, but ' laboured in 
the word and doctrine.' In this place, 
the apostle seems to mean only ministers, 
when he directs that double honour should 



ELE 



ELE 



be paid to the elders that rule well, 
especially those who labour in the word 
and doctrine ; and the distinction does 
not appear to consist in the order of 
officers, but in the degree of their dili- 
gence, faithfulness, and eminence, in la- 
boriously fulfilling their ministerial duties. 
It is said, that Calvin admitted lay-elders 
into church courts, on what he conceived 
to be the sanction of primitive practice, and 
* as an effectual method of preventing the 
return of inordinate power in a superior 
order of clergy.' To this it is answered 
by Episcopalians, that neither the name 
nor office of lay-elder was ever known to 
any general or provincial council, or even 
to any particular church in the world before 
the time of Calvin. Dr. Hill's Theolog. Led. 
pp. 170, 171, &c. Adam's Religious World, 
vol. ii. p. 301, &c. ; vol. iii. p. 17- 

ELECTION, the choosing, appointing, 
or separating, of any person or thing to 
some particular purpose. The doctrine of 
absolute election, as held by some Christ- 
ian sects, appears to be unscriptural, and 
in different ages of the church has been 
the fruitful source of a great variety of 
controversies. God is represented in Scrip- 
ture as having pre-ordained the redemp- 
tion of mankind through Christ, before 
the foundation of the world. This re- 
demption was to be in the nature of 
a covenant between God and man ; and 
the salvation of every individual was to 
depend on his observance of the proposed 
conditions. Men, in consequence of their 
free agency, would have it in their power 
to accept or reject this offered salvation ; 
and God, by his prescience, foresaw who 
would accept or reject it. We cannot, 
indeed, suppose that a Being of infinite 
justice and mercy would arbitrarily se- 
lect out of his rational creatures a deter- 
minate number on whom he would bestow 
the blessing of eternal happiness, while 
he consigned all the rest to eternal pu- 
nishment, or passed them over as un- 
worthy of his regard and attention. Such 
an idea of election ought surely to be re- 
jected. We are to consider men as elect 
according to the foreknowledge of God, 
that is, as he foresaw they would be obedient 
to his laws. 

' The errors and vain disputes,' says Mr. 
Pyle, ' that have arisen in the latter ages 
of Christianity concerning faith and works, 
justification and sanctification, election 
and reprobation, that have distracted the 
minds of many Christians, have proceeded 
from applying particular phrases or pas- 
sages in the Epistles to particular persons, 
which originally referred to the state and 
condition, not of particular persons, but of 
whole churches in their collective capa- 
city. Thus the body of heathens, while 
in their heathen state, are called aliens, 
strangers, enemies to God, &c. ; but such 
381 



of them as were converted (the churches 
to whom the apostles wrote) are styled no 
longer strangers, but of the household of 
God, a chosen or elected generation, a 
royal priesthood, justified, sanctified, saints, 
&c. So the major part of the Jewish 
nation, who obstinately rejected the Gospel 
of Christ, instead of being any longer 
the holy nation, the people of God, are 
called the vessels of wrath, fitted (by their 
own obstinacy) for destruction, reprobate ; 
while the believing Jews became vessels 
of mercy, fore-ordained, to be called into 
the kingdom or covenant of the Gospel, 
chosen to eternal life ; which expressions 
mean no more than their having been 
offered the means and opportunities of 
attaining to the future happiness of 
heaven, by their knowledge and practice 
of Christ's religion. Their actual enjoy- 
ment of future happiness depended en- 
tirely on their virtuous obedience to the 
Gospel ; on their diligence to make their 
calling and election sure, that is, effectual 
to their salvation. No private persons are 
ever mentioned in these writings as 
elected to eternal life by any absolute 
decree of God. Paul was a chosen ves- 
sel ; but he was chosen as a proper minister 
of Christ's Gospel, to bear his name to 
the Gentiles; his being chosen to the 
crown of life hereafter, was the fruit of 
his earnest endeavours to keep the faith, 
(his fidelity) to finish his course, and of 
his labouring abundantly. To take these 
expressions otherwise, is to pervert the 
design of these writings.' 

It is observed by Dr. Clarke, ' that the 
true Scripture doctrine of election and 
reprobation is this, that it pleased the 
Almighty, of his own free grace and mercy, 
to determine, before the world was, to 
invite the Gentiles, as well as Jews, to re- 
pentance and faith in his only-begotten 
Son, at the time appointed for his appear- 
ing among men ; and it pleased him to de- 
cree, that all who should obey his invita- 
tion, should be assisted here with his 
grace, and obtain eternal glory ; whilst 
those who abused and rejected his mercy, 
should suffer the severe punishments due 
to their impenitency, both in this world 
and the next. So that this decree is both 
general and conditional ; it does not per- 
sonally relate to any one, but in general 
to all, to whom the glad tidings of the 
Gospel have been brought. And as to 
another life, it is not absolute, without re- 
gard to the actions of men ; but condition- 
ally founded on their faith and obedience. 
The divulging the Gospel to some men and 
nations and not to others, is matter of 
mere grace and favour, and is to be re- 
solved into the divine wisdom and good- 
ness. No man can merit this at the hands 
of God, for all have sinned and offended 
him. But the election of those who em- 



ELI 

brace the faith, thereby to inherit the 
promises hereafter, will depend on their 
having on the wedding-garment of faith 
and charity ; for those rewards will be dis- 
tributed to every man, only according to 
his works.' Warner's System af Divinity 
and Morality, vol. iii. p. 369 ; Pyle's Pre- 
face to the Epistle to the Romans; Bishop 
Tom-line's Elements of Christian Theology, vol. 
ii. pp. 299, 300, &c. ; Mesurier's Sermon on 
Predestination and Assurance. 

E'LI, s by, signifies elevation, offering. 
Eli, high-priest, of the race of Ithamar, 
died in the year of the world 2888, having 
been forty years judge of Israel. (1 Sam. 
iv. 18.) He succeeded Abdon, and was 
succeeded by Samuel, in the government ; 
but in the high priesthood by his third son 
Ahitub. How Eli came to possess the 
high priesthood, and by what means this 
dignity was transferred from the family of 
Eleazar to that of Ithamar, from which Eli 
was descended, we are not informed. Some 
think this was done on account of the neg- 
ligence, the minority, or want of proper 
qualifications, of Eleazar's family. Others 
say, that this dignity was bestowed on him 
as judge of Israel. That it was not done 
without an express declaration of God's 
will, appears from the language of the man 
of God, who was sent to reproach him with 
the ill conduct of his sons. (1 Sam. ii. 27, &c.) 

The great fault of Eli was his negligence, 
and his indulgence of his sons. Instead of 
vigorously punishing them, and removing 
them from the sacred ministry, he was sa- 
tisfied with reprimanding them. God ad- 
monished him by Samuel, then a child ; and 
Eli received those awful admonitions with 
a mind fully resigned to the Divine will. 
' It is the Lord,' said he, ' let him do what 
seemeth him good.' God deferred the exe- 
cution of his vengeance twenty-seven years. 
At length, however, Hophni and Phinehas, 
the sons of Eli, were slain by the Philis- 
tines ; the ark of the Lord was taken ; and 
Eli himself, hearing this melancholy news, 
fell backwards from his chair, and broke 
his neck, in the ninety-eighth year of his 
age. (1 Sam. iv. 12—18.) 

ELIE'ZER, "nybtf, signifies help, ox court 
of my God. The Mahometans believe that 
Eliezer was a black slave given to Abra- 
ham by Nimrod. Abraham conceived 
such regard for him, that he gave him the 
superintendence of his whole family, and 
before the birth of Isaac designed him for 
his heir. Gen. xv. 2. is thus translated in 
our Bible : ' I go childless, and the steward 
of my house is this Eliezer, of Damascus.' 
In the original it is as follows : ' And the 
son of the steward of my house, is this 
Damascus-f&onzj Eliezer.' The omission of 
the word son in our Bible, shows that the 
translators had considered the passage as 
interpolated by that word. Schultens ren- 
ders it 'filius pectinationis domus meae,' the 




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son of combing of my house, that is, who 
keeps it in order. Mr. Parkhurst renders 
it, not without difficulty, ' the son of him 
who runs about my house, (that is as over- 
seer) is my help.' These harshnesses, and 
some other differences of versions, prove 
that the passage is obscure. Now, if our 
translators had considered the word steward, 
instead of son, as supplementary, or rather 
explanatory, the passage would have tflen 
as follows : 'I go childless ; and the. son of 
my house (the steward) is this Eliezer, of 
Damascus.' This would have rendered the 
passage at least in conformity to the usages 
of the East. The phrase ' son of my house,' 
which has been the stumbling-block to 
translators, signifies in the eastern coun- 
tries the freed man, who had been patron- 
ized by his master, and is sometimes called 
the child of the house. Hence we may infer, 
that Eliezer, who was a native of Damascus, 
had been purchased as a slave by Abraham, 
and had behaved so well, that his master 
gave him his liberty, and at length pro- 
moted him to the superintendence of all his 
property. A similar occurrence took place 
with respect to Joseph. (Gen. xxxix.) 

When Abraham sent Eliezer into Meso- 
potamia, he said to him, Put thy hand un- 
der my thigh, and promise with an oath 
that thou wilt not take a Canaanite for a 
wife unto my son ; but go into the country 
where my relations live, and there take a 
wife to my son Isaac. Eliezer departed 
with many camels and rich presents, and 
went to the city of Nahor, in Mesopotamia, 
whence he brought Rebecca for Isaac. 
(Gen. xxiv.) Whether Eliezer might live 
so long as to be the person here mentioned 
is uncertain ; but by his fidelity he seems 
likely to have been the same person, and so 
he is usually understood. The passage is, 
' And Abraham said unto his eldest servant 
of his house, that ruled over all that he had ;' 
in which he is not called the ' son of the 
house,' possibly because Isaac was now the 
natural heir of Abraham. If it be supposed 
that this was not Eliezer, the omission of 
the name, &c. in the history, may counte- 
nance the supposition. Fragments annexed 
to Calmet's Diet. No. xliii. p. 75. 

ELFJAH, iir^x, signifies God the Lord. 
Elijah or Elias, a prophet, was a native of 
Tishbe beyond Jordan in Gilead. Some 
think that he was a priest descended from 
Aaron, and say that one Sabaca was his 
father : but this has no authority. He was 
raised up by God, to be set like a wall of 
brass, in opposition to idolatry, and parti- 
cularly to the worship of Baal, which Jeze- 
bel and Ahab supported in Israel. The 
Scripture introduces Elijah saying to Ahab, 
(1 Kings xvii. 1.) in the year of the 
world 3092, 'As the Lord God of Israel 
liveth, before whom I stand, there shall not 
be dew nor rain these years, but according 
to my word.' It is remarkable, that the 



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number of years is not here specified ; but 
in the New Testament, we are informed, 
that it was three years and six months. By 
the prohibition of dew as well as rain, the 
whole vegetable kingdom was deprived of 
that moisture, without which neither the 
more hardy, nor more delicate, kinds of 
plants could shoot into herbage, or sup- 
port that herbage to maturity. 

The Lord commanded Elijah to conceal 
himself beyond Jordan, near the brook 
Cherith. He obeyed ; and God sent ravens 
to him morning and evening, which brought 
him flesh and bread. Scheuzer observes, 
that he does not think the orebim of the 
Hebrews, rendered ravens, means the in- 
habitants of a town called Or eh ; — nor a 
troop of Arabs called Orbhim; but the birds, 
ravens. Suppose that Elijah was concealed 
from Ahab in some rocky or mountainous 
spot, where travellers never came ; and that 
here a number of voracious birds had built 
their nests upon the trees which grew 
around it, or upon projecting rocks, &c. 
These flying every day to procure food for 
their young, the prophet availed himself of 
a part of what they brought, and while they, 
obeying the dictates of nature, designed 
only to provide for their offspring, Divine 
Providence directed them to provide at the 
same time for the wants of Elijah. What, 
therefore, he collected, whether from their 
nests, from what they dropped, or brought 
to him, or occasionally from all these 
means, was enough for his daily support. 
' And the orebim furnished him bread, or 
flesh, in the morning, and bread, or flesh, 
in the evening.' But as there were pro- 
bably several of them, some might fur- 
nish bread, and others flesh, as it happened; 
so that a little from each formed his soli- 
tary but satisfactory meal. To such straits 
was the exiled prophet driven ! and such 
was the dependence of this zealous man of 
God ! God's commanding the ravens, is a 
mode of speech used, where vocal com- 
mands were not employed. Perhaps these 
orebim were not strictly ravens, but rooks. 
The word rendered raven, includes the 
whole genus, among which are some less 
impure than the raven, as the rook. Rooks 
living in numerous societies are supposed 
by some to be the kind of birds employed 
on this occasion, rather than ravens, which 
fly only in pairs. According, however, to 
the Arabic version, Elijah was fed by the 
Orebim, or natives, who might be the de- 
scendants of Oreb, slain by Gideon. (Judg. 
vii. 25.) It seems, therefore, most likely, 
notwithstanding the opinion of Scheuzer, 
that some of the inhabitants of Oreb or Orbo, 
furnished the prophet with food, being 
specially and divinely directed so to do. 

After a time the brook dried up, and God 

sent Elijah to Zarephath, a city of the Si- 

donians. At the city gate he met with a 

widow woman gathering sticks, from whom 

383 



he desired a little water, adding, Bring me, 
I pray thee, also a morsel of bread. She 
answered, As the Lord liveth I have no 
bread, but only an handful of meal, and a 
little oil in a cruse ; and I am gathering 
some sticks, that I may dress it for me and 
my son, that we may eat it, and die. Elijah 
said, make first a little cake, and bring it 
me, and afterwards make for thee and thy 
son ; for thus saith the Lord, the barrel of 
meal shall not waste, neither shall the cruse 
of oil fail, until the day the Lord sendeth 
rain upon the earth. His prediction was 
accomplished, and he dwelt at the house of 
this widow. 

Some time after, the son of this woman 
fell sick, and died. The mother, over- 
whelmed with grief entreated the assistance 
and interposition of Elijah, who, taking the 
child in his arms, laid him on his own bed, 
and cried to the Lord for the restoration of 
the child's life. The Lord heard the pro- 
phet's petition, and restored the child. 

After three years of drought, the Lord 
commanded Elijah to show himself to 
Ahab. The famine being great in Samaria, 
Ahab sent people throughout the country, 
to inquire after places where they might 
find forage for the cattle. Obadlah, an 
officer of the king's household, being thus 
employed, Elijah presented himself, and 
directed him to tell Ahab, Behold, Elijah 
is here ! Ahab came to meet the prophet, 
and reproached him as the cause of the 
famine. Elijah retorted the charge on the 
king, and on his iniquities, and staked his 
credit and innocence on the event of a 
miracle from Heaven, on a sacrifice to be 
openly offered in the sight of Israel, who 
should determine between Jehovah and 
Baal. Ahab therefore convened the people 
of Israel, and 400 prophets of Baal. The 
prophets of Baal prepared their altar, sa- 
crificed their bullock, placed- it on the altar, 
and called on their gods. They leaped 
upon the altar, and cut themselves after 
their manner, crying with all their force. 
Elijah insulted them, and said, Cry louder, 
for Baal is perhaps asleep, or on a journey, 
and does not hear you. When mid-day 
was past, Elijah repaired the altar of the 
Lord ; and with twelve stones, in allusion 
to the twelve tribes of Israel, he built a 
new altar. He then laid his bullock upon 
the wood, poured a great quantity of water 
three times upon the sacrifice and the 
wood, so that the water filled the trench 
which was dug round the altar. After this, 
he called on the Lord. In answer to his 
prayer, the Lord sent fire from heaven, 
and consumed the wood, the burnt sacrifice, 
the stones and the dust of the place, ami 
even dried up the water in the trench On 
this, all the people fell on their faces, and 
said, 'the Lord he is the God.' Elijah 
then excited the people to slay the false 
prophets of Baal. 



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After this, Elijah said to Ahab, go 
home, eat and drink, for I hear the noise 
of abundance of rain. Elijah went to the 
top of Carmel, and throwing himself on the 
earth, sent his servant to look toward the 
sea. The servant went six times without 
seeing any thing ; but the seventh time he 
told his master, that he saw a cloud 
rising out of the sea as large as a man's 
hand. Elijah said to his servant, '* Go 
up, say unto Ahab, Prepare thy chariot, and 
get thee down, that the rain stop thee 
not.' The king obeyed the prophet's advice. 
Elijah girded up his loins, and ran before 
Ahab to Jezreel; and the rain fell in abun- 
dance. 

Jezebel, the wife of Ahab, threatened 
Elijah for having slain her prophets. The 
prophet, therefore, fled to Beersheba, in 
the south of Judah, and thence into 
Arabia Petrsea. In the evening, being 
extremely fatigued, he laid himself down 
under a juniper-tree, and prayed God to 
take him out of the world. An angel 
touched him, and said, Arise and eat. He 
arose, and saw a cake baked on the 
coals, and a cruse of water; and he ate 
and drank, and slept again. The angel 
awakened him, and said, Rise and eat, for 
the journey is too great for thee. He rose, 
ate and drank, and went in the strength of 
that meat forty days and forty nights, unto 
Horeb, the mount of God. 

When he was come thither, he lodged 
in a cave, and the Lord said to him, 
What dost thou here Elijah ? He answered, 
I have been very jealous for the Lord of 
hosts ; for the children of Israel have 
forsaken thy covenant, thrown down thine 
altars, and slain thy prophets with the 
sword, and I, even I only am left, and 
they seek my life to take it away. The 
Lord said, Go forth, and stand at the 
entrance of the cave. While he stood 
there, a strong wind passed by, but the 
Lord was not in the wind ; after the wind, 
the earth trembled, but the Lord was not in 
the earthquake ; after the earthquake was a 
fire, but the Lord was not in the fire ; after 
this fire was the breathing of a gentle wind, 
which when Elijah heard, he immediately 
prostrated himself on the earth, and covered 
his face in his mantle. The Lord asked him 
as before, What dost thou here Elijah ? And 
he repeated his former answer. The Lord 
said to him, Return to the wilderness of Da- 
mascus, anoint Hazael king over Syria, and 
Jehu king over Israel, and appoint Elisha 
thy successor in the prophetic office. Who- 
soever escapeth the sword of Hazael, shall 
Jehu slay : and him that escapeth the sword 
of Jehu, shall Elisha slay. Do not think, that 
thou only hast continued faithful to my cove- 
nant ; for I have reserved seven thousand men 
in Israel, who have not bowed their knees 
to Baal, who have not adored him by 
lifting up their hands to their mouths and 
384 



kissing them. Elijah, therefore, departing 
from Horeb, went into the tribe of 
Ephraim, and called Elisha. 

Some years after, Ahab having seized 
Naboth's vineyard, and Jezebel having con- 
demned that honest Israelite, the Lord com- 
manded Elijah to reproach Ahab with the 
crime he had committed. Elijah met him go- 
ing to Naboth's vineyard to take possession 
of it, and said, In the place where dogs licked 
the blood of Naboth, shall they lick thy 
blood, even thine. And the dogs shall eat 
Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. 

Ahaziah, king of Israel, being hurt by a 
fall from the platform of his house, sent 
to consult Baalzebub, the god of Ekron, 
whether he should recover. Elijah met 
the messengers, and said to them, Is it 
because there is no God in Israel that ye 
go to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of 
Ekron ? Now therefore saith the Lord, 
Thou shalt surely die. The messengers of 
Ahaziah returned, and informed the king, 
that a stranger had told them he should 
certainly die ; and Ahaziah knew that 
this was the prophet Elijah. The king, 
therefore, sent a captain to him with his 
company of fifty men ; and when the 
officer was come to Elijah, who was sit- 
ting upon a hill, he said, ' Thou man of 
God, the king commands thee to come 
down.' Elijah answered, ' If I be a 
man of God, let fire come down from 
heaven, and consume thee and thy fifty.' 
The prophet's words were followed with 
the effect predicted. The king sent 
another captain, who was also consumed. 
A third captain, going to Elijah, entreated 
him to save him and his people's lives. 
Elijah, therefore, accompanied him to the 
king. 

Elijah, understanding by Revelation, 
that God would soon translate him out of 
this world, was desirous of concealing it 
from Elisha, his inseparable companion. 
He, therefore, said to Elisha, Tarry thou 
here, for the Lord hath sent me to Bethel ; 
but Elisha answered, I will not leave 
thee. At Bethel, Elijah said, Tarry thou 
here, the Lord hath sent me to Jericho ; 
but Elisha replied, he would not forsake 
him. At Jericho, Elijah desired him to 
stay; but Elisha would not leave him. 
They went therefore together to Jordan, 
and fifty of the sons of the prophets fol- 
lowed them at a distance. When they 
were come to the Jordan, Elijah took his 
mantle, and with it struck the waters, 
which divided, and they went over on 
dry ground. Elijah then said to Elisha, 
Ask what I shall do for thee before I be 
taken away from thee. I pray thee, said 
Elisha, let a double portion of thy spirit 
be upon me, that is, obtain the gift of 
prophecy from God for me, in the same 
measure that thou possessest it. Double 
may signify like ; or give me a double 



ELI 



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share in thine inheritance, a double por- 
tion of thy spirit, the gift of prophecy, and 
of miracles in a degree double to what thou 
dost possess, or to what I now possess. 
Elijah answered, Thou hast asked me a very 
hard thing : yet, if thou see me when I am 
taken from thee, it shall be so unto thee ; 
but if not, it shall not be so. As they jour- 
neyed, a fiery chariot, with horses of fire, 
suddenly separated them, and Elijah was 
carried in a whirlwind to heaven. At the 
same time, Elisha cried out, ' My father, my 
father, the chariots of Israel, and the horse- 
men thereof,' Stackhouse says, ' the ac- 
count of Elijah's ascension is not to be 
taken in a literal sense, since a fiery chariot 
and horses would not have been a vehicle so 
proper for a nature as yet not impregnated 
with immortality.' He then observes, that 
those, who think that angels assumed on this 
occasion the form of the chariot and horses, 
do not appear to err much. 

The prophets of Jericho were con- 
vinced that the spirit of Elijah had rested 
on Elisha ; and they went out to meet 
him, and desired that he would give them 
leave to send fifty strong men in search 
after Elijah. Elisha gave them leave, 
but told them the search would be useless. 

Eight years after the miraculous ascen- 
sion of Elijah, a letter of reproof, admo- 
nition, and threatening, was brought to 
Jehoram, king of Judah, from the prophet 
Elijah. Some believe, that this letter was 
written from the place where Elijah is at 
present ; some, that it was sent before 
the prophet's translation ; and others, 
that Jehoram dreamed this. It is, however, 
observable, that in 2 Chron. xxi. 12, the 
Masorete text reads Elisha, instead of Elijah, 
by whom the letter to Jehoram appears to 
have been sent. 

Elijah and Enoch are believed to be 
still living, and some, both Jews and 
Christians, imagine, that they are to come 
at the end of the world to encounter 
Antichrist: they suppose them to be the 
two witnesses, who ' shall prophesy a 
thousand two hundred and threescore days, 
clothed in sackcloth.' (Rev. xi. 3.) 

The author of the book of Ecclesiasticus 
has dedicated an encomium to the memory 
of Elijah. (Ecclus. xlviii.) Malachi (iv. 
5, 6.) has this passage: ' Behold 1 will send 
you Elijah the prophet, before the coming 
of the great and dreadful day of the Lord : 
and he shall turn the hearts of the fathers to 
the children, and the heart of the children to 
their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth 
with a curse.' Our Saviour informs us, 
(Matt.xi. 14.; xvii. 10, 11, 12.) that Elijah 
is already come in spirit, in the person of 
John the Baptist. The Evangelists tell us, 
that, in the transfiguration of our Saviour, 
Elijah and Moses both appeared and con- 
versed with him respecting his future pas- 
sion. (Matt. xvii. 3, 4. Mark ix.4. Luke ix. 

385 



30.) Many of the Jews in our Lord's 
time believed him to be Elijah, or that 
the soul of Elijah had passed into the 
body of Jesus Christ. (Matt. xvi. 14. Mark 
vi. 15. Luke ix. 8.) 

The Mahometans have several traditions 
relating to Elijah ; and the Magi of Persia 
pretend that their master Zoroaster was one 
of Elijah's disciples. Scripture Illustrated, 
Expos. Ind. pp. 109, 110; Hales' s New Ana- 
lysis of Chronology, vol. ii. pp. 421, 428 ; 
Home's Introduction, vol. ii. p. 559. 

ELIS'ABETH, mu^x, 'EXiaa^T, sig- 
nifies God of the oath, or the oath of God, 
and was the name of the wife of Zacharias, 
and mother of John the Baptist. St. Luke, 
(i. 5.) tells us, that she was of the daughters 
of Aaron, of the race of the priests. An an- 
gel having foretold to Zacharias the birth of 
John the Baptist, Elisabeth conceived, and 
for five months concealed the favour which 
God had done her ; but the angel Gabriel 
discovered to the virgin Mary this miracu- 
lous conception, as an earnest and assurance 
of the birth of the Messiah. 

Mary visited her cousin Elisabeth, and 
saluted her. The child with which Elisa- 
beth was big, leaped in her womb ; and Eli- 
sabeth, full of the Holy Ghost, said, ' Blessed 
art thou among women, and blessed is the 
fruit of thy womb.' When her child was to 
be circumcised on the eighth day, his mother 
named him John. 

ELI'SHA, yr^K, signifies it is my God ; 
otherwise, lamb of God ; otherwise God that 
gives help. Elisha, son of Shaphat, Elijah's 
disciple and successor in the prophetic office, 
was of the city of Abelmeholah. (1 Kings 
xix. 16, &c.) Elijah, having received God's 
command to anoint Elisha as a prophet, 
came to Abelmeholah ; and finding Elisha 
plowing with twelve pairs of oxen, he threw 
his mantle over the shoulders of Elisha, who 
left the oxen, and accompanied him. 

In the article Elijah, we have observed 
that Elisha was following his master, when 
the Lord took the prophet up in a whirl- 
wind ; and that he inherited Elijah's mantle, 
with a double portion of his spirit. Elisha 
smote the waters of Jordan, and divided 
them ; and he cured the water of a rivulet 
near Jericho. As he was going afterwards 
to Bethel, the children, rather youths, of 
that place ridiculed him, saying, Go up thou 
bald pate, go up thou bald pate. Elisha 
cursed them in the name of the Lord, and at 
the same time two bears came out of a 
neighbouring forest, and lacerated or 
wounded forty-two of them. It is usually 
said, that the children from Bethel who 
mocked Elisha, were destroyed by two bears ; 
and Calmet, with others, tells us, the two 
devoured tuo-and-fortv children. However, 
our own translation keeps clear of this error, 
and renders 'two she hears tan these chil- 
dren ;' that is, not limb from limb, not to 
death, but scratched, wounded, clawed them, 
C c 



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agreeably to the meaning of the Hebrew root 
(Vpi), which signifies to cleave, to separate 
adjoining parts, to divide, in short, to tear 
more or less. 

The kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom, 
having taken the field against the king 
of Mbab, who had revolted from Israel, 
were in danger of perishing for want of 
water. Elisha was at that time in the 
camp ; and seeing Jehoram, the king of Is- 
rael, he said, ' What have I to do with thee ? 
get thee to the prophets of thy father, and 
to the prophets of thy mother. As the 
Lord liveth, were it not out of respect 
to Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, who 
is here present, I would not so much as 
look on thee. But now send for a min- 
strel. And while this man played, the 
spirit of the Lord fell upon Elisha, and 
he said, Thus saith the Lord, make several 
ditches along this valley, for ye shall see 
neither wind nor rain, yet this valley shall be 
filled with water, and you and your cattle 
shall drink of it' 

The widow of one of the prophets told 
Elisha, that her husband's creditor was 
determined to take her two sons and sell 
them for slaves. Elisha multiplied the 
oil in the widow's house, and enabled her to 
discharge the debt. 

Elisha went frequently to Shunem, a 
city of Manasseh, on this side Jordan, 
and was entertained by a certain matron 
at her house. As she had no children, 
Elisha promised her a son; and his pre- 
diction was accomplished. Some years 
after, the child died. Elisha, who was 
then at Mount Carmel, was solicited by 
the mother to come to her house. The pro- 
phet went, and restored the child. 

At Gilgal, during a great famine, one 
of the sons of the prophets gathered wild 
gourds, which he put into the pot, and 
they were served up to Elisha and the other 
prophets. It was soon found that they were 
mortal poison ; and Elisha ordered meal to 
be thrown into the pot, and corrected the 
virulence of the poison. 

Naaman, general of the king of Syria's 
forces, having a leprosy, was advised to 
visit Elisha in order to be cured. Elisha 
appointed him to wash himself seven times 
in the Jordan; and by this means Naa- 
man was perfectly healed. He returned 
to Elisha, and offered him large presents, 
which the man of God resolutely refused. 
But Gehazi, Elisha's servant, did not imi- 
tate the disinterestedness of his master. 
He ran after Naaman, and in Elisha's 
name begged a talent of gold, and two 
changes of raiment. Naaman gave him 
two talents. Elisha, to whom God had 
discovered Gehazi's action, reproached 
him with it, and told him, that the le- 
prosy of Naaman should cleave to him 
and his family for ever. 

The king of Syria, being at war with 
386 



the king of Israel, could not imagine how 
all his designs were discovered by the 
enemy. He was told that Elisha revealed 
them to the king of Israel. He there- 
fore sent troops to seize the prophet at 
Dothan ; but Elisha struck them with 
blindness, and led them in that condition 
into Samaria. When they were in the 
city, he prayed to God to open their 
eyes ; and after he had made them eat 
and drink, he sent them back to their 
master. 

Some time after, Benhadad, king of 
Syria, having besieged Samaria, the famine 
became so extreme, that a certain woman 
ate her own child. Jehoram, king of 
Israel, imputing to Elisha these calami- 
ties, sent a messenger to cut off his head. 
Elisha, who was informed of this design 
against his life, ordered the door to be 
shut. The messenger was scarcely arrived, 
when the king himself followed, and made 
great complaints of the condition of the 
town. Elisha answered, ' To-morrow about 
this time shall a measure of fine flour 
be sold for a shekel, and two measures 
of barley for a shekel, in the gate of 
Samaria.' One of the king's officers 
said, ' Were the Lord to open the ca- 
taracts of heaven, and rain corn from 
heaven, it might be so.' The prophet 
answered, ' Thou shalt see it with thine 
eyes, but shalt not eat thereof It hap- 
pened according to Elisha's prediction. 

Elisha sent one of the sons of the pro- 
phets to anoint Jehu, the son of Jehoshaphat, 
and grandson of Nimshi, to be king, in 
pursuance of an order given to Elijah 
some years before. See Ahab, Jehu, Je- 
zebel. 

Elisha falling sick, Joash, king of Is- 
rael, came to visit him, and said, 'O my 
father, my father, the chariot of Israel 
and the horsemen thereof.' Elisha de- 
sired the king to bring him a bow and 
arrows. Joash having brought them, Eli- 
sha requested him to put his hands on 
the bow, and at the same time the prophet 
put his own hand upon the king's, and 
said, ' Open the window which looks east, 
and let fly an arrow.' The king having 
done this, Elisha said, ' This is the arrow 
of the Lord's deliverance ; thou shalt be 
successful against Syria at Aphek.' Elisha 
desired him again to shoot, which he did 
three times, and then stopped. The man 
of God with some passion said, ' If thou 
hadst smitten five or six times, then thou 
hadst consumed Syria ; whereas now thou 
shalt smite Syria only thrice.' 

When Elisha died, a band of Moabites 
invaded the land ; and it happened, that 
as some Israelites were going to bury a 
man in a field, they saw these robbers, and 
hastily threw the body into Elisha's grave. 
As soon as the body touched the bones of 
Elisha, the man revived, and stood up. 



ELI 



EMB 



The manner in which Elisha healed the 
waters of the fountain was by casting salt 
into it. Now, it may he safely observed, 
that any quantity of salt thrown into the 
reservoir, or apparent issue of the waters, 
could not correct the offensive qualities of 
so much water as was then contained in 
it. The salt could never reach the actual 
source of this fountain, which we may 
well believe was at a distance under the 
earth. Even if it had been a lake exposed 
to the air, that by channels under ground 
supplied this spring, still the quantity of 
salt which was used by Elisha, and which 
is said to have been contained in a dish, 
could never year after year have neutralized 
those portions of the strata, through which 
the water ran. The miracle, therefore, 
is the more evident. 

The history of the miraculous supply 
of water, adds another to the gracious 
interpositions of Divine Power. But to 
understand this history properly, we must 
notice the direction of the prophet, dig 
ditches in this valley. It was then a valley, 
where a current of water might pass, 
where it might be collected, or where, on 
digging, it might be expected to be found. 
The next morning after the ditches were 
dug, water was seen to come from the way 
of Edom; and these ditches, trenches, &c. 
being ready, received and detained the 
salubrious streams. The fact, therefore, 
proves to be, that rain had fallen at a dis- 
tance, during the night, and had been 
providentially directed to take that course 
among the mountains, and after quitting 
them, which led to the trenches cut in the 
valley where Israel was encamped. That 
Edom was a mountainous country, we learn 
from Numb. xx. 23. Mai. i. 3. The in- 
ference from what has been said is, that 
the prophetic impulse on the mind of Eli- 
sha rather constitutes this miracle, than 
the actual fall of rain. On other occasions 
we may observe, that predictions of natural 
phenomena are in their nature supernatural ; 
and that time, place, and circumstances, 
contribute greatly to characterize events as 
miraculous. 

All miracles in general surpass the 
powers of nature ; but some are greater, 
and of a more elevated rank than others. 
There is, perhaps, among them an infinity 
of degrees, the knowledge of which is re- 
served to glorified saints, and to angels. 
The miracle of the widow's oil multiplied 
by Elisha is, perhaps, one of the greatest 
mentioned in Scripture, and is almost the 
same as that performed by the prophet 
Elijah at Zarephath or Sarepta. (1 Kings 
xvii. 14.) It is, indeed, an astonishing 
miracle, performed immediately by an In- 
jl finite Power: whether we suppose that a 
drop of liquor was multiplied into twenty 
others of the same size, and of the same 
nature ; or whether the air which sur- 
387 



rounded it, or that contained in the empty 
vessels, was changed into oil, without 
suffering those processes which are neces- 
sary in the ordinary production of oil, 
through the pores, the glands, or the ducts 
of trees, appointed and formed to that 
purpose. In a word, this miracle sur- 
passes the understanding of every philo- 
sopher ; as indeed does the series of 
changes, which takes place in concocting 
plain rain-water into the nourishment of 
plants, endued with all the properties of 
their dissimilar juices, sweet, sour, rough, 
smooth, &c. This reasoning applies no 
less to the immediate production, or mul- 
tiplication of food, in the New Testament. 
The oil and the meal of Elijah seem to 
be accretions, or prolongations, not unlike 
those in nature. Scripture Illustrated, Expos, 
hides:, pp. 112. 114. Supplem. Addenda to 
Calmet's Diet. 

EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians, 
and the Hebrews in imitation of them, 
embalmed the bodies of the dead. Joseph 
ordered the body of his father Jacob to 
be embalmed. (Gen. 1. 1, 2.) The em- 
balming of dead bodies among the Egypt- 
ians was as follows: When a man died, 
his body was carried to the artificers who 
made coffins, and who prepared a coffin 
proportioned to its stature, to the dead 
person's quality, and to the price. The 
upper part of the coffin represented the 
person who was to be enclosed in it. 
A man of condition was distinguished 
by the figure upon the cover of the 
coffin ; and generally suitable paintings 
and embellishments were added. The 
embalmers' prices were different : the 
highest was a talent ; twenty minae was 
moderate ; and the lowest price was small. 
The Egyptian talent is supposed to have 
been worth about 300/. A dissector, 
with a very sharp Ethiopian stone, made 
the incision on the left side. The em- 
balmers drew the brains of the dead per- 
son through his nostrils, with a hooked 
piece of iron, and filled the skull with 
astringent drugs. They drew all the bowels, 
except the heart and kidneys, through 
the hole in the left side. They then washed 
the intestines in palm wine, and in other 
strong and binding drugs. They anointed 
the body with oil of cedar, with myrrh, 
cinnamon, &c. about thirty days : by this 
means, it was preserved entire without 
losing its hair ; and sweet, without any 
signs of putrefaction. After this, the body 
was put in salt about forty days. There- 
fore, when Moses says, that forty days 
were employed in embalming Jacob, we 
understand him of the days dining which 
he continued in the salt of nitre, without 
including the thirty days spent in the pre- 
vious ceremonies ; so that in the whole, 
they mourned seventy days in Egypt, as 
Moses observes. Lastly, the body 
rc2 



EMB 



EMB 



taken out of this salt, washed, wrapt up 
with swaddling bands, dipt in myrrh, and 
rubbed wiih a gum which the Egyptians 
used instead of glue. It was then re- 
stored to the relations, who put it in a 
coffin, ai -i kept it in their houses, or 
in tombs. 

They who could not afford such expenses, 
contented themselves with infusing by a 
syringe, through the fundament, a liquor 
extracted from the cedar, and, leaving it 
there, wrapt up the body in salt of 
nitre. This oil preyed on the intestines 
so, that when it was taken out, the intes- 
tines came along with it dried, but not pu- 
trefied. The body being enclosed in nitre, 
grew dry. The poor only cleansed the in- 
side, by injecting into it a certain liquor, 
which washed it; then put the body into 
nitre for seventy days to dry it. 

The Scripture also mentions the em- 
balming of ^Joseph, (Gen. 1. 26.) which 
was doubtless performed after the manner 
of the Egyptians, since he died in that 
country. 

In later times, where the deceased parties 
were persons of rank or fortune, after wash- 
ing the corpse, the Jews ' embalmed it, by 
laying all around it a large quantity of 
costly spices and aromatic drugs, in order 
to imbibe and absorb the humours, and by 
their inherent virtues to preserve it as long 
as possible from putrefaction and decay. 
Thus we read that Nicodemus brought a 
mixture of myrrh and aloes, about a hun- 
dred pounds' weight, to perform the cus- 
tomary office to the dear deceased. This 
embalming was usually repeated for several 
days together, that the drugs and spices 
thus applied might have all their efficacy in 
the exsiccation of the moisture and the 
future conservation of the body. They 
then swathed the corpse in linen rollers or 
bandages, closely enfolding and wrapping 
it in that bed of aromatic drugs with 
which they had surrounded it. Thus we 
find that Joseph of Arimathea and Nico- 
demus ' took the body of Jesus, and wound 
it in linen clothes with the spices, as the 
manner of the Jews is to bury.' (John xix. 
40.) This custom we behold also in the 
Egyptian mummies, round which Thevenot 
informs us, the Egyptians have sometimes 
used above a thousand ells of filleting, be- 
side what was wrapped about the head. 
Thus, when our Lord had cried with a loud 
voice, ' Lazarus come forth !' it is said, 
' the dead came forth, bound hand and 
foot in graveclothes.' (John xi. 44.) We 
learn from Scripture, also, that about the 
head and face of the corpse was folded a 
napkin, which was a separate thing, and 
did not communicate with the other ban- 
dages in which the body was swathed. Thus 
we read, that the face of Lazarus was 
bound about with a napkin, (John xi. 44.) ; 
and when our Lord was risen, Peter, who 
388 



went into the sepulchre, saw the linen 
clothes lie, and the napkin that had been 
folded round his head, not lying with the 
linen clothes, but wreathed together in a 
place by itself, lying at some distance from 
the rollers in which his body had been 
swathed, and folded up, exactly in the state 
it was when first wrapped round his head. 
(John xx. 7-) Home's Introduction, vol. iii. 
pp. 519, 520. 

EMBLEMS. The figurative style of 
writing and speaking frequently indulges 
in the use of hyperbolical expressions, 
whose prototypes do not exist in nature. 
In like manner, the figurative style of re- 
presentation to the eye, that is of emblems 
and allegory, has ever claimed a pre- 
scriptive right to combine forms and 
figures, of whose originals nature knows 
nothing, but which art and genius have 
rendered expressive. Yet, the emblems 
used by the sacred writers have sometimes 
originals in nature more nearly similar than 
we are aware. 

A remarkable emblem, which appears 
to us as an unusual and monstrous produc- 
tion, is that of the wheat in Pharaoh's 
dream, (Gen. xli. 5.) which had seven ears, 
full and good, on one stalk. This has 
always been considered as a liberty taken 
with nature, for the purpose of furnishing a 
symbol : but the fact is, that a species of 
wheat which grows in Egypt actually 
bears when perfect, this number of ears 
on one stalk, as its natural conformation. 
This wheat differs from our own, by having 
a solid stem, or at least a stem full of pith, 
in order to yield sufficient nourishment and 
support to so great a weight as the ears 
which it bears, and which demand a pro- 
portionate supply of nutritive juices. But 
the stem of our own wheat is a mere hollow 
straw. Was this the kind of corn which 
Isaac sowed, and reaped in one year an 
hundred fold? (Gen. xxvi. 12.) If it was the 
dorra, which sometimes yielded three hun- 
dred for one, why is it recorded as extraordi- 
nary ? 

Among the most remarkable conforma- 
tions of symbolical animals, are those of 
the prophet Daniel, (vii. 7-) who, by de- 
scribing creatures with horns to the num- 
ber of ten, seems to us to have imagined 
so many monsters. However, this is not 
altogether the fact ; and it is well to know, 
that in the east are races of goats, sheep, 
&c. which differ in the number of their 
horns from those common in our own coun- 
try. The Persian sheep are of the many 
horned kinds, and are probably very mis- 
chievous and pugnacious. The prophet 
Daniel, therefore, in describing a goat, &c. 
with numerous horns, added little to his 
allegorical animal beyond what was in 
daily observation around him in the na- 
tural animals of the country where he 
wrote. — This applies, in part, to other al- 



ENO 



ENO 



legorical beasts; as in the Revelation, &c. 
Fragments annexed to Calmet's Diet. No. 
cxlvii. p. 108. 

EMMAN'UEL, or Imman'uel, a He- 
brew word which signifies ' God with us.' 
Isaiah (vii. 14.) in that celebrated pro- 
phecy, in which he foretells to Ahaz the 
birth of the Messiah, from a virgin, says, 
This child shall be called, and really be, 
Emmanuel, God with us. He repeats 
this while speaking of the enemy's army, 
which, like a torrent, was to overflow 
Judea ; ' The stretching of his wings shall 
fill the breadth of thy land, O Emmanuel.' 
St. Matthew (i. 23.) informs us, that this 
prophecy was accomplished in the birth of 
Christ, born of the Virgin Mary, in whom 
the two natures, divine and human, were 
united ; so that he was really Emmanuel, or 
' God with us.' 

ENCRATITES, or Continents, a name 
given to a sect in the second century, be- 
cause they condemned marriage, forbade 
the eating of flesh, or drinking of wine, and 
rejected with a sort of horror all the com- 
forts and conveniencies of life. Tatian, an 
Assyrian, and a disciple of Justin Martyr, 
was the leader of this sect. He was greatly 
distinguished for his genius and learning, 
and the excessive austerity of his life and 
manners. He regarded matter as the 
fountain of all evil, and therefore recom- 
mended in a peculiar manner the mortifica- 
tion of the body. He distinguished the 
creator of the world from the Supreme 
Being, denied the reality of Christ's body, 
and blended the Christian religion with se- 
veral other tenets of the oriental philosophy. 
Mosheim, vol. i. p. 180. 

ENERGICI, a denomination in the 
sixteenth century, who were so called be- 
cause they held that the eucharist was the 
energy and virtue of Jesus Christ, not his 
body, nor a representation of it. History of 
Religion, vol. iv. 

EN'-GEDI, 'nr'py, signifies fountain, or 
eye of the goat, or of happiness, and was the 
name of a city, which was also called Haza- 
zon-tamar, the palm-tree city, (2 Chron. 
xx. 2.) there being a great number of palm 
trees around it. It abounded with Cyprus 
vines, and trees that bore balm. Solomon 
(Cant. i. 14.) speaks of the vineyards of En- 
gedi. This city stood near the lake of So- 
dom, 300 furlongs from Jerusalem, not far 
from Jericho, and the mouth of the river 
Jordan. In some cave of the wilderness of 
En-gedi, David had an opportunity of kill- 
ing Saul, then in pursuit of him. (1 Sam. 
xxiv. 1, 2, 3, &c.) Wells's Geography, vol. 
ii. p. 18. 

E'NOC'H, "yon, signifies dedicated, or 
disciplined and well regulated. Enoch, the 
son of Cain, (Gen. iv. 17.) in honour of 
whom the first city mentioned in Scripture 
was calledEnoch, and was east of Eden. 
Huetius was of opinion, that the city 
389 



Anuchtha, mentioned by Ptolemy in the 
description of Susiana, was the same as 
Enoch ; but this opinion is controverted, or 
at least rendered doubtful, by Dr. Wells. 
Geography of the Old and New Testament, 
vol. i. p. 23. 

Enoch, the son of Jared, and father 
of Methuselah, was born in the year of the 
world 622. He begat Methuselah at the 
age of sixty-five. He walked with God ; 
and after he had lived three hundred and 
sixty-five years, ' he was not, for God 
took him.' Some construe these words, as 
importing, that Enoch died a natural, but 
untimely death ; because in reality he lived 
not near so long as the other patriarchs of 
those times. But the generality of the 
fathers and commentators assert, that God 
transported him out of the sight of men, 
as he long after took up Elijah in a fiery 
chariot. St. Paul (Heb. xi. 5.) shows very 
clearly, that Enoch was translated, and did 
not see death. 

Jude (14, 15.) seems to cite a passage from 
the book of Enoch, which has very much 
exercised interpreters. The question is, 
whether the apostle took this passage out of 
any book, which might be then extant; 
whether he received it by tradition ; or, by 
revelation. Dr. Doddridge observes on the 
passage of Jude as follows: ' A precious 
fragment of antediluvian history is here pre- 
served to us, as it seems by the special pro- 
vidence of God, who taught the apostle Jude 
to distinguish between what was genuine and 
spurious in the tradition. It can by no means 
be proved, that this is a quotation from that 
foolish book, called Enoch's Prophecy, as 
Bishop Sherlock has very rightly urged ; nor 
would it prove the inspiration of the book 
from whence it was taken, but only the truth 
of this particular passage.' 

It appears that Mr. Bruce procured in 
Abyssinia three manuscript copies of the 
book of Enoch, one of which he presented to 
the Library at Paris, another to the Bodleian 
Library at Oxford, and the third he reserved 
for himself. In 1821, Dr. Laurence, now 
Archbishop of Cashel, published from the 
Bodleian manuscript a translation of this 
book, to which he prefixed an elaborate pre- 
liminary dissertation on the history, &c. of 
this apocryphal work. Dr. Laurence ob- 
serves, that, as this book was written before 
the doctrines of Christianity were promul- 
gated to the world, the references in the 
book of Enoch to the nature and character 
of the Messiah afford credible proofs of 
what were the Jewish opinions on those 
points before the birth of Christ, and conse- 
quently before the possible predominance of 
the Christian creed. He then shows, In l \- 

tracts from this apocryphal book, that, con- 
trary to the assertions of the Unitarians, 

who contend that the existence of Christ 

commenced at bis birth, andwhoaffinn that 
no Jew of any age ever held the opinion • I 



ENO 



ENT 



his pre-existence, much less ever regarded 
him as an object of divine worship, that the 
pre-existence of the Son of Man, or the 
Messiah, from the beginning, is stated in 
language which cannot admit the least 
doubt, and that divine worship is said to be 
given to him, and prayer offered to him for 
mercy. He also shows, that as the descrip- 
tion in this book of the Son of Man may be 
considered as the Jewish comment at that 
time on the vision of Daniel, a precise and 
distinct Trinity of persons, under the su- 
preme appellation of Lords, is represented 
in a comment of the same nature on that 
account of Moses, which describes the com- 
mencement of the creation. Laurence's 
Prelim. Diss. pp. xliii. xlvi. ; Supplem. Ad- 
denda to Calmet's Dictionary ; Bruce' s Tra- 
vels, vol. i. p. 449 ; Doddridge's Family Expo- 
sitor, vol. v. p. 410. 

E'NOS, un3N, signifies mortal man, sick, 
despaired of, forgetful. Enos, son of Seth, 
and father of Cainan, was born in the 
year of the world 235, and died in the 
year of the world 1140, aged 905 years. 
Moses (Gen. iv. 26.) says, ' then began men 
to call upon the name of the Lord,' or, as 
some translate the passage, ' Enos began 
to call upon the name of the Lord ;' that 
is, they observe, he was the inventor of 
religious rites and ceremonies in worship. 
This worship was preserved in the family 
of Enos, while Cain's family was plunged 
into irregularities and impieties. Several 
Jews translate thus : ' Then men began to 
profane the name of the Lord,' that is, 
by calling it on the creature and idols. 
This passage may also be translated, ' Then 
men began to call themselves by the name 
of the Lord.' Good men, to distinguish 
themselves from the wicked, began to 
take the name of sons, or servants, of 
God ; and hence Moses (Gen. vi. 1, 2.) says, 
that the sons of God, that is, the descend- 
ants of Enos, seeing the daughters of men 
that they were fair, took them wives of 
all which they chose. Some, however, 
who render the word aleim by dignitaries, 
supreme, sovereign, above the law, ex- 
plain this passage as follows: ' The sons of 
dignity, of power above the law, in fact, 
the emperors and ruling powers, or the 
sons of the dignitaries, saw the daughters 
of the inferior classes of men; and they 
formed their seraglios, by collecting them 
into their harems, from among all whom 
they chose.' Hence proceeded wars, com- 
motions, and violences of every kind. 
This view of the passage is not new : On- 
kelos and the Targums read, ' the sons of 
the great ;' the Samaritan, ' the sons of 
the sultans ;' the Arabic, * sons of the no- 
bles :' but it destroys the idea of angelic 
commerce with women, as some have in- 
terpreted the words ; or of the descendants 
of Seth, as sons of God, that is, good men, 
mingling with the beauties of the house of 
890 



Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, 



Cain, 
p. 18. 

ENTHUSIASM, in its best sense, sig- 
nifies a divine afHation or inspiration, and 
also denotes that noble ardour of mind 
which leads us to imagine any thing sub- 
lime, grand, or surprising. In its worst 
sense, it signifies any impression on the 
fancy, or agitation of the passions, of 
which a man can give no rational account. 
It is observed by a learned divine, that all 
religion is either natural or instituted. The 
rule of natural religion is the common 
reason of mankind. The rule of insti- 
tuted religion is divine revelation, or the 
word of God. Nothing, therefore, can 
pretend to religion, but what can be proved 
by Scripture, or by reason, or by both. 
How confident soever we may be of opi- 
nions destitute of this proof, every person 
who understands the grounds of religion, 
will immediately reject them ; because 
there is no reason to regard a man's con- 
fidence, if the arguments and reasons 
which he produces bear no proportion to 
it. We find from experience, that confi- 
dence is generally ill-grounded, and is a 
kind of passion in the understanding, 
which is commonly used to supply the 
weakness and want of argument. If a 
man's reasons and arguments be not good, 
his confidence adds no strength to them, 
and tends only to refute itself. None are 
so much to be suspected of error, or a de- 
sign to deceive, as those who pretend most 
confidently to inspiration ; as we may per- 
ceive in all enthusiasts, who pretend to in- 
spiration, but who afford no proofs in sup- 
port of their pretensions. Every pretence 
to inspiration, unless accompanied by 
miracles, is liable to be considered as en- 
thusiastical. There is no doubt but that 
the Spirit of God formerly inspired men 
in an extraordinary manner, and may do 
so again when the Almighty pleases; but 
since the great and standing revelation of 
the Gospel, we should be careful not to be 
rash in giving heed to such pretences. If 
those who pretend to inspiration declare 
only what is revealed in the Gospel already, 
their inspiration is needless ; if they de- 
clare any thing contrary to the Gospel, we 
are sufficiently cautioned against them ; if 
any thing in addition to the revelation of 
the Gospel, but not contrary to it, we 
must consider the evidence they bring for 
their inspiration. God does not inspire 
men for their own sakes, but for the sake 
of others ; and another man's inspiration is 
nothing to me, unless he can satisfy me 
that he is inspired. 

Devotion, when not subjected to the 
control of reason, is very apt to degene- 
rate into enthusiasm. When the mind is 
greatly heated by devotions, men are in- 
clined to think that these devotions pro- 
ceed from something divine. If this 



ENV 



ENV 



thought be indulged to excess, and the 
growing passion be cherished, they fall 
into imaginary raptures and ecstacies ; and 
when once men fancy themselves under 
the influence of a divine impulse, it is no 
wonder if they slight human ordinances, 
and refuse to comply with any established 
form of religion, since they suppose them- 
selves directed by a much superior guide. 
There is not a more melancholy object, 
than a man whose head is turned with 
religious enthusiasm. An insane person, 
whose mind has been injured by pride or 
malice, is a very mortifying sight to hu- 
man nature ; but when the distemper arises 
from any indiscreet fervours of devotion, 
or from too intense an application of the 
mind to its mistaken duties, it deserves our 
compassion in a more particular manner. 
From it, however, we may learn this lesson, 
that since devotion itself, which we might 
be disposed to think could not be too warm, 
may disorder the mind, unless its heats are 
tempered by caution and prudence, we 
ought to be particularly careful to keep 
our reason as cool as possible, and on 
all occasions to guard ourselves against 
the influence of passion and imagination. 

The sober Christian is as fully convinced 
as the enthusiast, that only He who made 
the heart can new make it He is as fully 
persuaded that his natural dispositions can- 
not be changed, nor his affections purified, 
but by the agency of the Divine Spirit, as 
the fanatic. If he cannot recapitulate 
feelings, he can and does produce such 
evidences of his improvement, as virtu- 
ous habits, a devout temper, a humble 
and charitable spirit, 'repentance towards 
God, and faith in our Lord Jesus Christ ;' 
and this gives an evidence less equivo- 
cal, as existing more in the heart than 
on the lips, and more in the life, than 
in the discourse. Tillotson's Sermons, Serm. 
iv. ix. ; Spectator, No. 201. ; Ccelebs, vol. ii. 
p. 224. 

ENVY, a sensation of uneasiness and 
disquiet, arising from the superior advan- 
tages which others are supposed to pos- 
sess, and accompanied with malignity 
towards those who possess them. It is 
one of the most hateful and unsightly 
abortions of a malevolent disposition. It is 
always desirous, and often striving, to 
effect the degradation of others ; to load 
them with ignominy or contempt ; to dis- 
parage their virtues and their excellen- 
ces; not so much because it aspires to 
elevation itself, as because it delights to 
depress others; not so much because it thinks 
or seeks to obtain distinction itself, by ob- 
scuring those who are more deserving of 
it, as because it possesses sticTi an un- 
mixed infusion of malignity as makes it 
behold, with the bitterest aversion, the 
worth, the excellence, the prosperity, and 
the happiness of others, and most of those 
391 



whom it most knows, and with whom it has 
the most frequent intercourse. 

Envy is a vice, of all others, the most 
odious and detestable, because it has no 
temptations of pleasure or advantage to 
plead ; but it springs solely from a vitiated 
and malignant heart, unable to endure 
the happiness of others, and unwilling to 
acquiesce in its own allotments. It is a 
miserable passion, which, like a distem- 
pered eye, is incapable of bearing the 
brightness of any light. Whatever way 
the person who is under its influence di- 
rects his sight, he is sure to meet with ob- 
jects that give him pain. He observes 
one man invested with authority, and, 
therefore, contemplated with awe; ano- 
ther universally beloved and esteemed for 
his good qualities ; a third rich, and, there- 
fore, surrounded with crowds of obsequious 
admirers ; and a fourth wise and learned, 
which occasions his judgment to be fol- 
lowed, his opinion embraced, and his per- 
son respected. Should either of those 
characters occur to the view of the en- 
vious man, or pass over the horizon of his 
mind, how wretchedly, how excessively 
disquieted is he ? Such a man will ex- 
pose to the public view, with a malig- 
nant joy, those blemishes and failings of 
others, which the principles of humanity 
should lead him to conceal. He will take 
advantage of men's little faults and failings, 
to sully their best and most laudable actions, 
and even, by misrepresentation, convert 
their virtues into vices. 

It is a natural consequence of envy to 
render the life of him who is under its 
dominion, one continued scene of uneasi- 
ness and discontent. So long, indeed, as 
he envies, he cannot be otherwise than 
miserable j and where once this vice is 
rooted in the heart, there is little chance 
of its being extirpated but with life. What 
the prophet has declared concerning the 
wicked in general, ' that they are like a 
troubled sea which cannot rest,' is strictly 
applicable to the envious man in particu- 
lar : he is agitated to and fro by the force 
of his unruly passion ; he is his own busy 
tormentor, his own restless persecutor ; 
his envy like a worm corrodes him, and 
like a canker frets him. Envy is also such 
a diabolical passion, that it disqualifies men 
for the performance of those duties which 
religion indispensably requires, and leads 
to those practices which it solemnly for- 
bids. It tends to give us wrong notions of 
the greatest and best of Beings ; it prompts 
us to detract from His attributes, and to 
blaspheme Him in our hearts, by repre- 
senting His ways as unequal, ami His 
dealing as unrighteous. It inclines men 
to increase the weight of their neighbour's 
afflictions, to repine at their prosperity, 
to depreciate their characters, to sow strife 
amongst brethren, and to separate bosom 



ENV 



EOQ 



friends. St. James represents this sin as 
attended with every evil work. 

Let him, therefore, who envies his neigh- 
hour, seriously consider, and deliberately 
weigh in his mind, the great absurdity as 
well as the sin of envy, which, impar- 
tially viewed, is one of the most inexcus- 
able in the list of human errors. So far 
from profiting, so far from affecting the 
mind with any transient joys, the very 
nature of envy is to disquiet a man's life, 
and to prove at once his sin and his punish- 
ment. Let him also consider the nature 
of those things for which he envieth his 
neighbour. Does he envy his superior 
wealth and affluence ? Our Saviour has 
observed, and daily experience confirms, 
that ' the happiness and comfort of man's 
life consist not in the abundance of 
those things which he possesseth.' Let 
him consider not only the uncertainty of 
riches, but the various changes and con- 
ditions of human life ; how some have 
heaped up wealth for a time, and nourished 
amidst prosperity and abundance, but 
have afterwards been reduced to a mean 
estate, and become as much the objects 
of pity, as they once were of envy and 
admiration! In a word, to settle this 
point, there is certainly nothing this world 
affords worth our envy; because it con- 
tains nothing which is not attended with 
uneasiness and disquietude. Let us rightly 
appreciate internal spiritual gifts, as 
compared with eternal and spiritual en- 
joyments. It is evident that beauty, wealth, 
and honour, frequently captivate the affec- 
tions, and betray men into luxury and 
pride, into violence and deceit, into sloth 
and wantonness. On the contrary, virtue 
and grace, those fair endowments of the 
mind, possess an innate beauty, which 
can neither be tainted by sordid motives, 
nor prostituted to vile and disingenuous 
purposes. It will also be expedient to 
impress deeply on our minds just sen- 
timents and apprehensions of Divine 
Providence; to consider that he who 
created all things still keeps a watchful 
eye over his creatures, still rejoices to do 
them good ; and to reflect at the same 
time, that he who appears least befriended, 
has obtained more than he could possibly 
have claimed. These and similar reflec- 
tions on Providence, if allowed to influ- 
ence the heart of man, will disarm his 
envy, silence his murmurs, and make 
him ashamed to repine ; they will induce 
him humbly to acquiesce in, and patiently 
to submit to, the will and pleasure of that 
God, who has ordered every thing for the 
best. 

Lastly, it will be useful to consider, that, 
notwithstanding all the visible inequali- 
ties of conditions here below, the time is 
not far distant, when they will all be re- 
conciled ; and they who envy, and they 
392 



who are envied, shall all be on a level. 
When the stage of life is once closed, we 
shall all be alike, though the parts we 
acted upon it may have been widely dif- 
ferent. We must all return to the same 
common earth out of which we were first 
formed; and till the awful sound of the 
last trumpet shall awake us, we must lie 
in that dark mansion of death, the grave, 
without difference, and without distinc- 
tion. ' There the wicked shall cease from 
troubling, and the weary be at rest ; there 
the prisoners shall sleep together; they 
shall not hear the voice of the oppressor : 
the small and great are there promiscu- 
ously mixed together; and the servant 
is free from his master.' From that 
state, the same God that made us all 
shall call all his creatures. The consi- 
deration of final and impartial justice ought 
to prevent us from envying those who, 
in this short and transitory scene, figure 
above us, and dispose us in ' whatever 
state we are, therewith to be content.' 
Fellowes's Body of Theology,' vol. ii. pp. 361, 
362. 

EONIANS, the followers of Eon, a 
wild fanatic, of the province of Bretagne, 
in the twelfth century. This man, whose 
brain was undoubtedly disordered, was con- 
demned in the council which was assembled 
at Rheims, in the year 1148, and at which 
pope Eugenius III. presided, for pre- 
tending to be the Son of God. Having 
heard, in the form that was used for ex- 
orcising malignant spirits, these words pro- 
nounced, per eum, qui venturus est judi- 
care vivos et mortuos, he concluded from 
the resemblance between the word eum 
and his name, that he was the person who 
was to come to judge both the quick and 
the dead. He was followed as a great 
prophet. Sometimes, he walked with a 
great number of people ; sometimes, he 
lived in solitude, and afterwards appeared 
in greater splendour than before. This 
infatuated person, says Mosheim, should 
rather have been delivered over to the 
physicians, than placed in the list of he- 
retics. He ended his days in a miserable 
prison, and left a considerable number of 
followers, whom persecution and deaths in 
the most dreadful forms, could not per- 
suade to abandon his cause, or renounce 
an absurdity, which one would think could 
never have gained credit, except in such a 
place as Bedlam. This remarkable example 
is sufficient to show not only the astonish- 
ing credulity of the multitude, but also 
how far even the rulers of the church were 
destitute of judgment, and strangers to the 
knowledge of true and genuine religion. 
Mosheim, vol. ii. pp. 457, 458. BroughtorCs 
Hist. Library, vol. i. p. 361. 

EOQUINIANS, a denomination in the 
sixteenth century. They derived their 
name from their master, Eoquinus, who 



EPA 



EPH 



taught that Christ did not die for the 
wicked, but for the faithful only. Adam's 
View of Religions, j). 132. 

EP'APHRAS, 'Effacppag, signifies covered 
with foam. It is believed that Epaphras was 
the first bishop of Colosse. He was converted 
by St. Paul, and contributed much to con- 
vert his fellow-citizens of Colosse. He came 
to Rome while St. Paul was there in bonds, 
and is thought to have been imprisoned with 
St. Paul. (Philem. 23.) However, Dr. Ben- 
son observes, and perhaps truly, that the ap- 
pellation of fellow-prisoner, as applied by St 
Paul to Epaphras, did not imply that they 
were imprisoned together at the time ; any 
more than your calling a person your fellow- 
traveller, imports that you are then upon 
your travels. If he had, upon any former 
occasion, travelled with you, you might after- 
wards speak of him under that title. It is 
just so with the term fellow-prisoner. 

Epaphras, having understood that false 
apostles, taking advantage of his absence 
from Colosse, had sown tares among the 
wheat in his church, engaged St. Paul, 
whose name and authority were reverenced 
throughout Phrygia, to write to the Colos- 
sians to correct them. Paley's Hone Paulince, 
p. 372. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS, "Eirafpodirog, signi- 
fies agreeable, handsome. Epaphroditus was 
bishop, or rather the apostle, or messenger 
of the Philippians, being sent by that church 
to carry money to Paul, who was then in 
bonds, and in their name to render him ser- 
vice. He executed this commission with 
zeal, and exposed himself to great risks, by 
which he brought on himself a dangerous ill- 
ness, that obliged him to stay long at Rome. 
The year following, A.D. 62, he returned 
with haste to Philippi, having heard that the 
Philippians, on receiving information of his 
sickness, were much afflicted. By him St. 
Paul sent a letter to the Philippians. (Philip, 
iv. 18.) 

On the subject of the sickness of Epaphro- 
ditus it has been observed, that no intima- 
tion is given that the recovery of Epaphro- 
ditus was miraculous, but that it is plainly 
spoken of as a natural event. This instance, 
together with that which occurs in the Se- 
cond Epistle to Timothy, affords a proof 
that the power of performing cures, and con- 
sequently of working other miracles, was a 
power which the apostles only occasionally 
possessed, and did not depend on their own 
will. Paley's Horce Paulina, p. 261. 

E'PHAH, a hollow measure used among 
the Hebrews, and contained three pecks 
and three pints. It was also called a bath. 
It was a measure of things dry, as of 
barley, (Ruth ii.) and meal, (Judg. vi. 
Numb, v.) and was of the same capacity with 
the bath in liquids. It contained three sata 
or seahs. The Chaldaic paraphrase renders 
the ephah three seahs, the ancient version 
three modii. (Ruth ii.; Joscphus, (lib. 9. 
393 



cap. 2.) makes the seah equal to on 3 and 
a half Italic modius, the sesquimodius con- 
taining twenty- four sextarii, which multiplied 
by three makes seventy-two, the measure of 
the ephah assigned by him. 

Mr. Cumberland thinks that the ephah 
was about 1747 solid inches of English mea- 
sure, not much distant from the English foot 
solid, which is 1728 ; and is near the inches 
solid of 1000 ounces of water. Or in wine 
measure it was seven gallons, two quarts, 
and about half a pint. In corn measure, six 
gallons, three pints, and three solid inches. 
Arbuthnot's Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, 
and Measures, fyc. p. 101; Cumberland's Es- 
say towards the Recovery of the Jewish Mea- 
sures and Weights, p. 63. 

EPH'ESUS,"E0£0-oe, signifies desire, and 
was the name of a celebrated city of Ionia, in 
Asia Minor. This city was principally fa- 
mous for its temple of Diana, which occa- 
sioned a great resort of strangers. This 
temple was one of the seven wonders of the 
world, being in length 425 feet, and in 
breadth 220. It contained one hundred and 
twenty-seven pillars made by so many kings. 
All the provinces of Asia contributed to the 
building, and two hundred years were em- 
ployed on it. This place, with its embellish- 
ments, no longer appears. The extreme 
sanctity of the temple of Diana inspired 
universal awe and reverence. During many 
ages, it was a repository of treasures foreign 
and domestic. This property was deemed 
secure ; the temple having been spared by 
Xerxes, who spared scarcely any other. But 
Nero removed many costly offerings and 
images, and an immense quantity of silver 
and gold. It was again plundered in the 
time of Gallienus, A.D. 262, by Goths from 
the other side of the Danube, who carried off 
a prodigious booty. The temple was proba- 
bly destroyed at the same time as other hea- 
then temples, by an edict of Constantine. 
' We now,' says Dr. Chandler, ' seek in vain 
for the temple ; the city is prostrate ; and the 
goddess is gone.' 

In Roman times, the city of Ephesus was 
the metropolis of Asia. Of the city then 
extant Lysimachus was the founder. He 
contrived the ruin of the old city, after pre- 
paring a new one for the inhabitants. Ephe- 
sus was greatly damaged by an earthquake 
in the reign of Tiberius, who repaired and 
embellished the city. In the time ofStrabo, 
the posterity of Androcles were styled kings, 
though a new form of government had boon 
long established. They also assumed the 
dress and distinctions of royalty. In the war 
between Mithridates and the Romans, the 
Ephesians took part with the former, ami 
massacred the Romans who dwelt in tlmir 
city. Sylla severely punished this cru- 
elty; but, afterwards. Ephesus was treated 
with lenity, and enjoyed its own laws, with 
other privileges. Epnesus was onh a ruin- 
ous place, when the emperor .Justinian. A.D. 



EPH 



EPH 



528 — 566, transported its statues to Constan- 
tinople. About the end of the eleventh cen- 
tury, it was seized by a Turkish pirate, 
named Tangripermes, who was afterwards 
routed by John Ducas, the Greek admiral, in 
a bloody battle. In 1 308, it surrendered to 
sultan Saysan, who removed the inhabi- 
tants to Tyrceium, where they were massa- 
cred. It was exposed to the ravages of the 
Mahometans, who took it more than once. 
Tamerlane, after the battle of Angora, A.D. 
1401, commanded the lesser princes of Ana- 
tolia to join him at Ephesus, and employed 
a whole month in plundering the city and 
its adjacencies. Soon after, it was set on 
fire, and mostly burnt, in a combat between 
the Turkish governor and the Tartars. Ma- 
homet L took Ephesus, and since that time it 
has continued in the possession of the Turks. 

Dr. Chandler says, ' the inhabitants are a 
few Greek peasants, living in extreme 
wretchedness, dependence, and insensibility ; 
the representatives of an illustrious people, 
and inhabiting the wreck of their greatness ; 
some, the substructions of the glorious edi- 
fices which they raised ; some, beneath the 
vaults of the stadium, once the crowded scene 
of their diversions ; and some by the abrupt 
precipice, in the sepulchres which re- 
ceived their ashes. Its streets are obscured 
and overgrown. A herd of goats were driven 
to it for shelter from the sun at noon ; and a 
noisy flight of crows from the quarries 
seemed to insult its silence. We heard the 
partridge call in the area of the theatre and 
the stadium. The glorious pomp of its hea- 
then worship is no longer remembered ; and 
Christianity, which was here nursed by apos- 
tles, and fostered by general councils, until 
it increased to fulness of stature, barely lin- 
gers on in an existence hardly visible.' In 
March 1826, when visited by the Rev. 
Messrs.^ Hartley and Arundell, green corn 
was growing, in all directions, amidst the 
forsaken ruins ; and one solitary individual 
only was found who bore the name of Christ, 
instead of its once flourishing church. 

The first time St. Paul came to Ephesus 
was in A.D. 54, or according to Lardner, 
in 53, (Acts xviii. 19. 21.) he abode there 
only a few days, and went to Jerusalem. 
He promised the Ephesians to return; and 
after some months, he came back to 
Ephesus, where he continued three years, 
till A.D. 56, or as some think 57, when he 
was obliged to leave the city in consequence 
of a sedition raised by Demetrius the silver- 
smith. Thence the apostle wrote his first 
Epistle to the Corinthians. The Ephesians 
were addicted to curious arts, to magic, sor- 
cery, and judicial astrology. Ephesian let- 
ters, Ephesia grammata, became a proverbial 
expression for magic characters. Certain 
Jews, who took upon them to exorcise per- 
sons possessed with the devil, were ill-treated 
by the possessed. This terrifying several 
who were addicted to curious arts, theypub- 
394 



licly burnt their books relating to such sub- 
jects, the value of which was very consider- 
able. (Acts xix. 14, &c.) 

The apostle in his last journey to Rome, 
took Ephesus in his way, A.D. 64 or 65. St. 
Paul wrote his Epistle to the Ephesians 
whilst a prisoner the first time at Rome ; and 
as he does not express in it any hope of a 
speedy release, which he does in his other 
Epistles sent from Rome, it is conjectured 
that it was written during the early part of 
his confinement, and probably in the year 61. 
Some learned men have thought that this 
Epistle was not addressed to the Ephesians, 
but to the Laodiceans, conceiving it to be 
the Epistle mentioned in the fourth chapter 
of the Colossians, ' and that ye likewise 
read the Epistle from Laodicea.' How- 
ever, all the ancient fathers, who quote this 
Epistle, treat it as written to the Ephesians, 
and almost all the ancient manuscripts and 
versions attest the same thing, by supporting 
the reading of our Bibles, ' Paul, an apostle 
of Jesus Christ, by the will of God, to the 
saints which are at Ephesus.' These autho- 
rities fully justify us in considering this 
Epistle as written to the Ephesians. This 
Epistle was sent to Ephesus by Tychicus. 
It is written with great animation, and has 
always been much admired, as well on ac- 
count of the importance of its matter, as the 
elegance of its composition. ' It consists of 
six chapters, the first three of which are usu- 
ally considered as doctrinal, and the other 
three as practical. St. Paul, after saluting 
the saints at Ephesus, expresses his gratitude 
to God for the blessings of the Gospel dispen- 
sation, and assures the Ephesians, that since 
he heard of their faith in Christ Jesus, and 
of their love to all Christians, he had not 
ceased to return thanks for them, and to pray 
that their minds might be still farther en- 
lightened ; he points out the excellence of 
the Gospel dispensation, and shows that re- 
demption through Christ is solely to be as- 
cribed to the grace of God; he declares the 
mystery, or hidden purpose of God to be, 
that the Gentiles as well as the Jews should 
be partakers of the blessings of the Gospel, 
and that through the goodness of God he was 
appointed to be the Apostle of the Gentiles ; 
he desires the Ephesians not to be dejected 
on account of his sufferings, and closes this 
part of this Epistle with an affectionate 
prayer and a sublime doxology. In the last 
three chapters, St. Paul gives the Ephesians 
many practical exhortations ; and in parti- 
cular, he recommends union, purity of man- 
ners, veracity, and meekness ; he enjoins 
charity, and forbids every species of licen- 
tiousness ; he enforces the duties of wives, of 
husbands, of children, of fathers, of servants, 
of masters; he recommends watchfulness 
and firmness in the Christian warfare, and 
concludes the Epistle with a general bene- 
diction.' 

St. John passed the latter part of his 



EPH 



EPI 



life in Asia Minor, and principally at Ephe- 
sus, where he died ; and Timothy, St. Paul's 
disciple, was made first bishop of Ephesus 
by the apostle, who laid his hands on him. 
Dr t Chandler's Travels, p. 131, Oxford 1775 ; 
Sacred Geography ; Bishop Tomline's Elem. 
of Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 405, 406 ; 
Lardner's Hist, of the Apostles and Evange- 
lists ; Marsh's Michaelis, vol. vi. p. 134, edit. 
1802 ; Hartley's Journal, in Missionary Regis- 
ter, 1827, PP- 200—202 ; Arundell's Visit to 
the Seven Churches, pp. 27—56. 

E'PHOD, an ornament of dress worn by 
the Hebrew priests, and deriving its name 
from aphad, to tie, to fasten, to gird. Ephod 
seems also to have been the name of an 
upper garment, which was worn by persons 
of distinction of various characters. King 
David, (2 Sam. vi. 14.) and the eighty-five 
priests who were murdered by Saul, (1 Sam. 
xxii. 18.) and even Samuel when a child, 
(1 Sam. ii. 18.) were girded with a linen 
ephod. It is, therefore, probable, that the 
peculiarity of the high-priest's ephod did not 
consist in its being of a different shape from 
that worn by other persons ; but in the rich- 
ness of the materials of which it was made, 
and the fine embroidery and jewels with 
which it was adorned, insomuch that it might 
be properly called the ephod. 

The description of this garment in the 
book of Exodus, relates only to its materials, 
and not to its shape or form. It was made 
' of gold, of blue, and of purple, of scarlet, 
and fine twined linen with cunning work.' 
(Exod. xxviii. 6.) We are not very certain 
with respect to the nature of these colours. 
As to the shape of the ephod, the Septua- 
gint call it epomis, which signifies that it was 
worn upon the shoulders. Josephus says, 
that it was a cubit in length. St. Jerome 
compares it to the Roman caracalla, which 
was a sort of short cloak, but had a head or 
hood, which the ephod had not. Maimonides 
says, that it reached down to the feet ; which 
some suppose to be true respecting the 
hinder, but not the fore part. They think 
that it consisted of two parts, the one an 
oblong rectangular piece, which hung down 
behind from the shoulders to the feet, and 
which the rabbins say was the breadth of his 
back who wore it from shoulder to shoulder; 
the other, a short rectangular piece, which 
hung down before, the length of a cubit. 

The high-priest's ephod had a very rich 
button upon each shoulder, made of a large 
onyx stone set in gold. This stone was so 
large, that the names of the twelve tribes of 
Israel were engraven, six on each stone. 
(Exod. xxviii. 9 — 12.) The word shoham, 
which we render onyx, is translated by the 
Septuagint smaragdos, an emerald ; but as we 
have no certain knowledge either of this, or 
of any of the twelve stones of the breast- 
plate, we may as well be satisfied with our 
translation as with any other. To the ephod 
belonged a curious girdle, of the same rich 
395 



fabric as tne ephod itself. This girdle is said 
to be upon the ephod, (Exod. xxviii. 8.) that 
is, woven with the ephod, as Maimonides 
understands ; and coming out from the ephod 
on each side, it was brought under the arms 
like a sash, and tied upon the breast. See 
Gideon. Jennings' s Jewish Antiquities, b. i. 
ch. v. 

E'PHRAIM, D S 1BK, signifies that brings 
fruit, or that grows, and was the name of 
Joseph's second son, by Asenath, Poti- 
phar's daughter. He was born in Egypt, 
about the year of the world 2294. Ephraim, 
with his brother Manasseh, was presented 
by his father Joseph to Jacob on his death- 
bed. (Gen. xlviii. 8, &c.) Jacob laid his 
right hand on Ephraim the younger, and his 
left on Manasseh the elder. Joseph was de- 
sirous to change his hands, but Jacob an- 
swered, I know it my son ; Manasseh shall be 
multiplied, but Ephraim shall be greater. 

The sons of Ephraim having made an in- 
road into Palestine, the inhabitants of Gath 
killed them. Ephraim their father mourned 
many days for them, and his brethren came 
to comfort him. (1 Chron. vii. 20, 21.) After- 
wards he had a son named Beriah, and a 
daughter Sherah. He had also other sons, 
Rephah, Resheph, Tela, &c. His posterity 
multiplied in Egypt to the number of 40,500 
men capable of bearing arms. In the land 
of promise, Joshua, who was of this tribe, 
gave them their portion between the Medi- 
terranean west, and the river Jordan east. 
The ark and tabernacle remained long in this 
tribe at Shiloh ; and after the separation of 
the ten tribes, the seat of the kingdom was 
in Ephraim, and hence Ephraim is fre- 
quently used to denote the whole kingdom. 
The district belonging to this tribe is called 
Ephratah. (Ps. exxxii. 6.) Ephraim was led 
captive beyond the Euphrates, with all 
Israel, by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, in 
the year of the world 3283. 

EPICUREANS, the disciples of Epi- 
curus, who lived about the year of the 
world 3700. They maintained that the 
supreme good of man consists in pleasure ; 
and, consequently, the supreme evil in 
pain. Nature itself, says Epicurus, teaches 
us this truth, and prompts us from our birth 
to procure whatever gives us pleasure, and 
to avoid that which gives us pain. For this 
purpose he proposed a remedy against the 
sharpness of pain. This consisted in divert- 
ing the mind from it, by turning our whole 
attention on the pleasures which we have 
formerly enjoyed. He held, that the wise 
man must be happy so long as he is wise; 
and that- pain, not depriving him of his wis- 
dom, cannot deprive him of his happiness. 
Nothing is more plausible in appearance] 
than the moral doctrine of Epicurus, Gas- 
sendus pretends, that the pleasure in which 
this philosopher lias placed the sovereign 
good, was tin- highesl tranquillity of mind, 
in conjunction with tin perfect health of 



EPI 



EPI 



the body ; but Tully, Horace, Plutarch, and 
others, give us a very different account. In- 
deed, the nature of the pleasure in which the 
chief happiness is supposed to consist, is a 
problem in the morals of Epicurus. He as- 
serted the fortuitous origin of the world ; the 
inability and indifference of the gods re- 
specting human affairs ; and the mortality of 
the soul. This sect, therefore, offered to its 
votaries a licence for the most illicit pur- 
suits ; and from it arose the Sadducees of 
the Jews, the Zendichees of the Arabs, and 
the Deists of the present age. Gregory's 
Hist. vol. i. p. 19 ; Prideaux's Connect, vol. 
ii. p. 783. 

EPISCOPACY, that form of church 
government, in which are acknowledged 
three distinct orders, bishops, presbyters 
or priests, and deacons. The Presbyte- 
rians contend, that the primitive church 
acknowledged only two orders, and there- 
fore maintain the identity of bishops 
and presbyters. On the other hand, the 
Episcopalians say, it is very clear from 
ecclesiastical antiquity, that the hierarchy 
of the ancient church consisted of bishops, 
priests, and deacons, and consequently, 
that bishops are to be distinguished from 
presbyters. In evidence of this they produce 
the testimonies of many of the fathers, as 
Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Tertullian, 
St. Cyprian, &c. St. Jerome, who will be 
allowed to speak the sense of the ancients, 
called presbyters priests of the inferior degree, 
and deacons the third degree. The testimony 
of St. Ignatius, in particular, is full and satis- 
factory. In his epistle to the Magnesians 
he exhorts them " to do all things in unity, 
under the bishop, presiding in the place 
of God, the presbyters in the place of 
the apostolical senate, and the deacons 
to whom are committed the ministry and 
service of Jesus Christ.' In his Epistle to 
the Smyrneans, he calls upon them all ' to 
obey their bishop, even as Christ obeys the 
Father ; to venerate the presbyters as the 
apostles ; and the deacons as the command- 
ments of God.' His repeated exhortations 
in all his Epistles sufficiently prove, that in 
his days, that is, during the life of the apos- 
tle John, three distinct orders existed in the 
Church. He constantly and accurately dis- 
tinguishes these orders from each other ; and 
he uses such language respecting the epis- 
copal authority, as it is highly improbable 
that he, or any other rational person, would 
have adopted, had it not been well known, 
and universally acknowledged, that the order 
of bishops was of apostolical institution. 

That this order in the sense contended 
for by Episcopalians, actually existed, and 
was generally established, as early as 160 
years after Christ, is a fact that cannot 
be denied by any candid adversary of pri- 
mitive episcopacy. It is acknowledged, 
that episcopacy prevailed /in the church in 
St. Cyprian's time ; and what account can 
396 



be given of this fact, but continuance, and 
not usurpation ? How can it be accounted 
for, except by supposing that it had ex- 
isted from the beginning ? The mere con- 
tinuance of an old establishment may 
easily fail of being directly noticed in the 
records of the times ; but the commence- 
ment of a new one could not be over- 
looked. * When I shall see,' says Chil- 
lingworth, ' all the democracies and aris- 
tocracies in the world lie down and sleep, 
and awake into monarchies, then will I be- 
gin to believe that presbyterian govern- 
ment, having continued in the church 
during the apostles' times, should pre- 
sently after, against the apostles' doctrine 
and will of Christ, be whirled about like a 
stone in a masque, and be transformed into 
episcopacy.' 

The question between the Episcopalians 
and presbyterians is not, what degree of 
power and splendour the primitive bishops 
enjoyed, or what might be the precise ex- 
tent of their dioceses ? But it is simply 
and solely, whether they were the same 
as the presbyters, or a distinct order ? 
The Episcopalians contend for this last 
opinion, and say that the episcopal form 
of church government was not only pri- 
mitive and apostolical, but also universal. 
They challenge their antagonists to pro- 
duce, from all the records of antiquity, 
a single instance of a presbyterial com- 
munity, previously to that established by 
Calvin at Geneva. They think that there 
is complete Scriptural evidence of the 
apostolical institution of episcopacy, in 
the presidency of St. James over the pres- 
byters of Jerusalem ; in the presidency 
of Timothy and Titus over the presbyters 
of Ephesus and Crete ; and in the autho- 
rity which the seven angels unquestionably 
possessed over all the presbyters of Asia 
Minor. They allege, that during our 
Saviour's stay on earth, he had under him 
two distinct orders of ministers ; the twelve 
and the seventy: that after his ascension, 
immediately before which he had enlarged 
the powers of the eleven, we read of 
apostles, presbyters, and deacons, in the 
church : and, that the apostolic, or highest 
order, was intended to be permanent in 
the bishops, is evident from the apostles 
themselves instituting bishops to succeed 
them in great cities, as Timothy at Epe- 
sus, Titus at Crete, &c. That Timothy 
and Titus were superior to modern pres- 
byters, appears from the offices assigned 
them. Timothy was empowered by St. 
Paul to preside over the presbyters at 
Ephesus, to receive accusations against 
them, to exhort, to charge, and even to 
rebuke them. By the same apostle, 
Titus was left at Crete for the express 
purpose of setting things in order, and 
ordaining presbyters in every city. It is 
said in 1 Tim. v. 19, ' Against an elder 



EPI 



EPI 



receive not an accusation, but before two 
or three witnesses.' Therefore, say the 
Episcopalians, Timothy was a judge, pres- 
byters were brought before him, and he 
was superior to them. 

Thus, should it not be admitted, that there 
is a positive institution in Scripture of the 
episcopal form of church government, yet 
it is by Episcopalians argued, that they 
have a primitive and even apostolical prac- 
tice for their precedent, which they think 
equivalent to an institution. ' It cannot 
be proved,' says Dr. Paley, ' that any 
form of church government was laid 
down in the Christian, as it had been in 
the Jewish Scriptures, with a view of 
fixing a constitution for succeeding ages; 
and which constitution, consequently, the 
disciples of Christianity would every- 
where, and at all times, by the very law 
of their religion, be obliged adopt. Cer- 
tainly no command of this to kind was de- 
livered by Christ himself: and if it be shown 
that the apostles ordained bishops and 
presbyters amongst their first converts, it 
must be remembered that deacons also 
and deaconesses were appointed by them, 
with functions very dissimilar to any which 
obtain in the church at present. The truth 
seems to have been, that such offices were 
at first erected in the Christian church, as 
the good order, the instruction, and the 
exigencies of the society at that time re- 
quired, without any intention, at least 
without any declared design, of regula- 
ting the appointment, authority, or the dis- 
tinction of Christian ministers under 
future circumstances.' It is observed 
by Bishop Tomline, that 'as it hath not 
pleased our Almighty Father to prescribe 
any particular form of civil government for 
the security of temporal comforts to his 
rational creatures ; so neither has he pre- 
scribed any particular form of ecclesiastical 
polity as absolutely necessary to the attain- 
ment of eternal happiness.' Adam's Reli- 
gious World, vol. ii. pp. 275. 288. Paley's 
Moral and Polit. Philosoph. vol. ii. pp. 302, 
303. edit. 1810. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Theolog. vol. ii. p. 398. 

EPISTLE, a letter written from one 
party to another. The term epistles is 
eminently applied to those letters in the 
New Testament, which were written by 
the apostles, on various occasions, to di- 
rect the conduct of Christian churches. 

Of the fourteen epistles ascribed to St. 
Paul in our canon, the first thirteen have 
in all ages of the church been universally 
acknowledged to be written by that apostle. 
Some doubts have been entertained, as we 
shall see hereafter, respecting the Epistle 
to the Hebrews. As the testimonies in 
favour of the genuineness of these thir- 
teen epistles are nearly the same, it may 
be as well to state them all at once, espe- 
cially as the style of these different epistles 
307 



is so exactly the same, and of so peculiar a 
kind, that whatever proves any one of 
them to be genuine, may be considered as 
a proof of the genuineness of the rest. 
Clement of Rome expressly ascribes the 
first Epistle to the Corinthians to St. 
Paul, and it is quoted by Polycarp ; both 
Ignatius and Polycarp quote the Epistle 
to the Ephesians ; and Polycarp also quotes 
the Epistle to the Philippians. All the 
thirteen Epistles, except the short one to 
Philemon, are also plainly referred to by 
one or more of the apostolical fathers, who, 
however, do not say that they were written 
by St. Paul. Justin Martyr does not quote 
by name any one of St. Paul's Epistles ; 
but in his remaining works occur passages, 
which may be considered as allusions to 
seven of them, namely, to the Epistle to 
the Romans, to the first to the Corinthi- 
ans, to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philip- 
pians, Colossians, and the second to the 
Thessalonians. The first Epistle to the 
Corinthians is quoted by Athenagoras. 
Theophilus of Antioch refers to the Ro- 
mans, to the first and second to the Co- 
rinthians, to the Ephesians, Philippians, 
Colossians, first of Timothy, and Titus. 
All the thirteen Epistles, except that to 
Philemon, are quoted by Irenseus, Clement 
of Alexandria, and Cyprian ; and all, 
without any exception, are quoted by 
Tertullian, Origen, Dionysius of Alex- 
andria, Eusebius, Athanasius, Epiphanius, 
Jerome, Augustine, and Chrysostom. These 
writers reach from the days of the apos- 
tles the end of the fourth century, and 
are amply sufficient to establish the genu- 
ineness of these Epistles. It is unneces- 
sary to enumerate writers of a later date. 
The brevity of the Epistle to Philemon, 
and the private nature of its subject, 
account for its not being quoted so early 
or so frequently as the other Epistles of 
St. Paul. It appears, that Tertullian is the 
earliest author who mentions this Epistle ; 
but it was received by Marcion who lived 
in the beginning of the second century, and 
bears strong internal marks of being the 
genuine production of St. Paul. The 
Epistles are not placed in our Bibles in 
the order in which they were written ; but 
those to whole churches are placed before 
those addressed to private persons. 

The Epistle of St. James, the two Epis- 
tles of St. Peter, the three Epistles of St. 
John, and the Epistle of St. Jude, are 
called Catholic or General Epistles. Ori- 
gen, Eusebius, and several other ancient 
authors, mention them under that name, 
which it is probable they obtained, because 
most of them were written not to par- 
ticular persons, nor to the churches of 
single cities or countries, as St. Paul's 
Epistles were, but to several churcheSi or 
to believers in general The genuineness 
of five of these seven Epistles was lor some 



EPO 



ESA 



time doubted ; but tbey bave all been ad- 
mitted into the sacred canon since the 
fourth century. Many writers enumerate 
tbese seven Epistles, but not always in the 
same order. 

It is not to be supposed, that every note, 
or memorandum, written by the apostles, or 
by their direction, was divinely inspired, or 
deserving of preservation to distant ages. 
The over-ruling hand of Providence has 
preserved those Epistles only, from which 
useful directions had been drawn, and 
might be drawn hereafter by believers, 
as from a perpetual directory of faith 
and practice ; always supposing that simi- 
lar circumstances require similar direc- 
tions. In reading an Epistle, we ought 
to consider the occasion of it,, the circum- 
stances of those to whom it is addressed, 
the time when written, its general scope 
and design, as well as the intention of par- 
ticular arguments and passages. We ought 
also to observe the style and manner of 
the writer, his mode of expression, the 
peculiar effect he intended to produce on 
those to whom he wrote, to whose tem- 
per, manners, general principles, and ac- 
tual situation, he might address his argu- 
ments, &c. 

The Epistles afford many and most power- 
ful evidences for the truth of Christianity. 
They appeal to a great number of extraor- 
dinary facts. They allude to principles 
and opinions as admitted, or as pre- 
vailing, or as opposed, among those to 
whom they are addressed. They mention 
a considerable number of persons, de- 
scribe their situations in life, hint at their 
connections with the churches, and by 
sometimes addressing them, sometimes re- 
commending them by name, connect their 
testimony with that of the writer of the 
Epistle ; and they frequently, without doubt, 
gave a proportionate share of influence 
to those individuals. It is also probable, 
that individuals mentioned in the Epis- 
tles, would carefully procure copies of 
these writings, give them all the authority, 
and all the notoriety in their power, com- 
municate them to other churches, and, 
in short, become vouchers for their au- 
thenticity, &c. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christ. Theology, vol. i. pp. 381, &c. 463, 
&c. Supplem. Addenda to Calmetfs Diet. 
Paley's Horee Paulina, p. 407, &c 

EPOCH, a term in chronology signi- 
fying a fixed point of time from which the 
succeeding years are numbered. The first 
epoch is the creation of the world, which, 
according to the Vulgate Bible, Archbishop 
Usher fixes in the year 710 of the Julian 
period, and 4004 years before Jesus Christ. 
The second is the Deluge, which, accord- 
ing to the Hebrew text, happened in 
the year of the world 1656. Six other 
epochs are commonly reckoned in sacred 
history : the building of the tower of Ba- 
398 



bel ; the calling of Abraham ; the depar- 
ture of the Israelites out of Egypt; the 
dedication of the temple ; the end of the 
Babylonish captivity ; and the birth of 
Jesus Christ. 

In profane history are reckoned five 
epochs ; the era of Nabonassar, or death 
of Sardanapalus ; the reign of Cyrus at 
Babylon ; the reign of Alexander the Great 
over the Persians; and the beginning of 
the reign of Augustus, in which our Saviour 
was born. 

E'S ARHAD'DON, pmDN, signifies that 
binds joy, or that closes the point ; or, ac- 
cording to the Syriac, who forbids novelty, 
or unity. Esar-haddon was the son of Sen- 
nacherib, and his successor in the king- 
dom of Assyria, and is also called Sargon, 
or Saragon. (Isai. xx. 1.) He reigned 
twenty-nine years, made war with the 
Philistines, and took Ashdod, by Tartan his 
general. He attacked Egypt, Ethiopia, 
and Edom, (Isai. xx. xxxiv.) probably with 
the design of revenging the affront which 
Sennacherib his father had received from 
Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, and the king 
of Egypt, Hezekiah's confederates. This 
Esar-haddon sent priests to the Cu- 
thaeans, whom Salmaneser, king of Assyria, 
had planted in Samaria, in place of the 
Israelites. He took Jerusalem, and car- 
ried king Manasseh to Babylon, of which 
he had become master, perhaps because 
there was no heir to Belesis, king of Baby- 
lon. He is said to have reigned twenty- 
nine or thirty years at Nineveh, and thir- 
teen at Babylon, in all forty-two years. 
He died in the year of the world 3336, and 
was succeeded by Saosduchinus. Sir Isaac 
Newton is of opinion, that Esar-haddon is 
the Sardanapalus, who, as Cleotarchus 
says, died of old age after the revolt of 
Syria ; the name Sardanapalus being derived 
from Asserhadon Pul. 

E'SAU, "\wy, signifies he that does, or acts, 
or finishes. Esau was the son of Isaac and 
Rebekah, and was born in the year of the 
world 2168, and before Jesus Christ, 1836. 
When the time of Rebekah' s delivery 
came, she had twins, (Gen. xxv. 24, 25, 
26.) the first of which was hairy, and 
therefore called Esau, that is, a man full 
grown, or of perfect age. Some derive 
Esau from the Arabic gescha, or gescheva, 
which signifies a hair-cloth. Esau de- 
lighted in hunting, and his father Isaac 
had a particular affection for him. One 
day Esau returned out of the fields greatly 
fatigued, and desired Jacob to give him 
some of his red pottage; to this Jacob 
agreed, provided he would sell him his 
birth-right. Esau, thinking himself weak- 
ened almost to death, sold it, and by oath 
resigned it to him. After this, he ate his 
mess, and went away, little concerned at 
what he had done. 

At the age of forty, Esau married two 



ESD 



ESS 



Canaanitish women ; Judith, the daughter 
of Beeri the Hittite, and Bashemath the 
daughter of Elon. These marriages were 
very displeasing to Isaac and Rebekah. 
Isaac being old, and his sight decayed, 
directed Esau to procure him by hunting 
some venison, that at his return he might 
give him his last blessing. (Gen. xxvii. 1, 
2, 3.) Esau went to hunt ; but during his 
absence, Jacob, assisted and disguised by 
his mother Rebekah, procured from Isaac 
his blessing. When Esau returned to 
Isaac, and understood what had passed, he 
wept, and asked whether his father had not 
reserved one blessing for him ? This he 
with some difficulty obtained. The conduct 
of Jacob caused him to be hated by Esau, 
who determined to murder him ; but Re- 
bekah sent Jacob to his uncle Laban, in 
Mesopotamia, without Esau's knowledge. 
Esau married several wives, as well Ca- 
naanites, as the daughter of Ishmael, sister 
of Nebajoth, by whom he had children. He 
settled in the mountains east of Jordan, and 
became very powerful. 

When Jacob returned from Mesopotamia, 
he feared the resentment of Esau, and sent 
messengers to him with presents. The 
messengers were kindly received by Esau, 
who came himself with four hundred men 
to meet his brother. Jacob feared that he 
came with anger; but the intentions of 
Esau were peaceable, and the two brothers 
tenderly embraced each other. Esau re- 
ceived the presents of Jacob, and offered 
to accompany him, and to guard him over 
Jordan- Jacob, however, thanked him; 
and Esau returned to Seir. Esau had 
three wives ; Adah, Aholibamah, and Ba- 
shemath. 

It has been observed, that Esau, every 
thing considered, was not that very wicked 
person that some think him to have been. 
His generous and open temper appears in 
his affectionate deportment towards his 
brother, and in the speedy and entire for- 
getfulness of the injuries which he had re- 
ceived from Jacob. Though St. Paul calls 
him a profane person, and says that he was 
hated by God, yet by the word hated, he 
means no more than a bare postponing. 
The apostle's intention is to show, that 
God had all along bestowed the favoui'S that 
led to the Messiah on whom he pleased: 
on Abraham, not on Lot ; on Jacob, not on 
Esau ; on the Gentiles, not on the Jews. 
St. Paul calls Esau profane, not because he 
was more wicked than other men of his 
age, but because he seems not to have been 
so mindful of the promise made to his fa- 
mily as Jacob was ; and, consequently, he 
was not so proper a person to be the heir 
of the mercies peculiar to that family. Univ. 
Hist. lib. c. 4. Shuckford's Connect, vol. ii. 
71, pp. 175, &c. 

ES DRAS, the names of two apocryphal 
books which were never admitted into the 



Jewish canon, and which are too absurd 
to be received as canonical by the Roman- 
ists. They are commonly supposed to have 
been written originally in Greek, by some 
Hellenistic Jew, though others imagine, 
that they were first written in Chaldee, and 
afterwards translated into Greek. It is 
uncertain at what time they were composed, 
though it is generally agreed that the au- 
thor wrote before Josephus, the Jewish his- 
torian. 

The first book of Esdras is chiefly his- 
torical, and gives an account of the re- 
turn of the Jews from the Babylonish 
captivity, the building of the temple, and 
the re-establishment of divine worship. 
The truth it contains is borrowed from the 
canonical book of Ezra, or Esdras as the 
Greeks and Latins call him ; and hence 
the books of which we are treating, are 
termed by them the third and fourth books 
of Esdras. What is not taken from the 
book of Ezra, is extremely fabulous and 
trifling, though the whole of this book is 
allowed by the Greeks to be canonical. 
The second book of Esdras is written in 
the prophetic manner, and pretends to 
visions and revelations, but is very ridi- 
culous and absurd. The author believed 
that the day of judgment was at hand, 
and that all the souls both of good and 
bad men would be delivered out of hell, 
after the day of judgment. He speaks 
of two monstrous animals created by God 
at the beginning of the world, for the 
purpose of making a feast with them for 
all the elect, after the resurrection. He 
says that the ten tribes are gone into a 
certain country which he calls Arsareth ; 
that Ezra restored the whole of the Scrip- 
tures which were entirely lost ; and he 
speaks of Jesus Christ and his apostles in 
so clear a manner, that the Gospel itself is 
not more express. 

ESPOUSE, Espousals, a ceremony of 
betrothing, or coming under obligation for 
the purpose of marriage. It was a mu- 
tual agreement between the two parties, 
which usually preceded the marriage some 
considerable time. The distinction be- 
tween espousals and marriage ought to be 
carefully attended to, as espousals in the 
East are sometimes contracted for years 
before the parties cohabit, and sometimes 
in very early youth. This custom is al- 
luded to figuratively, as between God, and 
his people, (Jer. ii. 2.) to whom he was a 
husband. (Jer. xxxi. 32) The apostle says, 
that he acted as a kind of assistant (pro- 
nuba) on this occasion, (2 Cor. xi. 2.) : 
' I have espoused you to Christ,' that is, 
have drawn up the writings, settled tin- 
agreements, given pledges, &C, of that 
union. See Isaiah liv. 5. Matt. xw. V>. 
Rev. xix. Supplcm. Addenda to Cat/net's 
Dictionary. 

ESSENES, or Essenians, in ancient 



ESS 



ESS 



sect among the Jews. We are not ac- 
quainted with the origin of the Essenes, 
nor with the etymology of the name. Mi- 
chaelis says, that Essenes is an Egyptian 
word, signifying the same as QtpaTrtVTal in 
Greek. They exceeded the Pharisees in 
their most rigorous observances. Origi- 
nally of the same sect, they improved 
upon them in the same manner as among 
the Romanists, the Carthusians and Cis- 
tertians have improved upon the Benedic- 
tines. They held absolute predestination, 
and allowed to man neither free-will nor 
liberty of choice. They admitted a future 
state, but denied a resurrection from the 
dead. Though our Saviour frequently 
censured all the other sects of the Jews, 
yet he never spoke of the Essenes ; and 
they are never mentioned by name in any 
part of the New Testament. This silence 
of the evangelical history concerning the 
Essenes, is by some imputed to their ere- 
metic life, which secluded them from places 
of public resort. Others think that the 
Essenes, who were honest and sincere 
without guile or hypocrisy, did not de- 
serve the reproofs and censures which the 
conduct of the other Jews required. But 
though the Essenes are not expressly men- 
tioned in any of the sacred books, yet it 
is supposed, and not without reason, that 
they are referred to by St. Paul in the se- 
cond chapter of his Epistle to the Colos- 
sians : ' Let no man,' saith he, ' beguile 
you of your reward, in a voluntary humi- 
lity, and worshipping of angels, intruding 
into those things which he hath not seen, 
vainly puffed up by his fleshly mind: — 
which things have indeed a show of wis- 
dom in will-worship and humility, and 
neglecting of the body.' What is here 
observed concerning a voluntary humility, 
and neglecting the body, is in a peculiar 
manner applicable to the Essenes, who are 
said by Josephus to have had something 
peculiar among them relating to the angels ; 
for he tells us, ' that when they received 
any into their number, they made them 
solemnly swear, that they would keep and 
observe the books of the sect, and the 
names of the angels with care.' What is 
said of * intruding into things not seen,' is 
also agreeable to the character of the 
Therapeutic Essenes, who, placing the ex- 
cellence of their contemplative life in 
raising their minds to invisible objects, 
pretended to such a degree of abstraction 
and elevation, as to be able to understand 
the nature of angels, to assign them pro- 
per names, or rightly interpret those given 
them, and to search into futurity and 
foretel things to come. On this account, 
it is highly probable, ' they were vainly 
puffed up by their fleshly mind.' Besides, 
the dogmata to which St. Paul refers in the 
following words, ' Touch not, taste not, 
handle not,' are similar to those held by 
400 



the Essenes, who would not taste any plea- 
sant food, but lived on coarse bread, and 
drank water only. Some of them would 
not taste food till after sunset ; and if 
they were touched by any not of their own 
sect, they washed themselves as after a great 
pollution. 

The manner in which the Essenes lived 
was peculiar and remarkable. They did not 
marry, but adopted the children of others, 
whom they brought up in the institutions 
of their own sect. They despised riches, 
and had all things in common. They ab- 
stained from the use of oils and perfumes, 
as luxurious and effeminate. They re- 
ceived all travellers of their own sect with 
great kindness and hospitality. They 
never changed their clothes till entirely 
worn out, and unfit for use. They were 
very religious. They did not speak before 
the sun-rise, excepting that they put up 
a prayer to God, that he would cause the 
sun to rise upon them. They applied 
themselves to labour till eleven in the 
morning, when they assembled together, 
and bathed themselves in cold water. 
Being thus purified, they went into the 
refectory, where they began and ended 
their meal with praise and thanksgiving to 
God. No noise or tumult ever disturbed 
the houses in which they dwelt. They 
guarded their passions ; and their word 
was equally binding to them as an oath. 
They studied the writings of the ancients, 
and inquired into the cure of diseases, 
and the nature of medicinal herbs and 
roots. None were received into their 
sect till they had given sufficient proofs of 
their continency and temperance. When 
admitted, they were strictly bound not to 
communicate the mysteries of the sect to 
any other. The Essenes expelled those 
whom they found guilty of any enormous 
crime. In the administration of justice 
they were most strictly exact, and never 
gave sentence except when at least a 
hundred persons were present. Next to 
God, they paid the highest respect to their 
legislators, and punished with death those 
who spoke evil of them. When any ten of 
them sat together, no one spoke but with 
the consent of the other nine ; and they 
carefully avoided spitting in the middle 
before them, or on the right hand. The 
Essenes distinguished themselves from all 
other Jews, by a strict observance of the 
sabbath ; and they durst not on that day 
so much as move a vessel out of its place, 
or even to ease nature. They were di- 
vided into four classes, according to the 
time they had been in the sect. Many of 
them lived to the age of a hundred years. 
They were men of great constancy and 
resolution ; and in the wars with the 
Romans, they suffered all kinds of 
tortures without a groan, rather than 
speak evil of their legislator. Such is 



ESS 



EST 



the account of the Essenes as given by 
Josephus. 

Philo speaks of them, and distinguishes 
them into the Essenes of Judea and 
Syria, and those of Egypt and other 
parts. He calls the former practical 
Essenes, and the other Therapeutic or 
contemplative Essenes. He derives their 
name from the Greek word ocriog, holy. 

Pliny also mentions this sect, and speaks 
of them as follows : ' On the western side of 
the lake Asphaltites dwell the Essenes, who 
are a solitary kind of men, living without 
women, and without money, and feeding on 
the fruit of the palm-tree. They are daily 
recruited by proselytes, whom ill- fortune 
drives among them to take shelter in their 
institution and manner of life. Thus, for 
several thousand years (incredible as it may 
appear,) this people are kept up in number, 
without having any born among them.' 

It has been queried, whether John the 
Baptist was not educated in the commu- 
nity of the Essenes? We may observe, 
1. That his father and mother being of 
great age at the time of his birth, it is 
probable they did not live to see their son 
arrived at maturity. 2. The community 
of the Essenes was a likely place for John 
to retire to ; and his first appearance as a 
preacher being the desert, seems to hint 
at his beginning to preach repentance, 
&c. near to those parts where he was best 
known. 3. It does not appear that John 
went up regularly to Jerusalem (and the 
Essenes did not go thither,) and might 
therefore have no ' personal knowledge' 
of Jesus ; which he has commonly been 
understood to declare. 4. His manners, 
as neither eating nor drinking, that is 
freely, but being of a reserved conduct, 
are perfectly agreeable to those of the 
Essenes. 5. His constant abode in the 
country, and not entering the principal 
cities, agrees with their customs. 6*. The 
Essenes baptized. 7- They lived near the 
Jordan. 8. They fed on dates and certain 
kinds of fruit ; and in many other respects 
they seem to have agreed with the character 
of John, as it is described or implied in the 
Gospels. 

Deists and Infidels pretend to discover an 
agreement between the Christian religion 
and the doctrines of the Essenes, and would 
thence infer that Christ and his followers 
were a sect sprung from the Essenes. But, 
as Dr. Prideaux observes, there are no traces 
in the accounts given by Philo and Josephus 
of the most essential doctrines of Christianity, 
such as the redemption of mankind by the 
Messiah, and the use of the two Christian 
sacraments. 

The austere and retired life of the Essenes 
is supposed to have given rise to monkish 
superstition. Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, 
book i. chap. 12. Prideaux's Connection 
of the Old and the New Testament, part ii. 
401 



book x. pp. 483, &c. ; Supplem. Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary ; Bishop Tomline's Ele- 
ments of Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 262, 
263. 

ESTABLISHMENTS, Religious. A 
religious establishment forms no part of 
Christianity ; it is only the means of incul- 
cating it. The authority, therefore, of a 
church establishment is founded on its 
utility. When, on this principle, we 
deliberate concerning the form, propriety, 
or comparative excellence of different 
establishments, the single view under 
which we ought to consider any of them 
is, that of a scheme of instruction ; the 
single end we ought to propose by them is, 
the preservation and communication of 
religious knowledge. The notion of a 
religious establishment comprehends three 
things : — a clergy, or an order of men 
secluded from other professions to attend 
on the offices of religion; a legal provision 
for the maintenance of the clergy ; and the 
confining of that provision to the teachers of 
a particular sect of Christianity. 

1. The first and most important question 
is, whether the knowledge and profession of 
Christianity can be maintained in a country 
without a class of men set apart by public 
authority to the study and teaching of reli- 
gion, and to the conducting of public wor- 
ship. It must be remembered, that Christ- 
ianity is an historical religion, founded on 
facts which are related to have passed, on 
discourses which were holden, and letters 
written, in a remote age, and distant coun- 
try of the world, as well as under a state of 
life and manners, and during the prevalence 
of opinions, customs, and institutions, very 
unlike any found among mankind at pre- 
sent. Besides, this religion having been 
first published in the country of Judea, 
and built on the more ancient religion of 
the Jews, is necessarily and intimately 
connected with the Sacred Writings, and 
with the history and polity of that re- 
markable people. To this must be added, 
that the records of both revelations are 
preserved in languages which have long 
ceased to be spoken in any part of the 
world. Books which come down to us 
from times so remote, and under so many 
causes of unavoidable obscurity, cannot, 
it is evident, be understood without study 
and preparation. The languages must be 
learned. The various writings which 
these volumes contain must be carefully 
compared with one another, and with 
themselves. The modes of expression, 
the habits of reasoning and argumentation 
which were in use at that time, and to 
which the discourses even of inspired 
teachers were necessarily adapted, must 
be sufficiently known, and can lie known 
only by a due acquaintance with ancient 
literature. Lastly, to establish the genu- 
ineness and integrity of the < anonic si Scrip- 
D d 



EST 



EST 



tures themselves, a series of testimony, 
recognising the notoriety and reception 
of these books, must be deduced from times 
near to those of their first publication, 
through the succession of ages which have 
existed since that period. The qualifica- 
tions necessary for such researches demand 
a degree of leisure, and a mode of educa- 
tion, inconsistent with the exercise of any 
other profession. Without an order of 
clergy educated for the purpose, and led 
to the prosecution of these studies by the 
habits, the leisure, and the object of their 
vocation, it may well be questioned whe- 
ther the learning itself would not have 
been lost, by which the records of our 
faith are interpreted and defended. It is 
therefore contended, that an order of 
clergy is necessary to perpetuate the 
evidences of Revelation, and to interpret 
the obscurity of those ancient writings, in 
which the religion is contained. But in 
addition to this, which without doubt 
forms one design of their institution, the 
more ordinary offices of public teaching, and 
of conducting public worship, require quali- 
fications not commonly to be found amidst 
the employments of civil life. 

2. If an order of clergy be necessary, and 
if it be also necessary to seclude them from 
the employments and profits of other pro- 
fessions, it is evident that they ought to be 
enabled to derive a maintenance from their 
own. This maintenance must either depend 
on the voluntary contributions of their 
hearers, or arise from revenues assigned by 
the authority of law. To the scheme of vo- 
luntary contribution this insurmountable 
objection exists, that few would ultimately 
contribute any part of their property. 
Though the zeal of a sect, or the novelty of 
a change, might support such an experi- 
ment for a time, yet no reliance could be 
placed on it as a general and permanent 
provision. It is a bad constitution, which 
presents temptations of interest in opposition 
to the duties of religion ; or which renders 
the offices of religion expensive to those 
who attend them ; or which allows pre- 
tences of conscience as an excuse for not 
sharing in a public burthen. If men, by 
refusing to frequent religious assemblies, 
could save their money, whilst at the same 
time they indulged their indolence, and 
their disinclination to exercises of serious- 
ness and reflection; or if, by dissenting 
from the national religion, they could be 
excused from contributing to support the 
ministers of religion ; it is to be feared 
that many would take advantage of the 
choice thus imprudently left open to them, 
and that this liberty might finally operate 
to the decay of virtue, and an irrecover- 
able forgetfulness of all religion. Is it 
not to be feared, that, if it were referred 
to the discretion of each neighbourhood, 
whether they would maintain among them 

402 



a teacher or not, many districts would 
remain unprovided with a minister ? It is 
probable, that associations for the support 
of Christian worship and instruction would , 
neither be numerous nor long continued. 
Besides, preaching would in time become 
a mode Of begging. With what sincerity, 
or with what dignity, can the truths of 
Christianity be dispensed by a preacher, 
whose thoughts are constantly solicited to 
the means of increasing his subscription ? 
For a preacher to be thus at the mercy of 
his audience ; to be obliged to adapt his 
doctrines to the pleasure of a capricious 
multitude ; to be continually affecting a 
style and manner neither natural to him, 
nor agreeable to his judgment; to live 
in constant bondage to tyrannical and inso- 
lent directors ; are circumstances extremely 
mortifying, and are seldom submitted to 
without a sacrifice of principle, and a depra- 
vation of character. 

3. If it be admitted, that a legal provi- 
sion for the clergy, compulsory on those 
who contribute to it, is expedient, ought 
this provision to be confined to one sect 
of Christianity, or extended indifferently 
to all ? If religious opinions exist, not 
only so various, but so contradictory, as 
to render it impossible to reconcile them 
to each other, or to any one confession of 
faith, rule of discipline, or form of worship ; 
and if, consequently, separate congrega- 
tions and different sects must unavoidably 
continue in a country ; it is a question of 
great importance, whether the laws ought 
to establish one sect in preference to 
the rest. This question is very nearly 
related to, and indeed dependent on ano- 
ther; namely, in what manner, and by 
whom, ought the ministers of religion to 
be appointed? If the form of patronage 
be retained to which we are accustomed 
in this country, and which allows private 
individuals to nominate teachers of reli- 
gion for districts and congregations to 
which they are entire strangers, without 
some test proposed to the persons nomi- 
nated, the greatest discordance of reli- 
gious opinions might arise hetween the 
teachers and their congregations. Where- 
ever, therefore, this constitution of patron- 
age is adopted, a national religion, or 
the legal preference of one particular reli- 
gion to all others, must almost necessarily 
accompany it. If the appointment of 
the minister should in every parish be left 
to the choice of the parishioners, without 
their being limited to the teachers of any 
particular sect, a Papist, a Presbyterian, 
a Methodist, a Moravian, or an Ana- 
baptist, might successively obtain posses- 
sion of the pulpit, according as a majority 
of the party prevailed at each election. 
This would create the greatest animosities 
among the people ; and the teacher and 
his religion would be received by the de- 



EST 



ETE 



feated party with the most unconquerable 
aversion. If the state appoint the minis- 
ters of religion, this constitution will differ 
little from the establishment of a national 
religion. 

It appears, therefore, that the argument 
by which ecclesiastical establishments are 
defended, proceeds as follows : the know- 
ledge and profession of Christianity can- 
not be upheld without a clergy ; a clergy 
cannot be supported without a legal pro- 
vision ; a legal provision for the clergy 
cannot be constituted without the pre- 
ference of one sect of Christians to the 
rest. Foley's Moral and Polit. Philosophy, 
Book vi. ch. x. 

ESTHER, iriDK, signifies secret, or that 
demolishes, or proof of physic. Parkhurst ob- 
serves that the note of the Chaldee Targum 
on Esth. ii. 7- seems remarkable : ' They 
called her riDin Hadassah, because she was 
just, and the just are those that are com- 
pared HDxb to myrtle.' The myrtle tree is 
famous for the sweetness or fragrance of its 
flowers and leaves; and hence the name 
Hadassah. 

Esther, or Hadassah, was of the tribe 
of Benjamin, and daughter of Abihail. 
Her parents being dead, Mordecai, her 
uncle by the father's side, took care of her 
education. After Ahasuerus had divorced 
Vashti, search was made throughout the 
Persian empire for the most beautiful 
women. Esther was one that was chosen, 
and was carried to court, and committed 
to the care of an eunuch. Seven young 
women waited on her ; and she continued 
thus a whole year. When the time was 
come that she was to be conducted to the 
king's apartment, she found favour in the 
sight of king Ahasuerus, who declared 
her queen in the room of Vashti, and mar- 
ried her with great magnificence. He also 
bestowed on his people largesses and par- 
dons. Esther had not declared who she 
was, nor that Mordecai was her uncle, be- 
cause he had forbidden her. 

Mordecai refusing to honour Haman, 
drew upon himself the indignation of the 
latter, who, in revenge, obtained from the 
king an order to put all Jews to death. 
Mordecai gave notice of this to Esther, 
and informed her of the necessity that she 
should wait on the king, and desire the 
revocation of this edict which Haman had 
procured from Ahasuerus by surprise. 
Esther excused herself; but Mordecai, 
not satisfied, represented to her, that no 
danger ought to deter her, and that God 
had in all probability for this purpose 
raised her to the royal dignity. Esther, 
therefore, disposed herself by prayer, fast- 
ing, and humiliation, to appear before the 
king. 

When Ahasuerus beheld Esther, he 
stretched out his golden sceptre towards 
her, and said, Esther, what is thy petition ? 
403 



for shouldst thou ask half of my kingdom 
I would give it thee. Esther humbly en- 
treated the king, that he would come to 
a banquet, and, if he pleased, bring Haman 
with him. At that banquet she requested 
that he and Haman would dine with her 
again the next day. The king came, and 
Haman with him ; and Ahasuei-.is, warmed 
with wine, repeated his former promises to 
her. Esther replied, if I have found 
favour in thy sight, O king, give me my 
own life, and the lives of my people for 
whom I implore thy clemency. The king 
demanded, who had conspired against her 
life, and the lives of her people ? Esther 
answered, Haman. This enraged the king; 
and Haman was seized and executed. Im- 
mediately, the king revoked his orders to 
destroy the Jews, whom he permitted to 
defend themselves. 

The book of Esther is a canonical book 
of the Old Testament. Though Calmet 
asserts that it has always been esteemed 
canonical by both Jews and Christians, 
yet it is still matter of dispute whether it 
was included in the canon of the Jews. 
The last six chapters, from the fourth verse 
of the tenth chapter, are not in the He- 
brew. These were probably collected by 
the Hellenistic Jews, and are expunged 
from the canon of the sacred books by the 
Protestants ; but the Latin and Greek 
churches consider them as canonical. 
There is great diversity of opinion concern- 
ing the author of this book. It has been 
ascribed to Ezra, to Mordecai, to Joachim, 
and to the joint labours of the great 
synagogue ; and it is impossible to decide 
which of these opinions is the most pro- 
bable. As it appears that Dr. Prideaux 
has satisfactorily shown, that by Aha- 
suerus we are to understand Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, the commencement of this 
history must be placed about the year 
of the world 3544. It continues through 
a space not exceeding twenty years. 
Parkhurst's Heb. Lexicon, p. 153. Bishop 
Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theolog. vol. i. 
p. 92. 

ETERNITY, an attribute of God, by 
which is meant infinite duration or exist- 
ence, without beginning and without end. 
The self-existent Being must of necessity 
be eternal. The ideas of eternity and self- 
existence are so closely connected, that 
because something must necessarily be 
eternal, independently and without any 
outward cause of its being, it must there- 
fore be necessarily self-existent ; and be- 
cause it is impossible but something must 
be self-existent, it is therefore net 
that it be also eternal. To be self-exist. nt. 
is to exist by an absolute necessity in the 
nature of the thing itself. As this iu. i s* 
sity is absolute, and not dependent on any 
thing external, it must be always unaltera- 
bly the same ; for nothing is changeable, un- 
Dd2 






ETE 



EVA 



less it be capable of being affected by some- 
thing external. That being, therefore, which 
has no other cause of self-existence, except 
the absolute necessity of its own nature, must 
of necessity have existed from everlasting, 
without beginning, and also, of necessity, 
exist to everlasting, without end. 

With respect to the manner of this eter- 
nal existence, it is manifest, that in this it 
infinitely transcends the manner of the 
existence of all created beings, even of 
such as shall exist for ever. It is impossi- 
ble for their finite minds to comprehend 
all that is past, or to understand perfectly 
all things that are present, much less to 
know all that is future. They cannot have 
entirely in their power any thing that is to 
come. Their thoughts, and knowledge, 
and power, must necessarily have degrees 
and periods, and be successive and tran- 
sient, as the things themselves. On the 
contrary, the eternal Supreme Cause must 
of necessity have such a perfect, indepen- 
dent, unchangeable comprehension of all 
things, that there can be no one point or 
instant of His eternal duration, in which all 
things that are past, present, and to come, 
will not be as entirely known and repre- 
sented to Him in one single thought or 
view, and that all things present and fu- 
ture be equally entirely in His power and 
direction, as if there were in reality no 
succession, but all things were actually pre- 
sent at once. 

The schoolmen suppose, that the differ- 
ence between the manner of the eternal 
existence of the Supreme Cause, and of the 
existence of created beings is, that the 
latter is a continual transient succession of 
duration, whilst the former is one point or 
or instant, which comprehends eternity, and 
in which all things are really co- existent. 
But on this it has been observed, that we 
may as well conceive the immensity of 
God to be a point, as his eternity an instant. 
As, according to our manner of thinking, 
we must necessarily suppose the immen- 
sity of God to be an infinite expansion of 
His essence pervading all imaginable space ; 
so must we consider the eternity of God 
to be a perpetual continuance, co-exist- 
ent with all imaginable succession of ages. 
How that can be together , which must 
necessarily be imagined co-existent with 
successions, is not easily to be con- 
ceived. 

In several passages of Scripture, God is 
styled eternal : ' The eternal God is thy 
refuge.' (Deut. xxxiii. 27-) ' Now unto 
the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the 
only wise God, be honour and glory for 
ever and ever.' (1 Tim. i. 17-) In the 
Revelation of St. John, the eternity of God 
is thus described : ' I am Alpha and Omega, 
the beginning and the ending, saith the 
Lord, which is, and which was, and 
which is to come, the Almighty.' (Rev. 
404 



i. 8.) Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christ. 
Theolog. vol. ii. p. 65. Clarke on the Being 
and Attributes of God ; Tillotson's Serm. vol. 
vii. p. 168, edit. 1772. 

EVANGELIST, a Greek word which 
literally signifies one who publishes glad 
tidings, or is the messenger of good news ; 
but which is generally applied to one who 
writes or preaches the Gospel of Jesus 
Christ. In Isaiah (xli. 27.) the Lord says, 
that He will give Jerusalem one that bring- 
eth good tidings, an evangelist. In Acts 
(xxi. 8.) Philip, one of the seven deacons 
of Csesarea, is called an evangelist. St. 
Paul speaks of the evangelists (Ephes. iv. 
11.) and ranks them after apostles and 
prophets. He exhorts Timothy to perform 
the duty of an evangelist. At the com- 
mencement of Christianity, there were evan- 
gelists and preachers, who without being 
fixed to any church, preached wherever they 
were led by the Holy Spirit. (Grot. Acts 
xxi. 8.) Evangelists, says a learned author, 
were presbyters of principal sufficiency, 
whom the apostles sent abroad, and em- 
ployed as agents in ecclesiastical affairs, 
wherever they deemed it expedient. Those 
who are called in Scripture evangelists, as 
Ananias, Apollos, Timothy, and others, were 
thus employed. With respect to evangelists 
afterwards, in the time of Trajan, history 
mentions, that many of the apostles, dis- 
ciples, and scholars who were alive at that 
time, with singular love of wisdom affected 
the heavenly word of God, and showed their 
willingness to execute that which Christ 
first of all requireth at the hands of men : 
they sold their possessions, which they gave 
to the poor, and betaking themselves to 
travel, they undertook the labour of evangel- 
ists, and preached the Gospel to those who 
had not yet heard of the doctrine of faith. 
The term evangelist is now generally con- 
fined to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 
the writers of the four Gospels, which bring 
glad tidings to all men. Hooker's Ecclesias- 
tical Polity, b. v. sect. 78. 

EVE, mn chavah, signifies in the original, 
life, and is so translated by the Septuagint. 
Our translators, therefore, ought not to have 
called the first woman Eve, but Life, because 
she was to be the mother of all the living. 
After God had created Adam, He said, it is 
not good for man to be alone ; I will make 
him an help-meet (help-mate) for him. He 
therefore made a woman, and brought her 
to Adam, who said, this is now bone of my 
bones, and flesh of my flesh : she shall be 
called ishah (maness, female man ; womb- 
man, woman,) because taken out of man. 
It is believed that she was created on the 
sixth day of the creation, after Adam had 
reviewed the animals. 

Adam and Eve were placed in Paradise, 
and God forbade them to touch one par- 
ticular fruit. But the evil one insidiously 
seduced Eve to eat of the forbidden fruit; 



EVI 



EVI 



and Eve afterwards seduced Adam. By 
thus transgressing the law of God, they 
both became degraded, and were punished 
by expulsion from Paradise, and by subjec- 
tion to evil, natural and moral. God said 
to Eve, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow 
and thy conception ; in sorrow thou shalt 
bring forth children, and thy desire shall be 
to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee : 
but thy posterity shall overcome the evil 
one. After being expelled from Paradise, 
Eve conceived and brought forth Cain, say- 
ing, I have gotten a man from the Lord, or 
through the divine blessing. She afterwards 
had Abel and some daughters, Seth, and 
doubtless many others. Some are of opi- 
nion, from the words of the original, that 
Cain and Abel were twin brothers, of whom 
Cain was the first-born. The year of Eve's 
death is unknown. It is presumed that she 
died about the same time as Adam, in the 
year of the world 930. 

The eastern people have paid some ho- 
nours to Adam and Eve, as to saints. The 
Greeks commemorate them on the 19th of 
November. Epiphanius says, that the Gnos- 
tics composed a gospel of Eve, which con- 
tained a thousand ridiculous and immodest 
things. Other heretics said, that Eve had 
Cain and Abel, not by her husband, but by 
a monstrous intercourse with the devil. The 
Indian Brachmans believe, that the sin of 
the first man consisted in the carnal know- 
ledge of Eve, who was presented to him by 
the devil. The Mahometans still reverence 
Eve's grotto in mount Gerizim, three miles 
from Mecca. They believe that the tomb 
of this first of woman-kind is at Gidda, on 
the Red Sea. 

EVILMERO'DACH, Tino-yiK 'E(3i\- 
HepoSdx, signifies the fool of Merodach, or 
despising, the bitterness of the fool ; otherwise, 
the fool grinds bitterly. Evilmerodach, the 
son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar, king 
of Babylon, was a profligate and vicious 
prince, and was therefore called Evilmero- 
dach, that is, foolish Merodach, for his proper 
name was only Merodach. The accession 
of this prince is fixed by Dr. Hales to the 
year before Christ 561. He first governed 
the kingdom during the indisposition of his 
father, who after seven years recovered his 
understanding, re-ascended the throne, and, 
as some think, imprisoned Evilmerodach. 
In this confinement, Evilmerodach con- 
tracted an acquaintance and friendship with 
Jehoiachim, king of Judah, who, after the 
death of Nebuchadnezzar, was delivered out 
of prison by Evilmerodach, and placed above 
all the other kings that were captives at 
Babylon. (2 Kings xxv. 27- Jerem. lii. 31.) 
Evilmerodach reigned only one year, accor- 
ding to the chronology of Usher ; but Dr. 
Prideaux thinks that he reigned two years, 
and was succeeded by Neriglissar, his sister's 
husband, who had been at the head of the con- 
spiracy formed against him. Others are of 
405 



opinion that he reigned three years, and was 
succeeded by his son Belshazzar. Prideaux' s 
Connect, p. 1. b. 1 ; Hales' s New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol ii. pp. 489. 502. 

EVIL-SPEAKING, signifies speaking 
with a malevolent intention, with a design 
of injuring another's reputation, or in some 
way to injure him, whether what we say to 
his disadvantage be true or false. When, 
therefore, we condemn all manner of evil- 
speaking, we limit our reprobation to that 
of which, whether true or false, malice is the 
cause ; of which pain, inconvenience, or 
injury to another is the object ; or which ill- 
will effuses only in order to occasion misery. 
It will often happen in the varied inter- 
course and multiform transactions of life, 
that we must necessarily say what may re- 
dound to the disadvantage of another, in 
order to serve the cause of truth, justice, 
and humanity. But let us never forget, 
that no evil-speaking can be lawful, consis- 
tent with the prohibitions of the Gospel, 
except that which has truth for its basis, 
benevolence for its origin, and good for its 
end. A witness in a court of justice is 
bound to declare the truth respecting any 
criminal. A judge or magistrate may re- 
prove a delinquent with that gravity which 
is suitable to his station, and with that 
warmth which the love of virtue or the 
abhorrence of vice will inspire ; but, in order 
to avoid the offence of evil-speaking, it is 
his duty to regulate his rebukes by discre- 
tion, and temper them with charity. If a 
tradesman were to ask whether he might 
safely, or without any probable chance of 
loss, give credit to an individual with whose 
character and circumstances we were well 
acquainted, we should be guilty of sinning 
against truth, justice, and humanity, if we 
represented him in affluence whom we knew 
to be involved in pecuniary difficulties, or 
if we described him as punctual in his en- 
gagements, and honest in his dealings, in 
whom we had discovered a laxness of morals, 
or a want of fidelity or justice. 

We ought never to speak of any one in 
harsh and opprobrious language without 
sufficient cause, or more than the circum- 
stances of the case will justify. We are not 
to speak ill of others because they do not 
think as we do ; because their political or 
religious opinions are different from ours ; 
because they disagree with us in manners, 
taste, and other things of an indifferent 
nature ; because they have refused us what 
perhaps we had no right to ask, or not con- 
ferred upon us what we had no reason to ex- 
pect. Men are often prompted to speak evil 
of others from resentment; and when they 
arc prevented by impotence, or restrained by 
fear, from doing any other injury, they think 
that they may safely give vent to the ran- 
cour of their hearts, in foul aspersions, 
mischievous slanders, and envenomed lies. 
They are too prone to speak slightingly ami 



EUN 



EUP 



contemptuously of others. But it is our 
duty not to harbour any contempt in our 
hearts against any one, however inferior 
he may be to us in acquired endowments, 
personal accomplishments, or outward cir- 
cumstances. The prosperity of others, their 
elevation or affluence, their success in life, 
the lustre of their virtues, or the celebrity 
of their reputation, frequently excite the 
calumnies of those who measure their own 
honour by others' depression, their own 
wealth by others' poverty, their own happi- 
ness by others' misfortunes. Men some- 
times speak evil of others, in order to gratify 
some sinister views, or to promote some 
selfish ends. But surely all such conduct 
is totally repugnant both to the spirit and 
the letter of" the Gospel of Christ, which 
enjoins the utmost benevolence, simplicity, 
and disinterestedness in our conduct. 

Men will sometimes throw out the most 
injurious aspersions, or vent the most inde- 
cent and unfounded reports respecting the 
reputation of others. But from whatever 
cause, except that of obedience to some 
moral obligation, evil-speaking may proceed, 
or whatever form it may assume, it is dia- 
metrically opposite to that religion which 
we profess, and of which the crowning excel- 
lence is an unbounded charity, and cannot 
therefore be too strongly prohibited, or too 
scrupulously avoided. The perfection of 
practical religion consists in doing as we 
would be done by. But how opposite is 
every species of evil-speaking to this sove- 
reign rule of life 1 Who would willingly 
have evil spoken of him ? and can he, there- 
fore, without doing violence to his own sense 
of right, speak evil of others ? Who amongst 
us loves to be reviled ? On the contrary, 
does not every malicious word, every foul 
reproach, or scurrilous taunt which is uttered 
against us, excite our aversion towards the 
person that utters it ? What a powerful dis- 
suasion from evil-speaking have we in the 
prohibitions and denunciations of the Scrip- 
tures ! Our Lord says, ' Whosoever shall 
say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger 
of the council ;' that is, whoever shall speak 
reproachfully of his fellow-creature, though 
only in a slight degree, shall receive a pro- 
portionate punishment. But 'whosoever 
shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of 
hell-fire ;' that is, whoever shall give vent 
to the malice of his heart, in virulence of 
invective, and fury of abuse, will, in a greater 
degree, provoke the wrath, and incur the 
vengeance of God. Fellowes's Body of The- 
ology, vol. ii. pp. 298 — 317 ; Sermons by George 
Carr, vol. ii. pp. 289, fyc. 

EUNUCH, Bvvovxoq, signifies a keeper 
of the bed, or bed-chamber; otherwise, de- 
prived of cohabitation. Eunuchs are per- 
sons so called, because generally in the 
courts of eastern kings, the care of the 
beds and apartments belonging to the 
princes and princesses, is committed to 
406 



them; but chiefly of the princesses, who 
live secluded. The Hebrew saris is gene- 
rally supposed to denote a real eunuch, 
whether naturally born such, or rendered 
such. But in Scripture this word frequently 
denotes an officer belonging to a prince, 
attending his court, and employed in the 
interior of the palace ; and hence it is a 
name only of office and dignity, and does 
not necessarily imply that he who is so 
employed had suffered personal mutilation. 
In the Persian and Turkish courts, the 
principal employments are at this day 
possessed by real eunuchs. Potiphar, the 
eunuch of Pharaoh, and master of Joseph, 
had a wife and children. (Gen. xxxix. 1. 
7. ; xli. 45.) 

God forbad his people to make eunuchs ; 
and such persons were not to enter into 
the congregation of the Lord. (Deut. xxiii. 
1.) Some think, that God by this forbids 
eunuchs to marry with Israelites ; some, 
that he prohibits them to enter his temple ; 
some, that he excludes them from the 
magistracy ; and others, that he debars 
them simply the possession of some out- 
ward privileges belonging to the Israelites, 
as people of the Lord. They were con- 
sidered in the commonwealth as dry and 
useless wood, and might say of themselves, 
• Behold I am a dry tree.' (Isai. lvi. 3.) 
In the courts of the kings of Judah and 
Israel were officers called Sarisim, eu- 
nuchs, who probably were real eunuchs, if 
they were slaves taken or bought from 
foreigners, but if Hebrews, the name eu- 
nuch expresses simply their office and 
dignity. Our Saviour (Matt. xix. 12.) 
speaks of a sort of eunuchs, ' who have 
made themselves eunuchs for the king- 
dom of heaven's sake ;' the word eunuch 
is here used in a figurative sense, to de- 
note a person who, on a religious account, 
mortifies his natural inclinations, and re- 
frains from marriage. Parhhurstfs Greek 
and Eng. Lexicon, p. 270, octav. edit. 1812. 
Heb. and Eng. Lexicon, p. 504. Fragments 
annexed to Calmefs Diet. No. xciv. p. 153. 

EUPHRATES, ma Phrath, signifies 
fruitful, or fructifying, or increasing. The 
Euphrates rises in Armenia, and runs in a 
southern direction to the Persian Gulf. 
Between this river and the Tigris, which is 
east of it, are Mesopotamia and the land of 
Shinar ; and east of the Tigris is Assyria. 

Some have thought that the Euphrates 
is the Hirmund in India, which is supposed 
by them to have been one of the rivers of 
Paradise, and which in the language of 
the country implies ablution. 

The Mesopotamian Euphrates, is a river 
of consequence in Scripture geography, 
being the boundary which separated Padan 
Aram from Syria, and the utmost limits, 
on the east, of the kingdom of the Israel- 
ites. Its general course is south-east; 
but in some places it runs westerly, and 



EUS 



EXA 



by this means approaches the Mediterra- 
nean, near Cilicia. It is accompanied in 
most parts of its course by the Tigris ; and 
the country included between them is called 
Mesopotamia, or ' Between the rivers.' 
Upon its banks are many towns, and much 
fruitful land, in different places. It does not 
appear to be of a very great breadth. Abul- 
feda says, that it rises north-east of Erze- 
roum ; that it receives the waters of many 
streams in its course, as the Murad, the 
Rouha, the Khabour or Chaboras, and 
others; that at length it joins the Tigris, and 
the united waters of those rivers form a kind 
of sea, in which are many islands ; and that 
all their branches being combined at Korna, 
they flow together to Basra, whence they 
fall into the Persian Gulf. 

Tournefort tells us, that the sources of 
the Euphrates are two ; one about a day's 
journey, the other nearly double the dis- 
tance, from Erzeroum. They rise in 
mountains not so high indeed as the Alps, 
but covered with snow nearly the whole 
year. These two branches are called the 
Frat, the name of the river which they 
form. After their junction, which is three 
days' journey from Erzeroum, the Frat 
begins to be capable of carrying little 
Saicks, but its channel is full of rocks. 
The mountains in which are the sources of 
the Euphrates, are one of the divisions of 
Mount Taurus, according to Strabo ; but 
Dionysius, the geographer, calls it the Ar- 
menian Mountains. 

Moses (Gen. ii. 14.) says, that the Eu- 
phrates is the fourth river whose source 
was in Paradise. 

Ranwolf says, that the Euphrates, when 
he crossed at Beer, about the year 1575, was 
a mile broad ; Maundrell, that it was as 
broad, in his time, as the Thames at Lon- 
don ; Otter, who crossed it in 1734, that its 
breadth, according to conjecture, exceeded 
not two hundred common paces, though 
lower down, upon the plain, it spread to 
the width of five or six hundred paces, at 
the time of its increase; and Mr. Bucking- 
ham, who crossed it in 1816, that the river 
is hereabout, (near Beer,) the general 
breadth of the Nile, below the first cataract 
to the sea, and that it is considerably larger 
than the Orontes or the Jordan, and is at 
least equal to the Thames at Blackfriars- 
bridge. Buckingham's Travels in Mesopo- 
tamia, vol. i. p. 49 ; Sacred Geography. 

EUSTATHIANS, a denomination in 
the fourth century, who derived their name 
from Eustathius, a monk. This man was 
the occasion of great disorders and divi- 
sions in Armenia, Pontus, and the neigh- 
bouring countries ; and, in consequence, 
he was condemned and excommunicated 
by the council of Gangra, which was held 
soon after that of Nice. Whether this 
was the same Eustathius, who was bishop 
of Sebastia in Armenia, and the chief of 
407 



the Semi-arians ; or whether the ancient 
historians have confounded two different 
persons of the same name, is a matter 
difficult to determine. However, the leader 
of the Eustathian sect prohibited mar- 
riage, the use of wine and flesh, feasts of 
charity, and other things of that nature. 
To those who were joined in wedlock he 
prescribed immediate divorce; and he 
obliged his followers to quit all they had, 
as incompatible with the hopes of heaven. 
Mosheim, vol. i. p. 313. 

EXAMPLE, a copy or pattern. It 
has often been said, that example is more 
instructive than precept. In example we 
see precept not only in its theoretical 
beauty, but in its practical effects. Ge- 
neral exhortations to duty are frequently 
vapid and unsatisfactory, and take little 
hold on the mind and affections ; but when 
we see the different consequences of vir- 
tue and vice, illustrated in the lives of 
our fellow-creatures, our attention is more 
powerfully excited, and we are impelled to 
good or deterred from evil, less by the 
cogency of the precept than of the ex- 
ample. When we view the good actions 
of others, the temptations which they re- 
sisted, or the virtues which they displayed 
in difficult circumstances, we are naturally 
led to admire them. This admiration will 
kindle in us a desire to do the same, 
while it causes us to think the work more 
easy, or invigorate our exertions by the 
success of their's. What has been once 
done, we know may be done again ; and 
as far as acts of moral goodness are con- 
cerned, nothing is impossible to those 
who, through divine grace, labour to do 
the will of God. The contemplation of the 
good actions of others, naturally tends to 
produce a love of those actions, and with 
a desire to imitate them it will infuse a 
secret regret for our past neglect. The 
bitterness of heart, the painful dissatis- 
faction with ourselves, occasioned by the 
consciousness of having lived viciously or 
unprofitably, is often the germ of improve- 
ment, and the first advance towards vir- 
tue. To admire good actions is to detest 
bad ones ; for we cannot, at the same 
time, admire both good and bad actions, 
any more than we can admire beauty and 
deformity. When we contemplate the 
virtues of any of our fellow-creatures, 
our affections vibrate towards them ; we 
learn to sympathize with their feelings, 
and to put ourselves in their situations. 
Hence, good examples are a powerful in- 
centive to virtue. 

But in the examples even of the best men, 
considered as patterns for our imitation, 
we shall always find something to blame as 
well as to commend, something to slum as 
well as to pursue. Though we may imitate 
the general conduct of good men, yet we 
must always do it with certain reserves ami 



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EXC 



limitations. But in imitating the life of 
Jesus Christ, we need not be afraid of 
being seduced into sin, or led into error. 
The rule of life which the evangelic history 
shows us, embodied in the example of 
Christ, is as perfect as that which is incul- 
cated in His precepts. Hence the apostles, 
when they wish to impress on their fol- 
lowers the practice of any of the Christian 
virtues, and particularly of those which 
are most difficult, because most adverse to 
the human appetites and inclinations, 
labour to animate their endeavours by ap- 
pealing to the example of Christ. Thus St. 
Peter, exhorting Christians to exhibit an 
habitual purity in their manners and con- 
versation, says, ' as he which hath called 
you is holy, so be ye holy in all manner of 
conversation.' (1 Pet. i. 15.) The same 
apostle, recommending patience, invites 
the attention of those whom he addressed, 
to the example of Christ, who, he says, 
' left us an example that ye should follow 
his steps ; who, when he was reviled, re- 
viled not again ; when he suffered, he 
threatened not, but committed himself 
to him that judgeth righteously.' (1 Pet. ii. 
21 — 23.) St. Paul urging on the Ephesians 
the necessity of mutual charity, says, 
' Walk in love, as Christ also hath loved us.' 
(Ephes. v. 2.) The author of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews (xii. 1, 2, 3.) exhorts also 
to patience with pious earnestness: ' Let 
us run with patience the race that is set 
before us, looking unto Jesus the author 
and finisher of our faith; who, for the joy 
that was set before him, endured the cross, 
despising the shame, and is set down at the 
right hand of the throne of God. Consider 
him that endured such contradiction of 
sinners against himself, lest ye be wearied 
and faint in your minds.' The apostles 
uniformly suppose, that we cannot be 
Christians without imitating the example 
of Christ ; and it is certain that the more 
assiduously we copy after His example, and 
endeavour to approach the likeness of His 
most holy life, the better Christians we 
become. Felloives' s Body of Theology, vol. i. 
pp. 429, 430, 436 ; Richardson's Divine and 
Moral Essays, p. 81. 

EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclesiasti- 
cal penalty, by which they who incur the 
guilt of any heinous sin are separated from 
the communion of the church, and deprived 
of spiritual advantages. 

Excommunication among the Jews is 
said by Selden to have been of two kinds ; 
the greater and the less. The form of the 
less excommunication was short, and con- 
sisted only in saying, ' Let such an one 
be excommunicated.' That of the greater 
was long, and filled with terrible maledic- 
tions. The judges of the synagogue, or 
even private persons, had a right to ex- 
communicate ; but, regularly, the house of 
judgment, or the court of justice, so- 
408 



lemnly pronounced the sentence of excom- 
munication. One particular person might 
excommunicate another ; and this excom- 
munication, if well founded, was of force ; 
otherwise he, who excommunicated another 
without reason, was himself excommuni- 
cated. With respect to the effects of the 
Jewish excommunications, the less excluded 
the excommunicated person from the so- 
ciety of men, and he was not to approach 
even his wife, children, and domestics, 
within four cubits. The greater excom- 
munication entirely secluded the person 
from the conversation of others ; and some- 
times he was shut up in a small chamber or 
prison, where he lived alone. Baronius 
and Beza say, that the greater excommuni- 
cation excluded men from the use of sacred 
things, that they were not suffered to enter 
into the temple or synagogue to sacrifice. 
But this is controverted by Selden and 
Buxtorf, who think that they were allowed 
to be present at the public worship in the 
temple; but the latter adds that they were 
obliged to go in and out by the same way. 
The Jews were expressly commanded ' to 
cut off from the congregation' (Exod. xii. 
19. Lev. vii. 20. ; xvii. 14') those who had 
been guilty of certain offences ; and it is, 
therefore, scarcely credible, that excommu- 
nicated persons were allowed to enter the 
temple, and be present at public worship. 
It appears also from the New Testament, 
that the practice of casting or putting out of 
the synagogue prevailed among them in the 
time of our Saviour. (John ix. 22. 34 ; xii. 
42. ; xvi. 2.) 

Every Christian church has power to 
excommunicate in cases of gross immorality 
or obstinate disobedience. A wilful con- 
tempt of order and authority includes in it 
the source of every irregularity ; it destroys 
the respect by which all the other ends of 
religious society are to be attained, and 
tends directly to the dissolution of the 
whole body. Hence we find that exclusion 
from sacred rites, when occasion required 
it, was practised under the heathen forms 
of worship, and was always esteemed a 
severe punishment. Under the Gospel 
dispensation, St. Paul directs the Corin- 
thians to excommunicate a man who had 
been guilty of an incestuous marriage, 
(1 Cor. v. 13.) ; and afterwards, on his 
giving proofs of repentance, he ordered 
them to receive him again into the church. 
(2 Cor. ii. 6.) The same apostle said to 
Titus, to whom he had entrusted the care 
of the Cretan churches, ' A man that is an 
heretic, after the first and second admoni- 
tion, reject.' (Tit. iii. 10.) Our Saviour ob- 
served to his disciples, ' If thy brother shall 
trespass against thee, go and tell him 
his fault between thee and him alone. If 
he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy bro- 
ther ; but if he will not hear thee, then take 
with thee one or two more, that in the 



EXC 



EXP 



i 



mouth of two or three witnesses every word 
may be established. And if he shall neglect 
to hear thee tell it unto the church ; and 
if he neglect to hear the church, let him be 
unto thee as an heathen man and a publican.' 
(Matt xviii. 15, &c.) If Christ gave 
this direction concerning the private tres- 
pass of one Christian against another, the 
same authority ought surely to be allowed 
in case of public offences. Yet, as repen- 
tance, in regaining the favour of God, is 
unequivocally required in Scripture, it be- 
comes us to pay all possible regard to it in 
the present world. If therefore we have 
reason to believe that an excommuni- 
cated person sincerely repents of his 
crimes, we ought to receive him, and 
treat him again as a fellow Christian. 
For this we have the example of St. 
Paul, in the case of the incestuous person 
at Corinth. However, as excommunica- 
tion is a public sentence pronounced by a 
lawful magistrate, so restoration of an ex- 
communicated person to communion with 
the church ought to be a public act, and 
with such forms, and after performing such 
penance, as the church has thought proper 
to prescribe. 

In the early age of the Christian church, 
excommunication was practised for cer- 
tain offences, and excommunicated per- 
sons were upon repentance again restored 
to communion. There were two sorts of 
excommunication, the less and the 
greater. By the former, men were ex- 
cluded from partaking of the sacrament, 
but were allowed" to attend the other parts 
of divine service ; by the latter they were 
expelled entirely from the church, and 
were not permitted to be present at the 
performance of any public office of reli- 
gion : the former was temporary ; but the 
latter perpetual, unless the delinquent 
gave full proof of his repentance. These 
punishments, whilst a just sense of religion 
prevailed, and separation from the public 
worship was considered as a great evil, 
produced a very salutary effect ; but the 
power of excommunication, which was 
at first kept within due bounds, was gra- 
dually enlarged, and was at last carried to 
an exorbitant height, and perverted to the 
worst of purposes. The popes of Rome 
inflicted it upon the most trifling and 
improper occasions, and in a manner 
authorized neither by reason nor Scrip- 
ture, and utterly unknown in more an- 
cient times. Among the early Christians, 
excommunication did not deprive a person 
of any of his natural or civil rights. But 
the popes, by their excommunications, 
pretended not only to take away the 
common rights o nature and of social 
life, as the obedience due from children 
to their parents, and protection from the 
magistrate, but also to depose princes 
from their thrones, and absolve subjects 
409 



from their allegiance. They even inter- 
dicted whole churches and nations, and 
forbade them the use of the sacraments. 
For the most frivolous and unjust causes, 
they endeavoured to dissolve every tie 
which keeps mankind united, and to de- 
prive whole countries of every social and 
religious comfort. In consequence of this 
extravagant and mischievous usurpation, 
papal excommunication fell, in process of 
time, into total disregard. Most of the 
reformed churches asserted the power of 
excommunication ; it forms a part of our 
church discipline, but has of late years 
been very seldom exercised. Bishop 
Tomlir/e's Elem. of Christ. Theol. vol. ii. p. 
518, &c. ; Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 
97 ; ii- p. 64. 

EX'ODUS, "E%o8og, signifies the going 
out or departure ; and by the Codex Alexan- 
drinus, this book is called "E£o£oc Alyvirrs, 
the departure from Egypt, because the de- 
parture from Egypt is the most remarkable 
fact mentioned in the whole book. It is the 
second of the sacred books of the Old Testa- 
ment. It contains the birth of Moses, his 
education, and flight ; the persecutions of 
the Hebrews by the kings of Egypt ; the re- 
turn of Moses ; the plagues of Egypt ; the 
departure of the Hebrews ; the passage of 
the Red Sea; the giving of the law; the 
erection of the tabernacle ; and the cele- 
bration of the second passover. It contains 
the history of about 145 years, from the 
death of Joseph, in the year of the world 
2369, to the year of the world 2514. 

Though, according to the general compu- 
tation, the Hebrews dwelt in Egypt only 
215 years, yet we read in Exodus (xii. 40,) 
that ' the sojourning of the children of 
Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hun- 
dred and thirty years.' To obviate this 
difficulty, it has been proposed to adopt 
the reading of the Samaritan Pentateuch, 
which is as follows : ' Now the sojourning 
of the children of Israel, and of their 
fathers, which they sojourned in the land 
of Canaan and in the land of Egypt, was 
430 years.' This same sum is given by 
St. Paul (Gal. iii. 17-) who reckons from 
the promise made to Abraham, when God 
commanded him to go to Canaan, to the 
giving of the law, which soon followed 
the departure from Egypt. This chrono- 
logy of the apostle agrees with the Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch, which, by preserving 
the two passages, they and their fathers, 
and, in the land of Canaan, which are lost 
out of the present copies of the Hebrew 
text, has rescued this passage from all 
obscurity and contradiction. It may be 
necessary to observe, that the Alexandrian 
copy of the Septuagint has thesaxne reading 
as that in the Samaritan. Kennicott's DU- 
scrtalion on the Hebrew Text ; Dr. Adam 
Clarke's Comment, on Exodus. 
EXPIATION. The Hebrews had so- 



EXP 



EXT 



veral sorts of expiatory sacrifices : for 
sins of ignorance ; for purification from 
certain legal pollutions, as of a woman 
after lying-in, of a leper when cleansed of his 
leprosy, &c. who were to offer sacrifices in 
order to be purified. 

Expiation, the great day of, the tenth 
of Tizri, which answers to our September. 
The Hebrews call it chippur, pardon or 
expiation, because the faults of the year 
were then expiated. The principal cere- 
monies were the following. After the 
high-priest had washed not only his 
hands and his feet, as usual at common 
sacrifices, but his whole body, he dressed 
himself in plain linen, like the other 
priests. At the same time, he wore 
neither his purple robe, nor the ephod, 
nor the pectoral, because he was to ex- 
piate his own sins, as well as those of the 
people. He first offered a bullock and a 
ram for his own sins and those of the 
priests ; and putting his hands on the heads 
of these victims, he confessed his own 
sins, and the sins of his house. He then 
received from the princes of the people 
two goats for a sin-offering, and a ram for 
a burnt - offering, to be offered in the 
name of the whole nation. The lot 
determined which of the two goats should 
be sacrificed, and which set at liberty. 
After this, the high-priest put some of 
the sacred fire of the altar of burnt- offer- 
ings into a censer, threw incense upon it, 
and entered with it thus smoking into the 
sanctuary. After he had perfumed the 
sanctuary with this incense, he came out, 
took some of the blood of the young bul- 
lock he had sacrificed, carried that also 
into the sanctuary, and dipping his fingers 
in it, sprinkled it seven times between the 
ark and the vail, which separated the 
holy from the sanctuary, or most holy. 
He then came out a second time, and 
beside the altar of burnt- offerings killed 
the goat, which the lot had determined to 
be sacrificed. He carried the blood of 
this goat into the most holy sanctuary, and 
sprinkled it seven times between the altar 
and the vail, which separated the holy 
from the sanctuary. He thence returned 
into the court of the tabernacle, and 
sprinkled both sides of it with the blood 
of the goat. During all this, none of the 
priests or people was admitted into the ta- 
bernacle, or into the court. After this, the 
high-priest came to the altar of burnt-offer- 
ings, wetted the four horns of it with the 
blood of the goat and young bullock, and 
sprinkled it seven times with the same blood. 
The sanctuary, the court, and the altar being 
thus purified, the high-priest directed the 
goat which had been set at liberty by the lot, 
to be brought to him. He put his hand on 
the goat's head, confessed his own sins, and 
the sins of the people, and then delivered 
the goat to a person appointed, who was 
410 



to carry it into some desert place, and let 
it loose, or, as others say, throw it down 
some precipice. See Azazel and Scape 
Goat. 

The great day of expiation was a prin- 
cipal solemnity of the Hebrews. It was 
a day of rest and strict fasting; and the 
Hebrews confessed themselves ten times 
on this day. They also put an end to all 
differences, and were reconciled to each 
other. Many Jews spent the night pre- 
ceding the great day of expiation in 
prayer and penitential exercises. It was 
the custom for the high-priest to separate 
from his wife seven days before this 
festival, lest he should contract some 
pollution. He was also obliged to swear, 
that he would not change the ancient rites 
in any particular. When the ceremony 
was finished, the high-priest read the law, 
gave the blessing to the people, changed 
his dress, and made a great entertainment 
for joy that he had come unhurt out of the 
sanctuary. The people fasted punctually 
during the whole of this holy day, to which 
they attributed great effects ; for, ac- 
cording to the Jews, repentance, though 
accompanied with the resolution of living 
well, only suspends sins, but the feast of 
expiation abolishes them entirely, and they 
who die before this day expiate them by 
their death. 

The modern Jews prepare themselves 
for this feast by prayer and ablution. 
They carry wax candles to the syna- 
gogue ; and the most devout have two, 
one for the body, the other for the soul. 
The women also light up candles in their 
houses, from the brightness of which, and 
the consistency of the tallow or wax, they 
form presages. The whole day is spent in 
strict fasting, without exception of age or 
sex. Since the destruction of their temple, 
they sacrifice on this occasion a cock in- 
stead of the legal victims. At the con- 
clusion of the solemnity, the Rabbi gives his 
blessing to the people, who afterwards return 
home, put on clean white clothes, and break 
their fast. 

Some Jews believe that Adam repented, 
and began his penance on the day of 
solemn expiation ; that on this day Abra- 
ham was circumcised ; that Isaac was 
bound in order to be sacrificed; and, 
lastly, that on this day Moses descended 
from Mount Sinai with the new tables of 
the law. Maimon. de Poenitent. cap. 10, 
p. 99 ; Buxtorf. Synagng. Jud. c . xx ; 
Basnage Hist, des Juifs. T. v. lib. viii. c. 
15. 

EXTREME UNCTION, the fifth of 
the Popish sacraments, is practised by the 
priests of the church of Rome upon the 
sick, who are supposed to be past recovery, 
and is believed to give final pardon for 
sin, with all necessary assistances in the 
last agony. The oil, which has been pre- 



EYE 



EYE 



viously blessed by a bisbop, is applied to 
the five senses, with these words, Per hanc 
sacram unctionem, et suam piisimam mise- 
ricordiam, indulgeat tibi Deus quicquid 
peccasti per visum, auditum, olfactum, 
gustum et tactum : and as each of the 
words denoting the five senses is pro- 
nounced, the organ of that sense is anoint- 
ed. The church of Rome quotes the two 
following passages in the New Testament, 
to prove that extreme unction ought to be 
considered as a sacrament: St. Mark (vi. 
13.) relates, that the apostles, to whom Christ 
gave a temporary commission to preach in 
Judea, ' anointed with oil many that were 
sick, and healed them.' And St. James 
gives this direction in his General Epistle, 
(v. 14.) ' Is any sick among you, let him 
call for the elders of the church, and let 
them pray over him, anointing him with 
oil in the name of the Lord, and the prayer 
of faith shall save the sick, and the Lord 
shall raise him up.' Among other miracu- 
lous gifts communicated by Christ to his 
apostles during his ministry, and after- 
wards by the Holy Ghost to the early preach- 
ers of the Gospel, was that of curing diseases ; 
and it is evident that both the above 
passages refer to the exercise of that super- 
natural power, and of course the efficacy of 
anointing with oil would cease, when that 
power was withdrawn from the church. 
Besides, the unction spoken of by these two 
apostles was intended to restore the sick to 
health, and not for the good of their souls 
when life was despaired of. Indeed, it was 
nothing more than one of those symbolical 
actions with which miracles were wrought 
under both the old and new dispensation. 
Oil was constantly used in the eastern coun- 
tries, and therefore the apostles and elders 
applied it to the sick, whom they were em- 
powered to heal. The gift of healing dis- 
eases probably ceased in the third century. 
No general practice of anointing is noticed 
or alluded to in any of the numerous writers, 
or in the canons of the various councils, of 
the first six centuries. In the seventh cen- 
tury, the Christians began to anoint their 
sick, but it was intended only to promote 
their recovery. This anointing frequently 
failed, as the means of restoring health ; 
and in the tenth century, the clergy pre- 
tended, that though it did not benefit the 
bodies, it was of great service to the souls, 
of the sick. This doctrine was generally 
believed about the middle of the twelfth 
century. Pope Eugenius, in the council of 
Florence, decreed extreme unction to be a 
sacrament ; this was confirmed by the coun- 
cil of Trent ; and it is still practised as such 
by Papists. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. 
Theolog. vol. ii. p. 428. 

EYE, the organ of sight. The Hebrews 

call fountains eyes, and give the same name 

to colours (Num. xi. 7-) The Psalmist 

(Ps. cxxiii. 2.) says, ' As the eyes of servants 

411 



look unto the hands of their masters,' that 
is, to observe their least motions, and obey 
their least signal ; for in the east, many of 
the most important orders which a master 
can give, or a servant receive, are given 
and received in profound silence : the least 
wink of the eye, or motion of the fingers, in 
a manner imperceptible to strangers, is a 
sufficient order to the servant. It is said 
(Gen. iii. 7-) that ' their eyes were opened,' 
that is, they began to comprehend in a new 
manner. 

The eye and its actions are occasionally 
transferred to God. ' The eyes of the 
Lord are in every place, beholding the 
evil and the good, (Prov. xv. 3.) ;' ' the eyes 
of the Lord run to and fro through the 
whole earth.' (Zech. iv. 10. 2 Chron. xvi. 9. 
Psalm xi. 4.) 

The eye appears to be used symbolically 
in Zech. iii. 9. ' Therefore, behold the 
stone, precious stone, ring-stone, signet, 
which 1 will give to the face of Joshua' — 
it shall be ' one stone having seven eyes' en- 
graved upon it— 'behold, I will engrave 
the engraving thereof — that is, as a sym- 
bol of penetration, and activity — of close 
inspection, and accuracy, in the manage- 
ment of business : this shall be the device 
upon his seal of office, — such shall be the 
character, &c. 

We read, (Matt. vi. 22.) < the light or 
lamp, of the body is the eye : if therefore 
thine eye be single, simple, clear (airXovg,) 
thy whole body shall be full of light : but 
if thine eye be evil, distempered, diseased, 
thy whole body shall be full of darkness.' 
The direct allusion may hold to a lanthorn, 
or lamp (Xux r °c) : i* ^ e glass of it be 
clear, the light within will shine through it 
with a sprightly lustre ; but if the glass be 
soiled, dirty, foul, very little light will pass 
through it. In the east they had lanthorns 
made of thin linen, &c. which were very 
liable to receive spots, stains, and foul- 
nesses that impeded the passage of the rays 
of light from the luminary within. In the 
natural eye, if the cornea be single, and the 
humors clear, the sight will be correct ; but 
if there be a film over the cornea, or a 
cutaract, or a skin between any of the 
humors, the rays of light will make no 
impression on the retina, the internal seat 
of light. If the mental eye, the judgment, 
be honest, virtuous, sincere, and pious, it 
will enlighten and direct the whole of a 
person's actions ; but if it be perverse, 
malign, biassed by undue prejudices, it will 
darken the understanding, pervert the con- 
duct of the party, and suffer him to be mis- 
led by his unruly passions. 

We read in '.Matthew (vii. 3.) 'Why 
beholdest thou the mote, the little black 
speck, which is in thy brother's eve. but 
considerest not the beam, the almost eata- 
ract-like film, which is in thine own e\e V 
The word Kapipoe. is interpreted by BOOM a 



EYE 



EZE 



little splinter of wood, by others a little 
seed ; perhaps it may refer to a small film, 
the size of a seed. The word doKog signi- 
fies a beam, or rafter, and may be used 
parabolically ; but it has been queried, 
whether it might not import a real disorder 
of the eye, so called from its closure, fitting 
in to the eye, as beams or rafters are fitted 
into each other in building : as if our 
Saviour had said, 'Why beholdest thou, 
with affected superiority and keenness of 
observation, the little seed-like film which 
floats in thy brother's eye, but art insensible 
of the closed up state of thine own eye V 
Perhaps this would be well expressed by 
our English phrase a wall-eye, that is, one 
blind, nearly or altogether dark, but not 
extracted, or absolutely disfigured. Sup- 
plem. Addenda to Calmefs Diet. ; Fragments 
annexed to Calmet, No. xxix. p. 52. 

EYE-LIDS. It is not customary among 
us for women to paint their eye-lids par- 
ticularly ; and we therefore do not usually 
perceive the full import of the expressions 
in Scripture referring to this custom, which 
is of very great antiquity, and is still ob- 
served in the East. It is said (2 Kings 
ix. 30.) ' Jezebel painted her face,' put 
her eyes in paint, or rather she painted the 
internal part of her eye-lids, by drawing 
between them a silver wire previously wet- 
ted and dipped in the powder of phuc (rich 
lead ore), which adhering to the eye-lids, 
formed a streak of black upon them, 
thereby, apparently, enlarging the eyes, 
rendering their effect more powerful, and 
invigorating their vivacity. This action is 
strongly referred to in our translation of 
Jer. iv. 30. ' though thou rendest thine 
eye with painting,' or though thou cause 
thine eye-lids to seem to be starting out of 
thine head, through the strength of the 
black paint applied to them, yet shall that 
decoration be in vain. It is alluded to 
in Prov. vi. 25. ' Lust not after her beauty 
(of the strange woman) in thine heart : nei- 
ther let her captivate thee with her eye-lids,' 
which she has rendered so large and bril- 
liant by the assistance of art, as to enchant 
beholders. It is also referred to in Ezek. 
xxiii. 40. ' for whom hast thou washed thy- 
self, and hast coloured, painted, thine eyes, 
(rather eye-lids), and hast decked thyself 
with ornaments?' Supplement. Addenda to 
Calmefs Diet. ; Parkhursfs Hebrew Lexicon, 
p. 575. octav. edit. 1811. 

EZE'KIEL, ■pNpirv, signifies the strength 
of God, or supported of God, or God is my 
strength. Ezekiel, the son of Buzi, a pro- 
phet of the sacerdotal race, was carried 
captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, 
with Jehoiachin, king of Judah, in the year 
of the world 3405. It does not appear that 
he had prophesied before he came into 
Mesopotamia. He began his ministry in 
the thirtieth year of his age, according to 
the general accounts, or rather in the thir- 
412 



tieth year after the covenant was renewed 
with God in the reign of Josiah, (Ezek. i. 
1.) which answers to the fifth year of 
Ezekiel's captivity, in the year of the 
world 3409. He prophesied twenty years, 
to the year of the world 3430, which 
was the fourteenth after the taking of 
Jerusalem. 

When Ezekiel was among the captives 
on the river Chebar, the Lord appeared to 
him in a vision, on a throne, or kind of 
chariot, borne by four cherubim, supported 
upon four wheels. There appeared to be 
presented to him a roll of a book, which 
he seemed to eat. The Lord directed His 
word to him, appointed him the watchman 
of His people, commanded him to shut him- 
self up in his house, and foretold that he 
should be seized, and bound with chains as 
a madman, which happened accordingly. 
Whilst he was thus confined, God com- 
manded him to delineate on a brick, or 
piece of soft earth, the city of Jerusalem, 
besieged, and surrounded with ramparts ; 
to put a wall of iron between him and the 
city ; and to continue 390 days lying on his 
left side, to denote the iniquity of the king- 
dom of Israel, and 40 days on his right 
side, to denote the iniquities of Judah. The 
vision of the wheels is thought by some to 
be intended to describe the formidableness 
of the Babylonian army, and the dreadful 
effects that would follow to both the people 
that remained in the land, and to the city 
and temple. This opinion is founded on 
what was one principal design of the pro- 
phet's peculiar business to that people, which 
was to remonstrate with them on their great 
national wickedness, and to assure them 
that if they did not repent and obey the 
law of God, he would most certainly pu- 
nish them ; as represented by him, and also 
by Jeremiah his contemporary. The 390 
and 40, or 430 days, denoted the siege of 
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, its dura- 
tion, and the length of the captivity of 
the ten tribes, which was to last 390 years, 
and that of Judah forty years. This 
last period commenced at the sackage of 
Jerusalem, in the reign of Zedekiah, or 
rather, in the fourth year after this siege, 
when Nebuzaradan carried away the re- 
mains of the Jews to Babylon, in the 
year of the world 3420, and ended at the 
death of Belshazzar, about 3466, according 
to Usher. 

Afterwards, God commanded Ezekiel to 
take wheat, barley, beans, lentiles, millet, 
and fitches, and with these to make as many 
loaves as he was to continue days lying on 
his side, and to bake them with human ex- 
crement. Ezekiel expressing his reluctance 
to this, God permitted him to substitute 
cow-dung, signifying by this, that in Jeru- 
salem the Israelites should be reduced, du- 
ring the siege, to the necessity of eating 
unclean bread, in small quantity, and in 



EZE 



EZE 



continual terrors. After this, he was to cut 
off his hair ; to divide it into three parts ; to 
hum one, cut another in pieces with a 
sword, and scatter the rest in the wind ; 
typifying the fate of the inhabitants of Je- 
rusalem. The year following, Ezekiel was 
transported in spirit to Jerusalem, and shown 
by God the abominations and idolatries com- 
mitted by the Jews there. God commanded 
an angel to mark, as a pledge of security, 
the penitents in Jerusalem, and other angels 
to slay those not marked. Five years be- 
fore the last siege of Jerusalem, the Lord 
directed Ezekiel to prepare for escape, as it 
were from enemies, by stealth, in like man- 
ner as Zedekiah should do. 

During these predictions in Mesopotamia, 
Zedekiah, king of Judah, combined with 
Egypt, Edom, and the neighbouring princes, 
to rebel against Nebuchadnezzar, king of 
Babylon, who marched against Jerusalem, 
and besieged it. On the same day, Ezekiel, 
who was in Mesopotamia, two hundred 
leagues from Jerusalem, declared this event 
to the Jews who were his companions in 
captivity, and represented to them the future 
ruin of Jerusalem. At the same time, the 
prophet's wife dying, God forbade him to 
mourn for her. When the people asked the 
prophet what he meant by these figurative 
actions, he answered that God was about to 
deprive them of their temple, city, country, 
and friends, and that they should not have 
even the sad consolation of mourning for 
them. 

From the beginning of the twenty-fifth 
to the end of the thirty- second chapter, the 
prophet foretels the conquest and ruin of 
many nations and cities, which had insulted 
the Jews in their affliction ; of the Ammon- 
ites, the Moabites, the Edomites, and 
Philistines ; of Tyre, of Sidon, and Egypt. 
All these were to be punished by the same 
mighty instrument of God's wrath against 
the wickedness of man. In these prophecies, 
he not only predicts events which were soon 
to take place, but also describes the condi- 
tion of the several countries in the remote 
periods of the world. From the thirty- 
second to the fortieth chapter, Ezekiel in- 
veighs against the accumulated sins of the 
Jews collectively, and the murmuring spirit 
of his captive brethren ; exhorts them earn- 
estly to repent of their hypocrisy and wick- 
edness, on the assurance that God will accept 
sincere repentance ; and comforts them 
with promises of approaching deliverance 
under Cyrus : he subjoins clear intimations 
of some far more glorious, but distant, 
redemption under the Messiah, though the 
manner in which it is to be effected is 
deeply involved in mystery. The last nine 
chapters contain a remarkable vision of 
the structure of a new temple, and a new 
polity, applicable in the first instance to 
the return from the Babylonian captivity, 
but in its ultimate sense referring to the 
413 



glory and prosperity of the universal church 
of Christ. 

It has been observed by Jerome, that 
the visions of Ezekiel are among the tilings 
in Scripture difficult to be understood. 
This obscurity arises, in part at least, from 
the nature and design of the prophecies 
themselves, which were delivered amidst 
the gloom of captivity, and which, though 
calculated to cheer the drooping spirits of 
the Jews, and to keep alive a watchful and 
submissive confidence in the mercy of God, 
yet were intended to communicate only 
such a degree of encouragement, as was 
consistent with a state of punishment, and 
to excite an indistinct expectation of fu- 
ture blessings, on condition of repentance 
and amendment. The last twelve chap- 
ters of this book bear a very striking re- 
semblance to the concluding chapters of 
the Revelation. The writings of this pro- 
phet have been always acknowledged ca- 
nonical ; and it was never disputed that 
he was their author. Yet the Jews say, 
that the sanhedrim deliberated a long time 
whether his book should form a part of the 
canon. They objected to the great obscu- 
rity of his prophecy in the beginning and 
end; and to what he says (xviii. 2 — 20.) 
that the son should not bear the iniquity of 
his father, which is contrary to Moses; 
who says, that the Lord visiteth the sins 
of the fathers on the children to the third 
and fourth generation. But it is observable, 
that Moses himself (Deut. xxiv. 16.) says 
the very same thing as Ezekiel ; and in 
the passage respecting the visiting of the 
iniquities of the father upon the children, 
God may be understood as saying, ' The 
judges may not detect this crime, but I 
will ; or if I forbear from punishing the 
immediate culprit, I will punish his pos- 
terity, if they cojitinue in the same course: 
therefore, as you value your children, be 
sure to avoid idolatry.' 

" The style of Ezekiel is characterized 
by Bishop Lowth, as bold, vehement, and 
tragical ; as often worked up to a kind of 
tremendous dignity. This book is highly 
parabolical, and abounds with figures and 
metaphorical expressions. Ezekiel may be 
compared to the Grecian iEschylus ; he 
displays a rough but majestic dignity; 
an unpolished, though noble simplicity; in- 
ferior perhaps in originality and elegance 
to others of the prophets, but unequalled 
in that force and grandeur for which he is 
particularly celebrated. He sometimes em- 
phatically and indignantly repeats his sen- 
timents, fully dilates his pictures, and do- 
scribes the adulterous manners of his 
countrymen under the strongest and most 
exaggerated representations, that the license 
of the eastern stylo would permit The 
middle part of the book is in some measure 
poetical, and contains c\cn sonio perfect 
elegies, though his thoughts are in general 



EZR 



EZR 



too irregular and uncontrolled to be chained 
down to rule, or fettered by language.' 
Gray's Key to the Old Testament ; Bishop 
Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theol. vol. i. 
p. 114 ; Additions to Calmetfs Diet. ; Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Diet. 2 R. 340. 

EZ'RA, N1W, signifies aid, help ; other- 
wise court. Ezra was of the sacerdotal 
family, and is said by some to have been 
the son of Seraiah the high-priest, whom 
Nebuchadnezzar had put to death at Ribla- 
tha, after the taking of Jerusalem. Others, 
however, think it more probable, that he 
was his grandson, or great grandson. Cai- 
rn et is of opinion, that the first return of 
Ezra from Babylon to Jerusalem was with 
Zerubbabel, in the commencement of Cy- 
rus's reign, about the year of the world 
3468 ; but Dr. Prideaux concludes from 
the beginning of the seventh chapter, that 
he did not return to Jerusalem till the reign 
of Artaxerxes. Ezra wrote the account of 
the return of the Jews, &c. ; and as he was 
very skilful in the law, and zealous for the 
service of God, he had doubtless a great 
share in all the transactions of his time. 

The enemies of the Jews procured from 
the court of Persia an order forbidding 
them to continue the building of the tem- 
ple, which they had resumed after the 
death of Cyrus and Cambyses; but this 
order being revoked in the beginning of 
Darius's reign, the son of Hystaspes, in 
3485, they proceeded and dedicated the 
temple in 3489. In the seventh year of 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, and in the year of 
the world 3537, Ezra was chosen by that 
prince to be chief of those who returned 
from the captivity ; and a full commission 
was given him to settle the church and state 
of the Jews, according to the institutions 
of Moses. Ezra convened a great com- 
pany of Israelites, and set forward for Jeru- 
salem. (Ezra viii.) At the banks of the 
river Ahava, he sent to invite some priests 
and ministers of the temple, who were at 
Casiphia (probably in the Caspian moun- 
tains), to return with him ; and two hun- 
dred and fifty-eight persons came to him. 
He appointed a solemnity to pray to God 
for a prosperous journey, and he gave an 
account of the gold and silver vessels which 
the king had restored. They proceeded on 
their journey, in number one thousand 
seven hundred and seventy-five men, and 
all arrived happily in Judea, in the year of 
the world 3537- 

Ezra was informed, that both priests 
and Levites, magistrates and common 
people, had married wives who were stran- 
gers and idolaters. He, therefore, rent 
his clothes, and having taken his seat in 
the temple, continued in great grief and 
silence till the evening sacrifice, when he 
put up prayers to God for the sins of the 
people. A great multitude being con- 
vened, he engaged by oath the principal 
414 



of the people to renew the covenant with 
the Lord, and to dismiss their strange 
wives with their children, and directed all 
the people to meet at the temple within 
three days for the same purpose, and with 
the same effect. Till the arrival of Nehe- 
miah, Ezra had the principal authority 
in Jerusalem. In the second year of Ne- 
hemiah's government, the people being 
assembled at the temple, at the feast of 
tabernacles, Ezra was desired to read the 
law. He read it from morning to noon, and 
was accompanied by Levites, who stood 
beside him, and kept silence. The next 
day they desired to know of Ezra how they 
were to celebrate the feast of tabernacles. 
This he explained, and continued eight days 
reading the law in the temple. All this 
was followed by a solemn renewal of the 
covenant with the Lord. 

Josephus says, that Ezra was buried at 
Jerusalem ; but the Jews believe that he 
died in Persia, in a second journey to Arta- 
xerxes. His tomb is shown there in the 
city of Zamuza. He is said to have lived 
nearly 120 years. 

Ezra was the restorer and publisher of 
the Holy Scriptures, after the return of 
the Jews from the Babylonish captivity. 
1. He corrected the errors which had crept 
into the existing copies of the sacred wri- 
tings, by the negligence or mistakes of 
transcribers. 2. He collected all the books 
of which the Holy Scriptures then con- 
sisted, disposed them in their proper order, 
and settled the canon of Scripture for his 
time. 3. He added throughout the books 
of his edition what appeared necessary for 
illustrating, connecting, or completing them ; 
and of this we have an instance in the 
account of the death and burial of Moses, 
in the last chapter of Deuteronomy. In 
this work he was assisted by the same 
Spirit, by which they were at first writ- 
ten. 4. He changed the ancient names 
of several places become obsolete, and 
substituted for them new names, by which 
they were at that time called. 5. He 
wrote out the whole in the Chaldee cha- 
racter ; that language having grown into 
use after the Babylonish captivity. 6. 
Whether he added the vowel points is 
more difficult to determine ; but it would 
seem that the vowel points, as well as 
the Massora, were much later than Christ- 
ianity, and consequently, than Ezra. 

The book of Ezra and that of Nehemiah 
were formerly reckoned by the Hebrews 
only as one. No doubt exists that Ezra 
was the author of the first of them. Some, 
however, ascribe the first six chapters to a 
more ancient author, because from chapter 
v. 4. it would seem that the writer of them 
was at Jerusalem in the time of Darius 
Hystaspes, and Ezra did not go thither 
till the reign of Artaxerxes, as appears 
from the beginning of the seventh chapter. 



EZR 



EZR 



But this difficulty is thought to be removed, 
by supposing that the writer, when he 
says, (Ezra v. 4.) 'Then said we unto 
them in this manner,' does not speak in 
his own person, but in the name of the 
Jews. The book of Ezra begins with the 
repetition of the last two verses of the se- 
cond book of Chronicles, and carries the 
Jewish history through a period of 79 years, 
commencing from the edict of Cyrus. The 
first six chapters contain an account of the 
return of the Jews under Zerubbabel, after 
the captivity of 70 years ; of their esta- 
blishment in Judea ; and of the building 
and dedication of the temple at Jerusalem. 
The last four chapters relate Ezra's ap- 
pointment to the government of Judea, by 
Artaxerxes Longimanus ; the disobedience 
of the Jews, and the reform which Ezra 
immediately effected among them. Be- 
tween the dedication of the temple and the 



departure of Ezra, that is, between the Cth 
and 7th chapters of this book, was an in- 
terval of about 58 years, during which no- 
thing is here related concerning the Jews, 
except that, contrary to God's command, 
they intermarried with Gentiles. This 
book, from the 8th verse of the 4th chap- 
ter to the 27th verse of the 7th chapter, is 
written in Chaldee. It is probable that the 
sacred historian used the Chaldaic lan- 
guage in this part of his work, because it 
contains chiefly letters and decrees written 
in that language, the original words of which 
he might think it right to record. Indeed, 
the people who were recently returned from 
the Babylonian captivity, were at least as 
familiar with the Chaldee as with the 
Hebrew tongue. Bishop Tomlines Elem. 
of Christ. Theol. vol. i. p. 90; Prideaux's 
Connection. 



F. 



F 



FAI 



AITH, a dependence on the truth of 
another, or an assent to the veracity of 
the speaker. Hence Divine Faith is a firm 
assent of the mind to what is revealed in 
the Holy Scriptures on the authority of 
God. Faith is generally distinguished by 
divines into four kinds ; historical, tempo- 
rary, the faith of miracles, and justifying or 
saving faith. 

1. Historical faith is a speculative know- 
ledge of, and a bare assent to, the truths 
revealed in Scripture. Of this kind of 
faith the apostle James (ii. 17, 24.) speaks : 
1 Faith, if it have not works, is dead. You 
see how that by works a man is justified, 
and not by faith only ;' that is, not by a 
mere profession of taith, or a bare assent 
to the truth, without good works, which 
proceed from faith. This kind of faith the 
devils themselves possess (James ii. 19.) : 
' Thou believest that there is one God : the 
devils also believe and tremble.' They are 
fully persuaded that there is a God, and 
that Christ is the Son of God, and shall be 
their Judge. (Matt. viii. 29.) 

2. Temporary faith, together with an 
assent to revealed truths, produces an ap- 
probation and joy in receiving these truths; 
but as the joy thus produced arises from 
some carnal consideration, this faith soon 
vanishes and is lost. Of this kind of faith 
our Saviour speaks in the parable of the 
sower (Matt. xii. 20.) : ' He that received 

415 



FAI 

the seed into stony places, receives it with 
joy ;' having heard the message of pardon, 
life, and glory, which the word of the 
Gospel brings, he immediately receives it 
with a transport of gladness, and feels his 
natural passions elevated and enlarged. 
1 Yet hath he not root in himself, but 
dureth for a while :' he has no root of 
deep conviction and real love to holiness, 
but wants solid affections, firm and fixed 
resolutions, and habitual dispositions of 
grace. 

3. The faith of miracles is a firm assent 
of the mind to some particular promise 
concerning any miraculous work, which, 
if performed by us, is called an active 
miraculous faith. (Matt. xvii. 20. 1 Cor. 
xiii. 2.) But if it be performed on us, it 
is called a passive miraculous faith : thus 
the lame man at Lystra had a firm persua- 
sion that Paul and Barnabas were able to 
cure him. (Acts xiv. 9.) The faith of 
miracles obtained chiefly in the time oi 
Christ and his apostles. 

4. Justifying faith is a saving grace 
wrought in the soul by the Spirit of God, 
by which we receive Christ as our pro- 
phet, priest, and king, and rely upon 
Him and His righteousness alone for justi- 
fication and salvation, and which besets 
in us a sincere obedience in our lives 
and conversation. The apostle to the 
Hebrews (xi. 1.) calls faith, 'the sub- 



FAL 

stance of things hoped for, the evidence 
of things not seen.' It assures us of the 
reality and value of eternal and invisible 
things, and produces a confident hope and 
satisfaction of soul that God will infalli- 
bly perform what He has promised. By 
tbe faith, which in the Gospel is said 
to justify and to save, we are to understand 
that lively faith which worketh by love, 
which purifieth the heart, which keepeth 
the commandments of God. The object 
of faith is the word of God in general, 
and especially the doctrines and promises 
which respect the salvation of man, through 
Christ. The foundation of faith is the 
essential Supreme perfections of God, His 
unerring knowledge, immutable truth, in- 
finite goodness, and almighty power. Faith 
has a prevailing influence on the will, 
and is productive of good works. But 
though by these acts of obedience we 
demonstrate that we truly and firmly be- 
lieve the Divine authority of Christ and His 
doctrines, yet this faith is not so meritori- 
ous in its own nature, as to entitle us to 
the reward of eternal life ; it justifies us 
only by being the condition upon which 
it has pleased our Almighty Father to 
offer us salvation. We are not to attribute 
our justification to the inherent efficacy of 
faith, but to the mercy of God, and the 
merits of Christ, from which alone that 
efficacy is derived. ' By grace we are 
saved through faith.' This was the doc- 
trine of the early Christians. Clement of 
Rome, after speaking of the Jews, says, 
' And we also, being called by the same 
will in Christ Jesus, are not justified by 
ourselves, neither by our own wisdom, or 
knowledge, or piety, or the works which 
we have done in the holiness of our 
hearts, but by that faith by which God 
Almighty has justified all men from the be- 
ginning.' Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. 
Theol. vol. ii. p. 259. Sherlock's Discourses, 
Discourse xiv. 

FALL of MAN. When God placed 
Adam in the garden of Eden, He said to 
him, ' Of every tree of the garden thou 
mayest freely eat; but of the tree of the 
knowledge of good and evil thou shalt 
not eat of it, for in the day that thou eatest 
thereof thou shalt surely die.' (Gen. ii. 
16, 17.) These words 'Thou shalt surely 
die,' must mean, that from that time 
Adam should become subject to death, 
since it is certain that he did not actually 
die on the day on which he ate the forbid- 
den fruit. Hence we conclude, that if 
Adam had not have eaten the forbidden 
fruit, he would not have died ; and there- 
fore Adam became subject to death in con- 
sequence of his disobedience. The Scrip- 
ture farther teaches us, that the sin of 
Adam not only rendered him liable to 
death, but that it also changed the upright 
nature, in which he was originally formed, 
416 



FAL 



kedness; and 
rid propensity 



into one that was prone to wickedness ; 
that this liability to death, and propensity 
to sin, were entailed from him upon the 
whole race of mankind. ' By one man sin 
entered into the world, and death by sin ; 
and so death passed upon all men, for 
that all have sinned.' (Rom. v. 12.) 'As 
by the offence of one, judgment came 
upon all men to condemnation, even 
so by the righteousness of one, the free- 
gift came upon all men to justification of 



life.' (Rom. v. 18.) ' In Adam all die.' (1 
Cor. xv. 22.) Hence it appears that 
Adam, who was at first ' made upright, 



and in the image of God,' fell by his 
transgression of the command of God, 
from a state of innocence, purity, and 
happiness ; became subject to death, sin, 
and misery; and transmitted his nature 
thus corrupted to all his posterity. On 
this universal depravity of mankind, and 
consequent liability to punishment, is 
founded the necessity of a Redeemer, 
whose merits and mediation might atone 
for those sins which are common, in a 
greater or less degree, to every descend- 
dant of Adam. All those expressions of the 
New Testament, which assert that every 
one, before he can be entitled to the bene- 
fits of the Gospel dispensation, must be 
* born again,' must become ' a new crea- 
ture,' and ' put on the new man,' imply a 
corruption of his present nature, and 
plainly prove, that a great change must have 
taken place since God ' created man in his 
own image, and saw every thing that he had 
made, and behold it was very good.' 

The general corruption of human na- 
ture, in consequence of Adam's disobe- 
dience, was acknowledged by the ancient 
fathers of the Christian church. The doc- 
trine of Augustine and his followers, with 
respect to this subject, is thus stated and 
supported by Bishop Burnet : ' They 
believe that a covenant was made with 
all mankind in Adam as their first parent; 
that he was a person constituted by God 
to represent them all ; and that the cove- 
nant was made with him, so that if he had 
obeyed, all his posterity should have been 
happy through his obedience ; but by his 
disobedience they were all to be esteemed 
to have sinned in him, his act being im- 
puted and transferred to them all. This 
opinion seems to have great foundation in 
that large discourse of St. Paul's, where, 
in the fifth of the Romans, he compares 
the blessings we receive by the death of 
Christ with the guilt and misery that was 
brought upon us by the sin of Adam. 
Now it is confessed, that by Christ we 
have both an imputation or communication 
of the merits of His death, and likewise a 
purity and holiness of nature conveyed to 
us by His doctrine and Spirit. In opposition 
then to this, if the comparison is to be 
closely pursued, there must be an im- 



FAL 



FAL 



putation of sin, as well as a corrup- 
tion of nature, transferred to us from Adam. 
This is the more considerable as to the 
point of imputation, because the chief 
design of St. Paul's discourse seems to 
be levelled at that, since it is begun upon 
the head of reconciliation and atonement ; 
upon which it follows, that ' as by one 
man sin entered into the world, and death 
by sin, and death passed upon all men, 
for that (or as others render it, in whom) 
all have sinned.' (Rom. v. 12.) Now they 
think it is all one to the point, whe- 
ther it be rendered ' for that,' or ' in 
whom ;' for though the latter words seem 
to deliver their opinion more precisely, 
yet it being affirmed that, according to the 
other rendering, all who die have sinned, 
and it being certain that many infants 
die who have never actually sinned, 
these must have sinned in Adam ; they 
could sin no other way. It is afterwards 
said by St. Paul, that by the offence of 
one many were dead ; that the judgment 
was by one to condemnation ; that by one 
man's offence death reigned by one ; 
that by the offence of one, judgment came 
upon all men to condemnation ; and that 
by one man's disobedience many were 
made sinners. As these words are posi- 
tive and of great importance in them- 
selves, so all this is much the stronger by 
the opposition in which every one of them 
is put to the effects and benefits of Christ's 
death, particularly to our justification 
through him, in which there is an impu- 
tation of the merits and effects of His 
death, that are thereby transferred to us ; 
so that the whole effect of this discourse is 
taken away, if the imputation of Adam's sin 
is denied.' 

But many, who acknowledge original 
guilt, do not accede to this opinion of 
Augustine, concerning the sin derived from 
Adam. These men think it incompatible 
with the justice and goodness of God to 
make the whole race of men liable to 
punishment for the sin of Adam, in which 
they had no concern ; and the case which 
appears the most repugnant to the divine 
attributes, is that of infants and idiots, 
which being incapable of sinning, ought 
not to be subject to punishment. They 
admit that a mortal and corrupt nature 
is derived from Adam to all his descen- 
dants ; that this corruption is so strong that 
do man ever lived to the age of maturity 
without sin; and consequently that every 
such person is liable to divine punishment 
for the sins he has himself actually com- 
mitted, but not for Adam's sins. They 
therefore think that infants and idiots die, 
because of Adam's sin, but that no far- 
ther punishment awaits them. They are 
of opinion, that our being thus adjudged 
to death, and to all the miseries which 
"ipanv mortality, may ho well called 
417 ' 



God'3 wrath and damnation, as temporary 
punishments are frequently so denominated 
in Scripture. 

It must be acknowledged that origi- 
nal guilt, considered in this point of 
view, is a difficult and abstruse sub- 
ject. As the Scriptures do not inform 
us what were the full and precise effects 
of Adam's disobedience upon his posterity, 
it is perhaps scarcely to be expected that 
an uniformity of opinion should prevail 
upon that point It may, however, be 
observed, that the difference between 
those who confine original guilt to a mere 
liability to death and sin, and those who 
extend it to a liability to punishment also, 
is not very material, since both of them 
admit that Christ died as a propitiation for 
all the sins of the whole world, whatever 
were the nature and character of those 
sins. In either case, the effects of Christ's 
obedience are commensurate with those of 
Adam's disobedience ; and upon either prin- 
ciple, if we believe the Gospel, and act con- 
formably to its precepts, all our sins, 
whether original in Adam, or actual in 
ourselves, will be forgiven, and we shall 
be eternally happy. They who consider 
the sin of Adam as imputed to all his 
descendants, believe that sin will be re- 
mitted for the sake, and through the me- 
diation, of Jesus Christ. They contend 
that it is as consonant to perfect justice to 
impute the sin of Adam, as to impute the 
merits of Christ, to all mankind; and that 
the divine goodness is fully vindicated by 
the assurance, that God had pre-ordained 
the redemption of man by Jesus Christ, 
when he punished the disobedience of 
Adam upon his posterity. In Scripture 
occur many passages, which, from the 
context, appear to refer solely to the re- 
demption of mankind from the guilt and 
penalty of sin, which Adam entailed upon 
the human race. In this sense, ' the 
Lamb slain from the foundation of the 
world,' was ' the Redeemer of the whole 
world ;' He delivered all mankind, without 
any exception, from the power of sin and 
death, to which they are by nature subject, 
and rendered them capable of eternal 
happiness, yet at the same time at liberty, 
as responsible beings, to forfeit or secure 
that title to immortality, which He pur- 
chased by His blood. Thus the case of in- 
fants and idiots, which are incapable 
of actual sins of individual guilt, is 
clearly consistent with the justice ami 
goodness of God, though considered as by 
nature liable to punishment. Thus ' the 
Gentiles who are without the law' of 
Moses, or of Christ, and cannot he saved 
by faith (' tor how shall they believe if 
they have not heard?') partake v\' ' tin- 
salvation which is by Christ.' Thus the 

world collectively is ' made free from 
sin' free from the punishment <>r orij 

r • 



FAM 



FAT 



sin — • being justified freely by grace.' 
While individually ' all men are sin- 
ners,' remain in a corrupted state of na- 
ture, subject to diseases and death, and the 
miseries of this world, and liable to future 
condemnation; for ' there is no man 
living that sinneth not,' does not commit 
actual sins. Bishop Burnet on the Articles ; 
Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theol. vol. 
ii. p. 231, &c. ; Locke's Reasonableness of 
Christianity, in Bishop Watson's Theol. Tracts, 
vol. iv. pp. 1, 2, &c. 

FAMINE. The Scripture records se- 
veral famines in Palestine, and the neigh- 
bouring countries ; in the time of Abraham, 
(Gen. xii. 10.) ; and in that of Isaac, (xxvi. 
1.) The most remarkable famine is that of 
seven years in Egypt, whilst Joseph was in 
that country. It was considerable for con- 
tinuance, extent, and severity, particularly 
as Egypt is one of the countries least sub- 
ject to such a calamity, by reason of its 
general fruitfulness. It has been observed 
on the famine in the time of Ahab, that 
by the threat there should be no dew nor 
rain, is not meant there should not be a 
single drop of rain during three years, but 
only that the dew and rain should not be in 
their usual and necessary quantities. 

Famine is sometimes a natural effect, as 
when the Nile does not overflow in Egypt, 
or rains do not fall in Judea, at the cus- 
tomary times, spring and autumn ; or when 
the caterpillars or locusts swarm and 
destroy the fruits. The prophets notice these 
last causes of famine ; and Joel compares 
locusts to a numerous and terrible army ra- 
vaging the land. (Joel i. 2, 3, 4, &c.) 

Famine was also an effect of God's 
anger. ' The Lord called for a famine, 
and it came upon the land for seven years.' 
(2 Kings viii. 1, 2.) Amos (viii. 11.) 
threatens another sort of famine, that of 
hearing the word of God. Harmer's Obser- 
vations, vol. i. p. 87, edit. 1808. 

FASTING. Fasting has been practised 
in all ages, and among all nations, in times 
of mourning, sorrow, and affliction. We 
see no example of fasting, properly so 
called, before Moses. Since the time of 
Moses, examples of fasting have been very 
common among the Jews. Joshua and 
the elders of Israel remained prostrate 
before the ark from morning till evening, 
without eating, after Israel was defeated 
at Ai. (Josh. vii. 6.) The eleven tribes 
which fought against that of Benjamin, 
fell down before the ark on their faces, 
and so continued till evening without 
eating. (Judg. xx. 26.) David fasted 
while the first child he had by Bathsheba 
was sick. (2 Sam. xii. 16.) The Heathens 
sometimes fasted : the king of Nineveh, 
terrified by Jonah's preaching, ordered 
that not only men, but also beasts, should 
continue without eating or drinking ; 
should be covered with sackcloth, and 
418 



each after their manner should cry to the 
Lord. (Jonah iii.5, 6, 7-) The Jews, in times 
of public calamity, appointed extraordi- 
nary fasts, and made even the children at 
the breast fast. (Joelii. 16.) 

Moses fasted forty days upon Mount 
Horeb. (Exod. xxiv. 18.) Elijah passed 
as many days without eating. (1 Kings xix. 
8.) Our Saviour fasted forty days and 
forty nights in the wilderness. (Matt. iv. 
2.) These fasts were miraculous, and out oi 
the common rules of nature. 

Besides the solemn fast of expiation in- 
stituted by divine authority, the Jews ap- 
pointed certain days of humiliation, called 
the fasts of the congregation. The calamities 
for which these were enjoined, were a 
siege, pestilence, diseases, famine, &c. 
They were observed on the second and 
fifth days of the week ; they began at sun- 
set, and continued till midnight of the 
following day. On these days, they wore 
sackcloth next the skin, and rent their 
clothes ; they sprinkled ashes upon their 
heads, and neither washed their hands, 
nor anointed their bodies with oil. The 
synagogues were filled with suppliants, 
whose prayers were long and mournful, and 
their countenances dejected, with all the 
marks of sorrow and repentance. 

As to the fasts observed by Christians, 
it does not appear by His own practice or 
by His commands to His disciples, that our 
Lord instituted any particular fast. But 
when the Pharisees reproached Him, that 
His disciples did not fast so often as their's, 
or as John the Baptist's, He replied, ' Can 
ye make the children of the bride-chamber 
fast, while the bridegroom is with them 1 
But the days will come, when the bride- 
groom shall be taken away from them, 
and then shall they fast in those days.' 
(Luke v. 34, 35.) Fasting is also re- 
commended by our Saviour, in His ser- 
mon on the mount, not as a stated, 
but an occasional duty of Christians, for 
the purpose of humbling their minds 
under the afflicting hand of God; and 
He requires that this duty be performed 
in sincerity, and not for the sake of osten- 
tation. (Matt. vi. 16.) 

FAT. God forbade the Hebrews to eat 
the fat of beasts: (Lev. iii. 17-) 'All the 
fat is the Lord's. It shall be a perpetual 
statute for your generations, throughout 
all your dwellings, that ye eat neither fat 
nor blood.' Some interpreters understand 
these words literally, and suppose fat as 
well as blood to be forbidden. Josephus 
says, Moses forbids only the fat of oxen, 
goats, sheep, and their species. This 
agrees with Levit. vii. 23 ; ' Ye shall eat 
no manner of fat, of ox, or of sheep, 
or of goat' This is observed by the mo- 
dern Jews, who think that the fat of other 
sorts of clean creatures is allowed them, 
even that of beasts which have died of 



FAT 



FAT 



themselves, conformably to Levit. vii. 24 : 
1 And the fat of the beast that dieth of 
itself, and the fat of that which is torn with 
beasts, may be used in any other use : but 
ye shall in no wise eat of it.' Others main- 
tain, that the law which forbids the use of 
fat, should be restrained to fat separated 
from the flesh, such as that which covers the 
kidneys and intestines ; and this only in 
the case of its being offered in sacrifice. 
This is confirmed by Levit. vii. 25 : ' Who- 
soever eateth of the fat of the beast of 
which men offer an offering made by 
fire unto the Lord, even the soul that 
eateth it shall be cut off from his 
people.' 

In the Hebrew style, fat signifies not 
only that of beasts, but also the richer or 
first part of other things. ' He should 
have fed them with the finest (in Heb. 
the fat) of the wheat' Fat is sometimes 
used for the source of compassion or 
mercy. As the bowels are stirred at the 
recital of misfortune, or at the view of 
melancholy and afflicted objects, it has 
been thought that sensibility resided prin- 
cipally in the bowels, which are commonly 
fat. The Psalmist upbraids the wicked 
with being inclosed in their fat, having 
shut up their bowels against him, and feel- 
ing no compassion at the sight of his ex- 
treme grief: ' Mine enemies compass me 
about ; they are inclosed in their own fat' 
(Ps. xvii. 10.) Fat denotes abundance of 
good things : ' I will satiate the souls of 
the priests with fatness.' (Jer. xxxi. 14.) 
' My soul shall be satisfied with marrow 
and fatness.' (Ps. lxiii. 5.) The fat of the 
earth implies its fruitfulness : ' God give 
thee of the dew of heaven, and the fatness 
of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine.' 
(Gen. xxvii. 28.) 

FATHER. This word, besides the com- 
mon acceptation of it for immediate father, 
is used in Scripture for grandfather, great 
grandfather, or the author and first father 
of a family, how remote soever. Thus, the 
Jews in our Saviour's time, and their de- 
scendants of the present generation, call 
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, their fathers. 
Jesus Christ is called the son of David, 
though David was distant from Him many 
generations. — By father is also understood 
the institutor, the original praetiser, or 
master of a certain profession : Jabal was 
the father of such as dwell in tents, and 
such as have cattle ; Tubal was the father of 
all such as handle the harp or organ. (Gen. 
iv. 20, 21, 22.) Huram is called father of 
the king of Tyre, (2 Chron. ii. 13.) and 
even of Solomon, (2 Chron. iv. 16.) because 
he was the principal workman, and chief 
director of their undertakings. The prin- 
cipal of the prophets were considered as 
fathers of the younger, who were their 
disciples, and who are called sons of the 
prophets, and styled the eldest fathers. 
419 



' My father, my father, the chariot of 
Israel, and the horsemen thereof.' (2 Kings 
ii. 12.) — Father is a term of respect given 
by inferiors to superiors, and by servants 
to their masters : ' My father,' said Naa- 
man's servants to him, ' if the prophet 
had bid thee do some great thing.' — (2 Kings 
v. 13.) The king of Israel addresses the 
prophet Elisha in like manner : ' My father, 
shall I smite them ?' (2 Kings vi. 21.) 
A man is said to be a father to the poor 
and orphans, when he supplies their neces- 
sities, and is affected with their miseries : 
' I was a father to the poor,' says Job. (xxix. 
16.) God declares Himself to be a father 
of the fatherless, and a judge of the widow. 
(Ps. Ixviii. 5.) — God is frequently called 
heavenly father, and simply father. He 
is eminently the father, creator, preserver, 
and protector, of all, especially of those 
who invoke Him, and serve Him. ' Is he 
not thy father that hath bought thee.' 
(Deut. xxxii. 6.) Through Christ, who 
has merited adoption and filiation for His 
people, every believer has a right to 
call God father. (Rom. viii. 15, 16.) Job 
entitles God ' the father of rain,' who 
produces it, and causes it to fall. He ob- 
serves, ' I have said to corruption, thou art 
my father ;' that is, in the condition to 
which I am reduced, and that to which I 
expect to be reduced in the grave, I con- 
sider worms and putrefaction as my near 
kin. — Joseph says, that God had made 
him a father to Pharaoh, had given him 
great authority in that prince's kingdom, 
and that Pharaoh looked upon him as his 
father, and had bestowed upon him the 
government of his house and dominions. — 
The devil is denoted as the father of the 
wicked : ' Ye are of your father the devil.' 
(John viii. 44.) Ye would imitate the 
deeds of your father, says Christ to the 
Jews ; he was a murderer from the begin- 
ning, and ye seek my death. He is a liar, 
and the father of it : he deceived Eve and 
Adam ; he introduced sin and falsehood 
into the world ; he inspires his followers 
with his spirit and sentiment. — ' To be 
gathered unto their fathers,' to ' sleep with 
their fathers,' are common expressions 
signifying death. — God is called ' the Fa- 
ther of spirits.' (Heb. xii. 9.) Our natu- 
ral fathers are fathers of our bodies only, 
but God is the Father of our spirits ; He 
not only creates them, but He justifies 
them also, and glorifies them. Christ 
(Matt, xxiii. 9.) forbids us to call any 
man father, because we have one in hea- 
ven. Not that we should abandon, or 
despise, our earthly fathers, for God re- 
quires us to honour them ; but when the 
glory of God is at stake, or our salva- 
tion, if our fathers and our mothers are 
obstacles, we should say to them, ' We 
know you not' 

Fathers is also a term applied to nn- 
e e2 



FEA 



FEA 



cient authors in the Christian Church. St. 
Chrysostom, St. Basil, &c. are called Greek 
fathers ; and St. Augustine, St. Ambrose, 
&c. Latin fathers. No author who wrote 
later than the twelfth century is dignified 
with the title of father. Learned men are 
not unanimous concerning the degree of 
esteem which is due to these ancient fathers. 
Some represent them as the most excellent 
guides in the paths of piety and morality ; 
whilst others place them in the very low- 
est rank of moral writers, consider them 
as the very worst of all instructors, and 
treat their precepts and decisions as per- 
fectly insipid, and, in many respects, per- 
nicious. It appears, however, incontes- 
table, that in the writings of the primitive 
fathers are many sublime sentiments, ju- 
dicious thoughts, and several things natu- 
rally adapted to form a religious temper, 
and to excite pious and virtuous affec- 
tions. At the same time, it must be con- 
fessed that, on the other hand, they 
abound still more with precepts of an ex- 
cessive and unreasonable austerity, with 
stoical and academical dictates, with vague 
and indeterminate notions, and, what is 
still worse, with decisions absolutely false, 
and in evident opposition to the com- 
mands of Christ. Though the judgment 
of antiquity in some disputable points 
may certainly be useful, yet we ought 
never to consider the writings of the 
fathers as of equal authority with the 
Scriptures. In many cases they may be 
deemed competent witnesses, but we must 
not confide in their verdict as judges. 
Mosheim'sEccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 155; Buck's 
Theol. Diet. vol. i. p. 289. 

FEAR, is sometimes used for the object 
of fear, as 'the fear of Isaac,' that is, 
the God whom Isaac feared. (Gen. xxxi. 
42.) God says, that He will send His fear 
before His people, to terrify and destroy 
the inhabitants of Canaan. (Job vi. 4.) 
speaks of the terrors of God, as set in 
array against him ; the Psalmist (xxxviii. 
15.) that he had suffered the terrors of the 
Lord, with a troubled mind. 

Fear of God is such an awe and vene- 
ration for the Supreme Being, as renders 
a man religiously careful not to offend 
Him, but to endeavour to please Him in all 
his actions ; to cultivate such a temper 
and disposition of soul as are agreeable 
to the divine nature. ,This principle ex- 
cites a man to perform the duties of a 
dependent creature, and renders him un- 
wearied in his endeavours to keep a con- 
science void of offence towards that in- 
finite Being on whom he and all others 
depend. To fear God is generally the 
character of good men in Holy Writ, and 
implies every divine virtue and moral 
excellence of which a human being is 
capable in a state of weakness and imper- 
fection. When the inspired penmen say 
420 



of a man, that he has no fear of God in 
him, they give, in that single expres- 
sion, the character of a wicked and aban- 
doned person, of one who regards no re- 
straints beyond temporary rewards and 
punishments. 

The fear of God is founded in a due 
consideration of His attributes and moral 
perfections ; particularly, His omnipresence, 
omniscience, justice, power, and eternity. 
When a man reflects on the idea we have of 
the Divine Being, it will unavoidably make 
a deep impression on his mind ; and if he 
suffer this reflection to have its proper 
influence, he will become afraid to ofiend 
God, and desirous of recommending him- 
self to the Divine favour by always endea- 
vouring to improve in those graces which 
are ornaments to human nature, and which 
will dispose him for the enjoyment of spi- 
ritual and intellectual pleasures in a future 
and an eternal state. How solicitous will 
he be, how diligent and careful to avoid 
those passions which tarnish the native 
brightness of the mind, and darken the 
understanding with respect to spiritual 
things ! How industrious in the search 
of divine wisdom ! How desirous of at- 
taining to a higher degree in the spiritual 
life ! If we fear God, and desire to be 
like Him, may we not humbly hope, that 
the Almighty will vouchsafe to enlighten 
our minds, pour down a blessing on all our 
pious endeavours, and in due time finish 
the work which He has begun in us ? 

A profound veneration for the omni- 
potent and eternal God, annihilates the 
evils and calamities of this transitory life. 
Religious fear entitles a man to the care 
and protection of divine providence. The 
Governor of the universe is kind to all ; 
but they who fear Him are the objects of 
His peculiar favour, and enjoy blessings 
in which the wicked have no share. The 
Psalmist frequently speaks with rapture 
of the care which the Almighty takes 
of His servants. He calls God his shield, 
his buckler, his fortress ; and he expresses 
himself on this subject in such a variety of 
terms, as afford a striking idea of the divine 
protection. He says, that God plants 
guards of angels about those who fear Him, 
and secures them under the shadow of His 
wings ; so that they need not be afraid of 
the ' terror by night, nor the arrow that 
flieth by day, the pestilence that walketh 
in darkness, nor the destruction that wast- 
eth at noon-day.' The fear of man is 
a loose principle, and will be effectual 
only where there is danger of discovery 
and punishment ; but the fear of God is 
obligatory at all times, and causes a man 
to act as honestly when no one hears or 
sees him, as if the eyes of the whole world 
were fixed on him. A constant and 
habitual reverence for the presence of 
God observes no distinction of places, 



FEA 



FEA 



because God is every where present. ' O 
Abner,' said Joab, ' I fear my God, and 
I fear none but him.' Richardson's Divine 
and Moral Essays, Essay iii. p. 33, &c. edit. 
17«0. 

FEASTS. God appointed several fes- 
tivals among the Jews for many reasons. 

1. To perpetuate the memory of the great 
events and wonders which He had wrought 
in favour of this people : so, the Sabbath 
commemorated the creation of the world ; 
the Passover, the departure out of Egypt ; 
the Pentecost, the law given at Sinai, &c. 

2. To keep them firm to their religion, 
by the view of ceremonies, and the majesty 
of divine service. 3. To procure them 
certain pleasures, and allowable times of 
rest ; for their festivals were accompanied 
with rejoicings, feasts, and innocent diver- 
sions. 4. To give them instruction ; for 
in their religious assemblies, the law of 
God was read and explained. 5. To re- 
new the acquaintance, correspondence, 
and friendship of their tribes and families 
coming from the several towns in the coun- 
try, and meeting three times a year in the 
holy city. 

The first and most ancient of feasts, 
the Sabbath, or seventh day, commemo- 
rated the creation : ' The Lord (Gen. ii. 
3.) blessed the seventh day, and sanctified 
it,' says Moses, ' because that in it he 
had rested from all his work.' Some of 
the ancient fathers and Rabbins were of 
opinion, that the Sabbath had been ob- 
served from the beginning of the world. 
But the general opinion is, that people 
did not cease from labour on that day, 
till after the command of God to the Israel- 
ites, after their coming out of Egypt, when 
they were encamped at Marah. See Sab- 
bath. 

The Sabbatical Year, which returned 
every seven years, and was set apart for 
rest; and the Jubilee Year, at the end of 
seven times seven years, or the forty-ninth 
year, were sorts of feasts, too, and may be 
considered as consequences of the Sabbath. 

The Passover was instituted in memory 
of the Israelites' departure out of Egypt, 
and of the favour which God showed His 
people in sparing their first-born, when he 
killed the first-born of the Egyptians. 
(Exod. xii. 14. etseq.) See Passover. 

The feast of Pentecost was celebrated 
on the fiftieth day after the Passover, in 
memory of the law being given to Moses 
on Mount Sinai, fifty days after the depar- 
ture out of Egypt. They reckoned seven 
weeks from the Passover to Pentecost, 
beginning at the day after the Passover. 
The Hebrews call it the feast of Weeks, and 
the Christians Pentecost, which signifies 
the fiftieth day. 

The feast of Trumpets was celebrated 
on the first day of the civil year ; on 
which the trumpets sounded, proclaiming 
421 



the beginning of the year, which was in 
the month Tisri, answering to our Sep- 
tember, O. S. It was a civil feast, rather 
than a sacred solemnity. We know no 
religious cause of its establishment. Moses 
commands it to be observed as a day of 
rest, and that particular sacrifices should 
be offered at that time. 

The New Moons, or first days of every 
month, were in some sort a consequence 
of the feast of Trumpets. The law did 
not oblige people to rest upon this day, but 
ordained only some particular sacrifices. 
It appears that on these days also, the 
trumpet was sounded, and entertainments 
were made. (1 Sam. xx. 5, 18.) 

The feast of Expiation or Atonement 
was celebrated on the tenth day of Tisri, 
which was the first month of the civil year. 
It was instituted for a general expiation 
of sins, irreverences, and pollutions of all 
the Israelites, from the high-priest to the 
lowest of the people, committed by them 
throughout the year. (Levit. xxiii. 27, 28. 
Num. xxix. 7-) See Expiation. 

The feast of Tents, or Tabernacles, on 
which all Israel were obliged to attend 
the temple, and to dwell eight days under 
tents of leaves, in memory of their fathers 
dwelling forty years in tents, as travellers 
in the wilderness. It was kept on the 
fifteenth of the month Tisri, the first 
of the civil year. The first and seventh 
days of this feast were very solemn. But 
during the other days of the octave they 
might work. (Levit. xxiii. 34, 35. Numb, 
xxix. 12, 13.) At the beginning of the 
feast, two vessels of silver were carried 
in a ceremonious manner to the temple, 
one full of water, the other of wine, which 
were poured at the foot of the altar of burnt 
offerings, always on the seventh day of this 
festival. 

Of the three great feasts of the year, 
the Passover, Pentecost, and that of Taber- 
nacles, the octave, or seventh day after 
these feasts, was a day of rest as much 
as the festival itself; and all the males of 
the nation were obliged to visit the temple 
at these three feasts. But the law did 
not require them to continue there during 
the whole octave, except in the feast of 
Tabernacles, when they seem obliged to 
be present for the whole seven days. 

Besides these feasts, we find the feast 
of Lots, or Purim, instituted on occasion 
of the deliverance of the Jews from Ha- 
man's plot, in the reign of Ahasuerus. See 
Purim. 

The feast of the Dedication of the Tem- 
ple, or rather of the restoration of the 
temple, which had been profaned by An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, (1 Mace. iv. 52, &c) 
was celebrated in winter, and is supposed 
to be the feast of dedication mentioned in 
St. John's Gospel, (x. 22.) Josephna says, 
that it was called the feast of Lights, pro- 



FEA 



FIG 



bably, because this happiness befel them 
when least expected, and they considered 
it as a new light risen on them. 

In the Christian Church, no festival ap- 
pears clearly to have been instituted by 
Jesus Christ, or his Apostles. Yet as we 
commemorate the passion of Christ as 
often as we celebrate his Supper, he seems 
by this to have instituted a perpetual 
feast. Christians have always celebrated 
the memory of his resurrection, and ob- 
serve this feast on every Sunday, which 
was commonly called the Lord's day. (Rev. 
i. 10.) 

The birth-day of Christ, commonly cal- 
led Christmas- day, has been always observed 
by his disciples with gratitude and joy. 
His birth was the greatest blessing ever 
bestowed on mankind. The angels from 
heaven celebrated it with a joyful hymn ; 
and every man, who has any feeling of his 
own lost state without a Redeemer, must 
rejoice and be glad in it. ' Unto us a 
child is born, unto us a son is given ; and 
his name shall be called Wonderful, Coun- 
sellor, the Mighty God, the Everlasting 
Father, the Prince of Peace.' (Isai. ix. 6.) 

The forty days of Lent are appointed as 
a time of repentance and recollection, in 
order to prepare the Christian for the pro- 
per observance of the great festival of 
Easter. It appears from the primitive fa- 
thers of the church, that the observance 
of Lent has been most ancient ; and this 
season has been always considered as a 
time of self-examination and penitence. 
On the first day of Lent, which we call 
Ash Wednesday, our Church has appointed 
a very solemn and awful service. 

At the end of the holy season of Lent is 
the day on which we commemorate the 
death of our blessed Saviour, and which is 
commonly called Good Friday. This day 
ought to be strictly observed. It is a day 
of the deepest humiliation and sorrow, for 
those sins which brought the Son of God 
to the cross. 

On Easter Sunday, we celebrate our 
Saviour's victory over death and hell, when 
having on the cross made an atonement 
for the sin of the world, he rose again 
from the grave, brought life and immor- 
tality to light, and opened to all his faith- 
ful servants the way to heaven. On this 
great event rest all our hopes. ' If Christ 
be not risen,' says St. Paul, ' then is our 
preaching vain, and your faith is also vain, 
— But now is Christ risen from the dead, 
and become the first fruits of them that 
slept.' (1 Cor. xv. 14. 20.) 

Forty days after his resurrection, our 
Lord ascended into heaven, in the sight of 
his disciples. This is celebrated by the 
Church on Ascension-day, or Holy Thurs- 
day. Ten days after his ascension, our 
Lord sent the Holy Spirit to be the Com- 
forter and Guide of his disciples. This 
422 



blessing is commemorated on Whit Sunday, 
which is a very great festival, and as such 
ought to be observed ; for the assistance of 
the Holy Spirit can alone support us 
through all temptations, and guide us into 
all truth. 

Many other days are appointed by our 
Church to be observed in memory of the 
apostles and evangelists. 

The success of some in discovering the 
remains of certain holy men, multiplied in 
the fourth century of the Christian Church 
the festivals and commemorations of the 
martyrs in a most extravagant manner. 
The increase of the festivals would not 
have been offensive to the wise and good, 
if Christians had employed the time thus 
appropriated in promoting their spiritual 
interests, and in forming habits of piety 
and virtue. But these days, instead of 
being set apart for pious exercises, were 
spent in indolence, voluptuousness, and 
criminal pursuits, and were less consecra- 
ted to the service of God, than employed in 
the indulgence of sinful passions. Many of 
these festivals were instituted on a pagan 
model, and perverted to similar purposes. 
Mosheim, vol. i. pp. 323. 466 ; Sermons on 
the Doctrines and Duties of Christianity, 
Serm. vii. pp. 74, &c. ; Nelson's Companion 
for the Festivals and Fasts, p. 444, &c. edit. 
1757. 

FES'TUS. Portius Festus succeeded 
Felix in the government of Judea A. D. 
60. Felix, his predecessor, to oblige the 
Jews, when he resigned his government, 
left St. Paul in bonds at Caesarea in Pales- 
tine. (Acts xxiv. 27.) Festus, at his first 
coming to Jerusalem, was intreated by 
the principal Jews to condemn Paul, or to 
order him up to Jerusalem, they having 
conspired to assassinate him in the way. 
Festus answered, that it was not customary 
with the Romans to condemn any man 
without hearing him ; but he said, that he 
would hear their accusations against Paul 
at Caesarea. From these accusations Paul 
appealed to Caesar, and by this means se- 
cured himself from the prosecution of the 
Jews, and the wicked intentions of Festus, 
whom they had corrupted. 

Festus, finding how much robbery 
abounded in Judea, very diligently pur- 
sued the thieves. He also suppressed a 
magician, who drew the people after him 
into the desert. He died in Judea about 
the beginning of A. D. 62, and was suc- 
ceeded by Albinus. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. 
xx. cap. 8, seg. 9, 10 ; De Bell. Jud. lib . ii. 
cap. 14. seg. 1. 

FIG, Fig-tree. Our first parents co- 
vered their nakedness with fig-leaves, either 
from common fig-trees, or from some of 
another kind, the leaves of which were much 
larger. (Gen. iii. *J.) 

There are many kinds of fig-trees. ' The 
true sycamore fig-tree,' says M. Forskall, 



FIG 



FIG 



'abounds the most of any in Egypt. It is 
planted upon the banks, and along the 
ways near the villages ; and it branches 
out to such a distance, that a full-grown 
tree furnishes a shade for a circle of forty 
paces in diameter. Its leaves are widely 
ovated, bowed, or angulated ; rather ob- 
tuse, smooth, cordated at the base. The 
fruit does not grow from the branches ; 
but shoots bearing fruit, and close together, 
sprout from the trunk itself, or from the 
wood of the largest branches. The inha- 
bitants say, that the fruit arrives at matu- 
rity several times in the year, as often as 
seven times. Hasselquist affirms, that that 
can only be in the month of June ; but 
this is to be understood of those figs which 
are eatable, and have the true seeds. The 
sycamore figs are called by the Egyptians 
precocious sycamores, because the others 
are not ripe before the overflowing of the 
Nile, and these are ripe about the end of 
the month of April. They are mellow, 
turning yellow, juicy, sweet, not fecundated 
or pierced with worms : the buds, however, 
are large and fleshy. The male flowers 
are closed to the centre point, which 
has a small aperture in the middle ; and 
round the outside of that is marked a 
white shining ring. This ring is not the 
work of the cynips (insect), but an im- 
pression of art ; for when the fruit is ar- 
rived to the size of an inch diameter, the 
inhabitants pare off a part at the centre 
point, which place then turns black. They 
say, that without this paring it would 
not come to maturity. They have knives 
which are formed expressly for this work, 
and which are made round at the point, 
and sharp only on one side. If any figs 
are passed by and not cut, they become full 
of the cynips (insect) about the time of the 
overflowing of the Nile.' 

This extract furnishes much information 
connected with Scripture : as, 1. That the 
mulberry- leaved fig-tree is planted along 
the sides of the roads. Of this we have 
an instance in the barren fig-tree cursed by 
our Lord, which stood by the road side. 
(Matt. xxi. 19. Mark xi. 13.) 2. That 
the fruit arrives at maturity several times 
in a year — so often as seven times. We 
may observe, that this can scarcely be 
restricted to one month is clear, because 
seven times is too often for that space of 
time ; but as M. Forskall refers this to those 
which are eatable and have seeds, both 
opinions may be reconciled by saying, figs 
not prolific are produced in other seasons 
of the year. 3. That precocious, or early, 
figs are produced in the month of April. 
These, therefore, are different from those 
referred to the month of June only, as we 
have supposed ; or this testimony invali- 
dates the former. The barren fig-tree of 
the Evangelists having leaves, was expected 
to produce, at least, figs of this inferior 
423 



kind. 4. This apparent contradiction in 
M. Forskall is exactly similar to that ol 
Mark, who says that March or April « was 
not a time for figs ;' yet Jesus came 
seeking figs. In like manner, M. Forskall 
says ' figs are ripe about the end of April,' 
but ' they come to maturity only in the 
month of June.' This shows, that a contra- 
diction so glaring is no contradiction : pro- 
per restriction regulates it to certainty. 
5. The forming by art of a white shining 
ring on the fruit, which is done to cause it 
to ripen, explains the character attributed 
to the prophet Amos by himself, (vii. 14.) 
' I was a scraper, or cutter, or parer, of 
sycamore fruit,' to forward its maturity. 
This custom is clear, and sufficiently ex- 
plains the passage. 6. Those thus cut for 
ripening have no seeds, and may be sup- 
posed to have little hold on the parent 
tree. So Nahum speaks of ' fig-trees with 
the first ripe figs, which, if they be shaken, 
shall fall' easily. This disposition of the 
fig-tree to part with her precocious untimely 
figs, is noticed in Rev. vi. 13. Isaiah xxxiv. 
4. Hosea ix. 10. The time of the fig-tree 
putting forth her figs is a sign of spring. 
(Cant. ii. 13.) 

A great diversity of opinion has prevailed 
on the subject of the barren fig-tree 
cursed by our Lord. (Matt. xxi. 19. Mark 
xi. 12.) The words of the Evangelists may 
be thus paraphrased by a slight transposi- 
tion : ' Jesus coming early in the morning 
from Bethany — was hungry — seeing a fig- 
tree from afar — at such a distance that he 
could only discern its spread of leaves, he 
went to it, if perhaps he might find some 
figs on it (for it was not yet the usual 
season for figs to be fit for gathering on 
fig-trees in general) ; but he found leaves 
only : and he said, none shall ever find any 
fruit on thee hereafter.' It is inquired, if 
this was not the season for figs, with what 
propriety did our Lord curse this barren 
fig-tree ? Some have rendered the words, 
' It was not a year for figs ;' but the Greek 
will not admit of this translation. Some 
have wished to read, ' It was the season for 
figs;' but this is violating the text, as 
the time was March 31, certainly long 
enough before the general fig season. Dr. 
Doddridge, and most writers with him, 
think this was of the early and most delicate 
sort of figs, which are ripe in April, but 
certainly not so early as at this time. 
Besides, in that case, what need of the 
Evangelist's words ' if, perhaps,' siiue 
there could be no such uncertainty as these 
words imply, in the expectation of finding 
fruit upon it, because the fruit being 
barely ripe could not be supposed to have 
been gathered from this tree \ Matthew 
says nothing about its not being the fig 
season, and also omits the words ' //". / < ■/•- 
haj>s.' The sycamore fig-tree, as we have 
Been; is planted along the ways near the 



FIN 

villages in Egypt, and might be also on the 
road-side between Bethany and Jerusalem. 
Norden, in his Travels in Egypt, says that 
this * tree is always green,' (doubtless with 
leaves,) ' and bears fruit several times in the 
year ;' so that a person viewing it at almost 
any time of the year, from a distance, 
cannot determine whether it has fruit upon 
it, or not. This very well accounts for the 
4 if, perhaps' of Mark, and for the ad- 
vancing of Jesus towards it ; as supposing 
that this kind of tree might bear fruit, 
though it was not now the general season 
for gathering figs from the kinds usually 
cultivated. Though we commonly say our 
Lord cursed the barren fig-tree, yet the 
expression, strictly speaking, is incorrect. 
Our Lord only commanded it to continue in 
its then present state. The shrivelling of 
the leaves was the only alteration which 
took place in the apparent state of this tree ; 
and those leaves were wholly useless, as 
figs grow upon the trunk of the tree. 
Though the tree might be said to be cursed 
by reason of this privation, yet this injury 
or curse was only apparent, and net real. 
It was no diminution of any man's property. 
It is plainly saying in action, as well as in 
words, ' This tree yields no fruit; let it 
not therefore produce leaves to disappoint 
the appetite of any subsequent seeker of 
food from it.' The general opinion of in- 
terpreters is, that this action of our Sa- 
viour referred to the state of the Jewish 
nation at that time. Scripture Illustrated, 
Arrangement of Nat. Hist. p. 28 ; Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Diet. Nos. lxvii. 
p. 120, eclx. p. 160. 

FIND is sometimes used in Scripture 
for to attack, to surprise one's enemies, 
to discover them suddenly. It is said 
(Judg. i. 5.) ' They found Adonibezek 
in Bezek,' that is, they attacked him there. 
According to the Hebrew (1 Sam. xxxi. 3.) 
the archers of the Philistines found Saul, 
that is, they attacked him. In this sense 
some explain that passage in Genesis 
(xxxvi. 24.) ' This was that Anah that 
found the mules in the wilderness ;' in the 
Hebrew, that found the Emim. Some, 
however, interpret the word translated 
mules by fountains of salutary streams. 
Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, p. 30. 

FINGER. The finger of God signifies 
His power, His operation. Pharaoh's ma- 
gicians discovered the finger of God in 
some of the miracles of Moses. (Exod. viii. 
19.) That Legislator gave the law writ- 
ten with the finger of God to the Hebrews. 
(Exod. xxxi. 18.) Christ says, he cast out 
devils with the finger of God. (Luke xi. 20.) 
To put forth one's finger, is a bantering 
gesture. ' If thou take away from the 
midst of thee the yoke, the putting forth 
of the finger,' (Isai. lviii. 9.) that is, if 
thou take away from the midst of thee the 
chain or yoke with which thou over- 
424 



FIN 



whelmest thy creditors, and forbear point- 
ing at them, and using jeering and insulting 
gestures. 

FINISH. The Evangelist John (xix. 
30.) relates, that immediately before our 
Saviour bowed his head and gave up the 
ghost, he said, ' It is finished.' When 
Christ pronounced these words, the pro- 
phecies which referred to the Messiah 
were completed. Then were fulfilled the 
predictions which foretold his miraculous 
birth, his bringing salvation to mankind, 
the miracles which he wrought, the manner 
of his death, and his being made an offer- 
ing and atonement for sin. At that time 
also the types and ceremonies, and, in 
particular, the sacrifices of the Jewish law, 
were consummated. It is natural to sup- 
pose, that the devout Jew, who had often 
felt himself at a loss to account for the de- 
sign of these sacred and mysterious rites, 
would wish to obtain a more clear and 
perfect insight into their hidden meaning ; 
though he was too pious to question their 
propriety, as he was convinced that they 
had been appointed and commanded by 
God Himself. All this darkness and un- 
certainty, however, were dispelled, when 
Christ up on the cross pronounced that all 
was finished. The meaning and propriety 
of the various sacrifices of the law, of the 
passover, of the paschal lamb, of the high- 
priest entering the holy of holies, and of 
all the other mystical representations and 
parts of the Jewish ritual, were then seen, 
confessed, and understood. 

The sufferings of the Messiah were now 
finished; and envy and malice and the 
powers of darkness had poured forth all 
their resentment, and spent their fury 
against Him. He closed in torment and 
cruel anguish a life which had been spent 
chiefly in poverty and in labour. The 
Messiah finished those great works in evi- 
dence of the truth of the grand scheme in 
which he had been engaged, and for which 
he came into the world. With respect to 
the important services which he finished, 
and in which men were more immediately 
concerned, we may mention his opening 
the Gospel to all mankind. We are in- 
duced to believe, that all who, previously 
to the advent and sufferings of our Saviour, 
lived according to the dictates of their 
own conscience, and to the revelation of 
the divine will which had been afforded 
them, were saved through His merits and 
atonement, though that atonement had 
not yet been made. The great sacrifice 
of the Messiah had a retrospective as 
well as a future efficacy ; it reached back to 
the first transgression of man, and forward 
to the end of time. 

The Saviour of the world finished another 
important service, in giving us a complete 
rule of life, the means of observing that 
rule through the assistance of God's Holy 



FIR 



FIR 



Spirit, and in affording Himself a perfect 
example of piety and virtue. Indeed, we 
always find him as attentive to the example 
as to the precept. He instructed his disci- 
ples in no virtue, of which he was not a 
pattern for their imitation ; and his precept 
and example united, form that rule of con- 
duct, which is to direct and govern the 
Christian life. But the grand work of 
redemption, which Christ perfected for 
man, was his atoning for the sins of man- 
kind, for which they themselves could not 
have atoned, and, consequently, his ena- 
bling them to triumph over death and the 
grave. We know not in what manner the 
death of Christ produces this effect, and is 
rendered a propitiation for the sins of man- 
kind ; and it becomes us not to inquire 
into this mystery of divine providence, 
which has been kept secret for wise pur- 
poses, and which the angels themselves 
are not permitted to understand. The 
Scriptures, however, assure us, that this 
wonderful instance of divine love, in what 
manner soever accepted by the Almighty, 
interposed between our guilt and the dis- 
pleasure of God ; and without the atonement 
of Christ, we had been left destitute of the 
hope of everlasting life. Logan's Sermons. 

FIRE. God frequently appeared in 
fire, or surrounded with fire ; as in the 
burning bush upon Mount Sinai. Fire is a 
symbol of the Deity : ' The Lord thy 
God is a consuming fire.' (Deut. iv. 24.) 
He appeared to Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. 
John, in the midst of fire. The Psalmist 
describes the chariot of God as all in 
a flame. (Ps. xviii. 9, 10.) It is said, that 
God will appear in the midst of fire at His 
second coming. Daniel (vii. 10.) says, 
that a fiery stream issued from before Him. 
The wrath of God is compared to fire ; 
and also the effects of his wrath, war, fa- 
mine, and other scourges. Fire is often 
used for thunder, lightning, the fire of hea- 
ven. (2 Kings i. 10.) 

Angels, as ministers of God, are com- 
pared to fire. (Ps. civ 4.) Fire from hea- 
ven fell on the victims sacrificed to the 
Lord, as a mark of approbation. It is 
thought that God in this manner accepted 
the sacrifice of Abel. When Abraham 
made a covenant with the Lord, a fire 
passed between the divided parts of the 
sacrifices. Might this be the Shechinah 1 
Fire fell on the sacrifice which Moses of- 
fered at the dedication of the tabernacle, 
(Levit. ix. 24.) ; on those of Manoah, 
(Judg. xiii. 19. 20.) ; on Solomon's at the 
dedication of the temple, (2 Chron. vii.) ; 
on Elijah's at Mount Carmel. (1 Kings xviii. 
38.) These are instances of the direction 
of lightning to a favourable or beneficent 
effect. It is probable the same meteor 
was directed to a contrary effect, in the 
deaths of Nadab and Abihu, (Lev. x. 1.) ; 
in the destruction of the companies of fifty 
425 



men, (2Kingsi. 10. 12.) in the loss of Job's 
property, (Job i. 16.) and in the destruction 
of Egypt. (Exod. ix. 23.) May we reckon 
among the beneficent effects of lightning, 
under the description of ' fire from heaven,' 
the instant translation of Elijah ? Or was 
this fire of the nature of the chariots of fire, 
and horses of fire, mentioned a little after 
that history. (2 Kings vi. 17-) If the 
chariots of fire, and horses of fire, of Elijah, 
were of the same nature as the chariots 
of fire, and horses of fire, which sur- 
rounded Elisha, then lightning was not the 
meteor employed to translate Elijah, but 
one of a much milder nature, probably 
approaching towards that which was mani- 
fested in the Shechinah. 

We read (Numbers xi. 1, 2, 3.) of ' a fire of 
the Lord, which consumed in the extremity 
of the camp.' The question on this passage 
is, whether this fire was lightning, or the 
samiel, a fiery wind 1 The expression, ' it 
consumed in the extremity of the camp,' is 
capable of two senses ; it consumed the whole 
of one extreme of the camp ; or, it consumed 
in different places, all of which were at the 
extremity of the camp. If one part of the 
camp was the scene of this fire, it was 
without doubt a burning wind, which 
passed over that edge of the camp, but did 
not enter wholly into, or cross over, the 
centre of it, or where the people were 
thickest. Otherwise, it might be lightning. 
Scheuzer prefers the former sense, and 
observes, that Thevenot mentions the 
death of 20,000 men, who perished in one 
night by one of these burning winds. 
It ought to be observed, that miraculous 
appearances derive much of their miracu- 
lous character from time, place, and cir- 
cumstances. An earthquake, or lightning, 
is not miraculous in itself; but if it appear 
to be in answer to the entreaties of feeble 
man, it demonstrates that those entreaties 
receive attention from a power superior to 
the ordinary course of nature. 

A perpetual fire was kept up in the tem- 
ple, upon the altar of burnt sacrifices, and 
maintained by burning wood upon it con- 
tinually. Besides this fire, were several 
kitchens in the temple, where the provi- 
sions of the priests, and the peace-offerings, 
were dressed. 

The apostle says concerning Abel, (Heb. 
xi. 4.) ' the Lord testified on his gifts.' This, 
as we have already observed, is understood 
to mean, that fire from heaven consumed 
the offerings he had brought. It seems 
probable, that man, by this means, origi- 
nally received the use of fire directly from 
heaven. Indeed, from what other quarter 
could he receive it? Sanchoniatho says, 
that the first fires were those kindled by 
lightning, and these discovered the first 
molted minerals. Nor let it be forgot, 
that lightning was considered by the hea- 
thens as a token from Heaven. Hence, 



FIR 



FIR 



with the greatest propriety, Elijah offered 
this as the test of divinity, ' the God who 
answereth by fire, let him be God ;' since 
this was a principle admitted and received 
by his opponents equally with himself, and 
since it was capable of the utmost publicity, 
decision, and testimony. 

The Chaldaeans, Persians, and some other 
people in the east, adored fire. Several 
have been of opinion, that Abraham was 
thrown into a fire, because he refused to 
worship this element. 

The torments of hell are described by 
fire in both the Old and New Testament. 
Moses says to Israel, ' A fire is kindled in 
mine anger, and shall burn unto the lowest 
hell.' Isaiah (xxxiii. 14.) is express : ' Who 
among us shall dwell with the devouring 
fire ? who among us shall dwell with ever- 
lasting burnings?' Again (lxvi. 24.) ' Their 
worm shall not die, neither shall their fire 
be quenched?' Our Saviour uses the same 
similitude. (Matt. xxv. 41.) He speaks 
of eternal fire prepared for the devil, 
his angels, and reprobates. Several main- 
tain, that by ' worm' is to be understood 
a common living, not an allegorical 
and figurative, worm ; and by fire, an 
elementary and material fire. Among the 
abettors of this opinion are Austin, Cyprian, 
Chrysostom, Jerom, &c. Dr. Whitby 
observes, that though it is not to be doubted 
that ' the worm not dying,' is to be under- 
stood figuratively for the worm of consci- 
ence, yet shall the bodies of the wicked 
suffer in fire properly so called ; this being 
agreeable not only to the tradition of the 
Jewish and Christian church, but to the con- 
stant phraseology of Scripture. Whitby's 
Annot. vol. i. p. 284 ; Scripture Illustrated, 
Expos. Index, pp. 67, 1 19. 

FIR'MAMENT. The Scripture says, 
God made a firmament in the midst of 
the waters, to separate the inferior from 
the superior waters. The word rakiah, 
translated firmament, signifies an expanse, 
and expresses two ideas: 1. that of an 
expanded atmosphere surrounding the 
globe, which we might call, for the sake 
of distinction, the blue firmament; 2. that 
of a remote expanse in which the stars are 
placed. We frequently speak of the stars 
in the firmament, and of a firmament of 
stars, but it ought to be remembered, 
that by these expressions we speak of 
what is apparent as if real, for the stars 
are not locally situated in our firmament, 
that is, the blue firmament. They only 
seem to be situated in this firmament, 
because they appear there ; they are sepa- 
rated by an interval of distance — an im- 
measurable interval of distance ! 

God spread out this firmament by gradu- 
ally clarifying the atmosphere ; and into this 
region arose the lighter vapours, which floated 
among their strata elevated above the sur- 
face of the earth, in proportion to their na- 
426 



tural buoyancy, while the grosser mixtures, 
and the heavier fluids, sunk by a kind of 
precipitation, to their correspondent strata 
on the earth below. Scripture Illustrated, 
Expos. Index, p. 5. 

FIRST-BORN, is not always to be 
understood literally ; it is sometimes taken 
for the prime, most excellent, most dis- 
tinguished of any thing. Thus, Jesus 
Christ is ' the first-born of every creature,' 
' the first-begotten of the dead;' begotten 
of the Father before any creature was 
produced, the first who rose from the dead 
by his own power. ' The first-born of the 
poor,' (Isaiah xiv. 30.) signifies the most 
miserable of the poor ; and ' the first-born 
of death,' (Job xviii. 13.) the most terrible 
of deaths. If in Exod. xi. 5. we take the 
first-born to import the chief, the most 
illustrious, the prime of each family, we 
shall avoid an ambiguity in reference to 
those families which had no first-born child. 
This is also coincident with a sense of 
which the words are capable, (Exod. xii. 
12.) ' Upon all the dignitaries of Egypt 
I will execute judgment,' not ' against 
the gods,' as our translators read. The 
chiefs of Egypt certainly felt the judgments 
of God, when the land was despoiled of 
its principals. This also appears to be the 
sense of the passage (Numb, xxxiii. 4.) 
' And the Egyptians buried (implying 
attention, if not pomp) those whom Jeho- 
vah had smitten among them ; even those 
dignitaries upon whom Jehovah had exe- 
cuted judgments.' By ' the first-born of 
cattle' (Exod. xii. 29.) may likewise be un- 
derstood the prime, the most valuable of 
cattle. 

God ordained that all the Jewish first- 
born, both of men and beasts, for service, 
should be consecrated to him. The male 
children only were subject to this law. If 
a woman's first child were a girl, the father 
was not obliged to offer any thing for her, 
or for the children after her, though they 
were males. If a man had many wives, he 
was obliged to offer the first-born of each 
of them to the Lord. The first-born were 
offered in the temple, and were redeemed 
for the sum of five shekels. 

The firstling of a clean beast was offered 
at the temple, not to be redeemed, but to 
be killed. An unclean beast, a horse, an 
ass, or a camel, was either redeemed, or 
exchanged. An ass was redeemed by a 
lamb, or five shekels ; if not redeemed, it 
was killed. Scripture Illustrated, Expos. 
Index, p. 40. 

FIRST-FRUITS, among the Hebrews, 
were presents made to God of part of the 
fruits of the harvest, to express the sub- 
mission, dependence, and thankfulness 
of the offerers. They were offered at the 
temple, before the crop was touched ; 
and when the harvest was over, before 
any private persons used their corn. The 



FIS 



FIS 



first of these first-fruits, offered in the 
name of the nation, was a sheaf of barley, 
gathered on the 15th of Nisan in the 
evening, and threshed in a court of the 
temple. After it was well cleaned, about 
three pints of it were roasted, and pounded 
in a mortar. Over this was thrown a log 
of oil, and a handful of incense. Then 
the priest took this offering, waved it be- 
fore the Lord towards the four parts of 
the world, threw a handful of it into the 
fire upon the altar, and kept the rest. 
After this, every one was at liberty to get 
in his harvest. 

Besides these first-fruits, every private 
person was obliged to bring his first-fruits 
to the temple. The Scripture prescribes 
neither the time nor the quantity. The 
Rabbins say, that they were obliged to 
bring at least the sixtieth part of their 
fruits and harvest. These first-fruits con- 
sisted of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, 
apricots, olives, and dates. They met 
in companies of four-and-twenty persons 
to carry their first-fruits in a ceremonious 
manner. The company was preceded by 
an ox appointed for the sacrifice, with a 
crown of olives on his head, and his horns 
gilded. 

There was also another sort of first- 
fruits paid to God. (Numb. xv. 19, 20.) 
When the bread in every family was 
kneaded, a portion of it was set apart, 
and given to the priest or Levite of the 
place. If there was no priest or Levite, 
it was cast into the oven, and consumed 
by the fire. This is one of the three pre- 
cepts peculiar to the women ; because they 
generally made the bread. 

The first-fruits and tenths were the most 
substantial revenue of the priests and 
Levites. 

St. Paul says, Christians have the first- 
fruits of the Spirit, (Rom. viii. 23.) ; that is, 
a greater abundance of God's Spirit, more 
perfect and more excellent gifts, than the 
Jews. Christ is called the fn-st-fruits of 
them that slept; for as the first-fruits 
were earnests to the Jews of the succeeding 
harvest, so Christ is the first-fruits of 
the resurrection, or the earnest of a re- 
surrection. 

FISH. We have few Hebrew names, 
if any, for particular fish. Moses says 
in general (Levit. xi. 9, 10, 11, 12.) that 
all sorts of river, lake, and sea-fish, might 
be eaten, if they had scales and fins ; 
others are unclean. Fins are analogous 
to the feet of land animals. As, there- 
fore, the sacred legislator had given di- 
rections for separating land animals ac- 
cording to the hoofs and claws, so he 
directs that fishes, which had no clear 
and distinct members adapted to locomo- 
tion, should be unclean; but those which 
bad fins should be clean, provided they 
bail also scales. As two requisites, a 
427 



cloven hoof and a power of rumination* 
were necessary to render a quadruped 
lawful, so two characters were necessary 
to answer the same purpose in fishes. It 
is thought that this distinction was made 
because fishes with scales are more nourish- 
ing, those without scales being, in general, 
very difficult of digestion. 

Interpreters in general believe, that 
the fish which swallowed up Jonah was 
a whale. The word cetus signifies only 
a great fish, as does the Hebrew dag of 
Jonah. There is, says Mr. Parkburst, 
the highest probability, that this fish was 
not of the whale, but of the shark kind ; 
for though whales are sometimes found in 
the Mediterranean, where Jonah was cast 
away, yet the whale, notwithstanding his 
monstrous size, is naturally incapable of 
swallowing a man. And though it may 
be alleged, that the same God who pre- 
served the prophet in the fish's belly, 
and caused him to be vomited up again 
alive, could have enlarged the swallow 
of the whale so as to absorb him, yet 
we ought not, without good reason, and 
plain authority of Scripture, to appeal to 
God's miraculous interposition. In the 
present case we have neither of these 
warrants. Moreover, it is notorious that 
sharks are a species of fish common in 
the Mediterranean; and we are assured, 
not only that some of this kind are of such 
a size and form as to be capable, without 
any miracle, of swallowing a man, but 
that whole men have been actually found 
in their bellies. Mr. Parkhurst, therefore, 
agrees with the learned Bochart in 
opinion, that the fish which swallowed 
the prophet Jonah, was of that species 
of shark, which naturalists, from its rough 
and sharp teeth, have denominated car- 
charias, and lamia from its monstrous 
swallow. Some have thought, that if the 
word dag signify a floater, it may refer to 
a vessel. 

The opinion of Bochart, that the fish 
which swallowed Jonah was the squalus 
carcharias, is now generally received ; but 
Bishop Jebb has urged several considera- 
tions, showing that it probably was a whale, 
into the cavity of whose mouth Jonah was 
taken. The observations adduced by him 
from the natural history of the whale, are 
confirmed by the enterprising and expe- 
rienced whale-fisher, Captain Scoresby, who 
states that when the mouth of the Baltrna 
Myslicetns, or Great Common Whale, is 
open, it presents a cavity as large as a 
room, and capable of containing a merchant- 
ship's jolly-boat full of men, being six 01 
eight feet wide, ten or twelve feet high (in 
front,) and fifteen or sixteen feet long. 
The only objection that can he offered to 
Dr. Jebb's opinion, is, that there is no 
authentic instance on record of whales being 
found in the Mediterranean Sea. It is, 



FLA 



FLE 



however, stated by the author of Scrip- 
ture Illustrated, that whales 60 feet long 
have been found in the Mediterranean 
Sea. 

The Abbe Pluche shows from Leuwen- 
hoek, that a single cod-fish, though not 
of the largest size, contained nine millions 
three hundred and forty-four thousand eggs ; 
and he observes, that though a common 
carp is far from having such a number of 
eggs, yet the quantity of them is so amaz- 
ing, even at the first glance, that it con- 
tributes very much to justify the preceding 
calculation. Parkhurst's Hebrew and Eng- 
lish Lexicon, p. 129 ; Greek and English 
Lexicon, p. 361. edit 1812; Fragments an- 
nexed to Calmefs Diet. No. cxlv. p. 103 
Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on Levit. xi. 9. 
Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, pp. 52 
1 89 ; Home's Introduction, vol. ii. p. 560 
Scoresby's Account of the Arctic Regions. 
vol. i. p. 455 ; Jebb's Sacred Literature, pp, 
178—180. 

FLAGELLANTS, or Whippers, have 
been designated by ecclesiastical historians 
under the name of a sect ; but as they dif- 
fered in no article of faith or ecclesiastical 
government from the established church, 
they appear to possess no claim to that 
denomination. 

It has been a prevailing tenet in every 
false religion, that the misery of his crea- 
tures was grateful and acceptable to the 
Deity; and that the sufferings of another 
life can be averted only by the voluntary 
devotion of ourselves to wretchedness in 
this. Christianity itself has occasionally 
been contaminated with similar errors, 
and the duty of repentance has been con- 
sidered as including not only mental con- 
trition, but bodily suffering. The pri- 
mitive church imposed ecclesiastical cen- 
sures and penances, as temporal punish- 
ments on offenders ; and in times of igno- 
rance, this penance was considered in a 
more extensive view, and as relating ra- 
ther to our future than our earthly state. 
In the year 1260, at Penesini, in Italy, 
a kind of penitential procession was cele- 
brated, in which the self-convicted cri- 
minals marched solemnly through the 
city, flagellating themselves with the ut- 
most severity, and imploring with the 
most distressful clamour, the mercy of 
God. The procession, which was pre- 
ceded by priests, who carried a crucifix, 
consisted of men every rank and order ; 
the females inflicted a similar discipline 
on themselves at home. However, the 
enthusiasm was soon not confined to one 
class of devotees : men, women, and chil- 
dren, of every rank, adopted the prac- 
tice ; all business, public and private, was 
suspended; the public amusements were 
deserted ; and in the most inclement 
weather, and in the darkest nights, the 
streets were crowded with wretches, tor- 
428 



turing themselves, and imploring the di- 
vine forgiveness. In a short time, the con- 
tagion was no longer confined to a single 
place, but spread from city to city, and 
even extended over all Italy, and a con- 
siderable part of Germany. As the pas- 
sion increased, they formed a regular so- 
ciety, and instituted rules for the admission 
of associates. The sect continued till the 
succeeding century, when, among other ab- 
surdities, one of the flagellants pretended 
that he had been presented, by an angel, 
with a whip, and a letter from heaven, 
which assured to those who would endure 
this discipline for thirty-four days suc- 
cessively a complete pardon for all their 
sins. The extravagances and excesses of 
the fraternity accelerated its suppres- 
sion. Several of the princes and prelates 
of the empire exerted themselves to reduce 
the populace to reason ; and, at length, 
Clement VI. formally condemned the fana- 
ticism of the flagellants, as an impious and 
pernicious heresy. Gregory's History of the 
Christian Church, vol. ii. p. 184. 

FLESH, is taken literally for the flesh 
which composes bodies, whether of men 
or animals. ' The end of all flesh is 
come before me,' (Gen. vi. 13.) of every 
thing that hath life. ' They went in two 
and two of all flesh,' animals of all species. 
' All flesh hath corrupted his way.' 

Flesh is understood of a principle oppo- 
site to the spirit. ' The flesh lusteth 
' against the spirit, and the spirit against 
' the flesh, and these are contrary the one 
' to the other.' ' Walk in the spirit, and 
' ye shall not fulfil the lusts of the flesh.' 
To crucify the flesh with its lusts ; not to 
fulfil the desires of the flesh, the wisdom 
of the flesh, &c. require no explanation. 

' Oh that we had of his flesh !' said Job's 
enemies, or even his domestics, in his 
affliction. They would have eaten him 
up alive; and thus they repaid with in- 
gratitude his services to them. The 
Psalmist also observes, ' The wicked, 
even mine enemies, came upon me to eat 
up my flesh.' (Psal. xxvii. 2.) The author 
of the book of Wisdom (xii. 5.) reproaches 
the Canaanites with devouring man's flesh. 
We have examples of this in sacred history, 
and in Josephus. Jeremiah threatens the 
inhabitants of Jerusalem, that they should 
be constrained to eat the flesh of their 
friends and children. (Lament, ii. 20. ; 
iv. 10.) We see the same in Ezekiel. (v. 
10.) 

' We are thy flesh and thy bone.' (Gen. 
xxix. 14. ; xxxvii. 27.) are familiar ex- 
pressions to denote the relations and ties 
of flesh and blood. 

The flesh of the lascivious is compared 
to that of horses and asses. (Ezek. xvi. 26.) 
The wise man says, that the flesh of the 
intemperate is consumed by infamous dis- 
eases. (Prov. v. 11.) The author of Eccle- 



FLI 



FLO 



siasticus, (xxv. 26.) requires a prudent man 
to separate his flesh from a prostitute. 
These expressions covertly denote what 
modesty refrains from naming in man. 

FLIES, insects well known, and in the 
law of Moses declared to be unclean. (Levit. 
xi. 20.) The Philistines adored the god 
of flies under the name of Beelzebub. 
The Lord promised Israel that he would 
send an army of flies and wasps against 
the Canaanites, to drive them out of the 
country, (Exod. xxiii. 28. Deut. vii. 20.) 
and we know, that many of the Canaanites 
really abandoned their country, to secuie 
themselves from these troublesome insects. 
(Josh. xxiv. 12.) 

The Hebrew language has at least two 
words for flies. The first is oreb, (Exod. 
viii. 21. Psal. lxxviii. 45. ; cv. 31.) which 
those interpreters who, by residing on 
the spot, have had the best opportunity, 
of identifying the subject, have rendered 
the dog-fly. In Ethiopia, it is denominated 
zimb, and though very little larger than a 
bee, is said to be so terrible an insect, 
that even the camel is not capable of sus- 
taining the violent punctures which it 
makes with its pointed proboscis; and 
when attacked by this fly, the body, 
head, and legs, of the animal break out 
into large bosses, which swell and putrefy 
to the certain destruction of the creature. 
Mr. Bruce observes, that ' as soon as 
this plague appears, and their buzzing 
is heard, all the cattle forsake their food, 
and run wildly about the plain, till they 
die worn out with fatigue, fright, and 
hunger. No remedy remains but to leave 
the black earth, and hasten down to the 
sands of Atbara ; and there they remain, 
while the rains last, this cruel enemy 
never daring to pursue them farther.' 
The inhabitants of all the countries, from 
the mountains of Abyssinia northward, to 
the confluence of the Nile and Astaboras, 
are obliged in the rainy season to change 
their abode, and seek protection for their 
cattle on the sands of Beja. — Another 
Hebrew word for a fly is zebub, (Eccl. x. 
1.) which some conjecture to be the 
' great blue-bottle fly,' or flesh fly ; for this 
being large, may well be supposed, when 
dead, to cause the perfumed unguent of the 
dealer to stink. — The word shemamah, 
(Malachi i. 3.) is thought by some to signify 
the common house fly. It is observable, 
that the word rendered flies in Exod. viii. 
21. 31. ; Psal. lxxviii. 45. ; cv. 31, is not 
zebub, but oreb, which is certainly the dog- 
fly, or zimb, literally perhaps the desert- 
fly. Bruce' s Travels, vol. i. p. 5 ; vol. v. 
p. 191 ; Scripture Illustrated, Exposit. 
Index, pp. 154. 165. 192; Fragments 
attached to Calmet's Dictionary, No. lvi. 
p. 104. 

FLOOR FOR THRESHING CORN, Or 

threshing-floor, is frequently men- 
429 



tioned in Scripture. This was a place 
in the open air, in which corn was threshed, 
by means of a cart or sledge, or some 
other instrument, drawn by oxen. The 
threshing-floors among the Jews were only, 
as they are to this day in the East, round 
level plats of ground in the open air, where 
the corn was trodden out by oxen. Thus 
Gideon's floor (Judg. vi. 37-) appears to 
have been in the open air; and also that 
of Araunah the Jebusite ; (2 Sam. xxiv.) 
otherwise it would not have been a proper 
place for erecting an altar, and offering 
sacrifices. In Hosea, (xiii. 3.) we read of 
the chaff" which is driven by the whirlwind 
from the floor. This circumstance of the 
threshing-floor being exposed to the 
agitation of the wind seems to be the 
principal reason of its Hebrew name. 
It appears, therefore, that a threshing- 
floor, which is rendered in our textual 
translation ' a void place,' might well be 
near the entrance of the gate of Samaria, 
and a proper situation in which the kings 
of Israel and Judah might hear the prophets. 
(1 Kings xxii. 10. 2 Chron. xviii. 9.) 

An instrument sometimes used in Pa- 
lestine and the East, to force the corn 
out of the ear, and bruise the straw, 
was a heavy kind of sledge, made of thick 
boards, and furnished beneath with teeth 
of stone or iron. (Isa. xli. 15.) The 
sheaves being laid in order, the sledge 
was drawn over the straw by oxen, and 
at the same time threshed out the corn, 
and cut or broke the straw into a kind of 
chaff. An instrument in the East is still 
used for the same purpose. This sledge 
is alluded to in 2 Sam. xii. 31. ; Isa. xxviii. 
27- ; xli. 15. ; Amos i. 3. Dr. Lowth, in his 
notes on Isaiah (xxviii. 27, 28.) observes, 
that four methods of threshing are men- 
tioned in this passage, by different instru- 
ments ; the flail, the drag, the wain, and 
the treading of the cattle. The staff, or 
flail, was used for the inflrmiora semina, 
the grain that was too tender to be treated 
in the other methods. The drag consisted 
of a sort of frame of strong planks, made 
rough at the bottom with hard stones or 
iron : it was drawn by horses or oxen 
over the corn sheaves on the floor, the 
driver sitting upon it. The wain was 
nearly similar to this instrument, but had 
wheels with iron teeth, or edges like a 
saw. The last method is well known from 
the law of Moses, which ' forbids the ox 
to be muzzled, when he treadeth out the 
corn.' Niebuhr, in his Travels, gives the 
following description of a machine which 
the people of Egypt use at this day for 
threshing out their corn. ' This ma- 
chine,' says he, ■ is called nauridsj. It 
has three rollers, which turn on their 
axles; and each of them is furnished with 
some irons, round and flat. At the be- 
ginning of June, M. Forskall and 1 sc- 



FOO 



FOO 



veral times saw, in the environs of Dsjise, 
how corn was threshed in Egypt. Every 
peasant chose for himself in the open field 
a smooth plat of ground from 80 to 100 
paces in circumference. Hither was 
brought on camels or asses the corn in 
sheaves, of which was formed a ring of 
six or eight feet wide, and two high. 
Two oxen were made to draw over it 
again and again the sledge (traineau) 
above mentioned ; and this was done with 
the greatest convenience to the driver; 
for he was seated in a chair fixed on the 
sledge. — Two such parcels or layers of 
corn are threshed out in a day, and 
they move each of them as many as 
eight times, with a wooden fork of five 
prongs, which they call meddre. After- 
wards they throw the straw into the mid- 
dle of the ring, where it forms a heap, 
which grows bigger and bigger. When 
the first layer is threshed they replace the 
straw in the ring, and tbresh it as before. 
Thus the straw becomes every time 
smaller, till at last it resembles chopped 
straw. After this, with the fork just de- 
scribed, they cast the whole some yards 
from thence, and against the wind ; which 
driving back the straw, the corn, and the 
ears not threshed out, fall apart from it, 
and make another heap. A man collects 
the clods of dirt, and other impurities, 
to which any corn adheres, and throws 
them into a sieve. They afterwards place 
in a ring the heaps in which a good many 
entire ears are still found, and drive over 
them, for four or five hours together, twelve 
couple of oxen (une douzaine de couples de 
bceufs) joined two and two, till by absolute 
trampling they have separated the grains, 
which they throw into the air with a shovel 
(luhh) to cleanse them.' Parkhurst's Hebrew 
and English Lexicon, pp. 120. 242. 412 ; 
Lowth on Isaiah, p. 151. 

FOOL, folly, signifies in Scripture not 
only, according to the literal meaning, 
an idiot, or one who has lost his senses ; 
the discourses and notions of fools and 
madmen ; but also sin, particularly sins 
of impurity. ' My wounds stink, and are 
corrupt through my foolishness,' (Ps. xxxviii. 
5.) my sin. ' He that is soon angry dealeth 
foolishly,' (Prov. xiv. 17.) and ' the thought 
of foolishness is sin,' (Prov. xxiv. 9.) 
David says, ' Lord, I have sinned greatly, do 
away the iniquity of thy servant, for I have 
done very foolishly.' (1 Chron. xxi. 8.) 
Tamar said to her violent brother Am- 
non, ' Do not this folly ; thou shalt be as 
one of the fools in Israel.' (2 Sam. xiii. 13.) 
The wisdom of this world is foolishness 
with God. St. Paul says, (1 Cor. i. 20, 21.) 

* Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of 
this world?' &c. Again, (1 Cor. iii. 18, 19.) 

* If any man among you seemeth to be wise 
in this world, let him become a fool that he 
may be wise.' The same apostle advises 

430 



Timothy and Titus to avoid foolish questions, 
which only create disputes and wrangling. 

The character of fool, and the attribute of 
folly, seem to be used in the Proverbs in 
more than one sense ; sometimes they appear 
to mean lack of understanding, and some- 
times perverseness of will. In the Gentoo 
laws is described a species of folly, which 
may perhaps illustrate some of the applica- 
tions of this term in Scripture. Among the 
qualities required for the proper execution 
of public business, it is mentioned, ' that a 
man must be able to keep in subjection his 
lust, his avarice, his folly, and his pride.' 
This folly is not to be understood in the 
usual sense of the word in the European 
idiom, as a negative quality, or the mere 
want of sense, but as a kind of obstinately 
stupid lethargy or perverse absence of mind, 
in which the will is not altogether passive. 
It seems to be a weakness peculiar to Asia, 
and operates in some measure like the vio- 
lent impulse of fear, under which men will 
utter falsehoods totally incompatible with 
each other, and utterly contrary to their own 
opinion, knowledge, conviction, and even 
inclination and intention. Another conjec- 
ture is, that this folly may mean the decep- 
tion which a man allows to be imposed on his 
judgment by his passions : as acts of rapa- 
city and avarice are often committed by men 
who ascribe them to prudence, and a just 
assertion of their own right; malice and ran- 
cour pass for justice, and brutality passes 
for spirit. Supplem. Addenda to Calmet's 
Dictionary. 

FOOT. Anciently it was customary 
to wash the feet of strangers coming off 
a journey, because generally they travelled 
barefoot, or wore sandals only, which did 
not secure them from dust or dirt. Jesus 
Christ washed the feet of his apostles, and 
thereby taught them to perform the hum- 
blest services for one another. 

Feet, in the sacred writers, often mean 
inclinations, affections, propensities, ac- 
tions, motions. Guide my feet in thy paths ; 
keep thy feet at a distance from evil ; the 
feet of the debauched woman go down to 
death ; let not the foot of pride come against 
me. 

To be at any one's feet, signifies obeying 
him, being in his service, following him. 
Moses says (Deut. xxxiii. 3.) that the 'Lord 
loved his people, and those that sat down 
at his feet ;' who heard him, belonged to 
him, were instructed in his doctrine. St. 
Paul says, that he was brought up at the 
feet of Gamaliel. ' Mary sat at our Saviour's 
feet, and heard his word.' (Luke x. 39.) 
These expressions have a reference to the 
attitude observed in the East. 

By the word foot, the Hebrews modestly 
express those parts which decency forbids 
to name : as ' the water of the feet,' 
signifies urine ; ' to cover one's feet,' dis- 
missing the refuse of nature ; ' withhold 






FOO 



FOR 



thy foot from being unshod, and thy throat 
from thirst,' that is, do not prostitute your- 
selves, as you have done, to strange people. 
' Thou hast opened thy feet to every one 
that passed by.' (Ezek. xvi. 25.) 

It is said (Deut. xi. 10.) that the land of 
Canaan is not like Egypt, where thou sow- 
edst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy 
foot. Palestine is a country which has 
rains, plentiful dews, springs, rivulets, 
brooks, &c. that supply the earth with the 
moisture necessary to its fruitfulness. On 
the contrary, Egypt has no river except 
the Nile ; there it seldom rains, and the 
lands which are not within reach of 
the inundation, continue parched and bar- 
ren. To supply this want, ditches are dug 
and water is distributed throughout the 
several villages and cantons ; there are 
great struggles who shall first obtain it, 
and in this dispute they frequently come to 
blows. Notwithstanding these precau- 
tions, many places have no water ; and in 
the course of the year, those places which 
are nearest the Nile, require to be watered 
again by means of art and labour. This 
was formerly done by the help of machines, 
one of which is thus described by Philo : 
it is a wheel which a man turns by the mo- 
tion of his feet, by ascending successively 
the several steps that are within it. But, 
as while he is thus continually turning, he 
cannot keep himself up, he holds a stay in 
his hands which is not moveable, and 
which supports him; so that in this work 
the hands perform the office of the feet, 
and the feet that of the hands ; since the 
hands, which should act, are at rest, and the 
feet, which should rest, are in action, and 
give motion to the wheel. This is what 
Moses means in this place by saying, that 
in Egypt they water the earth with their 
feet. In Sir George Staunton's Account 
of Lord Macartney's Embassy to Cbina, is 
a figure which closely resembles the de- 
scription of Philo ; and this is the more 
observable, as we know the similarity 
which long subsisted between the Egyp- 
tians and the Chinese. The description of 
Philo may serve to illustrate the boast of 
Sennacherib, (2 Kings xix. 24.) 'I have 
digged and drunk strange waters ; and with 
the sole of my feet have I dried up all the 
rivers of besieged places,' or of Egypt, 
as others understand it The word ren- 
dered ' sole' — sole of my feet, signifies any 
hollow thing, any curve, or bending; as 
a spoon, caves, caverns, the hollow lea- 
ther of a sling, &c. The words of Senna- 
cherib may therefore, perhaps, be freely 
rendered as follows : ' I came from a dis- 
tant country into these parts : these lands 
and their manners are foreign from me. Yet, 
I have sunk deep wells in them, and have 
drunk their foreign waters : and moreover, 
I have exhausted by the labour of my peo- 
ple, in working machines by their feet, 
431 



I say, I have dried up by foot machines, 
foot hollows, all the water which had been 
stored in reservoirs against the time of 
siege : — consequently the cities were forced 
to surrender, or their inhabitants to perish 
by thirst ; therefore let not Hezekiah think 
he can so closely conceal his waters that I 
cannot discover them; or so deeply sink 
his reservoirs, that I, by my mechanical 
powers, and the immense strength of my 
army, which will enable me to work the ma- 
chines night and day, cannot exhaust them.' 

To ' be under any one's feet,' to be a 
footstool to him, signifies the subjection of 
a subject to his sovereign, of a slave to his 
master. 

To ' lick the dust of one's feet,' (Isa. xlix. 
23.) signifies to adore the place where the 
feet of any one rest. 

Nakedness offeetwasa sign of mourning. 
God says to Ezekiel, ' Make no mourning 
for the dead, and put on thy shoes upon thy 
feet,' &c. It was also a mark of respect ; 
' Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the 
place whereon thou standest is holy ground.' 
(Exod. iii. 5.) The Rabbins say, that the 
Jews and priests were bare-foot in the tem- 
ple. (Josh. v. 15.) 

' A wicked man speaketh with his feet,' 
says Solomon. (Prov. vi. 13.) He uses 
much gesture with his hands and feet, 
which the ancient sages blamed in those 
who spake. Ezekiel (xxv. 6.) reproaches 
the Ammonites with clapping their hands 
and stamping with their feet in token of 
joy, on seeing the desolation of Jerusalem. 
He also (vi. 11.) describes the same motions 
as signs of grief, because of the ruin of his 
people. 

' If thou turn away thy foot from my sab- 
bath, from doing thy pleasure on my holy 
day,' says Isaiah, (lviii. 13.) If thou forbear 
walking and travelling on the sabbath day, 
and do not then thine own will. We know 
that journeys were forbidden on the sabbath- 
day. (Matt. xxiv. 20. Acts i. 12.) 

Job (xxix. 15.) says, that 'he was feet to 
the lame, and eyes to the blind,' he led 
one, and supported the other. In another 
place he observes, that God ' had put his 
feet in the stocks, and looked narrowly to 
all his paths ;' like a bird or some other 
animal led along, with the foot fastened to 
a cord, and unable to proceed, except as he 
who guides it pleases. 

Anciently in those countries the men were 
generally barefoot in the house ; the poor 
almost always, even on journeys ; but others, 
when they went into the country, commonly 
wore shoes. Harmer's Observations, vol. iii. 
p. 410; Fragments annexed to Calinet's Dic- 
tionary, No. cexxvi. p. 115. 

FORESKIN, or prepuce, the skin 
which covers the glans, and is cut off in 
circumcision. See Circumcision. Chil- 
dren are sometimes born without a fore- 
skin ; and this is regarded by the Hebrews 



FOR 



FOR 



as a particular favour of Providence. The 
Rabbins maintain, that Moses was born in 
this manner. Such a child is not circum- 
cised ; the skin is only cut so as to draw 
some drops of blood. Several Romish 
churches pretend that they possess our 
Saviour's foreskin, which was cut off at His 
circumcision. 

FORGIVENESS, the pardon of any 
offence committed against us. We are not 
apt to entertain any permanent or incu- 
rable ill-will against the author of injuries 
to others, and why should we be irrecon- 
cileable when injuries have been done to 
ourselves ? To love our enemies, or rather 
not to hate our enemies, is a duty which 
no guilt can annul, no injury efface. 
We are not required to love our enemies 
as our friends; but, when any injury has 
been done us, we are to endeavour to 
regard it with so much resentment as any 
just and impartial person would feel on 
hearing it related, and no more. To re- 
venge injuries, is to retaliate evil for the 
sake of retaliation. It is to diminish the 
happiness of the sentient world, without 
any virtuous motive, or adequate compen- 
sation. In proportion as we add to or 
diminish the happiness of individuals, we 
add to or diminish the happiness of sentient 
nature. This is a most important conside- 
ration, if we regard ourselves as parts of a 
system, and interested in the aggregate 
bliss of the whole as well as in the more 
insulated enjoyment of any particular indi- 
viduals. This consideration may serve 
greatly to improve and to refine our feelings 
of humanity. 

Several considerations may serve to 
abate our feeling of resentment. The 
injury which has been done us, may not 
be so great as we imagine. The offence 
may be more ideal than real ; there may 
be some misunderstanding in the case. 
What we consider as an intentional injury, 
may have originated in accident or mistake. 
This quite annuls the supposition of malice 
in the injury. No pain or suffering, though 
it may at the time excite the feeling of 
aversion, can properly be an object of re- 
sentment, which was not premeditated or 
designed. We can harbour no malice against 
stocks or stones, which may accidentally 
be the occasion of pain to us, but which 
can never intend the harm that they occa- 
sion. Harm unintentionally done by any 
intelligent being, is certainly no more an 
object of resentment than harm occasioned 
by any lifeless and insensate thing. As we 
know that, independent of all acquired or 
associated dislike, there is naturally no 
such thing as ill-will in one man towards 
another, we have good reason to believe, 
that those injuries, which excite our honest 
indignation, are never so deliberately 
willed, or so maliciously contrived, as we 
imagine. This consideration may well serve 
432 



to mitigate our resentment and moderate 
our rage. 

We are all weak, frail, and sinful crea- 
tures. None of us passes through one day, 
without feeling that he requires forgiveness 
from his God, and too often also from his 
fellow- creatures. Mercy is all our hope ; 
forgiveness, our constant prayer. In such 
a state, should we not pity and assist each 
other ? Does not mutual weakness call 
for mutual forbearance ? Weak, frail, and 
sinful as we are, we all hope, through the 
merits of Christ, to attain the happiness of 
heaven. And can creatures, who, after 
a few short years, expect to be for ever 
united in the presence of God, to be libe- 
rated from all unruly passions, and to live 
together for ever in heaven, in peace, and 
joy, and everlasting love; can such crea- 
tures hate each other on earth ? Can they 
add to the sorrows of this state of trial, and 
spread more thorns in the path of life, by 
acts of malice and revenge 1 Can they risk 
their own eternal happiness, by denying to 
each other that forgiveness, without which 
they must not dare to hope that they shall 
be themselves forgiven ? We know from 
the express declaration of our Saviour, 
that if we forgive not men their trespasses, 
neither will our heavenly Father forgive 
us. Christ estimated virtues by their solid 
utility, and not by their fashion or popula- 
rity; and hence he prefers the duty of 
forgiveness to every other. He enjoins it 
more frequently, with more earnestness, 
and under a greater variety of forms ; and 
he adds this weighty and peculiar circum- 
stance, that the forgiveness of others is 
the sole condition on which we are to ex- 
pect, or even ask, from God, forgive- 
ness for ourselves. This preference is 
justified by the superior importance of the 
virtue itself. The feuds and animosities 
which exist in families and among neigh- 
bours, which disturb the intercourse of 
human life, and collectively compose half 
its misery, have their foundation in the want 
of a forgiving temper, and can never cease 
except by the exercise of this virtue. 

Let us endeavour to forgive, that we 
may not be afraid to ask forgiveness. Let 
us take care so to pray for forgiveness, 
that our prayers may not justify and in- 
crease our condemnation. Let us remember 
the amazing condescension of the Son of 
God, in ' taking upon him the form of a 
servant,' and thence learn humility. Let 
us represent to our minds the terms of our 
salvation, in order to excite us to repent- 
ance. Let us adore the infinite love of 
our Redeemer, ' who laid down his life for 
his enemies ;' and let this be the pattern of 
our charity. By this means, we shall be 
fit to bear a part in that seraphic hymn, 
with which the Prince of Peace was at 
first ushered into the world ; ' Glory be 
to God on high, and on earth peace, good- 



FOR 



FOR 



will towards men.' Fellowes's Body of 
Theology, vol. ii. pp. 210 — 213; Sermons on 
the Doctrines and Duties of Christianity, 
p. 176; Paley's Moral and Polit. Philosophy, 
vol. i. p. 269 ; Warner s System of Divinity 
and Morality, vol. ii. p. 356. 

FORNICATION, whoredom, or the 
act of incontinency. It is, however, used 
in Scripture, not only for the sin of impu- 
rity, but for idolatry, and for all kinds of 
infidelity towards God. Adultery and for- 
nication are frequently confounded. Both 
the Old and New Testament condemn all 
impurity and fornication, corporal or spi- 
ritual, idolatry, apostacy, heresy, infi- 
delity, &c. 

The first and great mischief, and conse- 
quently the guilt of promiscuous concu- 
binage, consists in its tendency to dimi- 
nish marriages, and by that means to de- 
feat their several beneficial purposes. Pro- 
miscuous concubinage discourages mar- 
riage, by destroying the chief incitement 
to a married state. Men will not under- 
take the incumbrance, expense, and re- 
straint of married life, if they can gratify 
their passions at an easier rate. The 
magnitude of this evil will appear by 
attending to the importance and variety of 
the uses to which marriage is subservient ; 
and by recollecting, that the malignity and 
moral quality of each crime are not to be 
estimated by the particular effect of one 
offence, or of one person's offending, but 
by the general tendency and consequence 
of such crimes. The libertine may not be 
conscious that his irregularities prevent his 
own marriage, or that they can prevent 
others from marrying ; but what will he say 
would be the consequence, if the same 
licentiousness universally prevailed ? Or 
what should hinder this licentiousness from 
becoming universal, if in him it be innocent 
or allowable ? Fornication supposes pros- 
titution ; and prostitution commonly en- 
tails upon its victims certain misery. It 
produces habits of ungovernable lewdness. 
Of this passion it has been truly said, 
' that irregularity has no limits ; that one 
excess draws on another ; that the most 
easy therefore, as well as the most excel- 
lent way of being virtuous, is to be so 
entirely.' The criminal commerce of the 
sexes corrupts and depraves the mind and 
moral character more than any single 
species of vice whatever. That ready 
perception of guilt, and that prompt and 
decisive resolution against it, which con- 
stitute a virtuous character, are seldom 
found in persons addicted to these indul- 
gences. Fornication prepares an easy 
admission for every sin. In low life, it 
usually leads to the greatest villanies; and 
in high life, to that lamentable dissoluteness 
of principle, which manifests itself in a pro- 
fligacy of public conduct, and a contempt of 
the obligations of religion and moral probitv. 
433 



The Christian Scriptures peremptorily 
condemn fornication. ' Out of the heart,' 
says our Saviour, ' proceed evil thoughts, 
murders, adulteries, fornication, thefts, 
false witnesses, blasphemies ; these are the 
things which defile a man.' It may be ob- 
served, that fornication is mentioned with 
murders, thefts, false witnesses, blasphe- 
mies; and this shows that they are all 
crimes. So odious were the sins of the 
flesh to the Apostles, that they charged the 
first Christians not to keep company with 
any one that ' was a fornicator, a covetous 
man, an idolater, a railer, a drunkard, or 
an extortioner, and with such a man not 
to eat.' St. Paul warns us ' not to de- 
ceive ourselves, for neither fornicators, 
adulterers, thieves, covetous men, drunk- 
ards, revilers, nor extortioners, shall in- 
herit the kingdom of God.' Enumerating 
the works of the flesh he commences with 
adultery, fornication, and uncleanness ; 
and he observes, ' that they who do such 
things shall not inherit the kingdom of 
God.' The same apostle tells the Thes- 
salonians, that as it was ' the will of 
God, that they should abstain from forni- 
cation,' so it was also the great means 
of preserving themselves, even their sanc- 
tification; and that, though the worship 
of idolaters was commonly defiled with 
much licentiousness, 'God hath called 
Christians not to uncleanness, but to holi- 
ness.' In the visions of St. John, whore- 
mongers are in two different places reckoned 
among those who are « shut out of the 
New Jerusalem, and who shall have their 
part in the lake that burneth with fire and 
brimstone, which is the second death.' 

The Scripture affords no sanction to 
those austerities, which have been imposed 
on men under the idea of religion; but with 
a just regard to the condition and 'interest 
of the human race, it pronounces mar- 
riage honourable in all, and thus provides 
for the propensities of their nature an ade- 
quate gratification, to which it restricts 
them. All those incentives which lead to 
fornication, are accessaries to the crime, 
and ought to be avoided. Indecent con- 
versation is forbidden by St. Paul, (Ephes. 
iv. 29.) ■ Let no corrupt communication 
proceed out of your mouth.' Our Saviour 
condemns not only acts of uncleanness, but 
also the invitation or voluntary admission 
of impure thoughts, or the suffering of them 
to obtain possession of the imagination : 
' Whosoever looketh on a woman to lust 
after her, hath committed adulterv with 
her already in his heart.' (Matt v. 28.) By 
thus enjoining a regulation of the thoughts, 
Christ strikes at the root of the evil ; for 
when lust is once conceived in the heart, it 
bringeth forth sin ; and of tin's sin it may 
more particularly be said, that when it is 
finished, it bringeth forth death. Warner's 
System of Divinity and Morality, vol. ii. 
F f 



FOX 



FOX 



65, CG ; Paley's Moral and Polit. Philosophy, 
vol. i. pp. 290—299 

FOX, a creature well known, and re- 
markable chiefly for its cunning. The 
word rendered foxes in our translation of 
the Bible rather imports the jackal, which 
is an animal that goes in troops of hun- 
dreds in the east, and is no smaK terror 
and nuisance to the country. This crea- 
ture has a considerable resemblance to a 
wolf; and it has much of the manners of 
the hyena. This kind hunts in packs of 
forty or fifty, or perhaps some hundreds, 
and eats every thing made of leather. It 
ransacks the repositories of the dead, and 
greedily devours the most putrid bodies; 
and hence the inhabitants of the countries 
in which it abounds, make their graves 
very deep in the earth, and secure them 
with spines, thorns, &c. These animals 
attend caravans, and follow armies in 
hopes of prey. Niebuhr says, that ' they 
are often bold enough to enter houses ; and 
at Bombay, my servant, who resided out of 
the city, drove them out of his kitchen. It 
is very often confounded with the fox.' It 
is, however, observable, that of this crea- 
ture there are at least two species, the lesser 
and the larger jackal, the former of which 
very much resembles a real fox. Vol- 
ney says, ' The wolf and the real fox are 
very rare ; but there is a prodigious quantity 
of the middle species named shacal, which 
in Syria is called wauwee from its howl : 
they go in droves,' &c. ' Jackals are con- 
cealed by hundreds in the gardens, and 
among ruins, and tombs.' 

Hence it appears, that jackals go in 
droves, in troops ; and that Samson might 
easily procure as many as he wanted. (Judg. 
xv. 4.) They enter gardens, villages, tents, 
and houses, during the night ; and therefore 
they would carry the fire with them to all 
quarters, and might easily burn cornyards, 
vineyards, and oliveyards. Their noise 
and howling would convince all who heard 
them that they were jackals, and thus di- 
vert the suspicion from men. The fire 
would give them pain, and cause them to 
fight with each other. This would keep them 
among the corn, &c. longer than usual ; 
and few pairs thus coupled would agree to 
return to the same den, that they had 
formerly occupied in the mountains. Hence, 
nothing could be better adapted to produce 
a general conflagration, than Samson's ex- 
pedient. 

The sarcasm in Nehem. iv. 3. has been 
thus paraphrased : ' Their city wall is 
not fit for an outhouse ; it is at best like 
one of the loose stone hedges, which sur- 
round our gardens, without mortar : if a 
jackal should venture to run along it, in- 
stead of leaping over it, he would ruin the 
whole structure : or, if he should clamber 
upon it, it would fall.' The lesser jackal, 
which chiefly frequents gardens, seems to 
434 



be referred to ; and this increases the bit- 
terness of the sarcasm by the comparison. 
Dr. Shaw says, that the jackals (the lesser 
kind) ' eat roots and fruits, and frequent the 
gardens every night.' This then is clearly 
the animal complained of in Cant. ii. 15 : 
' Take — catch — us the shuals, the little 
shuals, which destroy, and waste, and ruin 
our vines ; and that at the time when we 
expect fruit from them.' Hasselquist like- 
wise says, that * there is also plenty of them 
near the convent of St. John, in the desert, 
about vintage time ; insomuch that the 
owners are obliged to set guards over the 
vines, to prevent these creatures from de- 
stroying them.' As foxes in England are 
not destroyers of grapes, this passage in the 
Canticles has been severely criticised, 
but with what reason, let the reader now 
judge. 

The following passages seem to refer to 
the larger jackal. — Ezekiel (xiii. 4,) says, 
' As shuals in wastes around deserted 
towns are thy prophets, O Israel. They 
continue to destroy, but do not repair ; 
they clamber over defences broken down, 
and increase the dilapidations in the stone 
walls, but they restore no part to its 
strength ; they do not go up into the gaps, to 
repair them ; nor bring fresh stones to 
replace those that are fallen, to make up 
the wall for the security of the house of Israel, 
that it may stand even a skirmish, much less 
an assault, in the day of the Lord.' From 
the disposition of the jackal to prey on 
carrion, the Psalmist (lxiii. 10.) naturally 
associates this creature with his slain ene- 
mies : ' Those who seek to destroy my soul 
shall themselves be destroyed; be slain and 
be buried, in the lowest parts — or depths — 
of the earth ; but they shall not rest in their 
graves, the jackals shall tear them from 
thence as their lawful prey; — they shall 
be a portion for shuals.' By correcting the 
word translated fox to jackal, the follow- 
ing passage in Matt. viii. 20. possesses 
great strength of expression : ' The jackals, 
beasts of prey and of injury, have holes 
where they may hide themselves ; and the 
rapacious birds of the heaven have nests, but 
the meek, the benevolent Son of Man, he 
who goes about doing good, hath not where 
to lay his head.' 

The metaphorical application of the 
name, or character, of the shual, or jackal, 
to persons, is thus used by our Lord : 
(Luke xiii. 32.) ' Go ye and tell that fox 
— that crafty, cruel, insidious creature! 
that jackal of a prince! who has indeed 
expressed his enmity by his threats, as 
jackals do their mischievous dispositions 
by their barkings, and who yelps in con- 
cert with others of my enemies, jackal- 
like, tell him that I am safe from his fury 
to-day and to-morrow, and on the third 
day I shall be completed, completely be- 
yond his power.' This might allude to our 



FRA 



FRE 



Saviour's resurrection on a third day ; or, 
is day put for year ? 

It seems to be agreed, that real foxes are 
very rare in Judea; and they appear to be 
equally rare in Scripture. In all places in 
which the word occurs, it refers to the jackal. 
Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, 
No. ccix. p. 33, &c. ; Harmer's Observations, 
vol. ii. p. 221. 

FRANCISCANS, a religious order 
founded by St. Francis in the year 1209. 
Francis was the son of a merchant of Assisi, 
in the province of Umbria, and for some 
time led a most debauched and dissolute 
life. On his recovery from a severe fit of 
sickness, he fell into an extravagant kind 
of devotion, that looked less like religion 
than alienation of mind. Some time after 
this, in 1208, he happened to hear that 
passage repeated, in which Christ ad- 
dresses his apostles in the following man- 
ner : ' Provide neither gold nor silver,' 
&c. (Matt. x. 9, 10.) This produced a 
powerful effect upon his mind, induced 
him to consider a voluntary and absolute 
poverty as the essence of the Gospel and 
the soul of religion, and to prescribe this 
poverty as a sacred rule both to himself 
and to the few that followed him. This 
new society, which appeared to Innocent 
III. extremely adapted to the present 
state of the church, and proper to restore 
its declining credit, was solemnly approved 
and confirmed by Honorius III. in 1223, 
and had made a considerable progress 
before the death of its founder in 1226. 
Francis, through an excessive humility, 
would not suffer the monks of his order 
to be called fratres, that is, brethren or 
friars, but fraterculi, that is, little brethren, 
or friars minor, by which denomination 
they have been generally since distin- 
guished. 

The Franciscans and Dominicans were 
zealous and active friends to the papal 
hierarchy, and in return were distinguished 
by peculiar privileges and honourable em- 
ployments. In 1243, a violent dispute 
arose between the Franciscans and the 
Dominicans, concerning the preference 
and dignity of their respective orders. 
The Franciscans asserted that their order 
had greater marks of humility and morti- 
fication ; that the preference ought to be 
measured by the degrees of self-denial 
and discipline ; that for these considerations, 
theirs must be esteemed the superior 
order ; and that it would be a mark of 
improvement in the Dominicans, to incor- 
porate with them. In one point, how- 
ever, both were agreed : each order had 
made an astonishing progress in wealth 
and reputation ; their cloisters were deco- 
rated like the abodes of princes, and not 
a trace of their primitive poverty appeared; 
and their credit was so greatly advanced, 
that few thought themselves secure of sal- 
435 



vation, without the assistance of one of 
the Dominican or the Franciscan brethren, 
as a spiritual director. 

Such, indeed, was the opulence of the 
Franciscans, that, as early as the year 
1299, they applied to Pope Boniface, and 
offered him forty thousand ducats of gold, 
and a prodigious quantity of silver, if he 
would enable them by his bull to become 
the purchasers of estates, and to live like 
the other orders. When the pope inquired 
whether their money w r as ready, they an- 
swered it was, and lodged in the bankers' 
hands. Upon this, he ordered them to 
withdraw, and return in three days for 
his answer. In the mean time, he sent to 
the bankers, absolved them from their 
obligation to restore the money to the 
monks, and charged them, under pain of 
excommunication, to reserve it for the use 
of the Roman see. When the Franciscans 
returned at the day appointed, in expecta- 
tion of their diploma, the pope told them 
that he found, upon consideration, it was 
not advisable to dispense with St. Francis's 
mite, and therefore they must of necessity 
continue under their first engagements, 
to live without property. Gregory's Hist, 
of the Christ. Church, vol. ii. p. 164 ; Mosheim, 
vol. iii. pp. 56, &c. 

FRENCH PROPHETS. They first 
appeared in Dauphiny and Vivarais. In 
the year 1688, five or six hundred Protes- 
tants of both sexes gave themselves out to 
be prophets, and inspired by the Holy 
Ghost. They soon became so numerous, 
that there were many thousands of them 
inspired. They had strange fits, which 
came upon them with tremblings and faint- 
ings, as in a swoon, and which made them 
stretch out their arms and legs, and stagger 
several times before they dropped down. 
They struck themselves with their hands, 
they fell on their backs, shut their eyes, 
and heaved with their breasts. They re- 
mained for some time in trances, and, com- 
ing out of them with twitchings, uttered all 
which came into their mouths. They said 
they saw the heavens open, the angels, 
paradise, and hell. Those who were just 
on the point of receiving the spirit of 
prophecy dropped down, not only in the 
assemblies, crying out mercy, but in the 
fields, and in their own houses. The least 
of their assemblies consisted of four or 
five hundred, and some of them amounted 
to even three or four thousand persons. 
When the prophets had for a time be<Mi 
under agitations of the body, they began to 
prophesy. The burden of their prophe- 
cies was, l Amend your lives, repent ye; the 
end of all things draws nigh .'' The hills re- 
bounded with their loud cries for mercy, 
and with imprecations against the priests, 
the church, the pope, and the anti-ehristian 
dominion, with predictions of the approach- 
ing fall of popery. All they said at these 

F f 2 



FRI 



FRI 



times was heard and received with reve- 
rence and awe. 

In the year 1706, three or four of these 
prophets came over into England, and 
brought their prophetic spirit along with 
them, which discovered itself in the same 
ways and manners ; by ecstacies, and agita- 
tions, and inspirations under them, as it had 
done in France : and they propagated the 
like spirit to others, so that before the year 
was out, there were two or three hundred 
of these prophets in and about London, of 
both sexes, of all ages, men, women, and 
children: and they had delivered under 
inspiration four or five hundred prophetic 
warnings. 

The great thing which they pretended by 
their spirit was, to give warning of the 
near approach of the kingdom of God, the 
happy times of the church, and the millennial 
state. Their message, which they were 
to proclaim as heralds to the Jews, and to 
every other people, was, that the grand 
jubilee, the acceptable year of the Lord, 
the accomplishment of those numerous 
passages of Scripture concerning the new 
heavens, and the new earth, the kingdom of 
the Messiah, the marriage of the Lamb, the 
first resurrection, or the New Jerusalem de- 
scending from above, were now even at the 
door ; that this great operation was to be 
wrought on the part of man by spiritual 
arms only, proceeding from the mouths of 
those who, by inspiration, or the mighty 
gift of the Spirit, should be sent forth in 
great numbers to labour in the vineyard : 
that this mission of His servants should be 
confirmed by signs and wonders from hea- 
ven, by a deluge of judgments on the wicked 
universally throughout the world, as famine, 
pestilence, earthquakes, &c. ; that the ex- 
terminating angels shall root out the tares, 
and there shall remain on earth only good 
corn ; and that the works of men being 
destroyed, there shall be but one Lord, 
one faith, one heart, and one voice among 
mankind. They declared that all the great 
things of which they spoke, would be mani- 
fested over the whole earth within the term 
of three years. 

These prophets pretended also to the 
gift of languages, of discerning the secrets 
of the heart, of ministration of the same 
spirit to others by the imposition of hands, 
and of healing. To prove they were really 
inspired by the Holy Ghost, they alleged 
the complete joy and satisfaction they ex- 
perienced, the spirit of prayer which they 
received, and the answer of their prayers 
by God. Adam's View of Religions, p. 
136. 

FRIENDSHIP, is an attachment which 
rises neither from interested designs nor 
party zeal, but from that similarity of 
dispositions, that corresponding harmony 
of minds, which endears some person to 
our heart, and inclines us to take as much 
436 



interest in his circumstances, fortunes, 
and fate, as if they were our own. ' The 
soul of Jonathan was knit with the soul 
of David ; and Jonathan loved him as 
his own soul.' (1 Sam. xviii. 1.) Such 
friendships certainly are not unreal ; and, 
for the honour of human nature it is to 
be hoped, that they are not altogether 
unfrequent among mankind. Happy it is 
when they take root in our early years, and 
are engrafted on the ingenuous sensibility 
of youth. Friendships then contracted re- 
tain to the last a tenderness and warmth, 
seldom possessed by such as are formed in 
the riper periods of life. The remem- 
brance of ancient and youthful connec- 
tions melts every human heart ; and the 
dissolution of them is, perhaps, the most 
painful feeling to which we are exposed 
here below. But at whatever period of 
life friendships are formed, as long as they 
continue sincere and affectionate, they 
undoubtedly form one of the greatest bless- 
ings we can enjoy. By the pleasing com- 
munications of all our sentiments which 
they prompt, they are justly said to double 
our pleasures, and to divide our sorrows. 
They give a brighter sunshine to the pleas- 
ing incidents of life ; and they enlighten 
the gloom of its darker hours. It is justly 
and beautifully said, that a ' faithful friend 
is the medicine of life-' (Ecclus. vi. 16.) A 
variety of occasions happens, when to pour 
forth the heart to one whom we love and 
trust, is the chief comfort, perhaps the 
only relief we can enjoy. Miserable is 
he who, confined within the narrow inclo- 
sure of selfish interest, has no person to 
whom he can at all times, with full con- 
fidence, expand his soul. 

The fundamental qualities of true friend- 
ship are constancy and fidelity. An in- 
constant man is incapable of friendship. 
He may perhaps have affections which occa- 
sionally glow in his heart, which excite 
fondness for amiable qualities, or connect 
him with seeming attachment to one whom 
he esteems, or by whom he has been 
obliged. But after these feelings have 
continued for a little, either fancied in- 
terest alienates him, or some new object 
attracts him ; and he is no longer the 
same person to those whom he once 
loved. Where there is no fixedness of 
moral principle, occasional feelings are 
of no value ; mind is of no effect ; and 
with such persons it is never desirable 
to have any connection. Where constancy 
is wanting, there can be no fidelity, which 
is the other basis of friendship. For all 
friendship supposes entire confidence and 
trust ; the seal of secrecy to be inviolable ; 
promises and engagements to be sacred ; 
and no advantage of our own to be pursued, 
at the expense of our friend's honour. An 
inconstant man is despicable ; a faithless 
man, base. 



FRI 



FRO 



But, supposing neither constancy nor 
fidelity to be altogether wanting, still, 
however, friendship is in hazard of suffer- 
ing from the follies and unreasonable hu- 
mours to which all of us are liable. It is 
to be regarded as a tender plant in an un- 
favourable soil, which, in order to its flourish- 
ing, requires to be reared and nursed with 
care. We ought never to expect perfec- 
tion in any with whom we contract friend- 
ship. If in any person we trust to find 
nothing but perfection, we may be assured 
that, on longer acquaintance, we shall meet 
with disappointments. The best and most 
estimable persons are they, in whom the 
fewest material defects are found, and 
whose great and solid qualities counterba- 
lance the common infirmities of men. To 
these qualities we are to look in forming 
friendships ; to good sense and prudence, 
which constitute the basis of every respec- 
table character ; to virtue, to good temper, 
to steadiness of affection ; and according 
to the union of these dispositions, we 
should esteem ourselves happy in the friend 
whom we choose. — We ought not to be 
hurt by differences of opinion arising in 
intercourse with our friends. It is impos- 
sible for these not to occur. Perhaps, no 
two persons were ever so exactly cast in 
the same mould, as to think always in the 
same manner on every subject. No man 
has any right to erect his own opinions 
into an universal and infallible standard ; 
and the more enlarged any man's mind is, 
the more readily he will overlook differ- 
ence in sentiments, as long as he is per- 
suaded that the mind of his friend is 
upright, and that he follows the dictates 
of conscience and integrity. — We ought to 
cultivate an openness of temper and man- 
ners. Nothing more certainly dissolves 
friendship, than the jealousy which arises 
from darkness and concealment. If our 
situation oblige us to take a different side 
from our friend, let us do it openly. Mu- 
tual confidence is the soul of friendship. 
As soon as that is destroyed, or even im- 
paired, it is only a show of friendship that 
remains. — We ought to cultivate, in all in- 
tercourse among friends, gentle and obli- 
ging manners. An intimate connection can 
only be kept up by a constant wish to be 
pleasing and agreeable. The ordinary te- 
nouroflife is composed of small duties and 
offices, which men have occasion daily to 
perform ; and it is only by rendering daily 
behaviour agreeable, that we can long pre- 
serve the comforts of friendship. — We 
ought not to listen rashly to evil reports 
against our friends. When on proper 
grounds we have formed a connection, let 
us be slow in believing any thing against 
the friend whom we have chosen. There is 
among mankind a spirit of malignity, which 
too often takes pleasure in disturbing 
the society of those who appear to enjoj 
437 



each other. It forms part of the charac- 
ter of a wise and good man, that he is not 
prone to ' take up a reproach against his 
neighbour.' — We ought not to desert our 
friend in danger or distress. When our 
friend is calumniated, then is the time 
openly and boldly to espouse his cause. 
When his situation is changed or his for- 
tunes are fallen, then is the time of afford- 
ing prompt and zealous aid. When sick- 
ness or infirmity occasions him to be ne- 
glected by others, that is the opportunity 
which every real friend will seize, of re- 
doubling all the affectionate attentions 
which love suggests. These are the impor- 
tant duties, the sacred claims of friendship, 
which religion and virtue enforce on every 
worthy mind. 

In Scripture, by ' friend' is sometimes 
meant the favourite of a prince. Hushai 
was the friend, the favourite of David. 
(2 Sam. xv. 37.) Abraham was eminently 
called the friend of God. (2 Chron. xx. 7.) 
The friend of the bridegroom is the bride- 
man, who does the honours of the wedding. 
Blair's Sermons, Sermon lxvii. 

FROG, a very common creature. It was 
one of the sacred animals of the Egyptians, 
was consecrated to the sun, and considered 
an emblem of divine inspiration in its in- 
flations. Moses brought on Egypt a plague 
of frogs. (Exod. viii. 5.) 

Frogs were unclean. Moses indeed does 
not name them ; but he includes them by 
saying, ' ye shall not eat of any thing that 
moves in the waters, unless it have fins and 
scales.' (Levit. xi. 9, 10, 11, 12.) In the 
symbolical imagery of the Revelation of St. 
John, three unclean or demoniacal spirits, 
doing signs, or proposing miracles, like 
frogs, are represented as issuing from the 
mouths of the dragon, the beast, and the false 
prophet. (Rev. xvi. 13.) It is remarkable, 
says Dr. Hales, that the ancient arms of 
France were three frogs ! Hales' s New Ana- 
lysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. p. 187. 

FRONTLETS. Leo of Modena thus 
describes them : The Jews take four pieces 
of parchment, and write, with an ink made 
on purpose, and in square letters, these four 
passages, one on each piece : 1. ' Sanctify 
unto me all the first-born,' &c. (Exod. xiii. 
to verse 10.) ; 2. ' And when the Lord shall 
bring thee into the land of the Canaanites,' 
&c. (from verse 11 to 10.); 3. 'Hear, O 
Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord,' &c. 
(Deut. vi. 4 — 9.) ; 4. ■ If you shall hearken 
diligently unto my commandments, 1 &c. 
(Deut. xi. 13—21.) This they do in obedi- 
ence to these words of Moses : ' These com- 
mandments shall be for a sign unto thee 
upon thine hand, and for a memorial be- 
tween thine eyes.' 

These four little pieces of parchment are 
fastened together, and a square formed of 
them, on which the letter Schin •:• is writ 
ten; then a little square of hard calf's skin 



FRO 



FUL 



is put upon the top, out of which come two 
leathern strings an inch wide, and a cubit 
and a-half, or thereabouts, in length. This 
square is put on the middle of the forehead, 
and the strings being girt about the head, 
make a knot in the form of the letter i ; they 
then are brought before, and fall on the 
breast. It is called Teffila-Schel-Rosch, or 
the Tephila of the head. The most devout 
Jews put it on both at morning and noon- 
day prayer ; but the generality of the Jews 
wear it only at morning prayer. Only the 
chanter of the synagogue is obliged to put it 
on at noon as well as morning. 

It is a question, whether the use of 
frontlets, and other phylacteries, was lite- 
rally ordained by Moses. They who believe 
their use to be binding, observe, that the text 
of Moses speaks as positively of this as of 
other precepts; he requires the command- 
ments of God to be written on the doors of 
houses, as a sign on their hands, and as an or- 
nament on their foreheads. (Exod. xiii. 16.) 
If there be any obligation to write these 
commandments on their doors, as the text 
intimates, there is the same for writing them 
on their hands and foreheads. The use of 
them was common in the time of our Sa- 
viour, not only in Judea, but also among 
the Indian Jews, the Persians, and Baby- 
lonians, according to Jerome. Long before, 
the doctors, whom the high-priest Eleazar 
sent to Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of 
Egypt, spoke of these phylacteries as at all 
times received among them, and referred the 
beginning of them to Moses. It is added, 
that in the time of Moses, the Heathens car- 
ried abundance of charms and superstitious 
preservatives about them, and even some 
immodest things ; that he, to cure his people 
of these bad customs, or to prevent them, 
enjoined them to wear on their hands and 
foreheads the sacred words of his ordi- 
nances. 

On the contrary, others maintain, that 
these precepts should be taken figuratively 
and allegorically, as denoting that the 
Jews should very carefully preserve the 
remembrance of God's law, and observe 
His commands ; that they should always 
have them before them, and never for- 
get them. Prior to the Babylonish cap- 
tivity, no traces of them appear in the his- 
tory of the Jews. The prophets never 
inveigh against the omission or neglect of 
them ; nor was there any question concern- 
ing them in the reformation of manners at 
any time among the Hebrews. The al- 
most general custom in the East, of wear- 
ing phylacteries and frontlets, deter- 
mines nothing for the antiquity or use- 
fulness of this practice. Jesus Christ did 
not absolutely condemn them ; but he 
condemned the abuse of them in the Pha- 
risees, who wore them with affectation, 
and larger than other Jews. The Caraite 
Jews, who adhere to the letter of the law, 
438 



and despise traditions, call the Rabbinical 
Jews bridled asses, because they wear these 
tephilim and frontlets. See Phylactery. 

FULFIL is a difficult word to treat 
within a narrow compass. It refers to 
something foretold ; and as there are many 
modes of foretelling as well as different 
degrees of clearness, with which future 
events may be foretold, we naturally 
expect as many corresponding modes of 
fulfilment. Ahijah the prophet, foretold 
to the wife of Jeroboam, that, as soon as 
she got home, her child should die. This 
prediction received an instant and direct 
fulfilment, in the death of the child. (1 
Kings xiv. 17.) Joshua foretold, that who- 
ever undertook to rebuild Jericho, should 
begin it with the loss of his first-born son, 
and finish it with the death of his youngest. 
This was not fulfilled for five hundred years ; 
and we are uncertain whether it included the 
death of the intermediate children. How- 
ever, Hie! of Bethel experienced its fulfil- 
ment, though in a mode, probably, entirely 
unexpected. (Josh. vi. 26. 1 Kings xvi. 34.) 

Sometimes prophecy has a direct and 
sole reference to a certain fact to happen 
hereafter at a distant period; and some- 
times it refers in a double manner, as 
well to a fact which is appointed to take 
place at no very distant period, as to ano- 
ther fact of which the first is only a sign or 
earnest. When, therefore, the first fact has 
actually happened, the prediction may be 
said in one respect to be fulfilled ; whilst in 
another respect it may be said to continue 
unfulfilled, as its complete and final accom- 
plishment is not yet arrived. Many prophe- 
cies appear to be in this state at present : 
they have been partly fulfilled in past 
events, and are now fulfilling in some re- 
spects ; but their final and complete accom- 
plishment is to be expected hereafter. Of 
this observation the Jewish people are a 
striking instance. 

Sometimes a remarkable phraseology, 
which directly refers only to one specific 
event, is said to be fulfilled in another 
event : that is, the phrase may be well 
applied to, be remarkably illustrated by, or 
may, indeed, in a loose and distant meaning, 
be referred to the latter event, which ap- 
pears as another and farther fulfilment, 
though, strictly speaking, the first fulfil- 
ment was enough to satisfy, and actually did 
satisfy, the prophecy. The slaughter of the 
infants at Bethlehem may be understood as 
an instance of this nature. The prophet 
(Jerem. xxxi. 15.) certainly employed the 
phrase of ' Rachel weeping for her children, 
and refusing to be comforted,' in reference 
to an event much nearer to himself, than 
that to which the evangelist Matthew ap- 
plies it ; though the latter event was a re- 
markable coincidence, and the expression 
might be readily accommodated to it. 

Sometimes a phrase, which originally 



FUL 



FUI 



meant to describe a particular man, or class 
of men. is said to be fulfilled by a class of 
men distinct and distant from those of whom 
it was first spoken ; because the resem- 
blance is so close, and their characters are 
so much alike, that what was foretold of one 
may very aptly and expressively be applied 
to the other. When the prophets complain 
of the perverseness of the Jews, in their 
days, the same kind of perverseness in the 
time of the Messiah may naturally be de- 
scribed by the same language, the import of 
which is revived, or ratber more powerfully 
fulfilled, in its latter application, though to 
a very distant generation. 

Proverbial expressions, which do not refer 
to any specific occurrence or fact, are said to 
be fulfilled when an event happens; not that 
the event may be applied or referred to 
them, but that they may be applied or re- 
ferred to the event as very similar or des- 
criptive. 

All these and many other modes of fulfil- 
ment, are expressed in Scripture ; and it re- 
quires attention to distinguish whether a 
strict, or a less confined sense is to be put 
on the word fulfil. It ought also to be ob- 
served, tbat some things are said to be done, 
that it might be fulfilled ; but in general, per- 
sons who were actually engaged in fulfilling 
prophecy, did not suspect that their actions 
were in any degree foretold, nor did they per- 
ceive the relation of them to the prophecy, 
till after the events which accomplished the 
predictions. Yet it would seem, that our 
Lord did purposely, and with design to fulfil 
former predictions, use certain expressions, 
and perform certain actions. He rode upon 
an ass, that it might be fulfilled which was 
spoken by the prophet ; and Jesus himself 
knew that he was fulfilling this prophecy, 
though his disciples did not. They did not 
recollect, that the Scripture contained any 
such passage ; still less that it described any 
part of the Messiah's character or conduct. 
This appears very remarkably in John xix. 
28 : ' After this, Jesus, knowing that all 
things were now accomplished, that the 
Scripture might he fulfilled, said, I thirst.'' 
Additions to Calmefs Dictionary. 

FUTURE STATE, a term used in refer- 
ence to the existence of the soul after death. 
That there is such a state of existence, we 
have every reason to believe. If we suppose 
the events of this life to have no reference 
to another, the whole state of man becomes 
not only inexplicable, but contradictory and 
inconsistent. The powers of the inferior ani- 
mals are perfectly suited to their station. 
They know nothing higher than their pre- 
sent condition. In gratifying their appe- 
tites, they fulfil their destiny, and pass away. 
Man, alone, comes forth to act a part, which 
carries no meaning, and tends to no end. 
Endowed with capacities which extend far 
beyond his present sphere, fitted by his ra- 
tional nature for running the race of immor- 
430 



tality, he is stopped short in the very en- 
trance of his course. He squanders his ac- 
tivity on pursuits which he discerns to be 
vain. He languishes for knowledge which 
is placed beyond his reach. He thirsts after 
a happiness which he is doomed never to 
enjoy. He sees, and laments, the disasters 
of his state ; and yet, upon this supposition, 
he can find nothing to remedy them. Has 
the eternal God any pleasure in sporting 
Himself with such a scene of misery and 
folly as this life, if it had no connexion 
with another, must exhibit to his eye ? Did 
He call into existence this magnificent uni- 
verse, adorn it with so much beauty and 
splendour, and surround it with those glo- 
rious luminaries which we behold in the 
heavens, only that some generations of 
mortal men might arise to behold these 
wonders, and then disappear for ever? 
How unsuitable, in this case, were the 
habitation to the wretched inhabitant? 
how inconsistent the commencement of 
his being, and the mighty preparation of 
his powers and faculties, with his despi- 
cable end! How contradictory, in fine, 
were every thing which concerns the state of 
man, to the wisdom and perfection of his 
Maker ! 

Throughout all ages, and among all na- 
tions, the persuasion of a future life has 
prevailed. Even the belief of the being 
of a God is not more general on the earth, 
than the belief of immortality. Dark, 
indeed, and confused, were the notions 
which men entertained concerning a future 
state. The Heathens were entirely igno- 
rant of the nature of future happiness. 
The Jews, to whom God spake at divers 
times and in sundry manners, were in- 
structed in the important doctrine of a future 
state. The heavenly inheritance, which 
they were taught to expect, was prefigured 
in the sacred books by the ' earthly Canaan.' 
As the knowledge of one true God was 
preserved in Abraham's family, so also, 
undoubtedly, was the promise of future 
happiness, which St. Paul asserts to have 
been ^ believed by the patriarchs. But 
what is a tradition, though founded ori- 
ginally in revelation; or what are types 
and figures, compared with that open "and 
clear light in which the resurrection to 
everlasting life is exhibited in the New Tes- 
tament? In what full and distinct terms 
is it expressed ! It was even demonstrated 
in the person of our Lord ! The resurrec- 
tion of Christ from the grave was de- 
signed to be a sensible evidence, that 
death infers not a final extinction of the 
living principle. He rose, in order to 
show, that, in our name, He had conquered 
death, and was 'become the first Bruits 
of them that sleep.' Nor did He only rise 
from the grave, but, by ascending to heaven 
in a visible form before many witnesses, 
gave an ocular demonstration of the transi- 



FUT 



FUT 



tion from this world into the regions of the 
blessed. The employments which now oc- 
cupy Him there, are fully declared. ' As 
our forerunner, He hath entered within 
the vail. He appears in the presence of 
God for us. He maketh perpetual inter- 
cession for His people. ' I go,' saith He, 
'to my Father, and your Father, to my 
God and your God. In my Father's house 
are many mansions. I go to prepare a 
place for you. I will come again, and 
receive you to myself, that where I am, 
there ye may be also.' The circumstances of 
His coming are again distinctly foretold. 
The sounding of the last trumpet, the 
resurrection of the dead, the appearance 
of the Judge, and the solemnity with which 
He shall discriminate the good from the 
wicked are all described. The very words 
in which He shall pronounce the final 
sentence, are recited in our hearing : 



' Come, ye blessed of my Father ! inherit 
the kingdom prepared for you, from the 
foundation of the world.' Then shall 
the holy and the just be 'caught up in 
the clouds to meet the Lord in the air.' 
They shall enter with Him into the ' city 
of the living God.' They shall possess 
the ' new earth and new heavens, wherein 
dwelleth righteousness. God shall wipe 
away all tears from their eyes. They 
shall behold his face in righteousness, 
and be satisfied with his likeness for ever.' 
Such is the language of Scripture, and 
such the firm belief of every Christian. 
By recording such a train of striking cir- 
cumstances and facts, the Gospel familiar- 
izes us in some measure with a future 
state. Blair's Sermons, vol. i. pp. 224, &c. ; 
Richardson's Divine and Moral Essays, Essay 
iv. i Sermons on the Doctrines and Duties of 
Christianity, p. 212. 



G. 



GAB 



G 



"AB'BATHA, TatZaQa, signifies high, 
or elevated, and was the Hebrew name of 
a place in Pilate's palace, (Johnxix. 13.) 
called in Greek lithostrotos, that is, a 
pavement. From this place Pilate pro- 
nounced sentence against Christ. It was 
probably an eminence, or terrace, a raised 
pavement ; a gallery, or balcony, paved 
with stone or marble, and pretty high; 
perhaps, also, it was balustraded. Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, No. 1. 
p. 98. 

GAB'RIEL, bioim, signifies God is my 
strength, or man of God, or strength of 
God, or my strong God. Gabriel, a prin- 
cipal angel in heaven, was sent to the 
prophet Daniel, to explain his visions. 
He was also sent to Zacharias, to announce 
to him the future birth of John the Bap- 
tist, five or six months before the birth of 
Christ. (Luke i. 11, &c.) Six months after, 
Gabriel was sent to Nazareth, to a virgin 
named Mary, betrothed to Joseph, in the 
year of the world 4004, nine or ten months 
before the birth of Christ. (Luke i. 26, 
&c.) Calmet is of opinion, that Gabriel 
was the angel who appeared to Joseph 
when he thought of dismissing Mary ; who, 
on another occasion, enjoined Joseph to 
retire to Egypt ; and who, after the decease 
of Herod, directed him to return into 
Judea. 
440 



GAD 

GAD, 13, signifies happy, or armed and 
prepared; otherwise, goat. It was the 
name of the son of Jacob and Zilpah, 
Leah's servant. (Gen. xxx. 9, 10, 11.) Leah, 
Jacob's wife, gave him also Zilpah, that 
by her she might have children. Zilpah 
bare a son whom Leah called Gad, say- 
ing, A troop cometh. Gad had seven sons, 
Ziphion, Haggi, Shuni, Ezbon, Eri, Arodi, 
and Areli. (Gen. xlvi. 16.) 

Jacob, blessing Gad, said, ' A troop 
shall overcome him, but he shall overcome 
at the last;' (Gen. xlix. 19.) and Moses, 
in his last song, mentions Gad as ' a lion 
which teareth the arm with the crown of the 
head,' &c. (Deut. xxxiii. 20, 21.) 

The tribe of Gad came out of Egypt 
in number 45,650. After the defeat of 
the kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Reu- 
ben desired to have their divisions in these 
countries, and alleged their great num- 
ber of cattle. Moses granted their re- 
quest, on condition that they would ac- 
company their brethren, and assist in the 
conquest of the land beyond Jordan. 
Gad had his inheritance between Reuben 
south, and Manasseh north, with the moun- 
tains of Gilead east, and Jordan west. 

Gad, a prophet, David's friend, who 
followed him when persecuted by Saul, 
and was very much attached to him. 
The Scripture calls him a prophet, and 



GAD 



GAI 



David's seer. (2Sam.xxiv.il.) The first 
time we find him with this prince is, when 
he fled into the land of Moab, (1 Sam. 
xxii. 5.) to secure his father and mother 
in the first year of his flight, and of Saul's 
persecution. The prophet Gad warned 
David to return into the land of Judah. 

After David had determined to number 
his people, the Lord sent to him the pro- 
phet Gad, who gave him his choice of three 
scourges : seven years' famine, or three 
months' flight before his enemies, or three 
days' pestilence. Gad advised David to 
erect an altar to the Lord in the threshing- 
floor of Oman or Araunah, the Jebusite. 
Gad wrote a history of David's life, cited 
in 1 Chron. xxix. 29. 

Gad, or good fortune, was a Syrian 
idol. Selden mentions this goddess as the 
first idol noticed in Scripture, and worship- 
ped by the Hebrews. This opinion is 
founded on the exclamation of Leah, (Gen. 
xxx. 11.) when her handmaid Zilpah bore 
a son to Jacob. She said, I am prosperous, 
(or as seme in the present day, who ascribe 
every thing to chance, would say, Good luck- 
to me ;) and she called his name Gad, that is 
prosperity. Though this interpretation has 
been questioned, yet in Isaiah lxv. 11, Gad 
is certainly joined with Meni (or the Moon,) 
and both are names of idols, where the 
prophet says, 

But ye who have deserted Jehovah, 
And have forgotten my holy mountain ; 
Who set in order a table for Gad, 
And fill out a libation to Meni. 

Bp. Loictlis Version. 
What these objects of idolatrous worship 
were it is now impossible exactly to ascer- 
tain ; it is probable that the latter was an 
Egyptian deity, if not also the former. ' It 
seems to me,' says the author of a new 
translation of Isaiah, ' that by Gad and 
Meni, the two great divinities of Egypt, 
Isis and Osiris, are here intended.' Jerome, 
as cited by Bishop Lowth, gives an account 
of the idolatrous practice of the apostate 
Jews, which is alluded to by the prophet, 
of making a feast, or a lectisternium, as the 
Romans called it, for these pretended dei- 
ties. ' It is,' he says, ' an ancient idola- 
trous custom in every city in Egypt, and 
especially at Alexandria, that on the last 
day of the last month in the year, they set 
out a table with various kinds of dishes, 
and with a cup filled with a mixture of 
water, wine, and honey, indicating the fer- 
tility of the past or future year.' This also 
the Israelites did. Home's Introduction, vol. 
iii. p. 349 ; Loivth's Translation of Isaiah, 
pp. 2"5, 276 ; New Translation of Isaiah, 
pp. 366. 367, edit. 1790. 

GADARA, gadarenes', Tadapnvoi, sig- 
nifies surrounded, ivallcd, fenced. Gadara 
was a city beyond Jordan. Josephus calls 
it the capital of Peraea, cast of the lake of 
Tiberias sixtv furlongs. Pliny Bays, that 
441 



the river Hieramiac, now denominated 
Hippodion, flows near this city. Gadara 
was sometimes reckoned among the cities 
of Decapolis. It gave name to a canton 
beyond Jordan. 

St. Mark (v. 1.) says, that our Saviour 
having passed the sea of Tiberias, came 
into the district of the Gadarenes. Luke 
(viii. 26.) says the same. Matthew (viii. 
28.) calls it Gergasenes ; but some Greek 
copies read Gadarenes. Gergasa was near 
Gadara ; and the territory belonging to 
it was more extensive than that of this 
last city. As the lands belonging to one 
were included within the other, one 
evangelist might say the country of the 
Gergasenes, and another that of the 
Gadarenes. It is thought by some, that 
the Gadarenes might be a remnant of the 
ancient Gergashites, who formerly com- 
posed one tribe in this district. 

1 Along the borders of this lake (Genne- 
sareth,)' says Dr. E. D. Clarke, ' may still 
be seen the remains of those ancient tombs, 
hewn by the earliest inhabitants of Galilee, 
in the rocks which face the water. They 
were empty in the time of our Saviour, and 
had become the resort of wretched men, 
afflicted by diseases, and made outcasts of 
society ; for in the account of the cure per- 
formed by our Saviour upon a demoniac, 
in the country of the Gadarenes, these 
tombs are particularly alluded to, and their 
existence to this day offers strong internal 
evidence of the accuracy of the evangelist 
who has recorded the transaction : ' There 
met him out of the tombs a man with an 
unclean spirit, who had his dwelling among 
the tombs.' (Mark v. 2, 3.) The remains 
of the warm baths for which this place was 
anciently celebrated, are also still to be 
seen. Gadara is now called Oomkais, or 
Omkeis. Quarterly Review, vol. xxvi. p. 
389; Irby's and Mangle's Travels, pp. 297, 
298; Sacred Geography; Clarke's Travels in 
Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land, vol. iv. 
pp. 211, 212; fourth edition. 

GATUS, Taiog, may signify earthy. 
Gaius, Paul's disciple, was probably a 
Macedonian, but settled at Corinth, where 
he lodged the apostle during his abode in 
that city. (Rom. xv. 23.) When Paul went 
into Asia, Gaius and Aristarchus accom- 
panied him to Ephesus, where they abode 
with him some time. In the sedition 
raised there, about great Diana, the 
Ephesians ran to the house of Gaius and 
Aristarchus, whom they dragged to the 
theatre. However, no harm happened to 
either of them, as the commotion was 
appeased by the prudence of the town- 
clerk. Gaius is said to have been bishop 
of Thessalonica. 

GAIUS, to whom the apostle John wrote 
his third Epistle, u;is. in the opinion of 
sever.il commentators, the Bamc .is GaitlS, 

Paul's disciple and host at Corinth \ but 



GAL 



GAL 



others think, that the Gaius of John is 
mentioned (Acts xx. 4.) as of Derbe in 
Lycaonia, and consequently is not Gaius 
the Macedonian. 

GALA'TIA, TaXaria, signifies milking, 
or milky ; or, rather, Gaul Asia, from the 
settlement of the Gauls in it. Galatia 
was a province of Asia Minor, and was 
bounded on the east by Cappadocia, 
on the west by Bithynia, on the south 
by Pamphylia, and on the north by the 
Euxine Sea. This country was seized by 
a body of Gauls, who were called in to 
assist a king of Bithynia. Having ex- 
pelled his former enemies, they established 
themselves in these districts, and divided 
the territory among them. As it was now 
peopled by a mixture of Gauls and Greeks, 
it was called Gaulo-grsecia, and at length 
Galatia. 

St. Paul preached in Galatia, in the 
year 51, (Acts xvi. 6.) and afterwards, in 
53, or 54 ; (Acts xviii. 23.) and he formed 
there considerable churches. Not long 
after St. Paul had converted the Galatians 
to the belief of the Gospel, some Judaizing 
Christians endeavoured, with considerable 
success, to persuade them of the necessity 
of being circumcised, and of observing the 
law of Moses. For this purpose they 
urged, though without any foundation, 
the authority of the apostles and elders at 
Jerusalem ; and they represented Paul as 
having only an inferior commission, derived 
from the church at Jerusalem, and that 
even he, in certain cases, had allowed of 
circumcision. The object of the Epistle 
to the Galatians, which is written in a 
strain of angry complaint, was to counter- 
act the impression made by these false 
teachers, and to re-establish the Galatians 
in the true Christian faith and practice. 
St. Paul, after proving the independence 
and divine original of his mission, and that 
he was ' not a whit behind the very chief- 
est of the apostles,' states that he had not 
compelled his convert and companion 
Titus, who was a Greek, to be circumcised : 
and shows that he had uniformly resisted 
the Judaizing Christians, and in particular 
Peter, who, through fear of the Jewish 
Christians, had refused to associate with 
heathen converts. He contends, that he 
had always maintained that the Gospel was 
alone able to save those who believed it, 
knowing that a man is not justified by the 
works of the law, but by the faith of Jesus 
Christ. He proves that the obligation of 
the ritual part of the Mosaic law is com- 
pletely abolished with respect to both 
Jews and Gentiles ; points out the moral 
and spiritual nature of the Gospel, in 
opposition to outward observances ; and 
concludes with a variety of directions and 
precepts, all of which tend to the cultiva- 
tion of practical virtue. Some have 
thought that the Epistle to the Galatians 
442 



was written as early as the year 52, and 
others as late as the year 58. However, 
an expression in the beginning appears to 
fix its date with a considerable degree of 
probability: ' I marvel,' says the apostle, 
' that you are so soon removed from him 
that called you into the grace of Christ, 
unto another Gospel.' This passage seems 
to prove, that the Epistle was written soon 
after the Galatians were converted to 
Christianity; and as Paul does not mention 
in it that he had been twice in Galatia, it 
is supposed to have been written between 
his two visits, and most probably in the 
year 52, while he was at Corinth, or, as 
Michaelis thinks, in Macedonia, before he 
went to Corinth. Bishop Tomline's Elem. 
of Christ. Theol. vol. i. p. 400, &c. ; 
Michaelis 's Introduction to the New Testa- 
ment, vol. vi. p. 9, edit. 1802; Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

GALILE'ANS, a sect of Jews that 
arose about the time of our Saviour's birth. 
Of this sect, Judas, of Gaulon, in Upper 
Galilee, was author, on account of the 
enrolment of the people appointed by 
Augustus. This enrolment was executed 
by Cyrenius (Luke ii. 1. Acts v. 37.) who 
was afterwards governor of Syria. See 
Cyrenius. 

Judas the Gaulonite pretended, that the 
tax established by the Romans was a 
manifest instance of servitude, which all 
true Israelites ought to oppose with all 
their power. These discourses inflamed 
the minds of the people, many of whom 
joined Judas, took up arms, and commenced 
a civil war. This spirit of insurrection, 
properly speaking, was pacified only by 
intervals, till it ended in the destruction of 
Jerusalem. The disciples of Judas were 
called Galileans, because Judas was of 
Upper Galilee ; and his followers, for the 
most part, were of the same province. 
According to Josephus, the Galileans 
agreed in all things with the Pharisees, but 
were distinguished by an excessive love 
of liberty. They were a political faction, 
rather than a religious sect. They were 
strongly prejudiced with the idea, that God 
alone is the prince whom they ought to 
obey. Perhaps there was some reference 
to this, not only in representing Jesus as a 
Galilean to Pilate ; but when (Luke xxiii. 2.) 
his accusers, to render him suspected of this 
heresy, say, that they found him perverting 
the nation, and forbidding to give tribute 
to Caesar. 

GAL'ILEE, b*bl, TaXikaia, signifies 
rollings, or a wheel. This name seems to 
denote the nature of the country. It may 
import either the rounds, limits, or circuit of 
the Israelite territory, northward ; or the 
hills and mountains of which it consists 
were considered as rounds, knolls, or what 
we call houghs. 

Galilee was one of the most extensive 



GAL 



GAT 



provinces into which the Holy Land was 
divided. It exceeded Judea in extent, 
but probably varied in its limits at different 
times. This province is divided by the 
Rabbins into, 1. The Upper; 2. The 
Nether; and, 3. The Valley. Josephus 
divides it into only Upper and Lower ; and 
he says, that the limits of Galilee were, on 
the south, Samaris and Scythopolis, unto 
the flood of Jordan. Galilee contained 
four tribes : Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, 
and Asher ; a part also of Dan ; and part 
of Peraea, that is, beyond the river. Upper 
Galilee abounded in mountains, and was 
eminently understood by the term Galilee 
of the Gentiles, as the mountainous nature 
of the country enabled those who pos- 
sessed the fastnesses, to maintain themselves 
against invaders. Strabo enumerates a- 
mong its inhabitants Egyptians, Arabians, 
and Phoenicians. Lower Galilee, which 
contained the tribes of Zebulun and Asher, 
was sometimes called the Great Field, ' the 
champaign.' (Deut. ix. 30.) The Valley was 
adjacent to the sea of Tiberias. Josephus 
describes Galilee as very populous, and 
containing two hundred and four cities 
and towns. It was also very rich, and paid 
two hundred talents in tribute. The natives 
were brave and good soldiers ; but they 
were seditious, and prone to insolence and 
rebellion. In the books of Ezra and 
Nehemiah, the inhabitants of Galilee and 
Peraea are scarcely mentioned ; whether 
they were Jews returned from Babylon, or 
a mixture of different nations. The lan- 
guage of these regions differed consider- 
ably from that of Judea; as did various 
customs, in which each followed its own 
mode. 

Our Lord so frequently visited Galilee, 
that he was called a Galilean. (Matth. 
xxvi. 69.) He was addressed under this 
title by his adversary, the dying Julian, 
who, being cut off from prosecuting his 
purposes against Christianity, exclaimed 
with indignation, ' Thou hast conquered, 
O Galilean !' The population of Galilee 
being very great, our Lord had many op- 
portunities of doing good in this country ; 
and being there out of the power of the 
priests at Jerusalem, he seems to have 
preferred it as his abode. Nazareth 
and Capernaum were in this division. 
From such a mixture of people many 
provincialisms might be expected. Hence 
we find Peter detected by his language, 
probably by his phraseology as well as his 
pronunciation. (Mark xiv. 70.) Sacred 
Geography. 

GAL'LIO, YaWiwv, signifies /<e that sucks, 
or lives on milk, and was the name of the 
brother of Seneca, the philosopher. He 
was before named Marcus Annreus No- 
Vfttua ; but being adopted by Lucius Ju- 
nius Gallio, he took the name of his adop- 
tive father. The emperoi Claudius made 
113 



him proconsul of Achaia. He was of a 
mild and agreeable temper. To him his 
brother Seneca dedicated his books, Of 
anger. He shared in the fortunes of his 
brothers, as well when out of favour as 
in their prosperity at court. At length, 
Nero put him as well as them to death. 
The Jews were enraged at Paul for con- 
verting many Gentiles, and dragged him 
to the tribunal of Gallio, who, as pro- 
consul, generally resided at Corinth. (Acts 
xviii. 12, 13.) They accused him of teach- 
ing ' men to worship God contrary to the 
law.' Paul being about to speak, Gallio 
told the Jews, that if the matter in ques- 
tion were a breach of justice, or an ac- 
tion of a criminal nature, he should think 
himself obliged to hear them ; but as the 
dispute was only concerning their law, he 
would not determine such differences, nor 
judge them. Sosthenes, the chief ruler of the 
synagogue, was seized and beaten before 
Gallio's seat of justice ; but this governor 
did not concern himself about it. 

GAMALIEL, Sx-boa, signifies recom- 
pence of God, or camel of God, or weaned 
of God. Gamaliel was a Pharisee, a 
doctor of the law, and Paul's master. He 
is also said by some to have been master 
of Barnabas and Stephen. The Jews hav- 
ing brought Peter before the assembly of 
rulers, Gamaliel moved that the apostles 
should retire. He then advised the as- 
sembly to take heed what they intended 
to do concerning these men, &c. and to 
treat them with lenity. The advice of Ga- 
maliel was followed, and the apostles were 
liberated. (Acts v. 34.) 

Gamaliel is supposed to have been the 
grandson of Hillel, and either uncle or 
cousin to Nicodemus. (John iii. 1.) 

GATH, ro, signifies a ivine-press, and was 
a city of the Philistines, one of their five 
principalities. (1 Sam. vi. 17-) The name 
is usually supposed to have arisen from the 
plenty of wine made at this town ; but the 
neighbouring towns were no less famous 
for wine than Gath. Perhaps its situation 
resembled a wine-press in form. Some 
think that wine-presses were first invented 
or employed at Gath. 

Gath appears to have been an ancient 
city. (Josh xi. 22. 1 Sam. v. 8.) It is 
famous for having given birth to Goliath. 
It was conquered by David in the begin- 
ning of his reign over all Israel (1 Chron. 
xviii. 1.); and it continued subject to bis 
successors till the declension of the king- 
dom of Judah. (2 Sam. viii. 1.) It eras 
rebuilt or fortified by Rehoboam. (2 Chron. 
xi. 8.) It was retaken by I /ziah ; and He/e- 
kiab reduced it under bis subjection. It 
was afterwards demolished by Hasael 
king of Syria, and was of little conse- 
quence till the time o\' the Holy war, when 

Fulk, king of Jerusalem] built a castle on 
its ruins. 



GAZ 

Calmet thinks that Mithcah, mentioned 
by Moses, (Numb, xxxiii. 29.) is the Metheg 
of 2 Sam. viii. 1. In our English Bible, it 
is translated ' David took Metheg-ammah,' 
(Metheg the mother,) which in Chroni- 
cles is explained by, ' he took Gath and her 
daughters ;' or, as it is in our translation, 
' Gath and her towns ;' Gath being the 
mother or capital, and the towns the 
daughters or dependencies. The district 
of Gath and its dependencies might be 
called in David's time Metheg-ammah ; 
but this name becoming obsolete, the au- 
thor of Chronicles explains it to be Gath 
and her towns. Is Metheg transposed 
Gathem ? 

Gath was situated about five or six miles 
from Jamnia, about fourteen south of 
Joppa, and thirty- two west of Jerusalem. 
Hence some authors, among whom is 
Calmet, say that Gath is the most southern, 
and Ekron the most northern, of the 
cities of the Philistines, as if these had 
been the two boundaries of their dominions ; 
but it appears that Gath and Ekron are 
not more than five miles from each other, 
and Gaza is the last of the five principal 
cities south. Several more towns called 
Geth or Gath are mentioned by Eusebius 
and Jerome, besides those distinguished by 
an additional name. Universal History, b. i. 
c. 7 ; Sacred Geography. 

GA'ZA, my, Val,y\, signifies strong, or a 
goat ; and this name very probably imports 
well provided, well fortified. Gaza is a 
city of great antiquity, and is noticed 
among those which marked the bounds of 
the territory of the Canaanites. It was 
one of the five principal cities of the Phi- 
listines, (1 Sam. vi. 17.) and was a frontier 
defence against Egypt. Pharaoh smote 
Gaza, ( Jerem. xlvii. 1.) ; and it seems from 
Amos (i. 70 that part, at least, of its walls 
and defences was composed of wood, as 
the prophet threatens to send afire on it, to 
consume it, which he would scarcely have 
preferred, had it been wholly of stone. 
Alexander the Great besieged Babamesis 
the Persian, during two months, in Gaza ; 
and that city, which had formerly been 
very famous, was laid waste by the Ma- 
cedonian conqueror, and was rendered 
desert, says Strabo. He did not wholly 
destroy it, but rather dismantled and de- 
graded it ; and a new city, nearer to the 
sea, and to the haven of Gaza, rose out 
of the former. Diodorus Siculus men- 
tions Palse Gaza, Old Gaza ; and Strabo 
notices ' Gaza, the desert,' which agrees 
with Acts viii. 26. Gaza was afterwards 
called New Maijuma, and afterwards Con- 
stantia, says Eusebius ; and it is now pro- 
nounced Rassa, with a strong guttural, by 
the Arabs. 

1 From the walls of Gaza,' says Volney, 
' we view at once the sea, separated by 
a sandy beach, a quarter of a league wide, 
444 




GED 



and the country, whose date trees, and 
flat and naked aspect, as far as the eye 
can discern, reminds us of Egypt; and in 
fact, in this latitude, the soil and climate 
both appear to be truly Arabian. The 
heat, the drought, the winds and the dews, 
are the same as on the banks of the Nile : 
and the inhabitants have the complexion, 
stature, manners, and accent of the Egyp- 
tians, rather than those of the Syrians.' 

Gaza is situated upon an eminence, and 
is rendered picturesque by the number of 
fine minarets which rise majestically above 
the buildings, and by the beautiful date 
trees interspersed. A very fine plain com- 
mences about three miles from the town, 
on the other side, in which are several 
groves of olive-trees. Advancing towards 
Gaza, the view becomes still more inte- 
resting ; the groves of olive-trees extending 
to the town, in front of which is a fine 
avenue of these trees. About a mile dis- 
tant from the town is a commanding height. 
The soil in the neighbourhood is of a su- 
perior quality. There is much pasturage. 
On the east side of the town is a small 
gate-way, near to which, it is said, Sam- 
son performed his exploit of carrying away 
the gate of the city ; and where he threw 
down the building which killed him and 
his adversaries. 

The neighbourhood of modern Gaza is 
described by Captains Irby and Mangles as 
being richly wooded with olives, sycamores, 
mulberries, cedars, fir-trees, &c. &c. The 
country is enclosed with hedges of prickly 
pears, the hills gently rising to the view 
beyond each other, and the whole has a 
beautiful appearance. Excepting the pe- 
rishable materials, with which the houses 
are constructed, stone being substituted for 
mud, the town partakes of the wretched 
appearance of those in Egypt. Home's In- 
troduction, vol. iii. p. 583, 584; Volney' s 
Travels, vol. ii. p. 339 ; Dr. Wittman' s Tra- 
vels in Syria and Egypt, p. 267 ; Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

GEDALI'AH, lirVn, TofioXiac,, signifies 
God is my greatness, or fringe of the Lord. 
Gedaliah, son of Ahikam, was left by 
Nebuchadnezzar in Palestine, after the 
destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, 
(Jer. xl. xli. 2 Kings xxv. 22.) to govern 
the remainder of the Jewish people, and 
to gather again those who had fled. Je- 
remiah retired to him at Mizpah; and 
many Jews, who had fled into Moab and 
Ammon came thither also. Gedaliah as- 
sured them of Nebuchadnezzar's protec- 
tion, provided they lived peaceably. Ish- 
mael, son of Nethaniah, of the royal 
family of Judah, came also to see Geda- 
liah, who had been informed that Ishmael 
was sent by Baalis, king of Ammon, to 
kill him ; but Gedaliah would not believe 
it, nor would permit any one to prevent 
the designs of Ishmael. He received him at 



GEH 



GEN 



his table, and entertained him ; and when 
the banquet was ended, Ishmael and his 
associates massacred Gedaliah, and all 
about him, as well Jews as Chaldaeans. 

GEHA'ZI, nm, signifies valley of sight, 
or vale of the breast. Gehazi, Elisha's ser- 
vant, almost continually attended that pro- 
phet, and was concerned in whatever hap- 
pened to him, till, being overcome by ava- 
rice, he went in the prophet's name, as if 
the prophet had sent him, and solicited 
from Naaman a talent of silver, and two 
changes of garment.' (2 Kings v. 20, &c.) 
Naaman gave him two talents. When Ge- 
hazi returned, Elisha demanded of him 
whence he came ? Gehazi answered, he 
had been no where. Elisha said to him, 
Went not my heart with thee, when thou 
didst receive money and garments ? The 
leprosy, therefore, of Naaman shall cleave 
unto thee, and unto thy seed for ever. 
Immediately Gehazi was seized with a 
leprosy, and from that time quitted Eli- 
sha. The king of Israel would sometimes 
cause Gehazi to relate the wonders which 
God had wrought by Elisha. (2 Kings viii. 
4, 5, &c.) See Elisha. 

GEMA'RA. This word signifies com- 
plement, perfection. The Rabbins call the 
Pentateuch the law, without any addition. 
Next to this they have the Talmud, 
which is divided into two parts: the first 
is only an application of the law to parti- 
cular cases, with the decision of the ancient 
Rabbins, and is called Mishnah, or second 
law; the other part, which is a more exten- 
sive application of the same law, is a col- 
lection of determinations by Rabbins, 
later than the Mishnah. This last is 
termed Gemara, perfection, finishing, be- 
cause they consider it as conclusive expla- 
nation of the law, to which no farther addi- 
tions can be made. 

There are two Gemaras, or two Tal- 
muds ; that of Jerusalem, and that of 
Babylon. The former was compiled, ac- 
cording to the Jews, about the end of the 
second or third century, by a celebrated 
Rabbin called Jochanan ; but father Mo- 
rinus maintains, that the Gemara was not 
finished till about the seventh century. 
Dr. Prideaux says, that it was com- 
pleted about A. D. 300. The Jews 
have little value for this Jerusalem Tal- 
mud, on account of its obscurity. The 
Babylonish Gemara is, as the Rabbins say, 
more modern. It was begun by a Jewish 
doctor named Asa, and continued by Mar- 
mar and Mar, his sons or disciples. 

The Jews believe that the Gemara 
contains nothing but the word of God, 
preserved in the tradition of the elders, 
and transmitted without alteration, from 
Moses to Rabbi Judah the Holy, and the 
other compilers of the Talmud ; who did 
not reduce it to writing till they were 
afraid it would be corrupted by the several 
445 



transmigrations and persecutions to which 
their nation was subjected. Prideaux's 
Connection, Part i. Book v. p. 470. See 
Talmud. 

GENEALOGY, from the Greek 
TeveaXoyia, signifies a list of ancestors. 
In Hebrew it is called sepher toledoth, 
liber generationis. The Hebrews care- 
fully preserved their genealogies, and 
never was a nation more circumspect in 
such matters. We find genealogies in 
their sacred writings, carried on above 
3500 years. 

In the Evangelists we have the genea- 
logy of Christ for four thousand years, 
from Adam to Joseph his father, or to 
Mary his mother. The genealogy given 
by Matthew, was principally designed 
for the Jews ; and it, therefore, traces 
the pedigree of Christ, as the promised 
seed, downwards from Abraham to David, 
and from him, through Solomon's line, to 
Jacob, the father of Joseph, who was the 
reputed or legal father of Christ. (Matt. i. 
1 — 16.) That given by Luke was intended 
for the Gentiles also, and traces the pe- 
digree upwards, from Heli, the father of 
Mary, to David, through his son Nathan's 
line, and from David to Abraham, con- 
curring with the former, and from Abra- 
ham up to Adam, who was the imme- 
diate ' Son of God,' born without father 
or mother. (Luke iii. 23 — 38.) It is evident 
that Luke gives the pedigree of Mary, the 
real mother of Christ. These ancient ge- 
nealogies have been handed down to us in 
rather an imperfect state; and from the 
collations of Wetstein and Griesbach, it 
appears that there is a great diversity, 
both in the names of the several genera- 
tions, and in the order of some, occurring 
in the manuscripts now extant. The num- 
bers also of the generations in our present 
editions do not correspond with those re- 
corded by the early Christian writers, who 
reckon the amount of Luke's seventy-two 
or seventy, which at present amount to 
seventy-seven. This proves that there 
must have been some interpolations since 
their time. Hence the learned Grotius, 
Newcome, Barret, &c. have endeavoured 
to correct the two genealogies, and to har- 
monize them together by supplying defi- 
ciencies in the one, and retrenching interpo- 
lations in the other, by the help of philological 
criticism, founded upon similarities or dif- 
ferent descriptions of names, in the ma- 
nuscripts, and in the first book of Chro- 
nicles. Indeed, there is reason to think 
with Wetstein, that of the two evangelists. 
Matthew did not propose to give a full 
pedigree of our Lord, but to notice only 
the most remarkable among his ances- 
tors. This appears from his three Beriea 
of fourteen generations each, which cer- 
tainly are each of them deficient. If it be 
asked why the interpolations arc confined 



GEN 



GEN 



to Luke's genealogy, it may be answered, 
that in Matthew's the whole number of 
generations being limited to forty-two, 
any interpolation could be easily detected ; 
but in Luke's, the whole number not being 
specified, interpolations could not be de- 
tected, except by comparison with more 
correct copies. Perhaps, some of the early 
Christians wished to include their own an- 
cestors in the genealogy of Christ. 

It is observed (Ezra ii. 62.) that such 
priests as were not able to produce an 
exact genealogy of their families, were 
not permitted to exercise the sacred func- 
tions. Josephus says, that they had, in 
his nation, an uninterrupted succession of 
priests for 2000 years ; that the priests 
were particularly careful to preserve their 
genealogies, not only in Judea, but also 
in Babylonia and Egypt ; and wherever 
they were, they never married but into 
their own rank, and they had exact genea- 
logical tables, prepared from those au- 
thentic documents which were kept at Je- 
rusalem, and to which they had recourse ; 
that in all their wars, persecutions, and 
calamities, they always were particularly 
diligent in securing these documents, and 
in renewing them from time to time. How- 
ever, since the war of the Romans against 
the Jews, about thirty years after the 
death of our Saviour, and since their 
entire dispersion in the reign of Adrian, 
the Jews have lost their ancient genealo- 
gies ; and perhaps not even one of the 
sacerdotal race can produce authentic 
proofs of his genealogy. Jerome says, 
that the Jews know so perfectly their ge- 
nealogies, that they could repeat all the 
names from Abraham to Zerubbabel, as 
easily as their own. St. Paul seems to 
condemn this affectation of knowing old 
genealogies, when used only for ostentation : 
' But avoid foolish questions, and genealo- 
gies, and contentions, and strivings about 
the law ; for they are unprofitable and vain.' 
(Titus iii. 9.; 

The genealogies set down by Ezra and 
Nehemiah vary in some particulars. The 
reason of this variation is thus assigned by 
Dr. Prideaux: ' For the true settling of 
these genealogies,' says he, ' search was 
made by Nehemiah for old registers, and 
having among them found a register of the 
genealogies of those who came up at first 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jo- 
shua, he settled this matter according to 
it, adding such as afterwards came up, 
and expunging others whose families were 
extinguished : and this hath caused the 
difference between the accounts which we 
have of these genealogies, in Ezra and, 
Nehemiah. For in the second chapter of 
Ezra we have the old register made by 
Zerubbabel ; and in the seventh of Nehe- 
miah, from the sixth verse to the end of 
the chapter, a copy of it, as settled by 



Nehemiah, with the alterations I have men- 
tioned.' Prid. Connection, Sfc. Parti. B. vi. 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book ii. p. 699. 

GENERATION. This word, besides 
its common acceptation, as signifying de- 
scent, is used for the history and genealogy 
of any man : ' The book of the genera- 
tions of Adam,' (Gen. v. i.) ; that is, the 
history of Adam's creation and of his pos- 
terity ; ' the generations of the heavens and 
of the earth,' (Gen. ii. 4.) ; that is, a recital 
of the creation of heaven and earth ; * the 
book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the 
son of David,' (Matt- i. 1.); that is, the ge- 
nealogy of Jesus Christ, and the history of 
his life. 

The ancients sometimes computed by 
generations : ' In the fourth generation, 
thy descendants shall come hither again.' 
(Gen. xv. 16.) ' Joseph saw Ephraim's 
children of the third generation.' (Gen. 1. 
23.) A bastard shall not be admitted into 
the congregation ' till the tenth generation.' 
(Deut. xxiii. 2.) Among the ancients, 
when the duration of generations was not 
exactly described by the age of four men 
succeeding one another from father to son, 
it was fixed by some at a hundred years, 
by some at a hundred and ten, by others 
at thirty-three, thirty, twenty-five, and even 
at twenty years ; being neither uniform 
nor settled. Only it is remarked, that a 
generation is so much longer as it is more 
ancient. 

' This generation shall not pass away, 
till all be fulfilled' (Matth. xxiv. 34.) ; that 
is, some are now living, who shall be wit- 
nesses of the event foretold. ' O faith- 
less and perverse generation !' ' Save your- 
selves from this untoward generation,' from 
these perverse men. ' To generation and 
generation ;' that is, to future ages. 

GEN'ESIS, the first book of Scripture. 
It is called in Greek Tkvtaiq, genesis, or 
generation, because it contains the genea- 
logy of the first patriarchs ; in Hebrew, 
Jrunn bereschith, because it begins with 
that word. It comprehends the history of 
at least 2369 years ; from the beginning 
of the world to the death of the patriarch 
Joseph. It contains an account of the 
creation of the world, and its first inha- 
bitants ; the original innocence and fall of 
man ; the rise of religion ; the invention 
of arts ; the general corruption and degen- 
eracy of mankind ; the universal deluge ; 
the re-peopling and division of the earth ; 
the origin of nations and kingdoms ; and a 
particular history of the patriarchs from 
Adam to the death of Joseph. It is the 
most ancient history in the world ; and from 
the great variety of its singular details, and 
most interesting accounts, is as far superior 
in its value and importance to all others, as 
it is in its antiquity. 

If it be asked, how a detail so circum- 



GEN 



GER 



stantial and minute could have been pre- 
served, unless there had been writings of 
some kind, especially as the earth, whose 
history is here given, had already existed 
more than 2000 years ? To this it may 
be answered, that, if in the antediluvian 
world no writing of any kind existed, 
tradition would answer every purpose to 
which alphabetical characters could be 
subservient. It was easy for Moses to be 
satisfied of the truth of all he relates, as 
the accounts came to him through the me- 
dium of very few persons. From Adam 
to Noah, one man only was necessary to 
the correct transmission of the history of 
this period of 1G56 years. This history 
was without doubt perfectly known to 
Methuselah, who lived to see them both. 
In like manner, Shem connected Noah and 
Abraham, having lived to converse with 
both ; as Isaac did with Abraham and Jo- 
seph, from whom these things might be 
easily conveyed to Moses by Amram, who 
was contemporary with Joseph. If then 
all the interesting facts recorded in the 
book of Genesis had no other authority 
than the tradition already referred to, they 
would rest on a foundation of credibility 
superior to any that the most reputable of 
the ancient Greek and Roman historians 
can boast. But, to preclude every pos- 
sibility of mistake, the unerring Spirit of 
God directed Moses in the selection of his 
facts, and the ascertaining of his dates. 
Indeed, the narrative is so simple ; so much 
resembling truth; so consistent every 
where with itself; so correct in its dates; 
so impartial in its biography ; so accurate 
in its philosophical details ; so pure in its 
morality ; and so benevolent in its design ; 
as amply to demonstrate that it never could 
have had an earthly origin. Dr. Adam 
Clarke's Preface to Genesis; Broughton's 
Dictionary, vol. i. p. 440. 

GENTILE. The Hebrews called the 
Gentiles, □"•0 Goiim, "ESivt], the nations; 
that is, those who have not received the 
faith, or law of God. All who are not 
Jews and circumcised, are Goiim. Those who 
were converted, and embraced Judaism, 
were called proselytes. Since the Gospel, 
the true religion is not confined, as before, 
to any one nation and country. God who 
had promised, by his prophets, to call the 
Gentiles to the faith, with a superabun- 
dance of grace hath executed His promise. 
Hence, the Christian church is composed 
principally of Gentile converts ; and the 
Jews, too proud of their particular privi- 
leges, and abandoned to their reprobate 
sense of things, have disowned Jesus 
Christ, their Messiah and Redeemer, for 
whom, during so many ages, they had im- 
patiently wished. In the writings of St. 
Paul, the Gentiles are generally denoted 
as Greeks. (Rom. i. 14. 16.; ii. 9, 10.; x. 
12. 1 Cor. i. 22. 24. Gal. iii. 28.) St. Luke 
447 



expresses himself in the same manner. 
(Acts vi. 1. ; xi. 20. ; xviii. 4. ; etal.) Paul 
is commonly called the apostle of the Gen- 
tiles (Gal. ii. 8.) or the Greeks, because 
principally to them he preached Jesus 
Christ; but as Peter, and the other apos- 
tles, preached generally to the Jews, they 
are styled 'apostles of the circumcision.' 
(Gal. ii. 7-) 

The prophets declared in a very parti- 
cular manner the calling of the Gentiles. 
Jacob foretold, that when Shiloh, or the 
Messiah, should come, to him should the 
gathering of the people be. Solomon, 
after the dedication of his temple, prays 
for the stranger who in it should entreat 
God. The Psalmist says, that the Lord 
shall give the Gentiles to the Messiah for 
an inheritance ; (Ps. ii. 8.) that Egypt and 
Babylon shall know him; (Ps. Ixxxvii. 4.) 
that Ethiopia shall hasten to bring him 
presents; (Ps. lxxii. 9, 10.) and that the 
kings of Tarshish, and of the isles, the 
kings of Arabia and Sheba, shall be 
tributary to him. Isaiah abounds with 
prophecies of a like nature, and hence he 
has been justly styled the evangelical pro- 
phet. 

In the New Testament, we see that 
Gentiles came to Jerusalem to worship. 
Some of these, a little before the death of 
our Saviour, addressed themselves to Phi- 
lip, and desired them to show him Jesus. 
(John xii. 20, 21.) Queen Candace's eunuch, 
who came to Jerusalem, was likewise a Gen- 
tile, as some think. (Acts viii. 27.) 

GER'IZIM, DM*U, signifies safeties, or 
cuttings ; that is, by reapers. Gerizim 
was the name of a mount near Shechem, 
in Ephraim, a province of Samaria. 
Shechem was situated at the foot of two 
mountains, Ebal and Gerizim. Gerizim 
was fruitful ; Ebal, barren. Maundrell 
observes, that neither Ebal nor Geri- 
zim has much to boast of with respect to 
pleasantness ; but that Gerizim appears 
to discover a rather more verdant, fruit- 
ful aspect than Ebal. The reason of 
this may be, that Gerizim, fronting the 
north, is in some respects sheltered from 
the sun by its own shade, or declivity ; 
and that Ebal, having a southern sun, is 
scorched. 

God commanded that the Hebrews, 
after passing the Jordan, should go to the 
mountains Ebal and Gerizim; and should 
be divided in such a manner, that six 
tribes might be stationed upon Mount 
Gerizim, and six upon Mount Ebal. The 
former were to pronounce blessings on 
those who observed the law of the Lord ; 
the latter curses against those who should 
violate it. (Deut. xi. 29.; xxvii. 12.) It is 
probable, however, that the blessings or 
curses were not pronounced upon either 
mountain, but only on the sides of the 
valley adjacent to those mountains. 



GER 



GIA 



The Samaritans maintain, that Abra- 
ham and Jacob erected altars at Gerizim ; 
and that here Abraham prepared to sacri- 
fice his son Isaac. (Gen. xii. 6. 7- ; xiii. 4. ; 
xxxiii. 20.) They add, that God required 
the blessings to be given from Mount Geri- 
zim, and his curses from Ebal ; that Jo- 
shua's altar upon Gerizim is in being at 
this day : and that Mount Gerizim, on 
account of its beauty and fertility, was 
chosen as the place of blessing. They quote 
from their Bible as follows : ' When ye 
be gone over Jordan, ye shall set up these 
stones, which I command you this day, 
in Mount Gerizim (in the Hebrew copies 
mount Ebal,) and thou shalt plaister them,' 
&c. (Deut. xxvii. 4. 12. 13.) The same 
in Exod. xx. 18. Hence it is generally 
supposed, that the text has been corrupted, 
either by the Jews, who substituted Ebal 
for Gerizim, or by the Samaritans, who 
substituted Gerizim for Ebal. Yet, both 
the Jewish and Samaritan copies of the 
Pentateuch might be correct in their seem- 
ingly opposite readings of Gerizim and 
Ebal. We have only to reflect, that the 
Hebrew particle used, is taken with a lati- 
tude, and that the person speaking did not 
strictly stand upon these mountains, but 
at them, that is, in the edge of the valley 
between them. A person who pronounces 
a blessing from the place where he stands, 
blesses the part opposite to him, rather than 
that upon which he stands. Hence, a 
number might stand at, adjacent to, against 
Ebal,' to bless, as the Jewish copies say ; 
but their blessing would be directed to 
Gerizim, which would be the Mount of 
Blessings, as the Samaritan copies say. In 
fact, it is extremely probable, that the 
altar, &c. stood in the valley between both 
mountains, and not on the upper parts of 
either. (Deut. xi. 29.) 

A temple was built upon Gerizim, and 
consecrated to the God of Israel, in the 
year of the world 3672 ; and as the moun- 
tain was very high, many steps were cut 
for the convenience of the people. When 
Antiochus Epiphanes began to persecute 
the Jews, the Samaritans intreated him 
that their temple upon Mount Gerizim, 
which had hitherto been dedicated to an 
unknown and nameless God, might be con- 
secrated to Jupiter, the Grecian. This 
was easily consented to by Antiochus. It 
is certain, that in the time of our Saviour, 
this temple was in being ; and that the 
true God was there worshipped, as the 
woman of Samaria, pointing to Gerizim, 
said to him, ' Our fathers worshipped in 
this mountain, and ye say, that in Jerusa- 
lem is the place where men ought to wor- 
ship.' (John iv. 20.) We are assured, that 
Herod the Great having rebuilt Samaria, 
and called it Sebaste, in honour of Augus- 
tus, would have obliged the Samaritans to 
worship in the temple which he had 
448 



erected ; but they constantly refused, and 
have continued to this day to worship God 
upon this mountain. Supplem. Addenda to 
Calmefs Dictionary ; MaundrelVs Travels, 
p. 60 ; Sacred Geography. 

GIANT, in Hebrew VS3 nophel, or D"b33 
nephilim, in Greek yiyag, which may signify 
a monster, a terrible man, who beats and 
bears down other men. Some think, that 
the word nephilim denotes those who had 
apostatized or fallen from the true religion. 
Mr. Parkhurst is of opinion, that it means 
such as fall upon others, assaulters, vio- 
lent. Thus, Aquila translates nephilim. 
ETmr'nrTOVTtQ, irruentes, men who attack, 
who fall with impetuosity on their enemies ; 
and this renders very well the force of the 
term. Symmachus translates fiiaioi, violent 
men, cruel, whose only rule of action is 
violence and force. 

The Scripture calls giants sometimes 
Rephaim : Chedorlaomer beat the Re- 
phaim at Ashteroth-Karnaim. (Gen. xiv. 5.) 
The Emim, ancient inhabitants of the 
land of Moab, were of a gigantic stature, 
that is Rephaim. The Rephaim and the 
Perizzites are connected as ancient inha- 
bitants of Canaan. Job says, that the 
ancient Rephaim groan under the waters. 
Solomon says, that the ways of a de- 
bauched woman lead to the Rephaim, 
(Prov. ii. 18.; ix. 18.) that he who de- 
viates from the ways of wisdom, shall dwell 
in the assembly of giants, Rephaim, in 
hell. (Prov. xxi. 16.) The Anakim, or sons 
of Anak, were the most famous giants of 
Palestine. They dwelt at Hebron, and 
in that neighbourhood. The Israelites 
sent to view the promised land, reported, 
that, in comparison, they themselves were 
only grasshoppers. (Num. xiii. 33.) 

The Septuagint sometimes translate 
gibbor, gigas, though literally it signifies a 
strong man, a man of valour, a warrior. 
Thus, they say, that Nimrod was a giant 
before the Lord ; that the sun rises like a 
giant to run its course ; that the Lord will 
destroy the giants, and the warlike man ; 
that he will call his giants in his wrath, to 
take vengeance on his enemies ; that he 
will destroy the power of Egypt by the 
sword of his giants. It is also observable, 
that our English translators have rendered 
six different Hebrew words by the one 
term giants ; nephilim, gibborim, enachim, 
rephayim, emim, and zamzuzim. By these 
appellatives are probably meant, in gene- 
ral, persons of great courage, wickedness, 
&c, and not men of enormous stature, as is 
commonly supposed. 

"With respect to the existence of giants, 
several writers, both ancient and modern, 
have imagined that the giants of Scrip- 
ture were indeed men of extraordinary 
stature ; but not so much so as those 
have fancied, who describe them as three 
or four times larger than men are at pre- 



GIB 



GIB 



sent. They were, say they, men famous for 
their violences and crimes, rather than for 
their strength or stature. But it cannot 
be denied, that there have been men of 
a stature much above that common at pre- 
sent. Moses (Deut. iii. 11.) speaks of the 
bed of Og, king of Basan, as nine cubits 
long and four wide, fifteen feet four inches 
in length. Goliath was six cubits and a 
span in height ; ten feet seven inches, or, 
as Mr. Parkhurst contends, nine feet six 
inches. (1 Sam. xvii. 4.) Giants were still 
common in the times of Joshua, and of 
David, when the life of man was already 
shortened, and, as may be presumed, the 
size and strength of human bodies was 
proportionably diminished. 

Pliny relates, that a man named Gabara, 
brought out of Arabia, in the days of 
Claudius, was nine feet nine inches high. 
In the time of Augustus Caesar, were two 
persons called Idusio and Secundilla, each 
of whom were ten feet high. Vitellius 
sent Darius, the son of Artabanus, an 
hostage to Rome, with divers presents, 
among which was a man seven cubits, or 
ten feet two inches high, a Jew born ; he 
was named Eleazer, and was called a giant, 
by reason of his greatness. Merula, who 
succeeded Justus Lipsius as professor of 
history in the university of Leyden, asserts 
that, A.D. 1583, he himself saw in France a 
Fleming who exceeded nine feet in height 
Delrio affirms, that in 1572, he saw at 
Rohan a native of Piedmont above nine 
feet high. Calmet says, that in 1719, 
near Salisbury in England, a human ske- 
leton was found, which was nine feet four 
inches long. Becanus saw a man near ten 
feet, and a woman full ten feet high. 
O'Brien, who, a few years ago, was exhi- 
bited in England, under the name of ' the 
Irish Giant,' measured eight feet six or 
eight inches when living, and two or three 
inches more when dead. Supplem. Addenda 
to Calmet's Dictionary ; Parkhurst' s Heb. 
Lexicon, pp. 24, 25, 458 ; Br. Adam Clarke's 
Comment on Gen. vi. 4. 

GIB'EAH, yna, signifies the hill, or 
high place ; elevation. The most consider- 
able city of this name was Gibeah of 
Benjamin. It gave birth to Saul, the first 
king of Israel ; and hence it is frequently 
called Gibeah of Saul. (Josh, xviii. 24. Ezra 
ii. 20. Nehem. vii. 30.) It is also famous 
for its sins, particularly for that committed 
by forcing the young Levite's wife, who 
was come to lodge at Gibeah ; and for the 
war which succeeded it, to the almost 
extermination of the tribe of Benjamin. 
(Judg. xix.) The Scripture remarks, that 
this happened at a time when there was 
no king in Israel ; but every one did that 
which was right in his own eyes. This city 
was situated north of Jerusalem twenty or 
thirty furlongs. 

Some are of opinion, that Gibeah of 
449 



Benjamin was a different place from 
Gibeah of Saul. It is observed, that the 
attention employed by the sacred writers 
to distinguish them, appears to be intended 
to establish this difference. Thus, we 
read (1 Sam. xiii. 15.) that Samuel went 
up to Gibeah of Benjamin ; but (xv. 34.) 
1 Saul went up to his house (palace) to 
Gibeah of Saul.' Hence, it is thought that 
this palace probably distinguished Gibeah 
of Saul, though not far from Gibeah of Ben- 
jamin. Sacred Geography ; Wells's Geogra- 
phy, vol. ii. p. 10. 

GIB'EON, pyn3, signifies a high hill. 
It was the capital city of the Gibeonites, 
who took advantage of the oaths of Joshua, 
and of the elders of Israel, procured by an 
artful representation of their belonging to 
a very remote country. (Josh, ix.) Some 
have thought, that in this they spoke truth, 
as their ancestors were settlers from the 
east, who followed those tribes from India, 
which overran Canaan as well as Egypt. 
Thus the Gibeonites mingled fact with their 
guile, and spoke truth, but not the whole 
truth. Joshua and the elders had not the 
precaution to consult God on this affair ; but 
inconsiderately entered into a league with 
this people. The Israelites soon disco- 
vered their mistake, and, without revoking 
their promise of giving them their lives, 
they condemned them to labour in carry- 
ing wood and water for the tabernacle, and 
to other works of women, as a mark of 
their pusillanimity and duplicity, as slaves 
and captives. In this state of servitude 
the Gibeonites remained till the entire 
dispersion of the Jewish nation. Three 
days after the Gibeonites had surrendered 
to the Hebrews, the kings of Canaan being 
informed of it, five of them came and 
besieged the city of Gibeon. The Gibeon- 
ites requested the aid of Joshua, who at- 
tacked the five kings early in the morning, 
put them to flight, and pursued them to 
Bethoron. (Josh. x. 3, &c.) 

The Gibeonites were descended from the 
Hivites, the old inhabitants of the country, 
and possessed four cities ; Cephirah, Beeroth, 
Kirjath-jearim, and Gideon, their capital, 
all afterwards given to Benjamin, except 
Kirjath-jearim, which fell to Judah. The 
Gibeonites continued subject to those 
burdens which Joshua imposed on them, 
and were very faithful to the Israelites. 
Yet Saul, through some mistaken zeal, 
destroyed a very great number of them ; 
(2 Sam. xxi. 1, 2, 3, &c.) but God, as a 
punishment of his cruelty, sent, in the reign 
of David, a great famine, which lasted 
three years. The prophets told David, 
that this calamity would continue so long 
as that cruelty remained unavenged, which 
Saul had exercised against the Gibeonites. 
David asked the Gibeonites, what satisfac- 
tion they desired? They answered, We will 
put to death seven of Saul's sens, to a?< 
Gg 



GID 



GID 



the blood of our brethren. The Gibeonites 
crucified them before the Lord. From 
this time the Gibeonites are not mentioned, 
as forming a sort of separate people. 
Many commentators are of opinion, that 
they were included among the Nethinim, 
who were public slaves appointed for the 
service of the temple. (1 Chron. ix. 2.) 

It is not known when, or by whom, or on 
what occasion, the tabernacle and altar of 
burnt- sacrifices, made by Moses in the 
wilderness, were removed to Gibeon ; but 
it is certain, that, toward the end of 
David's reign, and in the beginning of 
Solomon's, they were at that place. (1 Chron. 
xxi. 29, 30.) David, seeing the angel of 
the Lord at Araunah's threshing-floor, was 
so terrified, that he had not time nor 
strength to go so far as Gibeon, there to 
offer sacrifice. But Solomon being seated 
on the throne, went to sacrifice at Gibeon, 
because this was the most considerable of 
all the high places, where sacrifices were 
then tolerated, the temple not being yet 
built. (1 Kings iii. 4.) Calmet' s Dictionary ; 
Sacred Geography. 

GID EON, 7 s y-TJ, signifies he that bruises 
and breaks; otherwise, cutting off iniquity. 
Gideon was the son of Joash, of the tribe 
of Manasseh. He dwelt in the city of 
Ophrah, and had a very extraordinary 
call, to deliver Israel from the oppres- 
sion of the Midianites. After the deaths 
of Barak and Deborah, (Judg. vi. 1, 2,) 
the Midianites so distressed the Hebrews, 
that they were forced to flee into caves, 
from the year of the world 2752 to 2759. 
Israel, overwhelmed with misfortunes, cried 
to the Lord, who deputed a prophet to 
them, who reproached them sharply with 
their ingratitude. At the same time, God 
sent his angel to Gideon, who was thresh- 
ing out his corn privately, near a wine- 
press, under an oak, to conceal from the 
Midianites what he was doing, and to be 
able to flee away immediately with his 
corn, as soon as they appeared. Bishop 
Patrick observes, that it is plain from the 
incommunicable name Jehovah, which the 
angel here assumes, and by which he 
suffers himself to be called, that he was not 
a mere angel ; and hence the Jews, accord- 
ing to their Targum, which styles him the 
Word of the Lord, consider this angel not 
merely as a heavenly messenger, but as 
the Son of God Himself, in the form of an 
angel. The angel saluted Gideon, and 
said, The Lord is with thee ! thou mighty 
man of valour. Gideon hesitated; but 
the angel answered, Go, in this thy might, 
thou shalt save Israel from the Midianites. 
Gideon excused himself; but the Lord said 
to him, I will be with thee, and thou shalt 
beat the Midianites, as if they were but 
one man. Gideon asked a sign of him, that 
he might be convinced it was no delusion ; 
he made ready a kid and unleavened cakes, 
450 



which he brought and presented to him. 
The angel said, Put them on this rock, and 
pour out the broth. Then the angel, with 
the end of the staff that was in his hand, 
touched the flesh and unleavened cakes ; 
fire issued out of the rock, and consumed 
them. The angel disappeared. Gideon 
exclaimed, Alas! O Lord God, for I have 
seen an angel of the Lord face to face. 
The Lord said to him, Fear not, thou shalt 
not die. In that same place he erected an 
altar to the Lord, which he called, the 
peace of the Lord. The night following, 
God commanded him to cut down the grove, 
and the altar of Baal, to build an altar to 
the Lord upon the top of the rock, where 
he had lately offered, and to make a burnt- 
sacrifice of one of his father's two bullocks. 
Gideon obeyed. The next day, the inha- 
bitants of Ophrah told Joash, that Gideon 
must be slain, for this affront offered to 
Baal. Joash answered, Are ye to defend 
Baal ? If Baal be God, let him avenge him- 
self. From that time, Gideon was called 
Jerobaal, that is, let Baal see, or let Baal 
contest with him, who has thrown down his 
altar. 

The Midianites came and encamped in 
the valley of Jezreel ; and Gideon assem- 
bled the Israelites of the house of Abiezer, 
who dwelt nearest to him ; also Manasseh, 
Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali. Gideon, to 
assure them that God intended their deliver- 
ance, prayed for a sign, that God would let 
the dew fall on a piece of wool, spread on 
the ground, while all around was dry. After 
this, he desired another sign, quite the con- 
trary, that the fleece of wool should remain 
dry, while all the earth about it abounded 
with dew. As the militia assembled on this 
occasion were too numerous, the Lord, 'lest 
the people should vaunt themselves against 
him,' or ascribe the victory to their own 
numbers or valour, directed Gideon to dis- 
miss all the eastern Manassites, who came 
from Mount Gilead, and might possibly be 
more afraid of their neighbours, the Midi- 
anites, than the western tribes. The passage 
may be thus more correctly rendered, by a 
slight transposition of the English transla- 
tion, (Judg. vii. 3.) : ' Whosoever, from 
Mount Gilead, is fearful and afraid, let him 
return (home) and depart early. So there 
returned (home) twenty-two thousand of the 
people.' Ten thousand only remained with 
him. The Lord next dismissed all the 
people that stooped to drink water with 
their mouths at the surface ; and he retained 
only three hundred men who lapped, or 
took up water in the palms of their hands 
to drink. 

Gideon ordered these three hundred to 
hold themselves in readiness, and gave to 
each a trumpet, a lamp or light, and an 
empty pitcher to conceal that light. Steal- 
ing over to the enemies' camp, he heard a 
Midianite relating his dream, of a cake of 



GID 



GIH 



barley-bread, which, rolling into the camp 
of Midian, overset a tent (rather the tent, 
the general's tent.) The hearer replied, 
This is the sword of Gideon. Gideon re- 
turned to his people, encouraged them, bid 
them take their lamps, their pitchers, and 
their trumpets, and do as they should see 
him do. He divided them into three com- 
panies, of one hundred men each ; which 
advanced three different ways towards the 
camp of the Midianites. At the beginning 
of the second, or middle watch, at midnight, 
on a signal given by Gideon, the three 
companies blew their trumpets, broke their 
pitchers, showed their lights, and shouted, 
' The sword of the Lord, and of Gideon,' 
and stood every man in his place ; as if 
they were the advanced guard of the whole 
army of Israel, whom they were lighting 
to attack the camp. All the host of the 
enemy ' ran, and cried, and fled' through 
the openings between the three companies, 
and, in their panic terror, put each other 
to the sword. The neighbouring tribes of 
Manasseh, Asher, and Naphtali, came in 
and pursued them. Gideon, with his three 
hundred warriors, passed the Jordan, fol- 
lowed the Midianites to Succoth and Penuel, 
(Judg. viii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) defeated them, 
took their two kings, Zeba and Zalmunna, 
and returned towards Succoth and Penuel 
before sun-set. As these two cities had 
refused to supply him with provisions and 
refreshment, when he passed them in 
pursuit of the enemy, at his return he took 
a terrible vengeance on them. He put 
Zeba and Zalmunna to death, and took 
away the golden ornaments (crescents,) 
which were about their camels' necks, and 
which were probably consecrated to the 
moon, who was worshipped in that neigh- 
bourhood, before the time of Abraham, 
under the title of Ashtaroth Karnaim, ' the 
shining cow two-horned.' (Gen. xiv. 5.) 

After this victory, Israel said to Gi- 
deon, ' Rule thou over us.' Gideon an- 
swered, ' I will not rule over you, nei- 
ther shall my son rule over you, the Lord 
shall rule over you.' But ' give me every 
man the ear-rings of his prey ;' for the 
Midianites were accustomed to wear gold 
pendants at their ears. Of these Gideon 
made an ephod, and placed it in the city 
of Ophrah. This ephod seems to have in- 
cluded not only the priest's dress, but also a 
sacerdotal establishment in his own town ; 
and this establishment, infringing on 
that at Shiloh, (Judg. viii. 27-) proved a 
1 snare to Gideon and his family,' or a 
seduction to idolatry, in worshipping the 
true God in an improper manner. It ap- 
pears also, that ' all Israel went thither a 
whoring after it ;' as they did after Gideon's 
death, relapsing into the worship of false 
gods. 

Calmet says, that Gideon judged Is- 
rael nine years, from the year of the world 
451 



2759 to 2768. Dr. Hales says, that Gideon's 
administration lasted forty years ; and he 
dates the commencement of his adminis- 
tration in the year before Christ 1359. 
Gideon had seventy sons, born of many 
wives, whom he had married ; and besides 
these, he had another, Abimelech, the son 
of a concubine, who reigned three years 
at Shechem. It has been observed, that 
the Spirit of the Lord, by which Gideon 
was animated to undertake the deliverance 
of his country, was a spirit of fortitude 
and of prudence, and of all the virtues 
requisite in a commander. (Judg. vi. 7 — 40.) 
Gideon was a consummate judge ; he pos- 
sessed all the qualifications requisite for 
that arduous station among a contuma- 
cious, a divided, and a rebellious people. 

It is very probable, that Gideon, or 
Jerobaal, or Jerubaal, is the Jerombal, 
priest to the god Jao, whom Sanchoniathon 
declares he consulted concerning the Phoe- 
nician antiquities. Hates' s New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. ii. booki. p. 310, &c. 

GI'HON, pm, signifies the breast, or 
eduction, or issue : otherwise, the valley 
of favour ; or of the mansion. Gihon was 
the name of one of the four rivers, whose 
sources were in Paradise. (Gen. ii. 13.) 
Many have believed, without any proba- 
bility, that this was the Nile. The Ara- 
bians believe, generally, that this is the 
Oxur, a river which rises in the moun- 
tains of Imaus, and runs from east to 
west : when it comes near the country 
of Choraruem, it winds much ; but it 
afterwards returns, and discharges itself 
into the Caspian Sea, westward. Modern 
geographers call the Oxur Abiamu, the 
river Amu ; the Arabians name it Gehon, 
and Neher-Balkh, the river of Balk, be- 
cause it passes through that city : might it 
be the Nilab of India ? Some, as Calvin, 
Scaliger, &c, think that Gihon is the most 
western channel of the two formed by the 
Tigris and Euphrates, when, after their 
conflux, they separate again to enter the 
sea. Some, as Bochart, Huetius, Wells, 
&c, are of opinion that Pison is the western, 
and Gihon the eastern channel, which skirts 
a rich and fertile land, • the land of Cush,' 
now Chusistan, or Chuzestan, formerly cal- 
led Susiana, or Asiatic Ethiopia. Some, 
as Reland, Calmet, &c, think that Gihon 
is the Araxes, which has its source, as 
well as the Tigris and Euphrates, in the 
mountains of Armenia, and, running with 
almost incredible rapidity, falls into the 
Caspian Sea. Captain Willbrd supposes 
the Gihon to be the Hermund, the coun- 
try of which is the original land of Cusha 
of the Purdnus, which begins at the Can- 
dahar, and includes part of Iran, or Per- 
sia. A late writer thinks, that the Gihon 
is the western branch of the Oxus. Asiatic 
Researches, vol. vi. ; Sacred Geography ; Gco- 
graph. Excurs. pp. 2, 3 ; Hales' s New Aiiaiy- 
g g 2 



GIL 



GIR 



sis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 326 ; Wells's Geog. 
vol. i. p. 13. 15. 

GIL'EAD, nyba, signifies the heap, 
round, (rather circle,) of witness ; the name 
given to the monument erected by Laban 
and Jacob, in testimony of a mutual cove- 
nant and agreement. (Gen. xxxi. 47, 48.) 
Hence the hill upon which it was erected, 
was called Mount Gilead. (Cant. iv. 1. ; vi. 
5. Jer. 1. 19.) The mountains of Gilead 
were part of that ridge of mountains 
which extend from Mount Lebanon south- 
ward, on the east of the Holy Land ; they 
gave their name to the whole country 
which lies on the east of the sea of Gali- 
lee, and included the mountainous region 
called in the New Testament Trachonitis. 

The Scripture speaks highly in com- 
mendation of the balm of Gilead. (Jer. 
viii. 22. ; xlvi. 11.; li. 8.) The merchants 
who bought Joseph, came from Gilead, and 
were carrying balm into Egypt. (Gen. 
xxxvii. 25.) If the zori of the Hebrew 
text be the same as the balsam of Mecca, it 
will prove the balsam-tree to have been in 
Gilead long before it was planted in the 
gardens of Jericho, and before the queen 
of Sheba brought that root of it to king 
Solomon, which Josephus mentions. For 
the Ishmaelites traded with it from Gilead 
to Egypt, when Joseph was sold to them 
by his brethren. It seems, however, most 
likely, that the zori of Gilead, rendered 
in our English Bible by the word balm, was 
not the same with the balsam of Mecca, 
but only a better sort of turpentine, then in 
use for curing wounds and other diseases. 
The word zori appears to be a general 
name for gums and resins issuing from shrubs 
and trees. Parkhurst's Heb. and English 
Lexicon, p. 629 ; Prideaux's Connect, part ii. 
book vi. ; Wells's Geog. vol. i. ; p. 181 ; Sa- 
cred Geography. 

GIL'GAL, baba, signifies a wheel or revo- 
lution, or heap of heaps, «: revolution of 
the heaps. Gilgal was a celebrated place, 
west of the Jordan, where the Israelites 
encamped, after their passage of this river. 
A considerable city was afterwards built 
there, which became famous for many 
events. Gilgal was situated between Jor- 
dan and Jericho, and about two miles from 
the former. This name was given to it, 
because here circumcision was renewed. 
(Josh. v. 2.) The Lord said, * This day 
have I rolled away the reproach of Egypt, 
(that is, uncircumcision) from off you,' 
&c. Gilgal signifies rolling. Here Joshua 
pitched the twelve stones, which were 
taken out of Jordan, by one man of every 
tribe. As the ark was long at Gilgal, this 
place became celebrated, and the people 
continued to go thither in pilgrimage. It 
is thought that Jeroboam, or some king of 
Israel, his successor, set up there one of 
the golden calves. (Hos. iv. 15. ; xii. 11. ; 
Amos iv. 4. ; v. 5.) 
452 



There had been idols, perhaps, at Gil- 
gal, so early as the time of Ehud, judge 
of Israel : for it is said, (Judg. iii. 19.) that 
Ehud having made his presents to the 
king, went away as far as Gilgal ; that he 
returned from thence, and pretended to 
have some secret message to him from 
God, as if he had received some oracle 
at Gilgal. Here the people met to con- 
firm the kingdom to Saul, (1 Sam. xi. 14, 
15.) ; here Saul incurred God's displeasure, 
by offering sacrifices before Samuel came, 
(1 Sam. xiii. 8.) ; and here he received the 
sentence of his rejection for sparing the 
king of Amalek, with the best of the spoils. 
(1 Sam. xv. 26.) Wells's Geography, vol. i. 
p. 290. 

GIRDLE. The Hebrews generally wore 
no girdle in the house, or abroad, unless 
when at work, or on a journey. At these 
times, they girt their clothes about them, 
as the eastern people do at this day. This 
appears from many passages of the Old 
and New Testament. Our Saviour pre- 
paring himself to wash the feet of his dis- 
ciples, ' girt himself about with a towel.' 
(John xiii. 4, 5.) Soldiers also had their 
belts generally girt about them : ' Thou 
hast girded me with strength unto the 
battle.' (Ps. xviii. 39.) 

Belts were often made of precious 
stuff. The virtuous wife made rich girdles, 
and sold them to the Canaanites, that is, 
the Phoenician merchants. (Pro v. xxxi. 24.) 
These girdles were used by both men and 
women : the women's are more frequently 
called zonce. The value of them may be esti- 
mated by the kings of Persia giving, some- 
times, cities and provinces to their wives 
for the expense of their girdles. Our Lord, 
in the Revelations, (i. 13.) appeared to St. 
John with a golden girdle. The seven an- 
gels who came out of the temple, were 
clothed with linen, and girt about with 
golden girdles. On the contrary, the pro- 
phets, and persons secluded from the 
world, wore girdles of skin, or leather. 
The prophet Elijah had one of this sort, 
as well as John the Baptist. (2 Kings i. 8. 
Matt. iii. 4.) In times of mourning, they 
used girdles of ropes, as marks of sorrow 
and humiliation. Isaiah (iii. 24.) threatens 
the daughters of Sion, who had offended 
by the excess of their ornaments, to re- 
duce them to the wearing of sackcloth 
and cord-girdles. He also (xxii. 12.) me- 
naces Jerusalem with bringing her into 
captivity, with cutting off her hair, the in- 
strument of her pride, and obliging her to 
gird herself with sackcloth. 

The military girdle, or belt, did not 
come over the shoulder, as among the 
Greeks, but was worn upon the loins ; 
whence the expression of ' sword girded 
on the loins.' These belts were generally 
rich, and sometimes given as rewards to 
soldiers. Joab tells the soldier who had 



GIR 



GNO 



seen Absalom hanging on a tree, that ' if 
he had smitten him to the ground, he 
would have given him ten shekels of silver, 
and a girdle.' (2 Sam. xviii. 11.) Jona- 
than, the son of Saul, made David a pre- 
sent of his girdle. (1 Sam. xviii. 4.) Job 
(xii. 18.) exalting the power of God, says 
1 He looseth the bond of kings, and gird- 
eth their loins with a girdle ;' where we ob- 
serve two kinds of girdles : 1. the royal 
cincture ; 2. the ordinary girdle. 

For the priests' girdle, see Priests. 

The girdle was used as a purse. Our 
Saviour forbids his apostles to carry money 
in their girdles. (Matt. x. 9.) 

GIRGASHITES, or Gergesenes, wia, 
repyecraioi, signifies who arrives from pil- 
grimage. The Girgashites were an ancient 
people of the land of Canaan, beyond the 
sea of Tiberias ; we find traces of their 
name in the city Gergesa. The Jeru- 
salem writers say, that when Joshua came 
and proclaimed, 'He that will go out 
hence, let him go,' the Girgashites with- 
drew into Africa. Yet it is certain that 
many of them remained, as Joshua (xxiv. 
11.) informs us, that he subdued the Gir- 
gashites. Dr. Wells is of opinion, that 
the Girgashites were a very small nation ; 
and that, as they are seldom mentioned, 
they were comprehended very probably 
under the name of Hivites. Wells's Geo- 
graphy, vol. i. p. 161 ; Sacred Geography. 

GLORY of GOD, in Moses, denotes, 
commonly, the divine presence; as when 
He appeared upon Mount Sinai ; or the 
bright cloud which declared His presence, 
descended on the tabernacle of the congre- 
gation. (Exod. xxiv. 9, 10. 16, 17-) Moses, 
with Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and seventy 
elders of Israel, went up Mount Sinai, and 
saw the glory of the Lord. The glory of 
the Lord was, as it were, a burning fire 
upon the mountain ; all under His feet was, 
as it were, the brightness of the sapphire- 
stone, resembling heaven itself in clearness. 
All this must have been only an appear- 
ance, unconnected with any personal simili- 
tude. The glory of the Lord appeared 
also (Exod. xvi. 1, 10.) to Israel in the 
cloud, when He gave them manna and 
quails. It appears, that the glory of the 
Lord is here spoken of as something dis- 
tinct from the Lord; for it is said He, 
namely the glory, ' heareth your murmur- 
ings against the Lord.' It is probable 
that, as tbe words of St. Paul, (Heb. i. 3.) 
1 Who being the brightness of his glory, 
and the express image of his person,' &c. 
are spoken of the Lord Jesus, so the words 
of Moses refer also to Him. As no man 
hath seen God at any time, we may infer, 
that Christ was the visible agent, in all the 
extraordinary and miraculous interferences 
which took place in both the patriarchal 
times, and under the law. Moses having 
earnestly begged of God, to reveal His 

453 



glory to him, (Exod. xxxiii. 18 — 22.) God 
said, 'thou canst not see my face, for no 
man is able to support the brightness of 
that without dying ; but I will place thee 
in a cleft of the rock, and when my glory 
shall pass before it, I will cover thee with 
my hand, and thou shalt see my back 
parts, train, rear, termination of glory, 
but my face shall not be seen.' Some think 
it probable, that this alludes to the appear- 
ance which God should assume in after 
times, when it should be said, 'God is ma- 
nifest in the flesh ;' and that John had this 
in view when he said, ' We beheld his 
glory.' Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on 
Exodus. 

GNOSTICS. This name does not occur 
in the sacred writings : but the apostles 
Peter and Paul, in their Epistles, fre- 
quently attacked the heretics of their 
time, who were afterwards known by this 
name; or, at least, those principles which 
afterwards produced the Gnostic heresy. 
Paul gives us a description of certain an- 
cient heretics, who very much resembled 
them. (2 Tim. iii. 2, 3, &c.) 

However, the Gnostics did not render 
themselves conspicuous, either for their 
numbers or reputation, till the time of 
Adrian. They obtained their name from 
boasting of their being able to restore man- 
kind to the knowledge (yvaicng) of the Su- 
preme Being, which had been so long lost. 
They blended with the faith of Christ 
many sublime but obscure tenets, which 
they derived from the oriental philosophy. 
The sages of the East had long expected a 
heavenly messenger, endued with sufficient 
power to release them from their bondage 
to corrupt matter, which they held to be 
the source of all evil. The miracles of 
Christ and his apostles induced them readily 
to accept Him as this heavenly messen- 
ger ; and they interpreted all the precepts 
oi' Christianity in the manner most agree- 
able to the absurd opinions which they had 
previously conceived. They introduced 
among their followers a multitude of ab- 
surd legends respecting the actions and 
precepts of Christ, and of the creation 
of the world by inferior beings. These 
opinions were so entirely dissonant to many 
parts of both the Old and New Testament, 
that they rejected much of these books, 
though they admitted the validity of a 
few parts. From the belief that whatever 
is corporeal is in itself intrinsically evil, 
they denied that Christ was invested with a 
real body or that he really suffered for 
the sake of mankind. As the Son of the 
Supreme God, they indeed consented to 
regard him ; but they considered him as 
interior in his nature, and believed that 
his mission on earth was designed to rescue 
the virtuous soul from the tyranny of wicked 
spirits, whose empire he w;is to destroy, anil 
to instruct men to raise the mind from its 



GOA 



GOD 



corporeal impurity to a blessed unity with 
the Supreme God. 

Far removed from the path of truth, it 
is not surprising that the Gnostics, having 
no certain rule to guide their steps, should 
separate, and wander into the manifold 
intricacies of error. Accordingly, we find 
these heretics were not only divided into 
many sects, differing in their various rules 
of religious faith, but in matters which re- 
lated to practice. Whilst the more rigid 
sects rejected the most innocent gratifica- 
tions, that the body might not be so nou- 
rished as to degrade the soul ; their more 
relaxed brethren considered the soul as 
entirely unaffected by the actions of the 
body, asserted the innocence of comply- 
ing with every dictate of nature, and aban- 
doned themselves without any restraint to 
the impulse of the passions. Their per- 
suasion that evil resided in matter, led them 
to reject the doctrine of the resurrection of 
their body; and their belief in the power of 
malevolent genii, the sources of every earthly 
calamity, induced them to have recourse 
to the study of magic to weaken or avert 
the influence of those malignant agents. 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christ. Church, vol. i. 
pp. 57, 58 ; Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. 
pp. 107, &c. ; Adams's View of Religions, 
p. 158. 

GOAT. In Leviticus (xvii. 7-) God com- 
mands to bring all animals designed to 
be sacrificed, to the door of the taber- 
nacle : ' And they shall no more offer their 
sacrifices unto devils;' literally, to the 
hairy ones, to goats. Jeroboam ordained 
him priests for the high places, and for 
the devils, (goats,) and for the calves which 
he had made.' (2 Chron. xi. 15.) The fa- 
mous heathen god, Pan, was represented 
as having the posteriors, horns, and ears 
of a goat ; and the Mendesians, a people 
of Egypt, had a deity, which they wor- 
shipped under this form. Herodotus says, 
that all goats were worshipped in Egypt, 
but the he-goat in particular. Dr. Adam 
Clarke's Comment, on Levit. xxvii. 7 »* Park- 
hurst's Hebrew and English Lexicon, pp. 
758, 759. 

Scape Goat, the goat which was set at 
liberty on the day of solemn expiation. 
See Azazel. 

GOD. This name we give to that eter- 
nal, infinite, and incomprehensible Being, 
the Creator of all things ; who preserves 
and governs all by his almighty power and 
wisdom, and is the only proper object 
of worship. God, properly speaking, can 
have no name : for as he is one, and not 
subject to those individual qualities which 
distinguish men, and upon which are found- 
ed the different denominations given to 
them, he needs not any name to distinguish 
him from other gods, or to put a difference 
between him and any, since there is none 
like him. The names, therefore, which we 
454 



ascribe to him, are descriptions or epithets, 
which express his divine qualities, in terms 
necessarily ambiguous, because they are 
borrowed from human life, or human con- 
ceptions, rather than true names which 
justly represent his nature. 

The Hebrews call God Jehovah, which 
they never pronounce. Instead of it they 
say Adonai, or Elohim, lords, masters ; or 
El, strong; or Shaddai, self-sufficient; or 
according to another pronunciation, the 
Destroyer, the Powerful One ; or Elion, the 
Most High ; or El sebaoth, God of Hosts; 
or Jah, God. In Exodus, (iii. 14.) the angel 
who spoke to Moses, said, ' Thus shalt thou 
say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath 
sent me unto you;' I am He who is, or 
I shall be He who shall be. See Jehovah. 

A late writer observes, that ' a general 
definition of this great First Cause, as far 
as human words dare attempt one, may be 
thus given. The eternal, independent, and 
self-existent Being : The Being whose pur- 
poses and actions spring from himself, with- 
out foreign motive or influence : He who is 
absolute in dominion : the most pure, most 
simple, and most spiritual of all essences : 
infinitely benevolent, beneficent, true, and 
holy : the cause of all being, the upholder of 
all things: infinitely happy, because infi- 
nitely perfect : and eternally self-sufficient, 
needing nothing that he has made. Illimit- 
able in his immensity, inconceivable in his 
mode of existence, and undescribable in his 
essence : known fully only to himself, because 
an infinite mind can be fully apprehended 
only by itself. In a word, a Being who, 
from his infinite wisdom, cannot err, or be 
deceived ; and who, from his infinite good- 
ness, can do nothing but what is eternally 
just, right, and kind.' 

God, says Sir Isaac Newton, is a rela- 
tive term, and has respect to servants. It 
denotes, indeed, an eternal, infinite, abso- 
lutely perfect Being ; but such a being, 
without dominion, would not be God. 
The word God frequently signifies Lord ; 
but every lord is not God. The dominion 
of a spiritual being constitutes God : a 
true, supreme, or imaginary dominion con- 
stitutes a true, supreme, or imaginary God. 
From such true dominion it follows, that 
the true God is a living, intelligent, and 
powerful Being ; and from his other per- 
fections, that he is supreme, or most per- 
fect. He is eternal and infinite, omnipo- 
tent and omniscient; that is, he endures 
from eternity to eternity, and is present 
from infinity to infinity. He governs all 
things that exist, and knows all things 
that are to be known. He is not eternity 
or infinity, but eternal and infinite. He 
is not duration or space ; but he endures 
and is present. He endures for ever, and 
is every where present; and by existing 
always and every where, he constitutes 
duration and space, eternity and infinity. 



GOG 



GOL 



He is omnipresent not only virtually, but 
substantially ; for power cannot subsist 
without substance. All things are con- 
tained and move in him, but without any 
mutual passion ; that is, he suffers nothing 
from the motions of bodies, and bodies ex- 
perience no resistance from his omnipre- 
sence. It is allowed, that God exists neces- 
sarily ; and by the same necessity he 
exists always and every where. Hence, 
also, he must be perfectly similar : all eye, 
all ear, all brain, all arm, all perception, 
intelligence, and action ; but in a manner 
not at all human, not at all corporeal, and 
in a manner altogether unknown to us. 
He is destitute of all body and bodily shape, 
and cannot, therefore, be heard, seen, or 
touched ; nor ought he to be worshipped 
under the representation of any thing cor- 
poreal We know him only by his pro- 
perties, or attributes, by his most wise 
and excellent structure of things, and by 
final causes. We admire him for his per- 
fections ; but we reverence and adore him 
on account of his dominion. For God, 
without dominion, providence, and final 
causes, is nothing else but fate and nature. 
Neivton's Principi a, vol. ii. p. 311. edit. 1803; 
Broughton's Historical Dictionary, vol. i. p. 
448 ; Dr. Adam Clarice's Comment, on Gene- 
sis i. 1. 

GOG and MA'GOG. We do not separate 
these two names as the Scripture generally 
joins them. Moses (Gen. x. 2.) speaks of 
Magog the son of Japheth, but says nothing 
of Gog. According to Ezekiel, (xxxviii. 2, 
3, &c. ; xxxix. 1, 2, &c.) Gog was prince 
of Magog. Magog signifies the country 
or people ; and Gog the king of that 
country. Suidas says, that Magog is the 
Persians, and hence we might suppose, 
that Ezekiel, who describes the army of 
Magog, intended the army of Xerxes. 
Josephus says, that the people named 
Magoges, were so called from their leader 
Magog, who, by the Greeks, is denomi- 
nated a Scythian. It would seem, therefore, 
that Josephus speaks of a name and a 
people well known in his own time. As- 
seman places Magog in Chorasan and 
Bukharia. Ebedjesu, in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, says, that Adeus planted Christ- 
ianity ' throughout Persia, the regions of 
Assyria, Armenia, Media, Babylonia, the 
land of Huz (in the south of Persia, not 
far from the Tigris, whose metropolis is 
marked Ahvaz in D'Anville, about lat. 
40°,) to the confines of India, and even 
to the Land of Gog and Magog.' Elias 
Damascenus, who lived about A.D. 893, 
says, ' Alpheus, disciple of Adeus, called 
to the faith of Christ, Kebal (that is Par- 
thia), and Persia, and Ahvaz, to the bor- 
ders of Sind (that is, India), and Gog and 
Magog.' Amras says, ' Persia and Gebal, 
and the country beyond, even to Gog and 
Magog.' These authorities clearly point to 
455 



the country which we now call Tartary, 
largely taken, as what was formerly called 
Magog. These regions used the Syriac lan- 
guage. Moses has only Magog as a people ; 
the name Gog seems to have been added by 
Ezekiel among the Jews, and from him to 
have been received by Christian writers in 
the Apocalypse. The Arabs, Persians, and 
Turks, says D'Herbelot, always associate 
Jiouge and Magiouge (Gog and Magog,) 
and they understand by these names the 
same as by Tsin and Matsin, the Chinese 
of the north, and those of the south. 
But this prophet also seems to take Gog 
for the king, and Magog for the people ; 
as if Gog was the chief of Rosh, Meshech, 
and Tubal ; and these were military tribes 
under his orders. It is certain, that the 
Arabs and Turks take Jiouge and Majiouge 
for northern nations ; and it seems very pro- 
bable that Gog and Magog was the general 
name of the northern nations of Europe and 
Asia, or the districts north of the Caucasus, 
or Mount Taurus. 

Dr. Hales says, that ' Gog and Magog 
seem to be the general name of the northern 
nations of Europe and Asia, or the districts 
north of Caucasus, or Mount Taurus, colo- 
nized by Gog or Magog, one of the sons of 
Japheth, (Gen. x. 2.) called, by the Arabian 
geographers, Jajuje and Majuje. (Rennel's 
Herod, p. 112.) Gog rather denotes the 
people, Magog the land. Thus, Balaam fore- 
told that Christ would be ' a king higher than 
Agag,' or rather than ' Gog,' according to 
the more correct reading of the Samaritan 
Hebrew text, and of the Septuagint version 
of Numb. xxiv. 7 : and Ezekiel, foretelling 
a future invasion of the land of Israel, by 
these northern nations, Meshech, Tubal, 
and Togarmah, styles Gog their chief 
prince, and describes their host precisely as 
Scythian or Tartarian ; ' coming out of the 
north, all of them riding on horses ;' ' bows 
and arrows,' their weapons ; ' covering the 
land like a cloud, and coming like a storm,' 
in the • latter days,' (Ezek. xxxviii. 1 — 17-) 
He also describes their immense slaughter, 
in the valley of the passengers on the east 
of the sea, thence called the valley of Hamon 
Gog, 'the multitude of Gog,' (Ezek. xxxix. 
1 — 22.) This prophecy seems also to 
be revived in the Apocalypse, where 
the hosts of Gog and Magog are represented 
as coming to invade ' the beloved city,' and 
perishing with immense slaughter likewise 
in Armageddon, ' the Mount of Mageddo,' 
or Megiddo. (Rev.xvi. 14—10. ; xx. 8—10.) 
Hates' s Neio Analysis of Chronology y vol. i. p. 
4G3 ; Sacred Geography. 

GOLD, a yellow metal, the heaviest, 
purest, most ductile, and shining, and on 
these accounts the most valuable, of metals. 
Of all the metals, gold is most frequently 
found native ; and is indeed very rarely 
found in a state of ore ; that is. divested of 
its metallic forms, by its particles being pe- 



GOL 



GOM 



netrated by, and intimately mixed with sul- 
phur ; and in the few instances in which it is 
found thus, it never constitutes a peculiar 
ore, but is found intermixed among ores of 
other metals ; and most frequently among 
those of silver, or those ores in which, though 
of some other metal, there is a large quan- 
tity of silver in which the gold lies in its 
state of ore. Native gold, though free from 
the penetrating sulphurs which reduce me- 
tals to ores, is very seldom found pure ; but 
has almost constantly an admixture of silver 
with it, and very frequently of copper. Na- 
tive gold is sometimes found in pure masses 
of considerable size ; many having been found 
of more than a pound weight ; these masses 
are met with in gold mines, and are called 
aurum Obryzum, Obrizium, but they are very 
rare ; such, however, have been sometimes 
found in the German mines. Its common 
appearance in its more loose state, is in form 
of what is called gold dust: this is native 
gold in smaller masses, usually indeed very 
small, mixed among the sand of rivers. This 
is found in many parts of the world, but the 
greatest quantity of it is from Guinea. 
By the trials that have been made, gold 
seems the most simple of all substances. 
It is wholly incapable of rust, and is not 
sonorous when struck. It requires a strong 
fire to melt it, remaining unaltered in that 
degree of heat which fuses tin or lead, but 
running with a less vehement heat than is 
necessary to fuse iron or copper. Gold oc- 
curs throughout the Scripture ; and the use 
of that metal among the ancient Hebrews, in 
its native and mixed state, and for the pur- 
poses in which it is used at present, was 
common. The ark of the covenant was 
overlaid with pure gold; the mercy-seat, 
the vessels and utensils belonging to the 
tabernacle, were of gold, as were those also 
of the house of the Lord, and the drinking 
vessels of king Solomon : they made chains, 
bracelets, and other ornaments of gold, coins 
and medals, crowns of gold, &c. The mines 
whence Solomon had the greatest part of his 
gold, were those of Ophir. See Ophir. 

Dr. Prideaux observes, that from the 
time of David and Solomon, for above 
fifteen hundred years afterwards, gold and 
silver were in much greater plenty in the 
world than either of them is at present. 
This is sufficiently proved by the immense 
riches which Solomon had in gold and sil- 
ver, the prodigious quantities of both these 
which Alexander found in the treasures of 
Darius, and the vast loads of them which 
were often carried in triumph before the 
Roman generals, when they returned from 
the conquered provinces. Prideaux's Con- 
nect, part. i. book v. ; A Dictionary of the 
Holy Bible, vol. ii. p. 550. edit. 1759. 

GOLI'ATH, r\*bl, signifies passage, disso- 
lution, discovery, heap. Goliath was a fa- 
mous giant of Gath, who presented him- 
self between the armies of the Philistines, 
456 



encamped between Shochoh and Azekah, 
and defied the Hebrews. He was six cu- 
bits and a span high ; about twelve feet 
and a half, reckoning the cubit at twenty- 
one inches: or, as Mr. Parkhurst thinks, 
nine feet six inches. His armour was 
suitable to his stature. At length, David 
coming to the camp, to bring provisions to 
his brothers, declared that he would en- 
counter this giant. Accordingly, David 
marched against Goliath, and slung at him 
a stone, which struck the giant with such 
force that he fell down. David running upon 
him, drew the giant's sword, and cut off his 
head. 

Goliath was descended from Arapha ; that 
is, the old Rephaim. An author who has 
examined the weight of his armour, finds, 
that allowing a proportionable weight to 
each part, it must have been two hundred 
and seventy-two pounds thirteen ounces. 

It is believed by some, that David, on this 
occasion, composed the 144th psalm. 

GO'MER, -)OJ, signifies to finish, complete, 
accomplish. Gomer, son of Japheth, (Gen. 
x. 2.) was father to the people of' Galatia, ac- 
cording to Josephus. The ancient inhabi- 
tants of that country were called Gomares, 
before the Galatians seized it. The Chaldee 
places Gomer in Africa ; Bochart, in Phrygia. 
It would seem, that the ancient Cimbri, or 
Cimmerians, and probably the Welsh or 
Cymri, sprung from Gomer. Michaelis ap- 
proves of Bochart's placing the Gomerians 
in Phrygia. The probability is, that Gomer 
received his possession in the regions north 
of the Danube ; that from hence he spread 
abroad to the west, till Germany, France, 
and Britain, were peopled by him ; and that 
his posterity still continue marked, if not dis- 
tinct, in the ancient Britons now resident in 
Wales. The Gomerites might also make 
excursions east, and crossing the Black Sea, 
might colonize Pontus ; so that the Galatians 
were possibly a branch of Gomer, notwith- 
standing their distance of time and place 
from the main stem. The ancient Britons 
consider themselves as having emigrated 
from the Crimea, and by that route from the 
east. This would be an interesting inquiry, 
did we not know that our country has been 
successively over-run by other nations ; and 
that the Romans, the Saxons, and the Nor- 
mans, have intermingled themselves so 
greatly throughout England, that not a trace 
of the early original remains. In Wales the 
mountains have afforded means of preserving 
a purer descent ; and some individuals can 
derive their pedigree from remote antiquity, 
with great appearance of probability. Sacred 
Geography. 

GOMOR'RAH, moy, signifies a rebel 
people ; otherwise, fearful people, or a handful, 
or servant ; or, more probably, it denotes a 
well-watered place. Gomorrah was one of 
the principal cities of the Pentapolis, con- 
sumed by fire from Heaven. Dr. Wells 



GOO 



GOO 



thinks, that this was the most considerable 
of the five cities, except Sodom. Wells's 
Geog. vol. i. p. 140 ; Sacred Geography. 

GOODNESS, desirable moral qualities. 
All corporeal good is short-lived, and liable 
to satiety; but the pleasures of goodness 
are immutable and eternal. Of all tempo- 
ral possessions and enjoyments we shall be 
stripped by death ; but goodness alone is 
that property and that pleasure, which the 
possessor will carry with him beyond the 
grave. How great and innumerable are 
the benefits likely to accrue from a heart 
governed by the precepts of religion, in 
all the varied circumstances and conditions 
of life ! Are we rich and prosperous, is 
not religion necessary to confirm our hap- 
piness ? Are we poor, or in a low and 
despised condition ? Then religion is ne- 
cessary to console us, to give us right no- 
tions of our dignity as immortal beings. 
Great is the difference between a good and 
a bad man, even in that difference of cir- 
cumstances which tends to make the tem- 
poral condition of the good man appa- 
rently the most disastrous. Is the good man 
depressed with indigence ? Still he has a 
sure refuge from impatience and distrust, in 
reflecting on the providential government 
of His heavenly Father, who feedeth the ra- 
vens, and who consequently will not, with- 
out some good reason, suffer His rational 
creatures to suffer hunger? Is the good man 
stretched on the bed of sickness, or in- 
volved in the depths of misery? Still he 
knows that the languor, and weariness, 
and pain, which he endures, are wisely ap- 
pointed for his ultimate improvement. He 
murmurs not against the righteous govern- 
ment of His heavenly Father, who, in the 
ministration of His providence, inflicts many 
things on him, which only tend to render him 
the more fit for glory, and honour, and im- 
mortality, beyond the grave. ' We know,' 
says St. Paul, ' that all things work together 
for good, to those who love God.' (Rom. viii. 
28.) In short, the inward satisfaction of the 
good man, even in the most distressing cir- 
cumstances, is really greater than that of the 
bad man, in the highest honour, or the 
greatest affluence. 

Does any one deserve, or can any one 
command, so much respect as the good 
man ? We may gaze with envy on the rich, 
or look with dread on the powerful ; but 
we never contemplate with any thing like 
respect either the rich or the powerful, 
when they are wanting in goodness, when 
their moral character is base, when they 
are notorious for their covetousness, their 
injustice, or their cruelty. But, however 
distressed or poor a man may be, we can- 
not avoid regarding him with sensations 
approaching to those of veneration, if he 
be morally good, and upright in his general 
conduct. Then we cannot help esteeming 
and applauding him. Is the good man 
457 



barren of delight, or destitute of pleasure ? 
No ; to him belong the purest delights, and 
the most exquisite pleasures. He rejoiceth 
before Him, ' in whose presence is the ful- 
ness of joy, and at whose right hand there 
are pleasures for evermore.' How sweet, 
how deliciously satisfactory is that plea- 
sure, which we experience, when in trying 
circumstances, we have resisted the temp- 
tations that beset us, and obeyed the will of 
God ! No pleasure, either in purity or 
degree, can equal that which is felt in doing 
good. Compared with this, all other joys 
are vapid, unsubstantial, and illusory. 

No true freedom can exist where the 
person is not morally free from the oppres- 
sive tyranny of unrighteous habits ; and 
what can exempt us from this tyranny but 
the doctrine of Jesus, accompanied with 
such weighty sanctions, such deterring 
threats, and such animating promises ? 
What produces so many vexations, or sub- 
jects a man to so many vicissitudes and 
cares, as unrighteousness ? The good man 
lays down all the burthen of his worldly 
cares, his temporal distractions and solici- 
tudes, at the foot of the cross. He takes 
upon him the yoke of the doctrine of Jesus ; 
and he finds rest to his soul. 

Though the good man may be despised 
for want of wisdom by worldly men, who 
regard nothing but the interest of the 
present moment, yet it is certain that he 
•done is wise. For what wisdom can 
equal either in its present or remote be- 
nefits, the wisdom of goodness ; which 
tends more than any thing else to make us 
resemble God, the Father of Lights ? 
Wicked men, who omit no opportunity of 
promoting their present interest, or se- 
curing their present purposes, may think 
themselves wise ; but, if the matter be 
rightly considered, it will be found, that 
no man can be so truly foolish as he who 
commits evil. Wickedness is, indeed, the 
greatest abuse, or rather defect of reason ; 
for reason, rightly employed, will always 
teach us, ' that to depart from evil is un- 
derstanding.' He certainly is the wisest 
man, who turns his time and his talents 
to the best account. Other men may be 
wise in their generation ; but the good man 
alone is wise unto salvation. Who is so 
largely or so universally beneficial as the 
good man ; who benefits others so much 
by his instruction, his alms, his example, 
and his prayers ? Who is, on all occasions, 
so willing to contribute to the good of 
others, to alleviate their misery, or increase 
their happiness ? Who takes so warm an 
interest, so sincere a delight, in the welfare 
of his friends, who is so willing to forgive 
his enemies, or so well entitled to the praise 
of benefactor to his country and tin- hu- 
man race ? Such are the gains and plea- 
sures of goodness; and these gains and 
pleasures are not delusive and transmit. 



GOS 



GOS 



vain, unsubstantial, and unsatisfactory, like 
those of sin, but solid, immutable, and eternal. 

Let it, however, be understood, that reli- 
gious principles alone can destroy the seeds 
of vice, and produce the fruits of true 
goodness. A semblance of virtue and good- 
ness may exist, where there is no sense of 
religion; but a principle of true religion 
implanted in the heart by the Divine Spirit, 
is the only root from which genuine virtue 
and true unaffected goodness can spring. 
Such a principle will naturally and neces- 
sarily produce every virtue that can render 
a man happy in himself and amiable in so- 
ciety. On the contrary, where the heart is 
destitute of religious principles, and a stran- 
ger to sentiments of piety, though the out- 
ward conduct may be unexceptionable, there 
no true goodness can exist. To attempt to 
promote the interests of virtue in the world, 
and to gain the hearts of mankind to a love 
of true goodness, without endeavouring to 
impress the mind with a reverence for God 
and religion, is to labour in vain. Pious 
principles will naturally produce virtuous 
sentiments and virtuous practice ; but a 
contempt of religion will assuredly be pro- 
ductive of base principles, and immoral 
conduct. Dr. Hood's Sermons, p. 71 ; Fel- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. i. p. 449, &c. 

GO'SHEN, JtfO, signifies nearness or ap- 
proximation. The land of Goshen was a 
part of Egypt, in which Joseph placed his 
father and brethren. (Gen. xlvii. 6.) This 
was the most fertile pasture-ground in the 
whole of Lower Egypt ; and hence it was 
called Goshen, from gush, in Arabic, signi- 
fying ' a heart,' or whatever is choice or 
precious. There was also a Goshen in the 
territory of the tribe of Judah, which was 
so called for the same reason. (Josh. x. 41.) 
Hence, Joseph recommended it to his family 
as ' the best of the land.' (Gen. xlvii. 11.) 
and ' the fat of the land.' (Gen. xlv. 18.) 

The land of Goshen lay along the most 
easterly branch of the Nile, and on the east 
side of it ; for it is evident, that at the de- 
parture of the Israelites from Egypt, they 
did not cross the Nile. In ancient times, 
Goshen was considerably more extensive, 
both in length and breadth, in consequence 
of the general failure of the eastern branches 
of the Nile; the main body of the river 
verging more and more to the west con- 
tinually, and deepening the channels on that 
side. Rennet's Herodot. p. 537 ; Hales' 's New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 374. 

GOSPEL, a Saxon word, which denotes 
good news, glad tidings, news from God. 
The same is the meaning of svayyeXiov, the 
Greek word for Gospel. The book which 
contains the recital of our Saviour's life, 
miracles, death, resurrection, and doctrine, 
includes the best news that could be pub- 
lished to mankind. We acknowledge only 
four canonical Gospels; those of Matthew, 
Mark, Luke, and John. 
458 



Some German critics, as Le Clerc, Mi- 
chaelis, Koppe, Lessing, Eichhorn, &c. 
have supposed that the first three Evange- 
lists did not see each other's Gospels ; and 
to account for the remarkable verbal har- 
mony that appears between these Gospels, 
they have supposed that all these evangelists 
used a common document in the Hebrew 
or Syro-Chaldee dialect, which contained a 
short narrative of the principal transac- 
tions of Christ's ministry, which served as 
a basis for their Gospels, and which they 
altered and enlarged, according as they ob- 
tained fuller information. This hypothesis 
has been adopted and modified by the 
learned and ingenious Dr. Herbert Marsh, 
who in his elaborate ' Dissertation on the 
origin of our three first canonical Gospels,' 
annexed to his Notes on the third volume of 
Michaelis, conjectures that Luke meant to 
express the title of this common document, 
which was Aif/yrjaig 7repi T&VTrnrXripotyopr]- 
fikvcjv 7rpayixdTU)v, k. t. \. At the same 
time, he candidly notices an objection, 
which he leaves to the decision of the 
learned, whether Luke's omitting the article 
ttjv, in his account, avaraZaaSrai dirjytjcriv, 
may not destroy the whole conjecture. That 
profound Greek critic, Middleton, in his 
doctrine of the Greek Article, gives a ver- 
dict against Dr. Marsh, by observing, that 
' the title of a book, as prefixed to the 
book itself, should be anarthrous (without 
the article:) but when the book is referred 
to, the article should be inserted.' It ap- 
pears, indeed, that Luke's preface mili- 
tates entirely against this hypothesis. 
Matthew and John, who were ' eye witnesses 
and ministers' of the ' Oracle,' had no 
need of a common document; and Luke 
expressly asserts, that he derived his infor- 
mation from apostles ; and we may conclude 
the same of Mark : whilst, according to 
Origen, all were impelled to write, and in- 
spired by the Holy Spirit, whom Christ 
had solemnly promised to send to guide 
them into all the truth of the Gospel. (John 
xvi. 13.) That the succeeding evangelists 
did not see the Gospels of their predecessors, 
upon which the whole hypothesis hinges, is 
a negative which cannot be proved. On 
the contrary, the affirmative, that they did, 
is not only highly probable, if we consider 
the intimate connexion and correspondence 
subsisting between them, but seems to be 
sufficiently proved from internal evidence, 
namely, by the verbal agreement between 
the first three evangelists. This will appear 
by comparing, first, Matthew and Mark 
together, and Matthew and Luke together ; 
secondly, Mark and Luke together; and 
thirdly, all three together. 

Of the three evangelists, Matthew is 
generally allowed to have written the first. 
His Gospel, in all the codes or volumes of 
the Gospels, and most ancient manuscripts, 
is placed first ; and the priority is given to 



GOS 



GOS 



it, in the citations of the primitive fathers, 
and of the early heretics. Whether he 
wrote in Hebrew or in Greek, is a point 
greatly contested by the critics. The pre- 
sumption is strongly in favour of the lat- 
ter. Greek was at that time the prevailing 
language. As not only the rest of the 
evangelists, but also the apostles, Peter, 
James, John, Jude, and Paul, wrote all 
their epistles in Greek, to Christians, Jews, 
and Gentiles, throughout the known world ; 
and as Matthew's Gospel was intended 
for universal dissemination, not less than 
theirs ; (Matth. xvi. 13. ; xxviii. 19.) it is 
unlikely that it was written in any other 
language than that employed by all the 
other writers of the New Testament. This 
is strongly confirmed by the numerous and 
remarkable instances of verbal agreement 
between him and the other evangelists ; 
which, on the supposition that he wrote in 
Hebrew, or the vernacular Syro-Chaldaic 
dialect, would not be credible. Even they 
who maintain that opinion, are forced to 
confess, that, before Luke and Mark wrote 
their Gospels, there existed an early Greek 
translation of Matthew's Gospel, which 
those evangelists consulted. 

Whether Mark or Luke wrote first, is a 
matter of difficult determination. It was 
long the received opinion, that the Gos- 
pels were written exactly in the order in 
which they are placed in our canon, from 
the testimonies of Irenseus, Origen, Jerome, 
Augustine, Chrysostom, &c. who thus cite 
the evangelists. Hence, Grotius, Mill, 
Wetstein, Townson, &c. entertained no 
doubt of the priority of Mark's Gospel 
to that of Luke. But later critics have 
found reason to question the validity of 
this assumption ; and the penetration of 
Griesbach has, by an elaborate process, 
furnished internal evidence of the prio- 
rity of Luke's Gospel. He has shown 
that Mark copied from both Matthew 
and Luke ; that his Gospel is a compi- 
lation from both ; and that the whole of 
it is contained in their Gospels, with the 
exception of about twenty-four verses, 
which retain facts not recorded by either 
of his predecessors, but illustrative of 
the general subject. Mark alone men- 
tions, that Christ was with the icild beasts 
in the wilderness during his temptation, (i. 
13.); that additional circumstance in our 
Lord's first preaching, ' the time is ful- 
filled,' foretold by the prophets, (i. 15.); 
David's eating the shew-bread in the days 
of Abiathar, (ii. 26.) ; Boanerges, the em- 
phatic surname of the apostles James and 
John, signifying 'sons of thunder,' (iii. 17.) ; 
our Lord's anger and grief at the ob- 
duracy of the Jews, (iii. 5.) ; the expres- 
sion of his unbelieving friends, he is beside 
himself, (iii. 21.) ; the beautiful parable of 
the spontaneous growth of the seed, (iv. 
26 — 29.); the number of the herd of swine 
459 



2000, (v. 13.) ; Christ's expression, Talitha 
cumi, ' Damsel arise,' (v 41.) Ephphra- 
tha, ' Be opened,' (vii. 34.) the 5000 fed 
on the green grass, characterizing the 
spring of the year, (vi. 39.) the distribution 
of the two fishes as well as the loaves of 
bread, (vi. 41.) the first cock-crowing dur- 
ing Peter's denial of Christ, (xiv. 68.) the 
addition of Salome to Matthew's party of 
women, (xv. 40.) Christ's resurrection 
about sun-rise, (xvi. 2.) the vision of the 
second angel at the holy sepulchre, (xvi. 5.) 
the silence of the women respecting his 
message to Peter, (xvi. 7> 8.) his appear- 
ance under another form to the disciples 
going to Emmaus, (xvi. 12.) the disbelief 
of their report by the rest, and our Lord's 
censure, (xvi. 13, 14.) his commission to 
the apostles to preach and work miracles, 
(xvi. 15 — 18.) and their discharge of the 
commission, (xvi. 20.) All these import- 
ant facts and circumstances have been judi- 
ciously added to the conciser accounts of 
Matthew and Luke. Had Luke followed 
him, it is not credible that he would have 
omitted them all, as John has noticed those 
of Mark which coincided with his scheme, 
or came within the range of his Gospel. 
Hence we seem warranted, by the internal 
evidence, to conclude that Mark wrote 
after, and not before Luke. To this inter- 
nal evidence in favour of the priority of 
Luke's Gospel to that of Mark, early testi- 
monies of considerable weight might be 
added. In support of this opinion, we 
might also mention the modern authorities 
of Basnage, Biisching, Griesbach, and 
Marsh, founded on the internal evidence, 
and of Lardner and Michaelis founded on 
the testimonies. 

'Hence we can satisfactorily account 
for Mark's omission of certain portions of 
their Gospels entirely. On the same prin- 
ciple, John coming after him, omits con- 
siderably more than Mark, so as to form 
a distinct Gospel, which may be consi- 
dered as a supplement to the rest ; he in- 
serts only so much common matter as was 
necessary to connect his Gospel with theirs, 
and, by recording the four passovers that 
included our Lord's public ministry, gives 
a short but masterly outline of the chrono- 
logy of the whole, which had before been 
vague and undetermined. That the omis- 
sions, no less than the correspondences of 
the Evangelists, were designed, incontes- 
tibly appears from a critical comparison 
of their Gospels. They agree in promo- 
ting the common design, which was to 
collect in their admirable memoirs of Christ 
(as the Gospels were originally termed), 
the most authentic and important mate- 
rials from the mass oi original or traditional 
evidence well known to them all, and to 
condense, or rather concentrate them into 
the smallest compass, for the edification 
of the Church of Christ. In the Gospelfl is 



GOU 



GRA 



a simplicity of style and manner peculiar 
to themselves, and adapted to all ranks. 
' They were written' for the highest and 
noblest of all purposes, to instruct the 
world how to attain everlasting happiness in 
the mansions of bliss ; ' that mankind might 
believe,' on reasonable evidence, ' that Je- 
sus is the Christ, the Son of God ; and 
that believing they might have life in his 
name.' (John xx. 31.) Hales 1 s New Ana- 
lysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book ii. p. 659 — 
674. 

GOURD, in Hebrew Kikiun, a word that 
occurs in Jonah iv. 6, which the Septua- 
gint and our English version translate 
' gourd.' It is supposed, that the el-kheroa 
or ricinus, is the kikiun of Job. Niebuhr 
says, ' I saw for the first time at Basra 
the plant el-kheroa. It has the form of a 
tree : the trunk appeared to me rather to 
resemble leaves, than wood ; nevertheless, 
it is harder than that which bears the 
Adam's fig. Each branch of the kheroa 
has but one large leaf, with six or seven 
foldings in it. This plant was near to a ri- 
vulet which watered it amply. At the 
end of October, 1765, it had risen in five 
months' 1 time about eight feet, and bore at 
once flowers and fruit, ripe and unripe. 
Another tree of this species, which had not 
had so much water, had not grown more 
in a whole year. The flowers and leaves 
of it which I gathered, withered in a few 
minutes ; as do all plants of a rapid growth. 
This tree is called at Aleppo, Palma Christi : 
an oil is made from it called oleum de keroa ; 
oleum cicinum ; oleum ficus infernalis. The 
Christians and Jews of Mosul (Nineveh) 
say, it was not the kheroa whose shadow re- 
freshed Jonah, but a sort of gourd, el-kerra, 
which has very large leaves, very large 
fruit, and lasts only about four months.' 
Volney observes, that ' whoever has tra- 
velled to Cairo, or Rosetta, knows that the 
species of gourd, called kerra, will in twenty- 
four hours send out shoots near four inches 
long.' 

It is to be wished, that these authors had 
observed, whether the cool of night is no- 
ticeably favourable to the growth of the 
plant described : in order to settle the im- 
port of the Hebrew phrase, in the history 
of Jonah, 'which a son of night was, and, 
as a son of night, died.' Does it mean, that 
the plant grew chiefly by night ; or, that it 
grew in one single night ? or, that it cast so 
much shade as to occasion a kind of night 1 
We are also not obliged to understand the 
expression ' on the morrow,' lemecheret, as 
strictly importing the very next day, as the 
word has a reference to a much more dis- 
tant time, (Exod. xiii. 5. Deut. vi . 20. 
Josh, iv 6.) and may be taken simply as 
afterwards. 

The gourd called kerra is related to 
Jonah's kikiun only by its resemblance in 
name to the kheroa : for, though it be of 
460 



rapid growth, yet it does not appear to be 
proper for rising, to come up over Jonah, 
probably too, over his booth, ' to spread a 
shadow over his head, to deliver him from 
grief.' But the el-kheroa rises eight feet 
high, and consequently is capable of cast- 
ing a shadow on the head of a man, or of 
contributing to fill up the intervals in a hut 
or hovel. The circumstance of the speedy 
withering of the flowers and leaves of the 
kheroa ought to be attended to, as well as 
its present name cicinum, which is suffi- 
ciently near to the kikiun of Jonah. As 
the history in Jonah expressly says, ' the 
Lord' prepared this plant, we may consider 
it as an extraordinary one of its kind, re- 
markably rapid in growth, remarkably hard 
in its stem, remarkably vigorous in its 
branches, and remarkable for the extensive 
spread of its leaves, and the deep gloom of 
their shade ; and, after a certain duration, 
remarkable for its sudden withering, and a 
total uselessness to the impatient prophet. 
The el-kheroa, or ricinus, besides being well 
known in the East, grows also in the West 
Indies, and some of its species have been 
cultivated in Europe. They were first 
planted in England A.D. 1562. It is often 
called Palma Christi, and is the same plant 
from which our castor oil is extracted. 
Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, 
No. lxxviii. p. 135 ; Scripture Illustrated, 
Expos. Index, p. 190 ; Parkhursfs Heb. and 
Eng. Lexicon, p. 651 ; Niebuhr' s Descrip. Arab. 
p.180, Fr. Edit. ; Volney' s Travels, vol.i. p ; 71. 
GRACE is used in Scripture in various 
senses; but the general idea of it is the 
aid and assistance which we receive from 
God. The most pious of those who lived 
under the Mosaic dispensation, frequently 
acknowledge the necessity of extraordinary 
assistance from God. David prays to God 
' to open his eyes, to guide and direct him,' 
(Ps. cxix. 18, 32, 35.) ; ' to create in him a 
clean heart, and renew a right spirit within 
him.' (Ps. Ii. 10.) Solomon says that 
' God directeth men's paths, and giveth 
grace to the lowly.' (Prov. iii. 6.) Even 
we, whose minds are enlightened by the 
pure precepts of the Gospel, and influenced 
by the motives which it suggests, must still 
be convinced of our weakness and depra- 
vity, and confess that we have no power to 
perform works pleasing and acceptable to 
the Almighty, unless the grace of God pre- 
vent and assist us. The necessity of Di- 
vine grace to strengthen and regulate our 
wills, and to co-operate with our endea- 
vours, is clearly asserted in the New Testa- 
ment : ' No man can come to me, except 
the Father which hath sent me, draw him.' 
(John vi. 44.) • No man can say that Jesus 
is the Lord, but by the Holy Ghost.' (1 
Cor. xii. 3.) 'It is God that worketh in you, 
both to will and to do, of his good pleasure.' 
(Phil. ii. 13.) ' Not that we are sufficient 
of ourselves to think any thing as of our- 



GRA 



GRA 



selves, but our sufficiency is of God.' (2 
Cor. iii. 5.) We are said to be 'led by the 
Spirit,' (Rom. viii. 14.) and to 'walk in the 
Spirit' (Gal. v. 16. 25.) These texts suffi- 
ciently prove, that we stand in need of both 
a preventing and a co-operating grace. Dr. 
Nichols, after quoting many authorities to 
show that the doctrine of Divine grace al- 
ways prevailed in the Catholic church, says, 
' I have spent, perhaps, more time in these 
testimonies than was absolutely necessary ; 
but whatever I have done is to show that 
the doctrine of Divine grace is so essential 
a doctrine of Christianity, that not only the 
Holy Scriptures and the primitive fathers 
assert it, but likewise that the Christians 
could not in any age maintain their re- 
ligion without it, it being necessary not 
only for the discharge of Christian duties, 
but for the performance of our ordinary 
devotions.' 

This assistance of Divine grace is not 
inconsistent with the free agency of men ; 
it does not place them under an irresistible 
restraint, nor compel them to act contrary 
to their will. Though human nature is 
greatly depraved, yet every good disposi- 
tion is not totally extinguished, nor is all 
power of right action entirely annihilated. 
Men may, therefore, make some sponta- 
neous, though feeble attempts to act con- 
formably to their duty, which will be pro- 
moted and rendered effectual by the co- 
operation of God's grace ; or the grace of 
God may so far prevent our actual endea- 
vours, as to awaken and dispose us to our 
duty ; but yet, not in such a degree that we 
cannot withstand its influence. In either 
case our own exertions are necessary to 
enable us to work out our own salvation, 
but our sufficiency for that purpose is from 
God. We cannot, however, ascertain the 
precise boundary between our natural ef- 
forts and the Divine assistance, whether that 
assistance be considered as a co-operating 
or a preventing grace. Without destroying 
our character as free and accountable be- 
ings, God may be mercifully pleased to 
counteract the depravity of our hearts by 
the suggestions of His Spirit ; but still it 
remains with us to choose whether we will 
listen to those suggestions, or obey the lusts 
of the flesh. We ought to speak with diffi- 
dence and humility concerning the extent 
of Divine grace ; as we only know, in ge- 
neral, that God will not subject us to greater 
temptations and trials than we are able to 
bear. If we cherish our good dispositions, 
and feel a sincere desire to be virtuous, we 
may rest assured that He will, by the com- 
munication of His grace, help our infirmi- 
ties, invigorate our resolutions, and supply 
our defects. The promises, that ' if we 
draw nigh to God, God will draw nigh to us, 
and pour out his Spirit upon us,' (James 
iv. 8.) and that he will give his Holy Spirit 
to every one that asketh him, (Acts ii. 170 
461 



imply that God is ever ready to forward our 
progress and continuance in well doing 
through the powerful, though invisible, 
operation of His Spirit. 

Some sects contend for the irresistible 
impulses of grace ; and others reject the 
idea of any influence of the Divine Spirit 
upon the mind. The former opinion 
seems irreconcileable with the free agency 
of man ; and the latter contradicts the 
authority of Scripture. ' Therefore, let 
us neither ascribe nothing to free-will, nor 
too much ; let us not, with the defenders of 
irresistible grace, deny free-will, or make 
it of no effect, not only before, but even 
under grace ; nor let us suffer the efficacy 
of saving grace, on the other hand, to be 
swallowed up in the strength and freedom 
of our wills ; but, allowing the government 
or superiority to the grace of God, let the 
will of man be admitted to be its hand- 
maid, but such an one as is free, and 
freely obeys ; by which, when it is freely 
excited by the admonitions of preventing 
grace, when it is prepared as to its affec- 
tions, strengthened and assisted as to its 
powers and faculties, a man freely and 
willingly co-operates with God, that the 
grace of God be not received in vain.' — 
' All men are also to be admonished, 
and chiefly preachers, that in this high 
matter they, looking on both sides, so 
temper and moderate themselves, that 
they neither so preach the grace of God 
that they take away thereby free-will, nor 
on the other side, so extol free-will, that 
injury be done to the grace of God.' — 
' Thus do the doctrine of divine grace, and 
the doctrine of free-will or human liberty, 
unite and conspire, in a friendly manner, 
to our everlasting good. The first is 
adapted to excite in us gratitude, faith, 
and humility ; the second to awaken our 
caution and quicken our diligence.' Bishop 
Tomline's Elem. of Christian Theol. vol. ii. 
p. 250, &c. 

GRAPE, the fruit of the vine. There 
was abundance of fine vineyards and ex- 
cellent grapes in Palestine. The bunch 
of grapes cut in the valley of Eshcol, and 
brought on a staff between two men, to 
the camp of Israel, at Kadesh-barnea, 
(Numb. xiii. 24.) may give us an idea how 
large this fruit became in that country. 
Travellers mention some growing there 
of a prodigious size. Indeed, it would be 
very easy to produce a great number of 
witnesses to prove that grapes in tin- Pro- 
mised Land, as well as in various other hot 
countries, grow to a wonderful size. Pliny 
mentions bunches of grapes in Africa, 
each of which was larger than an mfant. 
Radzvil saw at Rhodes bunches of grapes 
three quarters of an ell in length, each 
grape as large as a plum. Daiulini. though 
an Italian, was surprised at the extraor- 
dinary size of the grapes of Mount Llba- 



GRA 



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nus. Paul Lucas saw at Damascus some 
bunches of grapes which weighed forty - 
five pounds. The Egyptian grape is said 
to be very small ; and this being the only 
one with which the Israelites had been 
acquainted, the great size of the grapes 
of 'Hebron would appear still more extra- 
ordinary. 

Moses, in the law, commanded, that 
when the Israelites gathered their grapes, 
what fell, or what was left behind on the 
vine, should be for the poor. (Levit. xix. 
10.) Persons who were passing might 
enter another man's vineyard, and eat 
grapes, but not carry any away. (Deut. 
xxiv. 21, 22.; xxiii. 24.) Some are of 
opinion that the prohibition against glean- 
ing grapes after the vintage, may signify a 
second vintage after the first. (Levit. xix. 
10.; Deut. xxiv. 21. J 

The Scripture frequently describes a 
total destruction by the similitude of a 
vine wholly stripped ; not a bunch of 
grapes being left for those who came to 
glean. (Isai. xvii. 6.; xxiv. 13.) The 'blood 
of grapes,' signifies wine. (Gen xlix. 11.) 

The vineyards of Sodom are said to have 
produced bitter grapes : ' Their grapes 
are grapes of gall, their clusters are bit- 
ter.' (Deut. xxxii. 32.) As gall is not a 
vegetable juice, some have thought that 
the plant here referred to might be hem- 
lock, of which there are the cicuta major, 
and the cicuta aquatica, a very noxious plant. 
Hasselquist, speaking of the wild grape 
of Scripture, labrusca, observes, ' Isaiah 
says, (v. 4.); What could I do more for 
my vineyard than I have done, yet it pro- 
duced wild grapes? I believe the prophet 
here means to speak of the solanum inca- 
num, (deadly nightshade,) seeing it is com- 
mon in Egypt, in Palestine, and through- 
out the East. Moreover, the Arabs give it 
a name which agrees perfectly with his 
expression ; they call it Aneb-il-dib, wolf's 
grape. The prophet could not have 
chosen a plant more opposite to the vine, 
for it grows in vineyards, and does infinite 
damage to them ; therefore it is carefully 
rooted out. It resembles the vine by the 
creepers which it produces.' This is the 
nearest approach to the vegetable intended 
by Moses, which has been hitherto dis- 
covered. If the wild grape be the deadly 
nightshade, which grows in our own hedges, 
yet probably the grape of Sodom is a 
plant growing in the neighbourhood of 
the Dead Sea, and named from its na- 
tive soil. Hasselquist found at Jericho, the 
solanum fructicosum quadripedale, caule et 
foliis spinosis, the nightshade. He also ob- 
serves, that ' the Poma Sodomitica, the 
apple of Sodom, is the fruit of the Solanum 
Melongana of Linnaeus, called by others mad 
apple. It is found in great quantities near 
Jericho, in the valleys near the Jordan, 
in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea.' 
462 



If this fruit causes madness, if it grows 
near the city of Sodom, and retains the 
name of Sodomitica, may it be the vege- 
table intended by Moses ? does it sufficiently 
resemble the vine to be compared to it ? 
We are not obliged to take, strictly, the 
word rendered grape, or the word vine, 
to signify a grape vine. It is a word com- 
mon to many kinds of plants ; and Moses, 
to distinguish the true vine, adds its de- 
scription ; ' the wine vine.' (Num. vi. 4.) 

' The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and 
the children's teeth are set on edge,' (Jer. 
xxxi. 29.; Ezek. xviii. 2.) is a proverbial 
expression, meaning that the fathers sinned, 
but their children bore the punishment. 
In using this proverb, the Jews reproached 
God, who punished in them those sins, of 
which they pretended they were not guilty. 
But the Lord said he would cause this pro- 
verb to cease in Israel, and that every 
one should suffer the punishment of his 
own faults. Harmer's Observations, vol. iv. 
p. 8. ; Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, 
pp. 68. 76 ; Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, 
on Numb. xiii. 24. 

GRASSHOPPER. The creature inten- 
ded by our English version, under the 
name grasshopper, is a kind of locust. 
(Lev. xi. 22.) In Arabic the verb signifies 
to veil, hide; and hence Bochart conjec- 
tures that these insects were so called, 
because, as is well known, they sometimes 
fly in such swarms as to veil the sun, and 
darken the air. Mr. Parkhurst, how- 
ever, is of opinion, that as this circum- 
stance is not peculiar to any particular 
kind of locusts, the word chagab, rendered 
grasshopper, denotes the cucullated species of 
locusts, so denominated from the cucul- 
lus, cowl or hood, with which they are natu- 
rally furnished, and which serves to distin- 
guish them from other kinds. It appeal's 
from Scheuchzer, that some of the locusts, 
particularly those of the cucullated spe- 
cies, nearly resemble in shape our common 
grasshopper. Hence may be illustrated 
Eccles. xii. 5. And the locust, or grass- 
hopper, shall be a burthen to itself : where 
the dry, shrunk, shrivelled, crumpling, 
craggy old man, his back-bone sticking 
out, his knees projecting forwards, his 
arms backwards, his head downwards, 
and the apophyses, or bunching parts of 
the bones in general enlarged, is very aptly 
described by that insect : and from this 
exact likeness arose the fable of Tithonus, 
who, living to extreme old age, was at 
last turned into a grasshopper. Parkhursfs 
Heb. and Eng. Lexicon, p. 192. 

GRATITUDE is that pleasing affection 
of the mind which arises from a sense of 
favours received, and by which the pos- 
sessor is excited to make all the returns of 
love and service in his power. 

When we consider the multiplicity of 
benefits which we are daily and hourly 



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receiving from God, it seems, at first view, 
natural to suppose, that the sensation of 
gratitude would never be long absent from 
our hearts. To whom are we indebted for 
our creation ? To whom but God ? To 
whom can we ascribe our preservation amid 
so many daily and continual perils and acci- 
dents, and often for such a length of years ? 
Is not the Divine providence, on this ac- 
count, the object of our gratitude ? Did 
God take pity on our race when exposed to 
perdition ? Did he send his beloved Son 
into this guilty world, ' to seek and to 
save those who were lost?' And can we 
sufficiently admire ' the exceeding riches 
of his grace ?' Can we sufficiently love and 
praise the Father of mercies, whose love to 
the children of men ' surpasseth all under- 
standing ?' Hath he made known to us 
the way of salvation by Christ ? Hath he 
made the light of the Gospel to shine 
around us, who must otherwise have been 
surrounded with thick darkness ? And are 
we not bound to bless him with our souls, 
and all that is within us ? Yet, many as are 
the benefits which we receive from God, 
how seldom do we make them the object of 
our thanksgiving, when they are present, or 
of our grateful recollection when they are 
past ! How slight is the gratitude which 
we feel, how faint the acknowledgments 
which we make, compared with the good 
which we enjoy ! How great is our debt, 
and yet how slender, partial, and transient, 
our returns of gratitude ! Our sense of 
favom*s received seldom lasts longer than 
the enjoyment, and, in this case, our grati- 
tude is little better than the physical sensa- 
tion of present pleasure ; and, when the 
object which excited it is departed, the re- 
collection also is lost. But that gratitude is 
not much to be prized for its purity or worth, 
which does not remain longer than the 
benefit, of whatever nature it might be, 
which caused the physical sensation of en- 
joyment. Hence it behoves us, in order 
to establish a right principle of gratitude 
within us, not only to render to God our 
most devout acknowledgments for present 
favours, but often to meditate on the proofs 
of his loving-kindness in time past. ' My 
mouth,' says the Psalmist, (lxiii. 5 — 7-) 
1 shall praise thee with joyful lips, when 
I remember thee upon my bed, and medi- 
tate on thee in the night watches ; because 
thou hast been my help.' Because we are 
in safety, ought we to forget our deliver- 
ance from danger ; or, because we are in 
health, ought we not to remember the suc- 
cour which we received when we were 
sick ? In our youth, should we not think 
of God's fatherly preservation of us in our 
helpless infancy 1 and, in the later, should 
we not call to mind the mercies which we 
experienced in the earlier periods of our 
lives? We are continually receiving fresh 
benefits from God ; every dav, nav, every 
463 



hour, adds to their number, and, of course, 
increases the weight of our obligations. 
The sense of present favours ought not to 
obliterate the recollection of the past. For 
if one act of kindness, one good gift, one 
deliverance in danger, one succour in mis- 
fortune, deserve our gratitude, and merit 
our acknowledgments, much more ought 
many such exertions of benevolence. Is 
not an accumulation of benefits an object 
of accumulated gratitude ? Is not the debt 
of gratitude increased in proportion to the 
favours conferred and the benefits received ? 
If this be the case, surely it behoves us to 
register past benefits in our memory, by 
frequent recollection, and thus to keep 
alive a grateful sense of our former obliga- 
tions. 

We ought to be gratefully disposed to- 
wards our benefactors among men. If any 
one has at any period assisted us, we ought 
not to cease to be grateful to him, nor 
ought the recollection of this service to 
be obliterated. Examples of ingratitude 
check and discourage voluntary benefi- 
cence ; and in this the evil of ingratitude 
consists. Nor is the evil small. After all 
that can be done towards providing for the 
public happiness, by prescribing rules of 
justice and enforcing the observance of 
them by penalties or compulsion, much 
must necessarily be left to those offices of 
kindness, which men remain at liberty to 
exert or withhold. Now, not only the 
choice of the objects, but the quantity and 
even the existence of this sort of kindness 
in the world, depends, in a great measure, 
on the return which it receives. This is a 
consideration of general importance. Ano- 
ther reason for cultivating a grateful tem- 
per in ourselves is, that the same principle 
which is affected with the kindness of a 
human benefactor, is capable of being 
affected with the divine goodness, and of 
becoming, under the influence of that af- 
fection, a source of the purest and most 
exalted virtue. Though gratitude can never 
oblige a man to do what is wrong, and 
consequently, what he is previously obliged 
not to do, yet to allege this as a reason, 
when it is not the real one, is both ingra- 
titude and hypocrisy. Paley's Moral and 
Polit. Philosophy, vol. i. p. 280 ; Felloioes's 
Body of Theology, vol. i. p. 519 ; Dr. Hood's 
Sermons, p. 267, &c 

GREECE, in Hebrew Javan. Simon 
thinks, that Javan imports soft, tender. 
Javan was a son of Japheth, (Gen. x. 2, 4.) 
after whom that part of Greece called 
Ionia was named. Ionia is interpreted 
from the Hebrew deceptive, insinuating! 
otherwise, making sorrowful; otherwise] 
dirty ; otherwise, the dore's country. Greece 
itself is rendered robust or strong. Greece 
may be considered as a country partly in 
Asia, and partly in Europe. (Acts xx.) 

Greece, in its largest acceptation, as de- 



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GRE 



noting the countries where the Greek lan- 
guage prevailed, included from the Scar- 
dian Mountains north, to the Levant Sea 
south, and from the Adriatic Sea west to 
Asia Minor east. Hence it is used by 
Daniel to denote Macedonia, as part of 
Greece ; Whereas, we read in Acts xx. 2. 
that St. Paul, passing through Macedonia, 
came to Greece, that is, Graecia Propria. 
In this more restricted sense, Macedonia 
and the river Strymon formed the northern 
boundary of Greece. The Scripture has 
but little reference to Greece, till the time 
of Alexander, whose conquests extended 
into Asia, where Greece had hitherto been 
of no importance. Yet that some inter- 
course was maintained with these countries 
from Jerusalem, may be inferred from the 
desire of Baasha to shut up all passage 
between Jerusalem and Joppa, which was 
its port, by the building of Ramah ; and 
the anxiety of Asa to counteract his scheme. 
(1 Kings xv. 17 — 22.) Greece was certainly 
intended by the prophet Daniel, under the 
symbol of the single-horned goat : and it is 
probable that when Daniel calls Greece 
Chittim, he spoke the language of the He- 
brew nation, rather than that of the Persian 
court. 

After the establishment of the Grecian 
dynasties in Asia, Judea could not but be 
considerably affected by them, and the 
books of the Maccabees afford proofs of 
this. The Roman power superseding the 
Grecian establishments, yet left traces of 
Greek language, customs, &c. to the days 
of the Herods, where the Gospel history 
commences. By the activity of the apos- 
tles, and especially by that of Paul, the 
Gospel was propagated in those coun- 
tries which used the Grecian dialects ; 
hence, we are interested in the study of 
this language : moreover, as Greece, like 
all other countries, had its peculiar man- 
ners, we are not able to estimate properly 
an epistle written to those who dwell 
where they prevailed, without a competent 
acquaintance with the manners themselves, 
with the sentiments and reasonings of 
those who practised them, and with the ar- 
guments employed in their defence by 
those who adhered to them. Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

GREEK and EASTERN CHURCHES. 
The society of Christians known under the 
denomination of the Eastern church, in con- 
tradistinction to the Western church, or that 
of Rome, is dispersed throughout Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, and may be divided into 
three distinct communities : 1. the Greek 
Christians who agree in all points of doc- 
trine and worship with the patriarch re- 
siding at Constantinople, and reject the 
pretended supremacy of the Roman pon- 
tiff; 2. those who, adopting the doctrines 
and ceremonies of the Greek church, are 
entirely free from the jurisdiction of the pa- 
464 



triarch at Constantinople ; and 3. those who 
are subject to the see of Rome. 

Greek Church subject to the Patri- 
arch of Constantinople. Name, An- 
tiquity, &c. The Greek church is so 
called, from its comprehending all Chris- 
tians within the limits of Ancient Greece, 
to distinguish it from the Latin or Romish 
church, and chiefly from its members 
having long used the Greek language in 
its liturgies or religious service; a prac- 
tice still continued in the part of it now 
under consideration, and also by some 
others. The Oriental or Greek church is 
the most ancient of all Christian churches ; 
and, though it may be granted that the 
Roman pontiff had acquired a spiritual, or 
rather a temporal jurisdiction, before the 
patriarch of Constantinople, or perhaps be- 
fore any other Oriental patriarch, yet it 
cannot be doubted that the first Christian 
church or society was established at Jeru- 
salem. The next churches were certainly 
those of Syria and Greece, and the Latin 
church is unquestionably the daughter of 
the Greek, and is indebted to her for all 
the blessings of the Gospel. Jerusalem 
was the mother of all churches; the ori- 
ginal emporium of the Christian faith; 
the centre from which the healing rays of 
Christianity diverged and spread over the 
world. 

But though the Greek church is more an- 
cient than the Latin, yet they had both the 
same apostolical foundation ; and during 
the first eight centuries, they were in com- 
munion with each other, though they al- 
ways disagreed in some points. They 
were divided as to the time and obliga- 
tion of keeping Easter so early as the se- 
cond century; and considerable jealousies 
broke out between them at the council of 
Sardis, in Illyricum, in 347. The flame 
of resentment, though occasionally stifled 
for a time, again broke out with increased 
fury in the eighth century, on the subject 
of images ; and in the ninth, under the 
patriarch Photius, their disputes became 
so violent, that they dissolved communion 
with each other, and a final separation 
took place between them. Photius was 
elected patriarch of Constantinople, in the 
year 858, by the emperor Michael, who 
drove Ignatius from that see, and forced 
him into exile. Pope Nicholas I. took 
part with the exiled patriarch, condemned 
the election as unwarrantable, and excom- 
municated Photius. On this, Photius, a 
high-spirited prelate, and the most learned 
and ingenious man of the age, assembled a 
council at Constantinople, and, in return, 
excommunicated the pope. Hence, and 
from various other circumstances in the 
history of the Eastern and Western 
churches, it appears that the animosities 
which subsisted between them for so 
many ages, and the final separation which 



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GRE 



i 



ensued, are not to be ascribed to the early 
difference in opinion concerning the ob- 
servance of certain festivals, nor even to 
the more important subjects of dispute 
which gave rise to the Arian heresy. They 
are rather to be referred to that period 
when Constantine removed the seat of em- 
pire to Byzantium ; and, by augmenting 
the dignity of the latter see, rendered it 
formidable to the Roman pontiff. In the 
second general council, the bishop of 
Constantinople was allowed to sit next 
to the successor of St. Peter ; and by the 
twenty-eighth canon of the synod of Chal- 
cedon, he was permitted to enjoy an equal 
rank. The head of the Latin church 
strongly resisted these encroachments ; but 
the emperors of the East were strenuous 
to assert the privileges of the new city, and, 
by the preponderance of their authority, 
confirmed all its pretensions. In the eighth 
century, Pope Gregory having carried his 
persecution of the Iconoclasts, that is, 
the image-breakers, too far, the emperor 
Leo III., surnamed the Isaurian, from the 
place of his birth, as well to restrain the 
power, as to punish the arrogance of the 
Roman pontiff, seized his possessions in 
Calabria, Sicily, Illyricum, and Greece, and 
transferred them to the jurisdiction of 
the bishop of Constantinople. From that 
period, some consider this unfortunate 
breach as fixed and incurable ; for, though 
the church of Rome was afterwards ac- 
cused of various errors and irregularities, 
by the patriarchs Photius and Michael 
Cerrularius, and both the supremacy and 
infallibility of the Pope were warmly re- 
sisted, yet these were not the principal causes 
of contention. Hence the two attempts of 
the emperor Michael Palaeologus, in the 
thirteenth century, to allay the fervour of 
dissension, and re-unite the two churches, 
were vain ; and the union proposed by 
the council of Florence, in the fifteenth 
century, was of short duration. In short, 
every attempt to heal the wound has been 
hitherto without effect. The mutual sacri- 
fices required have been disagreeable to 
both the Roman and the Constantino- 
politan pi-elates, so that each remains to this 
day, the centre of a different system ; and 
the Greeks have ever been considered as 
schismatics by the Latin church. 

In the history of the Greek church, from 
this fatal separation in the ninth century, 
little more occurs, except the crusades or 
holy wars, and the vast accession made to 
it by the conversion of the Russian domi- 
nions, till about the middle of the fifteenth 
century, (1453) ; when Mahomet II. took 
Constantinople, and overthrew the Gre- 
cian empire, under Constantine Palaeolo- 
gus, the last of the Byzantine Ca j sars. 
With the empire of the Greeks, their re- 
ligious establishment was overthrown ; 
and though a partial toleration was .it 
4C5 



first permitted, the religious despotism of 
their conquerors soon contracted it within 
more confined limits, and reduced the 
Christian religion and its professors to the 
miserable state in which they now exist 
under the yoke of the Ottomans. The 
Greek church still subsists under the 
sceptre of Mahomet. But it subsists like 
the tree that had suffered excision in the 
dream of the Chaldaean monarch : its 
root, indeed, remains in the earth, with a 
band of iron and brass, and it is wet with 
the dew of heaven, until certain times 
shall have passed over it; at the expira- 
tion of which it may come into remem- 
brance before God, and again bud, and 
put forth its branches, and bear fruit, 
for the shadow and support of nations yet 
unborn. 

Distinguishing^ Doctrines. — The Greek 
church agrees in most things with either 
the church of Rome or the Protestant 
church. In what it differs from the one, it 
commonly agrees with the other. Many 
of the corruptions of the church of Rome 
arose before the final separation took 
place between it and the Greek church ; 
and, as several of these had their origin 
in the East, they continued in both 
churches after the division. Hence, in the 
Greek church, may be found many of 
what we consider as errors in the Latin 
church; but, though the former has de- 
parted widely from the faith which it 
once professed, and is now sunk into de- 
plorable ignorance and superstition, it can 
scarcely be admitted to be so very corrupt 
as the latter. 

With the reformed church it agrees in 
disowning the pretended supremacy and 
infallibility of the Pope, and the church of 
Rome as the true Catholic church ; and in 
rejecting purgatory by fire, graven images, 
the celibacy of the secular clergy, and in 
administering the sacrament in both kinds. 
But it differs from the reformed church in 
the number of the sacraments, in using 
■pictures, in admitting the invocation of 
saints, in transubstantiation, and, of course, 
the adoration of the host ; and though it 
rejects purgatory, it has something that 
very nearly resembles it; and it admits 
masses and services for the dead. 

The Holy Scriptures, and the decrees of 
the first seven general councils, are acknow- 
ledged by the Greeks as the rule of their 
faith ; and the doctrine of the Trinity, to- 
gether with the articles of the Nicene and 
Athanasian Creeds, are received by them, 
in common with most other Christians. In 
one particular, indeed, they ditfer from the 
other churches of Europe, whether Romish 
or reformed, in believing that the Holy 
Spirit proceeds from the Father only, and 
not from the Father and the Son : but they 
acknowledge the Holy Spirit to be of the 
same substance with the Father and the 
11 h 



GRE 



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Son ; and to be God from eternity, pro- 
ceeding from the essence and nature of the 
Father, and to be equally adored. They 
have seven sacraments, or, as they term 
them, mysteries : 1. Baptism ; 2. the Chrism, 
or baptismal unction ; 3. the Eucharist, or 
sacrament of the Lord's Supper; 4. Con- 
fession ; 5. Ordination ; 6. Marriage ; and 7« 
the Euchelaion, or mystery of the holy oil. 
Of these, baptism and the eucharist are 
deemed the chief, both of which, together 
with the baptismal unction and confession, 
are to be received by all Christians ; but of 
the other three, none is deemed obligatory 
upon all. 

The Greek church, strictly so called, and 
considered in itself, had no notion of the 
Romish scholastic doctrine of transubstan- 
tiation. Indeed, in their Orthodox Confes- 
sion, as it is called, transubstantiation, in 
the Roman sense, is roundly asserted ; but 
this has been transfused from their Latin 
teachers, whose scholastic sophistry the 
modern Greeks were not able to unriddle. 
They lay great stress on the necessity of 
baptism to salvation ; and with the church 
of Rome, they admit of lay baptism, when 
a priest or deacon is not at hand to admi- 
nister it. They baptize by immersion ; and 
they use the trine immersion, or form of 
dipping the child thrice in water. When 
the child is baptized, the priest immediately 
anoints it with the holy chrism, which is 
applied to the forehead, eyes, nostrils, 
mouth, ears, breast, hands, and feet. Pre- 
viously to receiving the communion, the 
mystery of confession is always necessary. 
It is said, that they do not consider con- 
fession as a Divine precept, but allow it to 
be only a positive injunction of the church. 
They have the same division of the clergy 
into regular and secular, as in that of Rome ; 
and five orders of them are promoted by 
imposition of the bishop's hands, with 
prayer, namely, Readers, Subdeacons, Dea- 
cons, Presbyters, and Bishops. The euche- 
laion, or holy oil, is not confined to persons 
at the point of death, or dangerously ill, 
like the extreme unction of the church of 
Rome, but is administered, if required, to 
devout persons, on the slightest malady; 
and this ceremony, or mystery as they call 
it, is chiefly founded on the advice of St. 
James, (v. 14, 15.) but is not deemed ne- 
cessary to salvation. 

The invocation of saints is practised in 
the Greek as well as in the Roman church. 
They pay a secondary adoration to the 
Virgin Mary, to the twelve apostles, and 
to a great number of saints with which the 
Greek calendar abounds; but they deny 
that they adore them as believing them to 
be gods. Though the members of this 
church abhor the use of carved or graven 
images, and charge the Latins with idol- 
atry on tbat account, yet they admit into 
their houses and churches the pictures of 
466 



our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and a 
multitude of saints, to instruct, they say, 
the ignorant, and to animate the devo- 
tions of others. On some of their great 
festivals, they expose to view on a table, 
in the middle of the choir, the picture 
of the saint whom they commemorate, 
bowing as they approach, and kissing it 
with the greatest reverence ; and M. 
Tournefort observes, that their devotion 
to their saints, and particularly to the 
Blessed Virgin, is little short of idolatry. 
At the celebration of the Lord's Supper, 
this church commemorates the faithful 
departed, and even prays for the remis- 
sion of their sins ; at the same time, she 
rejects purgatory, and pretends not to 
determine dogmatically concerning the 
state or condition of departed souls. 
She must, however, believe in a middle 
or intermediate state between death and 
the general resurrection, and that no 
final judgment is passed on the great 
body of mankind till the consummation 
of all things, otherwise such prayers would 
not be offered; and in this belief she is 
countenanced by most of the primitive 
fathers of the church, if not by several 
passages of Scripture. Works of superero- 
gation, with their consequent indulgences 
and dispensations, which were once so 
profitable, and afterwards so fatal to the 
church of Rome, are utterly abolished in 
the Greek church; nor does she lay 
claim, with her daughter of Rome, to the 
character of infallibility. Predestination is 
a dogma of this church ; but if viewed 
in the same light by her members in 
general, as amongst the people of Russia, 
namely, ' as depending on the attribute of 
prescience in the Divine nature,' few, I 
presume, will find much difficulty in sub- 
scribing to their doctrine on this most 
intricate subject. They consider the Sep- 
tuagint as the authentic version of the Old 
Testament ; acknowledge the eighty-five 
apostolical canons as of great authority ; re- 
ceive nine provincial councils ; and allow to 
the canons of the first seven oecumenical 
or general councils nearly the same autho- 
rity that is due to the sacred Scriptures. 
They observe a great number of holy days, 
and days of abstinence ; and they keep four 
fasts in the year more solemn than the rest, 
of which that of Lent is the chief. It is 
even said, that there is not a day in the 
year, which, in their church, is not a fast or 
a festival. They have twenty-two fixed and 
immovable feasts, besides those of the 
church of England. They use the cross to 
drive away evil spirits, &c. ; and many of 
them abstain from things strangled, from 
blood, and from such other meats as are 
forbidden in the Old Testament. 

Church- government, Discipline, Revenues, 
Sfc. The Greek church bears a striking 
resemblance to that of Rome, with regard 



GRE 



GRE 



not only to its burthensome ceremonies, but 
to its government and discipline. Both 
are episcopal, and in both is the same divi- 
sion of tbe clergy into secular and regular ; 
the same spiritual jurisdiction of bishops 
and their officials ; and the same distinction 
of offices and rank. 

The supreme head of the Greek church 
is the patriarch of Constantinople, who 
is styled the 13th apostle, and whose usual 
title, when he subscribes any letter or 
missive, is, ' by the mercy of God, Arch- 
bishop of Constantinople, the New Rome, 
and CEcumenical Patriarch.' The right 
of electing him is invested in twelve bi- 
shops who reside nearest that capital ; but 
the right of confirming the election, and 
of enabling the newly-chosen patriarch 
to exercise his spiritual functions, belongs 
only to the Turkish emperor. The office 
is very uncertain, as it is frequently ob- 
tained by bribery and corruption ; and 
when a higher bidder appears, the pos- 
sessor is often displaced. Yet, it is both 
honourable and lucrative, and of high 
trust and influence ; for, besides the power 
of nominating the other three patriarchs 
of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, 
and all episcopal dignitaries, the Constan- 
tinopolitan patriarch enjoys a most exten- 
sive jurisdiction and dominion, compre- 
hending the churches of a considerable 
part of Greece, the Grecian isles, Wala- 
chia, Moldavia, and several of the Euro- 
pean and Asiatic provinces that are sub- 
ject to Turkey. He not only calls coun- 
cils by his own authority, to decide con- 
troversies, and direct the affairs of the 
church ; but, with the permission of the 
Turkish emperor, he administers justice, 
and takes cognizance of civil causes among 
the members of his own communion. For 
the administration of ecclesiastical affairs, a 
synod, convened monthly, is composed of 
the heads of the church resident in Con- 
stantinople. 

The patriarch of Alexandria resides 
generally at Cairo, and exercises his spi- 
ritual authority in Egypt, Nubia, Libya, 
and part of Arabia. Damascus is the 
principal residence of the patriarch of 
Antioch, whose jurisdiction extends to 
Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and other 
provinces. The patriarch of Jerusalem 
comprehends, within the bounds of his 
pontificate, Palestine, part of Arabia, 
the country beyond Jordan, Cana in Ga- 
lilee, and Mount Sion. The episcopal 
dominions of these three patriarchs are 
extremely poor and inconsiderable. The 
revenue of the patriarch of Constan- 
tinople is drawn particularly from the 
churches that are subject to his jurisdic- 
tion ; and its produce varies according 
to the state and circumstances of the 
Greek Christians, whose condition is ex- 
posed to many vicissitudes. ' The bi- 
467 



shops depend entirely upon a certain tax, 
levied upon each house within their dis- 
tricts inhabited by Greeks ; and they are 
universally charged with the interest, at 
least, of large sums, accumulated for ages, 
in consequence of money (avanids) levied 
on the patriarchate, to which each diocese 
is bound to contribute its quota. By such 
burthens, the revenues are so diminished 
as to leave to the most opulent bishop, 
little more,' says Mr. Dallaway, ' than 
300/. a year.' The same defalcation of their 
original incomes is said to extend throughout 
the whole ecclesiastical state, from the pre- 
lates to the parochial papas, or priests. 

The power of the chief patriarch is 
maintained, on the one hand, by the au- 
thority of the Turkish emperor, and on 
the other, by his right of excommunica- 
ting the disobedient members of the Greek 
church. His influence with the Porte is 
very extensive, as far as his own nation is 
concerned. 

Countries where found, Numbers, fyc. — 
The Greek church is of the highest anti- 
quity ; and, including all its branches, its 
doctrine prevails at this day over a greater 
extent of country than that of any other 
church in the Christian world, and is 
supposed to be professed by about 
30,000,000 of souls. It is professed through- 
out a considerable part of Greece, the Gre- 
cian Islands, Walachia, Moldavia, Scla- 
vonia, Egypt, Nubia, Libya, Arabia, 
Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and Pales- 
tine ; all of which are comprehended with- 
in the jurisdiction of the patriarchs of 
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and 
Jerusalem. At least one half, if not two- 
thirds, of the inhabitants of European Tur- 
key are Greeks ; and if all these be Christ- 
ians, their number must be very consider- 
able, notwithstanding the harsh treatment, 
and many hardships to which for several 
ages they have been exposed from the 
Turkish government. 

Eminent Men, Sfc. — Almost all the fathers 
of the first four ages, down to Jerome, 
were of Greece, Syria, and Africa; and 
of these, Ignatius, Polycarp, Irenaeus, 
Origen, Justin, and Chrysostom, were all of 
them great men, some of them learned and 
eloquent, and all of them luminaries and 
ornaments of the Greek church, except 
Irenaeus, who was bishop of Lyons, but was 
a Grecian, and wrote in Greek. To these 
may be added, Basil, bishop of CtEBftTea : 
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria ; and Gre- 
gory of Nazianzen, surnamed the Divine, 
who was one of its most illustrious orna- 
ments, and died about the end of the fourth 
century. But, if we descend to later times, 
a different scene will open upon us ; for no- 
thing can be conceived more deplorable 
than the state of the greater part of the 
Greeks, ever since their subjection to the 
oppressive yoke of the Ottomans. Since 
ii h 2 



GRE 



GRE 



that fatal period, almost all learning and 
science, human and divine, have been ex- 
tinguished among them. Adam's Religious 
World, vol. i. p. 291, &c. ; Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. ii. p. 479, &c. ; Dallaway's Con- 
stantinople, p. 100, &c. 

Greek Church in Russia, &c. Rise, 
History, &c. — Of those independent Greek 
churches which are governed by their own 
laws, and are in communion with the patri- 
arch of Constantinople, but not subject to 
his jurisdiction, the church established in 
Russia alone is of any importance in the 
Christian world ; the rest, namely the Geor- 
gians and Mingrelians, are sunk in the most 
deplorable ignorance and barbarity that can 
be imagined. 

The accounts which have been given of 
the introduction of Christianity into Russia, 
are extremely fabulous and absurd. Some 
have pretended, that this country was con- 
verted by the apostle St. Andrew. Another 
tradition, equally groundless, and still more 
absurd, reports, that St. Anthony of Padua 
converted the Russians to the Christian 
faith ; and that the saint swam over the Le- 
vant on a great mill- stone, and then rode 
upon it to Novogorod ! What we learn with 
most appearance of probability is, that the 
grand duchess Olga, or Olha, grandmother 
to Wladimir, was the first person of distinc- 
tion converted to Christianity in Russia, 
about the year 955, and that, at her conver- 
sion, she assumed the name of Helena, under 
which name she still ranks as a saint in the 
Russian calendar. After the accession of 
Wladimir to the throne, and his marriage 
with Anna, a Christian princess, daughter 
of the Greek emperor Romanus TL, he, in 
the year 988, was baptized, with 20,000 of 
his subjects. Whether Olga or Anna had 
the honour of converting Wladimir, it is 
fully ascertained that, about the end of the 
tenth century, the Christian religion was 
introduced into Russia, chiefly through 
their connection with Greece ; and coming 
from this quarter, it was natural that the 
doctrine and discipline of the church of 
Constantinople should become at first the 
pattern of the church of Russia, which 
it still continues to follow in the greatest 
part of its offices. Hence also the pa- 
triarch of Constantinople formerly enjoyed 
the privilege of a spiritual supremacy over 
the Russians, to whom he sent a metropo- 
litan whenever a vacancy happened. But 
in the year 1588, Jeremiah, patriarch of 
Constantinople, yielding to the desire of 
the czar Theodore Wanovitz, and the en- 
treaties of the clergy, placed at the head 
of their church and nation an independent 
patriarch, on the terms that every new patri- 
arch of Russia should inform the patriarch 
of Constantinople of his elevation and ob- 
tain his confirmation. From this obligation 
of depending on a foreign jurisdiction for 
confirming his installation, the patriarch of 
468 



Moscow was exempted by the four Eastern 
patriarchs, about the middle of the following 
century. 

Peter the Great introduced a considera- 
ble change in the manner of governing the 
church. The splendid dignity of patriarch, 
which approached too near the lustre and 
prerogatives of majesty, was suppressed in 
1721, by this spirited monarch, who de- 
clared himself, and thus became (like the 
sovereign of Britain,) head of the national 
church. 

In Russia are Lutherans, Calvinists, 
Hernhutters, Armenians, Jews, Mahome- 
tans, Pagans, Hindoos, &c. &c. all of whom 
are tolerated in their religious opinions. 
Roman Catholics are to be met with in al- 
most every government, particularly in the 
parts conquered from Poland ; their clergy 
are governed by their own rulers, and are 
totally independent of the Russian ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction. 

Distinguishing Doctrines. — This church 
agrees in almost every point of doctrine 
with the Greek church subject to the pa- 
triarch of Constantinople. With regard 
to baptism, they do not differ in any 
thing from the church of Rome. They do 
not rebaptize proselytes from any com- 
munion of Christians, except those who are 
unsound in the doctrine of the Trinity ; and 
all others are admitted members of their 
church, on their submitting to the mystery 
of the holy chrism. 

Worship, rites,and ceremonies. — In addition 
to the forms and services of the Greek 
church, most of which the Russians have al- 
ways used, they still retain various ceremo- 
nies and superstitions of their own. At pre- 
sent, however, instead of strictly observing 
all the canonical hours, they have service in 
both monasteries and parish churches, only 
three times a day ; namely, the vespers, the 
matins, and the liturgy or communion. The 
church service, in general, is performed in 
the Sclavonian language ; but in some places 
it is performed also in the Greek, both an- 
cient and modern ; and in the administration 
of the Lord's Supper they use the liturgies 
of St. Basil and St. Chrysostom. The Greek 
church does not allow any musical instru- 
ments ; but the rhythm observed in singing 
the hymns produces a melody, with which 
the ear may be very well entertained. 

The Russians, with their mother church, 
have four lents annually, besides a great 
number of abstinences or fasts, and Wed- 
nesdays and Fridays, which are fish-days 
throughout the whole year. The first lent 
comprehends the forty days previous to 
Christmas ; the second, which is their great 
lent, the same space of time before Eas- 
ter ; the third, called the lent of St. Peter, 
commences the week after Pentecost, or 
Whitsunday, and ends on the feast of St. 
Peter, June 29th; and the fourth, the lent 
of the mother of God, begins on the first and 



ORE 



GRE 



ends on the fifteenth of August, which is the 
day of Koimesis, or the assumption of the 
blessed Virgin. 

Sect of Raskolniki, or Ibraniki. — Though 
no person is excluded from any office or 
employment under the Russian govern- 
ment on account of his religious te- 
nets, yet as the sovereign and the impe- 
rial family always conform to the Greek 
church, and no Russian who has been edu- 
cated in it can lawfully depart from it, it 
may, with propriety, be called the esta- 
blished church. Though in Russia are 
Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians of 
various denominations, yet it does not ap- 
pear that any schismatics or sects sepa- 
rated from the Russian church, till about the 
middle of the sixteenth century; before 
which time there were scarcely any printed 
books in Russia, and the manuscripts 
were then miserably incorrect. To re- 
medy this evil, the czar John Basilides 
caused a considerable number of the 
church books to be printed and distri- 
buted for the use of the churches in 1562. 
As the newly-printed copies were cor- 
rected, they differed considerably from the 
manuscripts ; and this excited amongst the 
ignorant people a religious zeal, which 
was kept up by equally ignorant or design- 
ing clergy. But the external troubles of 
those times prevented the Raskolniks from 
spreading to any extent, till about the mid- 
dle of the following century, when, in the 
time of the czar Alexis Michaelovitz, the 
same causes produced the same effects, and 
the number of the Raskolniks increased to a 
very great degree. 

This is the only sect of which we have 
heard, that has separated from the esta- 
blished church in Russia ; and it seems to 
have been formed on very frivolous grounds. 
Its members assume the name of Ibraniki, 
that is, the multitude of the elect; or, ac- 
cording to others, Straoivertsi, that is, 
believers in the ancient faith: but the 
name given them by their adversaries, and 
that by which they are generally known, 
is Raskolniki, that is, schismatics, or the 
seditious faction. In defence of their sepa- 
ration, they allege the corruptions, in both 



doctrine and discipline, that have been 
introduced into the Russian church. They 
profess a rigorous zeal for the letter of 
Holy Scripture, which they do not under- 
stand ; and the transposition of a single 
word in a new edition of the Russian Bible, 
though this transposition was intended to 
correct an uncouth phrase in the transla- 
tion commonly received, threw them into 
the greatest tumult. They will not allow 
a priest to administer baptism, after hav- 
ing tasted spiritous liquors ; and in this, 
perhaps, they act rightly, since it is said 
' that the Russian priests seldom touch 
the flask without drinking deep.' They 
hold, that there is no subordination of rank, 
no superior or inferior among the faithful ; 
that a Christian may kill himself for the 
love of Christ ; that Hallelujah must be only 
twice pronounced, and it is a great sin to 
repeat it thrice ; and that a priest must 
never give a blessing except with three fin- 
gers. They are regular, even to austerity, 
in their manners ; but as they have always 
refused to admit Christians of other denomi- 
nations into their religious assemblies, they 
have been suspected of committing in them 
various abominations, which ought not to be 
believed without the strongest demonstrative 
proof. They have suffered much persecu- 
tion ; and various means have been used to 
bring them back into the bosom of the 
church, but in vain. Arguments, promises, 
threatenings, dragoonings, the authority of 
synods and councils, seconded by racks and 
gibbets, in a word, all the methods that ar- 
tifice or barbarity could suggest, have been 
practised; but these, instead of lessen- 
ing, have increased their numbers, and, 
instead of closing, have widened the breach. 
Some wealthy merchants and great lords are 
attached to this sect ; and it is widely diffused 
among the peasants. It ought to be added 
that the members of this sect consider the 
worship of images as gross idolatry ; and, per- 
haps, this practice in the Russian church 
was one reason of their separating from it. 
Adam's Religious World, vol. i. p. 344 ; Mo- 
sheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iii. p. 488 ; Secret 
Memoirs of the Court of St. Petersburgh, vol. 
ii. p. 76, &c. 



H. 



HAB 



HAB 



HABA'KKUK, pipin, 'A[i(3aKovK, signi- 
fies he that embraces; otherwise, wrestler. 
Nothing is certainly known concerning 
the tribe or birth-place of Habakkuk. He 
is supposed to have prophesied about the 
469 



year 605 before Christ, and to have been alive 
at the time of the final destruction of Jeru- 
salem by Nebuchadnezzar. It is generally 
believed, that he remained and died in 
Judca. 



HAB 



HAB 



The genuine works of Habakkuk are 
contained in three chapters. In these 
he complains pathetically of the disorderly 
conduct of the kingdom of Judah. God 
reveals to him, that he would very shortly 
punish it severely by the arms of the Chal- 
daeans, or Babylonians. He foretels the 
conquests of Nebuchadnezzar, his meta- 
morphosis, his death, and what would hap- 
pen after his death to the Chaldaeans. He 
foretels, that the vast designs of Jehoiakim 
should be frustrated. He speaks against 
a prince, who built his palaces with blood 
and iniquity ; probably meaning the king 
of Tyre. He accuses another king with 
having intoxicated his friend in order to 
discover his nakedness ; by whom he pro- 
bably meant the king of Egypt. Habak- 
kuk composed an ode, in which he recol- 
lected God's remembrance of his mercy, 
even when he is most angry ; he hopes 
that God will show him his brethren in 
their captivity, but will deliver him out of 
it, and save him from the hands of the 
Chaldaeans, when they ravage Judea. He 
prophesied at the same time as Jeremiah. 

The style of Habakkuk is highly poeti- 
cal, and the ode or hymn is, perhaps, un- 
rivalled for united sublimity, simplicity, 
and piety. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. 
Theol. vol. i. p. 127- 

HABIT, a power and ability of doing 
any thing, acquired by frequent repeti- 
tion of the same action. ' Man,' says Dr. 
Paley, ' is a bundle of habits. There are 
habits of industry, attention, vigilance, 
advertency ; of a prompt obedience to 
the judgment occurring, or of yielding 
to the first impulse of passion ; of extend- 
ing our views to the future, or of resting 
upon the present ; of apprehending, method- 
ising, reasoning; of indolence and dila- 
toriness ; of vanity, self-conceit, melan- 
choly, partiality ; of fretfulness, suspicion, 
captiousness, censoriousness ; of pride, 
ambition, covetousness ; of over- reaching, 
intriguing, projecting : in a word, there 
is not a quality or function, either 
of body or mind, which does not feel 
the influence of this great law of ani- 
mated nature.' All habits are only the 
result of so many particular acts, or par- 
ticular sensations : and thus their ac- 
quisition is greatly facilitated, and the 
labour of acquiring them reduced. If 
any particular habit could be acquired 
only by one great and sudden exertion of 
strength, it could be accomplished only 
by a few of more than ordinary vigour and 
capacity. But as all habits are the result 
of repeated acts, which, though small in 
themselves, amount collectively to a great 
mass of force, so every habit may be 
supposed to contain a certain portion of 
difficulty which every new effort, or act 
agreeable to the habit that we wish to 
acquire, tends to diminish. Every act of 
470 



temperance, justice, benevolence, or any 
other virtue, of which we wish to acquire 
the habit, lessens the difficulty of the next, 
and augments the force of the infant habit, 
till by a long succession of acts, it becomes 
established in a maturity of strength, and, 
by the same gradual exertions by which we 
acquire good, we may conquer bad habits. 
The force of any particular habit, is the ac- 
cumulated product of all the preceding 
acts. 

If, therefore, we wish to break the 
force and deliver ourselves from the ty- 
ranny of any vicious habit, we must begin 
with attacking it in particular instances, 
we must endeavour to liberate ourselves 
from its attractions by degrees. We must 
carefully watch the times, the circum- 
stances, and the associations, in which we 
have found the temptations to it most 
powerfully active, and least easily sub- 
dued. If, instead of obeying, we strenu- 
ously oppose those inclinations to every 
gratification which is incompatible with 
innocence, with the dictates of temper- 
ance, of truth, of justice, and humanity, 
the force of those inclinations will not only 
be weakened by every defeat, but at the 
same time the counteracting force of the 
reason and the conscience will derive fresh 
power from every victory over the seduc- 
tive enemy. By every practical exertion 
of the principle of virtue, that principle 
is rendered more steady and consistent. 
Habits of virtue are the best safeguard 
against acts of vice. Habits of tempe- 
rance, of truth, of justice, of humanity, 
afford the surest protection against every 
commission of intemperance, falsehood, 
injustice, and inhumanity. Every immoral 
act tends to render the conscience less 
sensitively alive to the differences of good 
and evil, less impressed with the dread 
and the shame of a vicious course of life, 
while every act of virtue renders the will 
more averse to, and the moral sense more 
awakened by the deformity of its oppo- 
site. 

Habits are like plants, which make the 
most healthy and durable shoots under a 
lowering and tempestuous sky. They flou- 
rish most amidst circumstances apparently 
the most adverse to their growth. Habits 
of goodness formed amidst temptations to 
the contrary acts, are those on which we 
can place the firmest reliance, and which 
give the fairest promise of vigour and 
of permanence. Habits of temperance, 
of truth, of justice, of humanity, which 
are affectionately cherished, and strenu- 
ously matured, amidst the most seductive 
allurements to intemperance and lust, to 
falsehood, to extortion, to rapine, and to 
cruelty, are less likely to degenerate, than 
those which have grown up amidst fewer 
difficulties and discouragements. 

As the habit of righteousness requires 



HAD 



HAG 



great length of time, vigilance of mind, 
and labour of exertion to acquire, the ha- 
bit of unrighteousness requires both time, 
vigilance, and the strenuous exercise of all 
our moral powers to overcome. He who 
will unlearn any vicious habit, which he 
may have acquired, must totally give up 
his thoughts, his mind, and heart, and will, 
to the doing of those things which are con- 
trary to the habit that he wishes to re- 
duce. The habit of intemperance can be 
withstood and finally mastered only by 
frequent acts of sobriety; the habit of 
lust, by the practice of a rigid continence ; 
that of covetousness, by perseverance in 
repeated acts of liberality. As the con- 
version of the unrighteous implies a tho- 
rough change of the mind and heart, as it 
requires the expulsion of all irreligious 
notions and prejudices from the one, and 
of all impure desires from the other, it 
cannot be accomplished in any short time. 
It must proceed from small beginnings ; 
and these beginnings must be cautiously 
watched, and the utmost care taken that 
we be not surprised by the temptations to 
those sins which we are labouring to sub- 
due, but that we be continually on our 
guard against them ; that we firmly main- 
tain the ground which we have obtained ; 
and, instead of resting idly at any point of 
distance from our old habits, to which we 
have attained, that we use it as a means 
of removing still farther from their reach, 
and of making greater and greater ad- 
vances in real goodness. Above all, we 
should fervently and frequently pray to 
God, for the assistance of his grace, to 
enable us to break off those sins which 
most easily beset us, and to guide and direct 
us in the path of holiness and true righ- 
teousness. Fellowes's Body of Theology, vol. i. 
pp. 58, 59, &c. ; Paley's Moral and Polit. Phi- 
losophy, vol. i. pp. 48, 49. 

HA'DAD, nn, signifies noise, clamour, 
cry of mariners; otherwise, nipple, ox friend- 
ship. Hadad, son to the king of East 
-Edom, was carried into Egypt by his father's 
servants, when Joab, general of David's 
troops, extirpated the males of Edom. 
Hadad was then a child. The king of 
Egypt gave him a house, lands, and every 
necessary subsistence, and married him 
to the sister of Tahpenes, his queen. 
By her he had a son, named Genabath, 
whom queen Tahpenes educated in Pha- 
raoh's house, with the king's children. 
Hadad being informed that David was 
dead, and that Joab was killed, desired 
leave to return into his own country. Pha- 
raoh wished to detain him, but at last per- 
mitted his return to Edom. Here he be- 
gan to raise disturbances against Solomon ; 
but the Scripture does not mention par- 
ticulars. 

Josephus says, that Hadad did not re- 
turn to Edom till long after the death of 
471 



David, when Solomon's affairs began to 
decline, by reason of his impieties. He also 
observes, that not being able to engage the 
Edomites to revolt, because of the strong 
garrisons which Solomon had placed there, 
Hadad got together such people as were 
willing, and carried them to Razon, then 
in rebellion against Hadadezer, king of 
Syria. Razon received Hadad with joy, 
and assisted him in conquering part of Sy- 
ria, where he reigned, and from whence he 
insulted Solomon's territories. 

HA'GAR, *tfn, signifies stranger, or that 
fears, or that ruminates. Hagar, an Egyp- 
tian servant to Sarah, the wife of Abra- 
ham. Sarah, seeing herself old and bar- 
ren, gave her servant to Abraham for a 
wife, that by her he might have children. 
(Gen. xvi.) Hagar, finding herself preg- 
nant, despised her mistress Sarah. There- 
fore Sarah complained to Abraham, who 
answered her, Thy servant is in thy hands, 
do with her as thou pleasest. Sarah having 
used her harshly, Hagar fled from the 
dwelling of Abraham, but an angel of the 
Lord finding her in the wilderness, com- 
manded her to return to her mistress, and 
humble herself towards her ; adding, for 
her encouragement, I will greatly multiply 
thy race, &c. Hagar discovering that 
it was an angel who had spoken to her, 
said, Is it possible then for me to live, 
after having seen the Lord ? She called 
the well, therefore, where she had been 
accosted by him, Beer-lahai-roi, or the well 
of him who liveth and seeth me. She re- 
turned to Abraham's house, submitted to 
Sarah, and was delivered of a son, whom 
she named Ishmael. 

About fourteen years after this, in the 
year of the world 2108, Sarah brought forth 
Isaac. Abraham was then 100 years old. 
Isaac being weaned, Ishmael, who was then 
seventeen years of age, was teazing Isaac, 
so that Sarah desired Abraham to expel 
Hagar and her son. Abraham was greatly 
afflicted at this proposal ; but the Lord 
appeared to him and said, Agree to Sarah's 
request, in Isaac shall thy seed be called : 
yet, I will make Ishmael the father of a 
great people, because he is sprung from 
thee. Abraham, therefore, rising in the 
morning, took bread and a bottle of water, 
and sent away Hagar with her son. Hagar 
intended to return into Egypt, but lost her 
way, and wandered in the wilderness of 
Beersheba. The water in her bottle fail- 
ing, she left Ishmael under one of the 
trees in the wilderness ; and going a short 
distance from him, she sat down, saving, 
I will not see him die. She then lifted up 
her voice and wept But the angel o( the 
Lord calling to Hagar, comforted her, and 
showed her a well oi' water, oi which she 
took some to Ishmael, and gave him to 
drink. She afterwards retired to the wil- 
derness of Paran, where they dwelt Ish- 



HAG 



mael became very expert at the bow ; and 
his mother married him to an Egyptian 
woman. 

We know not when Hagar died. The 
rabbins say that she was Pharaoh's daugh- 
ter ; but St. Chrysostom asserts, that she 
was one of those slaves' that Pharaoh gave 
to Abraham. (Gen. xii. 16.) The Chaldee 
paraphrasts, and many of the Jews, be- 
lieve Hagar and Keturah, to be the same 
person ; but this is not credible. Philo 
thinks that Hagar embraced Abraham's 
religion ; which is very probable. 

The Mussulmans and Arabians, who are 
descended from lshmael, the son of Ha- 
gar, speak highly in her commendation. 
They call her in eminence, Mother Hagar, 
and maintain that she was Abraham's law- 
ful wife, the mother of lshmael, his eldest 
son, who as such possessed Arabia, which 
very much exceeds, say they, the land 
of Canaan, given to his younger son 
Isaac. 

According to St Paul, Hagar may sym- 
bolize the synagogue, which produces only 
slaves. (Gal. iv. 24.) 

HAGARENES', or Ha'garites, jaw&n, 
' Ay apvo I, of the family of Agar. The Ha- 
garenes were the descendants of lshmael. 
They are also called Ishmaelites, and Sa- 
racens, or Arabians, from their country. 
Their name, Saracens, is not derived, as 
some have thought, from Sarah, Abraham's 
wife, but from the Hebrew sarak, which 
signifies to rob or steal, because they chiefly 
carry on the trade of thieving; or from 
Sahara, the desert, and hence Saracens, 
inhabitants of the desert. 

The Hagarenes dwelt in Arabia Felix, 
according to Pliny. Strabo joins them 
with the Nabathaeans, and Chaulotaeans, 
in Arabia Deserta. Others think their capi- 
tal was Petra, and that they should be 
placed in Arabia Petraea. Psalm lxxxiii. 6. 
joins them with the Moabites; 1 Chron. v. 
10. says that the sons of Reuben, in the 
time of Saul, made war against the Haga- 
renes, and conquered their country, east 
of the mountains of Gilead. This there- 
fore was their true and ancient country. 
When Trajan came into Arabia he besieged 
the capital of the Hagarenes, but could 
not take it. The sons of Hagar valued 
themselves on their wisdom. (Baruch iii. 
23.) 

HAG'GAI, "on, 'Ayydpac, signifies feast, 
solemnity. Haggai, the tenth of the minor 
prophets, was one of the Jews, who re- 
turned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem, in 
consequence of the edict of Cyrus ; and it 
is believed, that he was born during the 
captivity, and that he was of the sacerdo- 
tal race. The book of Haggai consists of 
four distinct revelations, all of which took 
place in the second year of Darius, king of 
Persia, which was the 520th year before 
Christ. The prophet reproves the people 
472 



for their delay in building the temple of 
God, and represents the unfruitful seasons 
which they had experienced as a divine 
punishment for this neglect He exhorts 
them to proceed in the important work ; 
and by way of encouragement, he tells 
them, that the glory of the second temple, 
however inferior in external magnificence, 
shall exceed that of the first, which was 
accomplished by its being honoured with 
the presence of the Saviour of mankind. 
He again urges the completion of the tem- 
ple by promises of divine favour, and under 
the type of Zerubbabel, he is supposed 
to foretel the great revolutions which shall 
precede the second advent of Christ. 

However, by the assistance of a gloss 
added in the Septuagint to the conclusion 
of Haggai's prophecy, Dr. Heberden has 
attempted to limit the whole prophecy to 
the temple then building, and to its actual 
duration till the time of Herod. The gloss 
inserted in the Septuagint version, is as 
follows : ' And in this place I will give 
peace, saith the Lord of Hosts : (Also peace 
of mind for a possession, to every builder, in 
order to restore this temple.)' The doctor 
translates the gloss thus : ' And in this 
place I will give peace — (of mind for a pos- 
session, to every one who forwards the build- 
ing, for the sake of restoring this temple. )' 
1 Here,' says Dr. Hales, ' the doctor has 
mutilated the passage, by dropping the 
important words, which distinguish the 
future peace of the prophecy, from the pre- 
sent peace of the gloss ; thereby suppressing 
the former entirely. His whole interpre- 
tation, therefore, built on this suppression 
of evidence, falls to the ground as a false 
and dishonest fabrication.' It is, however, 
observable, that the Arabic version of the 
passage gives the same meaning, as that 
put upon it from the Septuagint by Dr. 
Heberden. The passage is thus translated 
in the Arabic version of the London Poly- . 
glut : ' And in this place will I give peace, 
saith the Lord Almighty ; I say, peace of 
mind for a possession to every one that 
laboureth to erect this temple.' But it is 
also to be observed, that the Latin trans- 
lation of the Arabic version, agrees in gene- 
ral with the Septuagint 

The style of Haggai is in general plain 
and simple ; but in some passages it rises 
to a considerable degree of sublimity. 
Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christian The- 
ology, vol. i. p. 128 ; Holes' s New Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. ii. part i. p. 515. 

HAGIOGRAPHA, holy scriptures, which 
deserve respect, whether they are truly 
inspired, or whether they only treat of 
holy things, and are written after the man- 
ner of Holy Scripture. The Hebrews dis- 
tinguish the canonical books of the Old 
Testament into three classes : 1. The Law; 
2. The Prophets ; 3. The Hagiographa, or 
Chethubim. 



HAI 



HAM 



The Chethubim, or Hagiographa, com- 
prehended the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song 
of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations of Jere- 
miah, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra 
and Nehemiah, reckoned as one, and the 
two books of Chronicles, also reckoned as 
one book. They are called Chethubim, 
or Holy Writings, because they were not 
orally delivered, as was the Law of Moses ; 
but the Jews affirm that they were com- 
posed by men who were divinely in- 
spired, though they had no public mission 
as prophets, and the Jews conceive that 
they were dictated, not by dreams, visions, 
or voice, or in other ways, as were the 
oracles of the prophets, but that they were 
more immediately revealed to the minds of 
their authors. It is remarkable, that Daniel 
is excluded from the number of prophets, 
and that his writings, with the rest of the 
Hagiographa, were not publicly read in the 
synagogues, as were the Law and the Pro- 
phets : this is ascribed to the singular 
minuteness with which he foretold the com- 
ing of the Messiah, before the destruction 
of the city and sanctuary, (Dan. ix.) and to 
the apprehension of the Jews, lest the pub- 
lic reading of his predictions should lead 
any to embrace the doctrines of Jesus 
Christ. Home's Introduction, vol. ii. p. 162 ; 
Hottinger's Thesaurus, p. 510 ; Leusden's 
Pliilologus Hebrceus, Diss. ii. pp. 13 — 22; 
Bishop Cosin's Scholastical History of the 
Canon, c. ii. pp. 10, et seq. 

HAIL, stones of. Hail, no doubt, is 
congealed, frozen, drops of rain ; rain 
formed into ice by the power of cold in 
the upper regions of the atmosphere. It 
probably falls from clouds which are pretty 
high in the air, and the drops coalescing in 
their fall, are formed into masses smaller 
or larger, as circumstances combine them. 
Hail, among us, is most frequent in sum- 
mer. This is probably because the upper 
regions of the air are then coldest, and the 
vapours drawn from the earth being then 
warmest, when they are cooling or chilled, 
they proceed to the state of congelation 
with greater rapidity than vapours that 
have not been warmed ; besides, their 
warmth elevates them higher in the at- 
mosphere, as by that means they are raised 
with proportionately greater force, and 
this impulse mounts them into regions 
where cold has greater activity than in 
other regions. 

Hail was among the plagues of Egypt. 
(Exod. ix. 24.) Hail, though uncommon, 
is not absolutely unknown in Egypt. Vol- 
ney mentions a storm of hail, which he saw 
crossing over from Mount Sinai into that 
country, and some of whose frozen stones 
he gathered. 

Hail was the means used by God, for 
defeating the armies of the kings of Ca- 
naan. (Josh. x. 11.) God's judgments are 
likened to a hail-storm, f Isaiah xxviii. 2.) 
473 



The most tremendous hail mentioned in 
Scripture is that alluded to Rev. xvi. 21., 
where every stone is said to be about the 
weight of a talent. In the Philosophical 
Transactions mention is made of hail as 
large as pullets' eggs. Mezeray, in his 
History of France, says, that in Italy, in 
1510, was a dreadful storm of hail-stones, 
some of which weighed one hundred pounds. 
Supplem. Addenda to Calmet's Diet. : Dr. 
Adam Clarke's Comment, on Exod. ix. 18. 

HAM, or Cham, on, signifies brown. 
Ham, son of Noah, and brother to Shem 
and Japheth, is believed to have been 
Noah's youngest son. One day, when 
Noah had drunk wine, Ham perceived his 
venerable parent lying in his tent, and 
indecently exposed, which he turned into 
ridicule. Noah, when he awoke, said, as 
it is in the Arabic version, ' Cursed be 
Ham, the father of Canaan ; a servant of 
servants shall he be to his brethren.' The 
phrase 'a servant of servants,' signifies 
the lowest of servants. How remarkably 
has the prophecy been fulfilled of the 
slavish subjection of Ham's posterity in 
general, to the Shemites, and Japhethites, 
from the earliest ages even to the present 
time ! 

' Ham,' says Dr. Hales, ' signifies burnt 
or black, and this name was peculiarly 
significant of the regions allotted to his 
family. To the Cushites, or children of 
his eldest son, Cush, were allotted the hot 
southern regions of Asia, along the coasts 
of the Persian Gulf. Susiana or Chusis- 
tan, Arabia, &c. ; to the sons of Canaan, 
Palestine and Syria ; to the sons of Mis- 
raim, Egypt and Libya, in Africa. The 
Hamites in general, like the Canaanites of 
old, were a sea-faring race, and sooner 
arrived at civilization and the luxuries of 
life, than their simpler pastoral and agri- 
cultural brethren of the other two families. 
The first great empires of Assyria and 
Egypt were founded by them ; and the 
republics of Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage, 
were early distinguished for their com- 
merce : but they sooner also fell to decay : 
and Egypt, which was one of the first, 
became the last and basest of the king- 
doms, (Ezek. xxix. 15.) and has been 
successively in subjection to the Shemites 
and Japhethites, as have also the settle- 
ments of the other branches of the 
Hamites.' 

Though the Scripture does not always 
give exactly the same account as we find 
in other writings of the sons of the 
patriarchs, or in other words, of the heads 
and fathers of nations, yet there is fre- 
quently a wonderful and striking coinci- 
dence. The following extract is from tin* 
History of the World, translated from the 
Kficlassnt ul Akhbar, of Khondcmccr : ' In 
the Rozitul Suffah it is written, that God 
bestowed on Ham nine sons: Hind, Sind, 



HAM 



HAM 



Zenj, Nuba, Kanaan, Kush, Kopt, Berber, 
and Hebesh; and their children having 
increased to an immense multitude, God 
caused each trihe to speak a different 
language ; wherefore they separated, and 
each of them applied to the cultivation of 
their own lands.' Here we find nine sons, 
instead of the four given in Scripture. Hind 
must be the origin of perhaps the Hin- 
doos ; Sind, of the nations bordering on the 
Indus ; Zenj is perhaps Zanguebar, in east- 
ern Africa ; Nuba, the origin of the Nu- 
bians in Africa ; Kanaan, and Kush, the 
same as those in Scripture ; Kopt, the 
Egyptians, who would therefore seem to 
have been called Copts, from a father of 
this name; Berber, the Barabari, beyond 
Nubia, and remotely Barbary ; Hebesh, Abys- 
sinia, which is still denominated Habesh, by 
the Turks and Arabs. We find, then, that 
Hind, Sind, and Kanaan, with more or less 
of Kush, remained in Asia, though Africa 
was the allotted portion of Ham. With 
this agrees in part the tradition of the 
Brahmins, who acknowledge that they are 
not originally of India, but came into India 
through the pass of Heridwar, or Hardwar. 
This also contributes to account for the 
finding of Hamite kingdoms in western 
Asia. It may also be observed, that it 
is said, ' God caused each tribe to speak 
a different language ; wherefore, they sepa- 
rated.' This restricts the interference of 
the Deity in the confusion of tongues to 
the sons of Ham, and is probably the true 
import of the Mosaic history of that event ; 
not all mankind on the face of the earth, 
but all connected with Shinar and its popu- 
lation. 

The Indian accounts are no less corro- 
borative of the Mosaic geography ; and this 
representation can never be suspected of 
being drawn, by any medium whatever, 
from the writings of the great Hebrew 
legislator. ' We now come,' says captain 
Wilford, ' to the sons of Ham, the Hasya- 
silas, or Habashis, who are mentioned, I 
am told, in the Puranas, though but 
seldom ; and their name is believed to 
have the following etymology : Charma, 
having laughed at his father Satyavrata 
(Noah), who had by accident intoxicated 
himself with a fermented liquor, was nick- 
named Hasyasila, or the Laugher ; and 
his descendants were called from him Hasy- 
asilas, in Sanscreet, and, in the spoken 
dialects, Hasyas, Hanselis, and even Ha- 
bashis ; for the Arabic word Habesh is sup- 
posed by the Hindoos to be a corruption 
of Hasya. By those descendants of Charma 
they understand the African negroes, whom 
they suppose to have been the first inhabi- 
tants of Abyssinia : and they place Abys- 
sinia partly in the Dweepa of Cusha, partly 
in that of Sancha Proper.' Cush, says 
Moses, was the eldest son of Ham. The 
land of Cush was encompassed by the 
474 



Gihon, one of the rivers of Paradise, which 
some have placed at -the head of the 
Indus. It is very remarkable, that the 
north of India is denominated in the 
Sanscreet geography, Cusha- Dweepa, or 
the continent of Cush. It appears, that 
there are two Cusha-Dweepas : that of 
India is Cusha-Dweepa within ; one in 
Africa is called Cusha-Dweepa without. 
1 Cusha-Dweepa without,' says captain Wil- 
ford, ' is Abyssinia and Ethiopia ; and the 
Brahmins account plausibly enough for its 
name, by asserting that the descendants 
of Cusha, being obliged to leave their native 
country, from them called Cusha-Dweepa 
within, migrated into Sancha-Dweepa, 
and gave to their new settlement the name 
of their ancestor.' By Sancha-Dweepa is 
here meant Egypt ; but this is not the only 
name by which Egypt was known to the 
Sanscreet writers. The second son of Ham 
was Misraim ; and it appears from the 
Sanscreet, that the name derived from him 
by which Egypt is distinguished in Scrip- 
ture, is equally applied in India to that 
country. 

Thus it is evident, that the geographical 
documents preserved in Holy Writ, are 
in perfect unison with the most ancient 
histories of those people who had, after 
the inspired writers, the most authentic 
sources of information. Sacred Geography ; 
Geograph. Excursions, p. 29, &c. ; Asiatic 
Miscel. 4to. ; Asiat. Researches, vol. iii. ; 
Hales' 's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. 
p. 352. 

HA'MAN, pn, signifies noise, tumult ; 
otherwise he that prepares. Haman was 
son of Hammedatha an Amalekite, of the 
race of Agag, according to our English 
Bible and the Vulgate ; or, according to 
the Septuagint, son of Hamadath, the 
Bugaean or Gogaean, that is, of the race of 
Gog : or it may be read, Haman, the son 
of Hamadath, which Haman was Bagan, 
or Bagoas, eunuch, that is, servant, to the 
king of Persia. We have no proof that 
Haman was an Amalekite, but Esther iii. 
1. reads of the race of Agag. In the 
apocryphal additions to the book of Es- 
ther (xvi. 10.) he is called a Macedonian ; 
and so he might be, as Mr. Pool observes, 
from his birth or habitation, though from 
his origin he was of another people. 

King Ahasuerus having received Ha- 
man into favour, promoted him above all 
the princes of his court, who bent the 
knee to him, or probably prostrated them- 
selves wholly before him as to a deity, 
when he entered the palace. This Mor- 
decai the Jew declined; for which slight 
Haman plotted the extirpation of the 
whole Jewish nation which was provi- 
dentially prevented. Haman was hanged 
upon a gibbet fifty cubits high, which he 
had prepared for Mordecai. His house 
was given to queen Esther, and his em- 



HAN 



HAN 



ployments to Mordecai. His ten sons 
were also executed. See Esther and 
Mordecai. 

HAN'ANI, o:n, avavei, signifies my 
grace, my viercy ; otherwise, he has showed me 
mercy. Hanani, a prophet who came to 
Asa king of Judah, and said, (2 Chron. xvi. 
7.) Because thou hast put thy trust in the 
king of Syria, and not in the Lord, the army 
of the king of Syria is escaped out of thine 
hands. We know not on what occasion 
the prophet spake thus ; but Asa ordered 
him to be seized and imprisoned. Some 
suppose that this Hanani was father to 
the prophet Jehu ; but this does not ap- 
pear clear from Scripture. Jehu prophe- 
sied in Israel, Hanani in Judah. Jehu 
was put to death by Baasha, king of Israel, 
who died in the year of the world 30/o ; and 
Hanani reproved Asa king of Judah, who 
reigned from the year of the world 3049 
to 3090. 

HANANI'AH, rvDDn, signifies grace, mer- 
cy, gift of the Lord. Hananiah, one of 
the three young men of the tribe of Judah, 
and of the royal family, who, being car- 
ried captives to Babylon, were selected 
for instruction in the sciences of the Chal- 
dasans, and to wait in Nebuchadnezzar's 
palace. The name of Hananiah was 
changed into Shadrach, under which name 
he is famous for his refusal to worship the 
golden image set up by Nebuchadnezzar. 
(Dan. iii. 4, &c.) 

Hananiah, son of Azur, (Jerem. xxviii. 
1.) a false prophet of Gibeon, who coming 
to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Zedekiah 
king of Judah, in the year of the world 
3409, said to Jeremiah and all the people, 
Within two full years I will bring again 
into this place all the vessels of the Lord's 
house, that Nebuchadnezzar king of Baby- 
lon hath carried to Babylon. At the same 
time, Hananiah took hold of the chains, 
or yokes, which Jeremiah wore about his 
neck, as emblems of the future captivity 
of Judah, and breaking them, said, Thus 
saith the Lord, even so in two years will 
I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar king 
of Babylon. Jeremiah answered, Thou hast 
broken the yokes of wood, but thou shalt 
make for them yokes of iron ; thou shalt 
die this year, because thou hast taught re- 
bellion against the Lord. Hananiah died 
within the year. 

HAND, sometimes denotes the vengeance 
of God. ' The hand of the Lord was heavy 
upon them of Ashdod,' after they had taken 
the ark. (1 Sam. v. 6, 7-) 

To pour water on any one's hands, sig- 
nifies to serve him. (2 Kings iii. 11.) 

To wash one's hands, denotes innocence. 
Pilate washed his hands to denote his being 
innocent of the blood of Jesus. (Matt, 
xxvii. 24.) 

To kiss one's hand is an act of adoration. 
(1 Kings xix. 18.) * If I beheld the sun 
475 



when it shined, and my mouth hath kissed 
my hand,' says Job. (xxxi. 27-) 

To fill one's hands, is to take possession 
of the priesthood, to perform the functions 
of that office ; because in this ceremony, 
those parts of the victim which were to 
be offered, were put into the hand of the 
newly-created priest. (Judg. xvii. 5, 12 ; 
1 Kings xiii. 33.) 

To lean upon any one's hand, is a mark 
of familiarity and superiority. The king 
of Israel had a confidant on whom he thus 
leaned. (2 Kings vii. 17-) The king of 
Syria leaned on the hand or arm of Naaman 
when he went up to the temple of Rimmon. 
(2 Kings v. 18.) 

To lift up one's hand, is a way of taking 
an oath which has been in use among all 
nations. 

To give one's hand, signifies to grant 
peace, to swear friendship, to promise entire 
security, to make alliance. (2 Kings x. 15.) 
The Jews say, (2 Mace. xiii. 22.) they were 
obliged to give the hand to the Egyptians 
and Assyrians, that they might procure 
bread; that is, to surrender to them, to 
submit. 

The right hand, as a distribution of space, 
with the Hebrews, generally denotes the 
south. 

To stretch out one's hand, signifies to 
chastise, to exercise severity or justice. 
(Ezek. xxv. 70 God delivered his people 
with a high hand, and arm stretched out ; 
by performing many wonders, and inflicting 
many chastisements on the Egyptians. 

To stretch out one's hand, sometimes 
denotes mercy. ' I have spread out my 
hands (intreated) all the day unto a rebel- 
lious people.' (Isai. lxv. 2.) 

Hand is also frequently taken for the 
power and impression of the Holy Spirit 
felt by a prophet. ' The hand of the Lord 
was on Elijah.' (1 Kings xviii. 46.) It is 
said, that God gave his law by the hand of 
Moses, that he spoke by the hand of pro- 
phets, &c. that is, by their means, by them, 
&c. 

HAN'NAH, ron, signifies gracious, mer- 
ciful ; or he that gives. Hannah was the 
wife of Elkanah, of the tribe of Levi, who 
dwelt at Ramah, or Ramathaim-zophim in 
Ephraim. (1 Sam. i. 2, &c.) Elkanah going 
to Shiloh, to worship there, took with him 
his two wives, Hannah and Peninnah. Pe- 
ninnah had children, who accompanied her 
to the feast ; but Hannah had none. El- 
kanah having offered his sacrifice, which 
he had provided out of pure devotion, 
made an entertainment for his family be- 
fore the Lord, and gave parts of it to Pe- 
ninnah for herself and children: but to 
Hannah, his well-beloved wife, he gave 
only one portion of it, because she had 
no children. Hannah, therefore, was me- 
lancholy ; and her rival Peninnuh increased 
her affliction, by reproaching her with bar- 



HAN 



HAP 



renness. Elkanah comforted her ; but Han- 
nah went alone to the tabernacle, to pour 
out her heart before the Lord. She vowed, 
that ift God would bless her with a son, she 
would give him unto God all the days of his 
life. 

As she was very fervent in her devotion, 
the high priest Eli believed she had been 
drinking to excess, and said to her, How 
long wilt thou be drunken ? put away thy 
wine from thee. Hannah answered, Par- 
don me, my lord, I am a woman over- 
whelmed with affliction ; I have drunk no 
wine, nor any thing that could intoxicate, 
but have been pouring forth my heart be- 
fore the Lord. Eli, therefore, said to her, go 
in peace, and the God of Israel grant thee 
thy petition. Hannah went away, took 
nourishment, and was no longer dejected. 
After this they returned to Ramah ; Han- 
nah conceived, and had a son, whom she 
called Samuel, because she had asked him 
of the Lord. 

Hannah went not to the tabernacle, till 
she had weaned her son, when she brought 
him thither, in compliance with her vow. 
She took three bullocks, three measures of 
flour, and a bottle of wine. Having made 
her offering and prayer, she presented 
her son to the Lord, and committed him to 
Eli, whom she reminded of her former pe- 
titions. Hannah also composed an ode of 
thanksgiving, in which she exalts the 
power of God's mercy, who dispenses 
fruitfulness or barrenness as he pleases. 
(1 Sam. ii.) The history of Hannah, 
after she had thus disposed of Samuel, is 
unknown. 

HA'NUN, Ton, avvthv, signifies gra- 
cious, merciful, or he that rests. Hanun, 
son of Nahash king of the Ammonites, is 
famous for his insult to David's ambas- 
sadors, who came to compliment him after 
his father's death. (2 Sam. x. ; 1 Chron. 
xix.) David, exasperated at this dishon- 
ourable treatment, declared war against 
the Ammonites, and sent Joab against 
them. The Ammonites procured assist- 
ance from Syria, and from beyond the 
Euphrates; but Joab, giving part of the 
army to his brother Abishai, attacked the 
Syrians, while Abishai fought the Ammon- 
ites. They conquered the enemy on both 
sides. David being informed of this suc- 
cess, passed the river Jordan in person, 
with the rest of his troops, and defeated 
the Syrians in a pitched battle. 

The year following, David sent Joab 
to besiege Rabbah their capital. During 
this siege, David committed the sin of 
adultery with Bathsheba, and procured 
the death of Uriah by the Ammonites. 
When the city was reduced to extremi- 
ties, Joab informed David, who came with 
the rest of Israel, took the city, enslaved 
the inhabitants, and carried off a great 
booty. 
476 



HAPPINESS. The word happy, when 
applied to any state or condition of hu- 
man life, will admit of no positive defini- 
tion, but is merely a relative term : that 
is, when we call a man happy, we mean 
that he is happier than some others, with 
whom we compare him ; than the genera- 
lity of others; or than he himself was in 
some other situation. Happiness does 
not consist in the pleasures of sense ; as 
eating, drinking, music, painting, archi- 
tecture, gardening, theatric exhibitions, 
&c. These pleasures continue only a 
short time ; by repetition they lose their 
relish, and by high expectation, frequently 
bring disappointment. Nor does happi- 
ness consist in an exemption from labour, 
care, business, &c. ; such a state is often 
attended with depression of spirits, ima- 
ginary anxieties, and the whole train of hy- 
pochondriacal affections. Nor is it to be 
found in greatness, rank, or elevated sta- 
tions ; for if all superiority afforded plea- 
sure, it would follow that the greater our 
superiority, the greater would also be our 
happiness. But do we not observe the 
deepest misery and the most distressing in- 
quietudes among the richest, the most 
elevated, and most distinguished sons of 
men ? In what then does happiness con- 
sist, or where is it to be found? Only 
where the wise king of Israel was convinced 
that it resides, and where both reason 
and revelation teach us that it ought more 
especially to be sought ; in a religious and 
virtuous course of life. Though we are 
far from depreciating the value of those 
sensible enjoyments which are compatible 
with sobriety and innocence, yet the ex- 
perience of life, the deductions of reason, 
and the injunctions of religion, oblige us 
to confess that it is only in a virtuous con- 
duct, or in a life regulated by the precepts 
of virtue and religion, in which happiness 
consists, and true joy is to be found. 

Religion is not that sour and forbidding 
thing, which men of weak and superstitious 
minds are apt to imagine it to themselves, 
or to represent it to others. On the con- 
trary, it is the only way to happiness ; and 
true serenity, and true joy of heart, can- 
not so certainly be produced by any thing 
else. That religion which Christ taught 
and practised, has nothing to do with 
gloominess of look, or dejection of soul ; 
with a life spent in melancholy musings, or 
devout austerities, which render us insen- 
sible to the social sympathies, and to the 
happiness of others. On the contrary, 
there is a degree of cheerfulness and gaiety 
which is the natural product of religion. 
The genuine fruits of religion, according 
to the apostle, are ' love, joy, peace ;' and 
what sensations can be more delightful than 
these ? 

R-eligion, while it forbids none of those 
sensual gratifications, which may be en- 



HAR 



HAR 



joyed without any detriment to our health, 
or any reproach on our innocence, at the 
same time enjoins the culture of those 
habits, and the practice of those duties, 
which we shall find a source of the purest 
and most permanent satisfaction and de- 
light. Has the belief in a God, in a Being 
who made and who governs the world, any 
natural tendency to make us gloomy and 
dejected ? Does it not rather tend to allay 
our uneasy doubts, to calm our troubled 
thoughts, to reconcile us to the uncertain- 
ties of life, and to the manifold changes 
and chances of the world? In whatever 
may befall us, must it not assuage our sor- 
row to reflect, that nothing can happen to 
us without the permission of Him who is 
infinitely wise and good, and that conse- 
quently, whatever may be its present ap- 
pearances or effects, it must be ultimately 
beneficial ? Trust in God is in itself a 
most pleasurable feeling ; it is a stay in 
misery, a refuge from every care. Must it 
not greatly alleviate the sorrows of huma- 
nity to think that this life is only designed 
as preparatory to a better; that it is the 
infancy of our being; and a place of 
trouble which conducts to a scene of rest? 
What can be more enlivening than the 
hope of a happy immortality ? Christ is 
the true Physician of souls ; and there is no 
evil to which we can be subject, for which 
his doctrine will not be found to contain a 
remedy. In whatever light we view the 
Christian dispensation, we shall find that 
there is no one duty which it enjoins, of 
which the performance is not, on the whole, 
greatly conducive to our happiness ; and 
though it lead not to wealth or honour, it 
has a necessary tendency to produce that 
inward peace and satisfaction, that heartfelt 
cheerfulness and delight, for the want of 
which wealth and honour cannot make 
amends, and for the possession of which 
they are only a poor substitute. Fellowes's 
Body of Theol. vol. ii. p. 520, &c. ; Paley's 
Moral and Politic. Philosophy, vol. i. p. 21, &c. 
HA'RAN, y-\r\, signifies mountain, or 
mountainous country ; otherwise, which is in- 
closed ; otherwise, song, cry. 

Haran, eldest son of Terah, and bro- 
ther to Abraham and Nahor. Haran was 
father of Lot, Milcah, and Iscah. Nahor 
married Milcah ; and Abraham, according 
to several interpreters, married Sarah, 
otherwise called Iscah ; but this second 
name of Sarah is very dubious. Haran 
died before his father Terah ; a circum- 
stance which had not occurred among 
mankind till this time. Epiphanius says, 
that Haran was smitten by God, as a pu- 
nishment to his father Terah, who had in- 
vented the figures of new gods. The rab- 
bins tell us, that Haran was accused by 
Terah for refusing to adore the deity fire, 
and was condemned to be cast into a burn- 
ing furnace, where he was consumed in the 
477 



presence of his father. Others say, that 
Abraham having set fire to the place where 
Terah's idols were, Haran attempted to 
rescue them from the flames, and was him- 
self consumed by them. 

Haran, Charran, or Carrh.e, in 
Mesopotamia, a city to which Abraham 
first retreated after he had left Ur ; and 
where Terah, Abraham's father, died and 
was buried. (Gen. xi. 31, 32.) Thither also 
Jacob retired to Laban, when he fled from 
his brother Esau. (Gen. xxvii. 43.) 

This city is commonly placed in Meso- 
potamia ; but several geographers, and 
among them Dr. Wells, have included it in 
Chaldaea. Stephen (Acts vii. 2, 3, 4.) says, 
that ■ God appeared to Abraham, when he 
was in Mesopotamia, before he dwelt in 
Carrhse : — then came he out of the land of 
the Chaldseans, and dwelt in Carrhae.' 
Hence it clearly appears, that Carrhae was 
out of the land of the Chaldaeans. It is, 
therefore, argued by some, that the Greek 
Mesopotamia, of which Carrhae was the 
metropolis, could not possibly be the Me- 
sopotamia alluded to by Stephen. Carrhae 
was not only in Mesopotamia, usually so 
called, but was also the metropolis of this 
province. Unless, then, we could deprive 
this city of its dignity as the proper, the 
ancient metropolis of this province, we 
must admit another Mesopotamia, from 
which Abraham removed to Carrhae ; and 
this the inspired martyr seems carefully to 
distinguish, by annexing the remark ' be- 
fore he dwelt in Carrhae.' The character of 
Carrhae, or Haran, could not be unknown to 
Stephen. Sacred Geography, Geog. Index. 

HARE. This animal resembles a rabbit, 
but is rather larger. Moses ranks it among 
unclean creatures, because it divides not the 
hoof, though it chews the cud. (Lev. xi.) 

It appears, that solipedes, or animals of 
one hoof, as the horse and the ass, are 
unclean: that fissipedes, or animals of 
hoofs divided into two parts, are clean ; 
but then this division must be entire, 
not partial, effective not apparent ; and 
besides its external construction, its in- 
ternal, its anatomical construction, must 
also correctly correspond with this forma- 
tion. Moreover, animals whose feet are 
divided into more than two parts are un- 
clean, so that the number of their toes, as 
three, four, or five, is an entire rejection 
of them, whatever other quality they may 
possess. Such is the principle of the Levi- 
tical distinction of animals into clean and 
unclean, so far as relates to their feet. Their 
rumination is a distinct character; but a 
character absolutely unavailing without the 
more obvious and evident marks derivable 
from the construction of their members. 

Hence the hare, whose feet are divided 
by three clefts into four toes, is declared 
unclean. The difficulty with respect to 
this animal is, that Moses says the arnebttft, 



HAR 



HAT 



which is translated hare, chews the cud. 
This our hares do not ; and in this parti- 
cular, we have no ancient testimony re- 
specting hares. Either, then, this word 
means a creature of the hare kind, not 
known among us in Europe, or the hare of 
Asia does in some degree ruminate. Both 
these ideas may be correct : the arnebeth 
of Moses may be of this kind, yet a dif- 
ferent creature from our hare ; and it may 
ruminate. Yet, we must remark, that 
interpreters are agreed that the creature 
meant in this passage is the hare ; and the 
Arabs at this day call the hare arneb, erneb, 
eraneb. However, the Septuagint trans- 
late the word by daav7rovg, which Aristotle 
and Pliny seem to describe differently 
from the hare. But Bochart, and the 
lexicographers think, that the hare is really 
designed by this word. From a hint in 
Prov. xii. 27, Mr. Harmer is of opinion 
that the Israelites did not always abstain 
from the hare. Harmer's Observations, vol. 
ii. p. 96 ; Scripture Illustrated, Exposit. 
Index, p. 51, &c. 

HARP, a stringed musical instrument. 
The Hebrew word kinnor, which is trans- 
lated harp in our English version, very 
probably denoted all stringed instruments. 
By the Hebrews, the harp was called the 
pleasant harp ; and it was employed by 
them not only in their devotions ; but also 
at their entertainments and pleasures. 
Those who have heard it, as animated by 
Ancient- British vivacity, will probably 
think, that it was quite as well calculated 
for mirth, as for solemnity. It is probable, 
that the harp was nearly the earliest, if not 
the earliest, instrument of music. David 
danced when he played on the harp. The 
Levites did the same. Hence it appears, 
that it was light and portable, and that its 
size was restricted within limits which ad- 
mitted of that service, and of that manner 
of using it. Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Dictionary, No. ccxxxii. p. 130 ; Dr. Adam 
Clarke's Comment, on Gen. iv. 21. 

HARVEST, the time of reaping corn. 
It appears, that in Palestine the harvest 
takes place according to the duration of 
the rainy season. After the rain ceases, 
the corn soon arrives at maturity. Much 
depends on the time of its being sown. 
Corn also remains in the fields long after 
it is ripe; and the threshing, which is 
performed in the open air, interrupts the 
harvest. When Mariti was at Jericho in 
the beginning of April, wheat was not only 
in full ear, but began to turn yellow, and to 
ripen. Dr. Shaw informs us, that it always 
ripens later than barley ; that at Jericho 
and Ptolemais, it is ripe about the end of 
the month of April; but that at Bethle- 
hem and Jerusalem it is still later. It 
must, however, be observed, that Dr. Shaw 
visited Palestine in a year in which the 
harvest was late. Hasselquist says, that 
478 



wheat is cut down in the month of May, in 
Galilee. Barley- is frequently not all cut 
down before May. 

The prophet Amos says, * I have with- 
holden the rain from you, when there were 
yet three months to the harvest, and I 
caused it to rain upon one city, and caused 
it not to rain upon another city : one piece 
was rained upon, and the piece whereupon 
it rained not withered. So two or three 
cities wandered unto one city, to drink 
water ; but they were not satisfied.' (Amos 
iv. 7, 8.) God suspended the rain, not 
only to punish them with want of bread, 
but with thirst; for in that country they 
have only cistern-water ; and therefore if 
the divine anger suspended the rains, there 
was danger of perishing by thirst as well 
as by famine. According to Dr. Shaw, 
the cisterns of that country are usually 
filled in the month of February. ' It is an 
observation,' says the doctor, ' at or 
near Jerusalem, that provided a moderate 
quantity of snow falls in the beginning of 
February (whereby the fountains are made 
to overflow a little afterwards), there is the 
prospect of a fruitful and plentiful year: 
the inhabitants making, upon these occa- 
sions, the like rejoicings with the Egyptians 
upon the cutting of the Nile.' Harmer's 
Observations, vol. i. p. 77> &c. ; Fragments 
annexed to Calmet's Dictionary. 

HATE. To hate is not always to be un- 
derstood rigorously, but frequently signifies 
merely a lesser degree of love. ' If a man 
have two wives, one beloved, and another 
hated,' that is, less beloved. (Deut. xxi. 15.) 
Our Saviour says, that ' he who would 
follow him, must hate father and mother,' 
that is, he should love them less than Christ, 
less than his own salvation, and not prefer 
them to God. Solomon says, ' he that 
spareth the rod, hateth his son.' Fathers 
often spare their children from excessive 
love to them; but to forbear correcting 
them, is improper affection. Paul says, ' no 
one hateth his own flesh;' his own person, 
his life, his relations, &c. ' Jacob have I 
loved, and Esau have I hated,' that is, loved 
less. 

HATTEMISTS, a Dutch denomination, 
which arose in the seventeenth century. 
They derive their name from Pontium Van 
Hattem, a minister in the province of 
Zealand. He interpreted the Calvinistic 
doctrine concerning absolute decrees, so 
as to deduce from it the system of a fatal 
and uncontrollable necessity. Having 
laid down this principle to account for the 
origin of all events, he denied the differ- 
ence between moral good and evil, and the 
corruption of human nature. Hence he 
concluded that mankind were under no sort 
of obligation to correct their manners, to 
improve their minds, or to endeavour after 
a regular obedience to, the divine laws; 
that the whole of religion consisted not in 



HAV 



HAZ 



acting, but in suffering ; and that all the 
precepts of Jesus Christ are reducible to 
this single one — that we bear with cheer- 
fulness and patience the events that 
happen to us through the Divine will, and 
make it our constant and only study to 
maintain a permanent tranquillity of mind. 
This denomination also affirmed, that 
Christ had not satisfied the Divine justice, 
nor made an expiation for the sins of men 
by his death and sufferings ; but had only 
signified to us, by his mediation, that there 
was nothing in us that could offend the 
Deity. They maintained that this was 
Christ's manner of justifying his servants, 
and presenting them blameless before the 
tribunal of God. This opinion was pecu- 
liar to the Hattemists, and distinguished 
them from the Verschorists. They also 
taught, that God does not punish men for 
their sins, but by their sins. Mosheim, vol. 
iv. pp. 553, 554. 

HAV'ILAH, nb s in, signifies lamenting, 
or bringing forth ; otherwise, their speak- 
ings, or their giving notice ; or, as Simon 
thinks, terror, dismay, that is, to enemies. 

Havilah, son of Cush, (Gen. x. 7-) 
peopled, according to Bochart, the coun- 
try where the Tigris and Euphrates reunite, 
and discharge themselves together into the 
Persian Gulf. This is thought by some to 
be the land of Havilah, (Gen. xxv. 18. 
1 Sam. xv. 7.) which reached as far as Shur, 
over against Egypt. The sons of Ishmael 
' dwelt from Havilah unto Shur, that is be- 
fore Egypt, as thou goest towards Assyria.' 

It is, however, to be observed, that by this 
Havilah, the paraphrast Jonathan on Gen. x. 
29, and the Chaldee paraphrast on Chroni- 
cles, understand India. Jonathan says, that 
1 the name of the first river is Phison, which 
environs the whole land of India (Indike,) 
where there is gold, and the gold of that land 
is excellent ;' by which some think to be in- 
tended India at the head of the Indus, and 
not the present Hindoostan. Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

Havilah, sonofJoktan, (Gen. x. 29.) 
according to Calmet, in all probability, peo- 
pled Colchis, and the country encompassed 
by the river Pison. Some, however, place 
this Havilah in Arabia, and they think that 
Gen. xxv. 18. and 1 Sam. xv. 7- may refer to 
this Havilah, which appears to have been of 
considerable extent. It was situated, say 
they, between the southern extremity of the 
Dead Sea and Egypt, probably in the tract 
between the wilderness of Paran, and the 
desert of Shur. Sacred Geography. 

HA'VOTH-JA'IR, YNTnn, signifies cities 
of illumination, or annunciation of light ; or, 
more probably, the villages of Jair, deriving 
their appellation from the name of their 
proprietor Jair. (Numb, xxxii. 41.) They 
were in the Batanaea, beyond Jordan, in the 
land of Gilead, and belonged to the half- 
tribe of Manasseh. 
479 



HAU'RAN, pin, is supposed to signify 
extremely white. Ezekiel (xlvii. 10.) speaks 
of Hauran as a district situated north-east 
of the Holy Land. It is supposed to be 
the same as Iturea. St. Luke (iii. 1.) 
says, that Philip was tetrarch of Iturea and 
the Trachonitis. Josephus says, that he pos- 
sessed Batanaea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis ; 
where Auranitis and Iturea are put one for 
the other. St. Jerome says, that Hauran is 
a city in the wilderness belonging to Damas- 
cus. An Arabian geographer, mentioned by 
Reland, places the land of Hauran or Au- 
ran, south of Damascus ; and Abulfeda 
says, that Bozra is the capital of the coun- 
try of Hauran. Golius in his notes on 
Abulpharagus, observes, that the Syrians 
and Arabians call that part of the land 
Hauran, where Tiberias on the Sea of 
Galilee is situated. William of Tyre calls it 
the Auranitis. It is certain that the Aura- 
nitis was beyond Jordan. 

HAZ'AEL, bum, signifies that sees God. 
The prophet Elijah, (1 Kings xix. 15.) at 
Mount Horeb, received orders from God to 
go and anoint Hazael king of Syria. The 
prophet returned home for this purpose, but 
it does not appear that he himself executed 
this commission. Yet Elisha, many years 
afterwards, foretold to Hazael that he should 
reign over Syria. (2 Kings viii. 13.) Hazael 
had been sent by Benhadad to inquire of 
Elisha whether he should recover ; the pro- 
phet, foreseeing his cruelty, wept ; Hazael 
inquired the cause ; which, when he knew, 
he could not think it possible such barba- 
rity should lurk in his heart. The Lord, 
said Elisha, hath revealed to me that thou 
shalt be king of Syria. Hazael returned to 
the king his master, and told him he would 
recover. The next day, he spread over the 
king's face, or person, a cloth dipped in 
water, which might perhaps have been re- 
commended as a cure for the disorder. 
However, Benhadad immediately died, and 
Hazael usurped the throne. See Ben- 
hadad. 

Hazael, without delay, executed on 
Israel all the evils which Elisha had fore- 
told. When Jehu broke up the siege of 
Ramoth-Gilead, Hazael took advantage of 
his absence, fell on his territories beyond 
Jordan, and destroyed the land of Gilead, 
Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh, from Aroer 
to Bashan. Many years passed without 
Hazael's attacking the kingdom of Judah, 
because it was more remote from Damas- 
cus ; but he began to distress it in the 
reign of Joash, son of Jehoahaz. He took 
Gath, and marched against Jerusalem. 
Joash perceiving himself unable to resist 
Hazael, gave him all the money that was 
in his treasury, and in the treasuries of the 
house of God, to purchase his absence : 
but the year following, Hazael returned 
against Judah and Jerusalem, slew all the 
princes, and sent a very rich spoil to the 



HEA 



HEA 



king of Syria. The Syrian army was not 
numerous ; but God delivered up to it the 
inhabitants of Judah ; and Joash himself 
was treated by the Syrians with the utmost 
ignominy. Hazael did not spare the king 
of Israel any more than the king of Judah ; 
but the particulars are not distinctly known. 
He died about the same time as Jehoahaz, 
king of Israel, (2 Kings xiii. 1.) and was 
succeeded by his son Benhadad, in the year 
of the world 3165. 

HEAD. This word has several signifi- 
cations, besides its natural one, which de- 
notes the head of a man. It is sometimes 
used in Scripture for the whole man : 
' Blessings are upon the head of the just,' 
that is, upon their persons. (Prov. x. 6.) 
God says of the wicked, ' I will recom- 
pense their way upon their head.' (Ezek. 
ix. 10.) It is taken for life : ' Ye shall 
make me endanger my head to the king.' 
(Dan. i. 10.) It signifies a chief or capital 
city. ' The head of Syria is Damascus.' 
(Isai. vii. 8.) It denotes a chief or prin- 
cipal member in society. ' The Lord will 
cut off from Israel head and tail. The 
ancient and honourable, he is the head.' 
(Isai. ix. 14, 15.) ' The seed of the woman 
shall bruise the head of the serpent;' 
that is, Christ Jesus, the blessed seed of 
the woman, shall overthrow the power, 
policy, and works of the devil. (Gen. iii. 
15.) The river in Paradise was divided 
into four heads, or branches. (Gen. ii. 
10.) ' The stone which the builders re- 
jected was made the head of the corner;' 
(Ps. cxviii. 22.) that is, it was the first in 
the angle, whether at the top of that angle 
to adorn and crown it, or at the bottom to 
support it. This in the New Testament is 
applied to Christ, who is the strength and 
beauty of the church, to unite together its 
several parts, namely, both Jews and Gen- 
tiles. 

Head is sometimes taken for poison, be- 
cause the Hebrew rosch, which signifies 
head, also signifies poison. ' He shall 
suck the poison or head of asps.' (Job xx. 
16.) It is certain, that the poison of ser- 
pents is concealed in bags, which lie in the 
roof of the mouth. This poison in the act 
of biting passes down a slit in the fang 
teeth, and is ejected into the wounds caused 
by them. 

In times of grief, the mourners covered 
their heads ; they cut and plucked off their 
hair. Amos (viii. 10.) speaking of un- 
happy times, says. ' I will bring baldness 
upon every head.' In prosperity, they 
anointed their heads with sweet oils : ' Let 
thy head lack no [perfumed] ointment.' 
(Eccles. ix. 8.) 

To shake the head at any one, expresses 
contempt : ' The virgin, the daughter of 
Zion, hath despised thee, and laughed thee 
to scorn ; the daughter of Jerusalem hath 
shaken her head at thee.' (Isai. xxxvii. 22.) 
480 



HEAR, HEARING. This word is used 
in several senses in Scripture. In its ob- 
vious and literal acceptation, it denotes the 
exercise of that bodily sense, of which the 
ear is the organ ; and as hearing is a sense 
by which instruction is conveyed to the 
mind, and the mind is excited to attention, 
and to obedience, so the ideas of attention, 
and obedience, are also grafted on the ex- 
pression, or sense, of hearing. 

God is said, speaking after the manner 
of men, to hear prayer, that is, to attend to 
it, and comply with the requests it con- 
tains : ' I love the Lord, because he hath 
heard — hath attended to — hath complied 
with — the voice of my supplication.' (Psalm 
cxvi. 1.) On the contrary, God is said not 
to hear — that is, not to comply with — the 
requests of sinners. (John ix. 31.) 

Men are said to hear, when they attend 
to, or comply with, the requests of each 
other, or when they obey the commands of 
God. ' He who is of God, heareth — 
obeyeth — practiseth God's word.' (John 
viii. 47.) ' My sheep hear my voice,' 
and shew their attention to it by following 
me. (John x. 27.) ' This is my beloved 
Son, hear ye him.' (Matt. xvii. 5.) This 
seems to be an allusion to Deut. xviii. 15. 
18, 19: ' The Lord shall raise up unto you 
a prophet, him shall ye hear ;' which is also 
expressly applied in Acts iii. 22. 

The other senses which may be attached 
to the word hear, seem to rise from the 
preceding, and may be referred to the same 
ideas. To hear signifies to judge ; to 
settle a matter. (2 Sam. xv. 3.) "Thy mat- 
ters — words — pleadings are good and right, 
but there is no man deputed by the king 
to hear thee ;' that is, the king by office 
should hear and do justice between man 
and man, but David holds every thing 
under his own cognizance, though he is able 
to do justice to only a small part of those 
who want it, and he will not delegate his 
power to any one who might in his stead 
distribute equity. The caution to ' take 
heed how we hear,' or ' what we hear,' as 
it includes application, reception, and prac- 
tice, was never more necessary than at 
present among ourselves ; never was the 
necessity greater for appealing • to the law 
and to the testimony.' 

HEART. The Hebrews regarded the 
heart as the source of wit, understanding, 
love, courage, grief, and pleasure. Hence 
are derived infinite ways of speaking. ' An 
honest and good heart,' (Luke viii. 15.) is 
a heart studious of holiness, being pre- 
pared by the Spirit of God to receive the 
word with due affections, dispositions, and 
resolutions. We read of a broken heart, 
a clean heart, an evil heart, a liberal heart. 
To harden one's heart ; to lift up one's 
heart to God ; to beseech him to change 
our stony hearts into hearts of flesh. To 
love with all one's heart, &c. 'To turn 



HEA 



HEA 



the hearts of the fathers to the children, 
and the hearts of the children to their fa- 
thers,' (Mai. iv. 6.) signifies to cause them 
to be perfectly reconciled, and that they 
should be of the same mind. 

To want heart, sometimes denotes to want 
understanding and prudence : ' Ephraim is 
like a silly dove, without heart.' (Hosea vii. 
11.) * O fools and slow of heart;' that is, 
ignorant and without understanding. (Luke 
xxiv. 25.) ' This people's heart is waxed 
gross, — lest they should understand with 
their hearts,' (Matt.xiii. 15.) the heart of this 
people is stupified, destitute of understand- 
ing. ' The prophets prophesy out of their 
own hearts,' (Ezek.xiii. 2.) that is, according 
to their own imaginations. To lay any thing 
to heart, to set one's heart on any thing, sig- 
nifies to remember it, to apply one's self to 
it, to have it at heart. ' No one layeth it to 
heart,' (Jerem. xii. 11.); no one concerns 
himself about it 

The heart is dilated by joy, contracted by 
sadness, broken by sorrow, grows fat, and is 
hardened in prosperity. The heart some- 
times resists truth ; God opens it, prepares 
it, turns it as he pleases. To steal one's 
heart, (Gen. xxxi. 20. 26.) is to do any thing 
without one's knowledge. The heart melts 
under discouragement, forsakes one under 
terror, is desolate in amazement, and fluc- 
tuating in doubt. To speak to any one's 
heart is to comfort him, to say pleasing and 
affecting things to him. 

The heart expresses also the middle, solid, 
and substantial part of any thing. ' Tyre 
is in the heart of the seas,' (Ezek. xxxii. 4.) 
in the midst of the seas. ' We will not 
fear, though the mountains be carried into 
the heart (middle) of the sea.' (Ps. xlvi. 2.) 
1 As Jonas was three days and three nights 
in the whale's belly, so shall the Son of man 
be three days and three nights in the heart 
of the earth;' (Matt. xii. 40.) that is, the Son 
of man shall be an equal space of time in the 
solid rock ; not drowned in the waters, nor 
buried in the moist earth, but entombed in 
the solid heart of rock. Fragments annexed 
to Calmet's Dictionary, No. ccx. p. 40. 

HEATH, a well-known shrub, that grows 
on barren moors; it ' knows not when good 
cometh,' doth not flourish in the spring, but 
towards the end of summer. Men are likened 
to heath, (Jer. xvii.6.) and it also represents 
men in a destitute and concealed condition. 
In this passage, the Septuagint and Vulgate 
translate the word oror by tamarisk ; some, ' a 
leafless tree ;' and Parkhurst quotes from 
Taylor, ' a blasted tree, stripped of its 
foliage.' In Jer. xlviii. 0. the Septuagint 
read orud a wild ass. Supplem. Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary ; Scripture. Illustrated 
Expos. Index, p. 177 ; Parkhurst' s Heb. Lexi- 
con, p. 557. 

HEATHENS, or the people of the earth 
at large ; those who are not or the family of 
Israel, to which family pertained the law. 
481 



and the sacred oracles, and the covenants 
of promises, and the descent of the Messiah, 
&c. It was customary with polished na- 
tions to call all others barbarians, and with 
the Jews to designate all other nations by 
the name of heathens, and to consider them 
as entirely void of any knowledge of God. 
But we ought to remember, that in early 
ages mankind had generally much the same 
knowledge of God; that it was not till 
after some time that the promise of the 
Mesiah was restricted to a particular family, 
and a particular nation was favoured with 
peculiar privileges. We ought also to re- 
member that many persons among those 
called heathen nations, possessed the true 
knowledge of God, and were perhaps no 
less acceptable as worshippers to him, than 
were the Jews, who, to much information, 
and knowledge of their duty, made often a 
very ungracious and ungrateful return. 

It must, however, be owned, that, gene- 
rally speaking, the heathens were sunk into 
gross idolatry, and adopted many impure 
modes of worship, were utterly averse from 
obedience to the holiness of God, and, in 
short, exhibited the depravity of the human 
race in its most shocking forms. But from 
men thus depraved God appointed a people 
to shew forth his praise, to be his memorials 
of mercy, and to glorify his grace, through 
the Messiah, who, though of the Jewish 
nation by descent, yet was the Messiah, 
the anointed, the chosen, the conse- 
crated, on the behalf of all mankind, 
heathens as well as Jews ; for God will jus- 
tify the heathens through Him, while the 
Jews shall be punished for their unbelief. 
Supplem. Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 

HEAVEN. Heaven and earth, (Gen. i. 
1.) are used to denote all visible things. As 
the word shamayim is plural, we may rest 
assured that it denotes more than the at- 
mosphere, to express which some have en- 
deavoured to restrict its meaning. The 
word heaven must therefore denote the 
whole solar system. The planets are really 
globes of land and water, like our earth, 
but by reason of their distance from us, 
we perceive them only by their refulgence, 
and to ordinary observation they appear as 
so many stars among the firmamuital stars. 

Heaven is often used for the air. ' The 
fowls of heaven' are the birds which fly in 
the air. (Job xxxv. 1.) The dew of hea- 
ven, the clouds of heaven, the wind of 
heaven, are expressions in which heaven is 
put for the air. 

The God of the Hebrews is named, 
not only by the Jews, but also by heathens 
and foreigners, the God of heaven : because 
the Jews adored nothing visible, but said 
their God was in heaven; there was his 
throne, and there the seat of bis soven 
dominion. 

The heaven of* heavens is the li.Ju-t 
heave;i. and is considered as the plu. of 
1 i 



HEA 



HEA 



God's residence, the dwelling of angels 
and blessed spirits. It is also frequently 
called in Scripture the kingdom of heaven, 
and by St. Paul the third heaven. (2 Cor. 
xii. 2.) Sometimes it is denominated Pa- 
radise, the New Jerusalem, &c. This 
heaven is considered as a place in some 
remote part of infinite space, in which 
the Deity is pleased to afford a nearer and 
more immediate view of himself, a more 
sensible manifestation of his glory, and a 
more adequate perception of his attributes, 
than in other parts of the universe. 

It has been disputed, whether there are 
degrees of glory in heaven. It is, however, 
more than probable, that in the future 
state of existence some good men shall re- 
ceive a brighter crown than others ; and 
that the reward will be in very different de- 
grees, according to the various degrees of 
piety and virtue in the probationary state. 
It is reasonable to believe, that the recom- 
pence will bear a just proportion to every 
man's zeal, labour, and attainments in grace ; 
and that an uncommon exemplary piety will 
be distinguished by a peculiar lustre. The 
general doctrine with the inspired writers 
is, that ' all the dead shall rise again at the 
last day, to be judged according to their 
works, and receive the things done in the 
body, whether good or bad.' This is not 
only an assertion, that good men shall be 
rewarded and wicked men punished in a 
future state, but also implies a variety of re- 
wards and punishments proportioned to the 
virtues and crimes of mankind. The mother 
of the two sons of Zebedee seems to have 
been of opinion, that there will be various 
degrees of glory in the heavenly kingdom, 
or she would not have desired our Lord to 
confer on them so peculiar an honour as to 
sit the one on his right hand, and the other 
on his left, (Matt. xx. Mark x.) unless, 
perhaps, she alluded to a temporal kingdom, 
and wished that her sons might be his 
first favourites, and enjoy the highest ho- 
nours in it. When Peter asked our Sa- 
viour what he and the other apostles should 
have for forsaking all and following him, he 
was answered, that ' when the Son of Man 
shall sit on the throne of his glory, they 
shall sit on twelve thrones,' (Matt. xix. 28.) 
on account of their extraordinary labours 
and suffering ; and that others, whose trials 
and labours were not so eminent, should en- 
joy a state of glory in a less degree : unless 
by this was meant the dignity which the 
apostles should possess in the church, after 
our Saviour's departure, and ascension into 
heaven. ' If any man,' says Christ, ' hear 
my voice, and open the door, I will come in 
to him, and sup with him ;' (Rev. iii. 20, 21.) 
that is, every one who receives my doctrine 
shall enjoy my favour, both in this world and 
the next : but * to him that overcometh,' or 
attains to an high and excellent degree of 
perfection, ' will I grant to sit with me on 
482 



my throne, even as also I overcame, and 
am set down with my Father on his throne.' 
To such Christ will grant a peculiar privi- 
lege ; place them near himself, and confer 
on them a very high honour. The great 
apostle observes, in his admirable discourse 
on the resurrection, that the glories of the 
heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, 
are very different, and that one star shines 
with much more splendour than another ; 
and he asserts, that there will be the same 
variety of glories in the resurrection of 
bodies from the grave. (1 Cor. xv.) Though 
the difference between the animal and spi- 
ritual body, and the inconceivable im- 
provement of the state of those who shall 
attain to the resurrection of the just, is 
chiefly intended in this passage, yet the 
apostle does not forget the several degrees 
of glory which spiritual bodies shall pos- 
sess above one another. This doctrine is 
agreeable to the whole tenor of the Gos- 
pel, which assures us of a future state, 
and expressly declares, that the just Judge 
of mankind will distinguish us in the day 
of recompence, according to our beha- 
viour in this state of probation. Besides, 
the natural notions we have of justice, 
and of the attributes of God, convince 
us of the truth of this doctrine. Is it not 
just and right, that in judgment the de- 
grees of virtue and vice should be consi- 
dered ; and the reward or punishment 
should be greater or less in proportion ? 
The Judge of all the earth will do right; 
and when he sits upon his throne to admi- 
nister justice to men and angels, will he 
not proportion the recompence to the 
degree and perfection of grace ? Is it likely 
that such bloody champions as Samson 
and Jephthah should be equal in glory with 
meek Moses, who renounced all the plea- 
sures and honours of Pharaoh's court, and 
rather chose to suffer affliction with the 
servants of the living God, than be reputed 
of the blood royal among idolaters? Or 
that an infant, which is capable neither of 
acting nor thinking, should be adorned with 
as bright and dazzling a crown as the zealous 
and laborious apostle of the Gentiles 1 

Another question has sometimes been 
proposed, whether the saints shall know 
one another in heaven ? — St. Paul, in his 
Epistle to the Colossians (i. 28.) says, 
' that we may present every man perfect 
in Christ Jesus.' By this the apostle may 
be understood to express his hope and 
prayer, that at the general judgment of 
the world, he might present to Christ the 
fruits of his ministry, the converts whom 
he had made to his faith and religion, and 
might present them perfect in every good 
work. This affords a manifest and neces- 
sary inference, that the saints in a future 
life will meet and be known to each other ; 
for, without knowing his converts in their 
new and glorified state, St. Paul could not 



HEB 



HEB 



expect to present them at the last day. 
The general tenor of Scripture seems to 
suppose, that those who know each other 
on earth will know each other in heaven. 
When St Paul speaks ' of the spirits of 
just men made perfect,' and of their 
' coming to the general assembly of 
saints,' these expressions must mean, that 
we shall be known to them, and to each 
other. When Christ declares, ' that the 
secrets of the heart shall be disclosed,' 
the expression imports, that they shall be 
disclosed to those who were before the 
witnesses of our actions. It is also agree- 
able to the dictates of reason itself to be- 
lieve, that the same Almighty Being who 
restores men to life, will bring those toge- 
ther whom death has separated. When his 
power is exerted in this great dispensation, 
it is very probable that this should be a 
part of his gracious design. St Paul, as we 
have seen, expected that he should know 
and be known to his converts ; that their re- 
lation should subsist, and be retained be- 
yond the grave ; and with this hope bela- 
boured and endeavoured, instantly and 
incessantly, that he might be able at last 
to present them, and to present them per- 
fect in Christ Jesus. What St. Paul ap- 
peared to look for with respect to the ge- 
neral continuance, or rather revival, of our 
knowledge of each other after death, every 
man who strives, like St. Paul, to attain 
to the resurrection of the just, may ex- 
pect as well as he. In every passage of 
Scripture, in which it is implied that man- 
kind shall know one another in a future 
life, the implication appears to extend 
only to those who are received among 
the blessed. Whom was St. Paul to know? 
Even those whom he was to present per- 
fect in Christ Jesus. With respect to the 
reprobate and rejected, the Scriptures 
give no assurance or intimation whatever, 
whether they will not be banished from 
the presence of God, and from all their 
former relations ; and whether they will not 
be lost, as to all happiness of themselves, 
so to the knowledge of those whom they 
knew in this mortal state. It is probable, 
that if the wicked be known to each other, 
in a state of perdition, their knowledge will 
serve only to aggravate their misery. Dr. 
Adam Clarke's Comment, on Gen. i. I.; 
Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, p. i. ; 
Richardson's Divine and Moral Essays, Essay 
viii. ; Dr. Paley's Sermons, Serm. xxxiv. 

HE'BER, "ay, signifies one that passes, 
or a passage ; otherwise, anger, wrath. 
Heber, or Eber, the son of Salah, was 
born in the year of the world 1723. Seve- 
ral have been of opinion, that from Heber, 
Abraham and his descendants were called 
Hebrews. But it seems much more proba- 
ble, that this name was given to Abraham 
and his family, because they came from 
beyond Euphrates into Canaan. Heber in 
483 



Hebrew signifies beyond or passage, that is, 
of the river Euphrates. Why should Abra- 
ham, who was the sixth in generation from 
Heber, take his name from this patriarch, 
rather than from any other of his ancestors .' 
Why not, for example, rather from Shem, 
who is styled by Moses ' the father of all 
the children of Heber,' or of the other side 
of the Euphrates ; Heber is not in any cir- 
cumstance extolled in Scripture. Abraham 
is first called a Hebrew about ten years 
after his arrival in the land of Canaan, on 
occasion of the war ivith Chedorlaomer. 
The Septuagint and Aquila translate the 
word Heberi, Perates, or Peraites, which 
signifies a passenger, one who came from 
beyond the river. (Gen. xiv. 13.) 

The ancients and moderns are divided on 
the question, whether the Hebrew tongue 
derives its name from Heber, and whether, 
on the confusion of languages at Babel, it 
continued only in the family of Heber ? As 
the confusion of the languages was consi- 
dered as a punishment for the temerity of 
those who undertook to build this tower, it is 
reasonable to presume, that Heber's poste- 
rity, which seemed to be designed by God 
for the stock of the holy family, and the true 
religion, had no share in this undertaking, 
nor consequently in its punishment. To this 
it is answered as follows : 1. No proof exists, 
that Heber's family was not concerned in 
building the tower of Babel. 2. The He- 
brew tongue was the language of other peo- 
ple, who were not related to Heber's family: 
the Phoenicians or Canaanites, the Syrians 
and Philistines, in the time of Abraham, 
spoke Hebrew, or a language little different 
from it. Why then was it called the Hebrew 
language? It would appear, that if Abra- 
ham was called a Hebrew, because he came 
from beyond the Euphrates, then the He- 
brew should be so called for that reason. 
But if the Hebrew language was named 
from a paternal stock, then the descendants 
from that stock might also derive their ap- 
pellation from the same source. Calmet's 
Dictionary. 

HE'BREWS, Epistle to the, a ca- 
nonical book of the New Testament. 
Though the genuineness of the Epistle to 
the Hebrews has been disputed both in 
ancient and modern times, yet its antiquity 
has never been questioned. Though the 
author is not mentioned, yet it is generally 
allowed that there are references to it in 
the remaining works of Clement of Rome, 
Ignatius, Polycarp, and Justin Martyr; and 
that it contains, as first noticed by Chrysos- 
tom and Theodoret, internal evidence of 
having been written before the destruction 
of Jerusalem. 

The earliest writer now extant that 
quotes this Epistle as the work of St. Paul. 
is Clement of Alexandria, who lived at the 
end of the second, and the beginning of the 
third centuries. Clement quotes the autho- 
l i 2 



HEB 



HEB 



rity of his master Pantaenus, who ascribed 
the Epistle to St. Paul, and endeavoured to 
account for the omission of the apostle's 
name at the beginning of it. Origen, Dio- 
nysius, and Alexander, both bishops of 
Alexandria, Ambrose, Athanasius, Hilary 
of Poitiers, Jerome, Chrysostom, and Cy- 
ril, consider this Epistle as written by St. 
Paul. It is also ascribed to him in the 
ancient Syriac version supposed to have 
been made at the end of the first century. 
Eusebius says, 'Of Paul there are four- 
teen Epistles, manifest and well-known ; 
but yet there are some who reject that 
to the Hebrews, urging for their opinion, 
that it is contradicted by the church of the 
Romans, as not being St. Paul's.' Dr. 
Lardner says, ' It is evident that this Epis- 
tle was generally received in ancient times 
by those Christians who used the Greek 
language, and lived in the eastern parts of 
the Roman empire.' In another place he 
observes, ' It was received as an Epistle 
of Paul by many Latin writers in the 
fourth, fifth, and following centuries.' The 
earlier Latin writers do not notice this 
Epistle, except Tertullian, who ascribes it 
to Barnabas. It appears, indeed, from 
Jerome, that this Epistle was not gene- 
rally received as canonical Scripture by 
the Latin church in his time. Yet many 
individuals of the Latin church, as Jerome 
himself, Ambrose, Hilary, and Philaster, 
acknowledged it to be written by St. Paul. 
The persons who doubted its genuineness 
were those the least likely to have been 
acquainted with the Epistle at an early 
period, from the nature of its contents not 
being so interesting to the Latin churches, 
which consisted almost entirely of Gentile 
Christians, ignorant, probably, of the Mosaic 
law, and holding little intercourse with the 
Jews. 

The moderns, who, on grounds of inter- 
nal evidence, contend against the genuine- 
ness of this Epistle, rest principally on 
the two following arguments; the omission 
of the writer's name, and the superior ele- 
gance of the style in which it. is written. 
1. It is, indeed, certain, that all the ac- 
knowledged Epistles of St. Paul begin 
with a salutation in his own name, and that 
in the Epistle to the Hebrews there is 
nothing of this kind. This omission, how- 
ever, can scarcely be considered as con- 
clusive against positive testimony. For 
departing on this occasion from his usual 
mode of salutation, St. Paul might have 
reasons, which we at this distant period 
cannot discover. Clement of Alexandria 
intimates, that as Jesus Christ himself 
was the peculiar Apostle to the Hebrews, 
as acknowledged in this Epistle, (iii. 1.) 
Paul declined, through humility, to assume 
the title of an Apostle. Jerome says, that 
Paul might not put his name in the inscrip- 
tion, because the Hebrews were offended 
484 



at him; and in another place he observes, 
that Paul did not style himself apostle at 
the beginning of the Epistle to the He- 
brews, because he should afterwards call 
Christ the High Priest and Apostle of 
our profession. Theodoret adds, that Paul 
being peculiarly the apostle of the uncir- 
cumcision, as the rest were of the circumci- 
sion, (Gal. ii. 9; Rom. xi. 13.) he scrupled 
to assume any public character when writ- 
ing to their department. It is, however, 
clear, that the persons to whom this Epistle 
was addressed knew from whence it came, 
as the writer refers to some acts of kind- 
ness which he had received from them, 
(x. 34.) and also expresses a hope of seeing 
them soon. (xiii. 18, 19. 23.) 2. There does 
not appear such superiority in the style of 
this Epistle, as should lead to the conclu- 
sion that it was not written by St. Paul. 
Those who have thought differently have 
mentioned Barnabas, Luke, and Clement, 
as authors, or translators of this Epistle. 
The opinion of Origen was, that ' the 
sentiments are the apostle's, but the 
language and composition of some one else, 
who committed to writing the apostle's 
sense, and, as it were, reduced into com- 
mentaries the things spoken by his master.' 
Dr. Lardner says, ' My conjecture is, that 
Paul dictated the Epistle in Hebrew, and 
another, who was a great master of the 
Greek language, immediately wrote down 
the apostle's sentiments in his own elegant 
Greek ; but who this assistant was, is alto- 
gether unknown.' Michaelis also observes, 
' that the Greek style of the Epistle to the 
Hebrews is so very different from the style 
of St. Paul, that he cannot possibly have 
been the author of the Greek text' But 
surely the writings of St. Paul, like those of 
other authors, may not all have the same 
precise degree of merit. If, upon a careful 
perusal and comparison, it should be thought 
that the Epistle to the Hebrews is written 
with greater elegance than the acknow- 
ledged compositions of this apostle, it should 
also be remembered, that the apparent design 
and contents of this Epistle suggest fhe idea 
of more studied composition. Yet, this 
Epistle contains nothing which amounts to 
a marked difference of style. On the con- 
trary, there is the same concise, abrupt, and 
elliptical mode of expression; and it con- 
tains many phrases and sentiments which 
are found in no part of Scripture, except 
in St. Paul's Epistles. It may be farther 
observed, that the manner in which Timothy 
is mentioned in this Epistle renders it 
probable that it was written by St. Paul. 
Compare Heb. xiii. 23. with 2 Cor. i. 1. 
and Col. i. 1. It was certainly written by 
a person who had suffered imprisonment in 
the cause of Christianity : and this is known 
to have been the case of St. Paul, but of no 
other person to whom this Epistle has been 
attributed. It, therefore, appears that both 



HEB 



HEB 



the external and internal evidence greatly 
preponderate in favour that St. Paul was 
the author of this Epistle ; but absolute cer- 
tainty on this point is not to be attained. 

' They of Italy salute you,' is the only 
expression in this Epistle which can assist 
us in determining from whence it was 
written. The Greek words are oi airb rrjg 
'iTokiag, which should have been translated, 
! Those from Italy salute you ;' and the 
only inference drawn from them seems to 
be, that St. Paul, when he wrote this 
Epistle, was at a place where were some 
Italian converts. Hence Michaelis is of 
opinion, that it was written out of Italy, 
but where, he knows not. Bishop Tomline, 
however, thinks, that this inference is 
not incompatible with the common opinion, 
that this Epistle was written from Rome. 
It is supposed to have been written towards 
the end of St. Paul's first imprisonment at 
Rome, or immediately after it, because the 
apostle expresses an intention of visiting 
the Hebrews shortly. The date of this 
Epistle is therefore placed in the year 63. 

Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, and 
Jerome, thought that this Epistle was 
originally written in the Hebrew lan- 
guage ; but all the other ancient fathers, 
who have mentioned this subject, speak of 
the Greek as the original work. Michaelis 
has composed an elaborate dissertation, to 
prove that it was originally written in 
Hebrew. But, as no one pretends to 
have seen this Epistle in Hebrew; as there 
are in reality no internal marks of the 
Greek being a translation ; and as we 
know that the Greek language was at 
this time very generally understood at 
Jerusalem, we may accede to the more 
common opinion, both among the ancients 
and moderns, and consider the present 
Greek as the original text. Those who have 
denied the genuineness or the originality of 
this Epistle, have always supposed it to 
have been written or translated by some 
fellow-labourer or assistant of St. Paul ; 
and almost every one admits that it carries 
with it the sanction and authority of the 
inspired apostle. 

Some little doubt has arisen, to whom 
this Epistle was addressed ; but by far the 
most general and most probable opinion is, 
that it was written to those Christians of 
Judea, who had been converted to the 
Gospel from Judaism. That, notwithstand- 
ing its title, it was written to the Christians 
of one certain place and country, is evident 
from the following passages ; ' I beseech 
you the rather to do this, that I may be 
restored to you the sooner.' (Heb. xiii. 10.) 
*■ Know ye not that our brother Timothy is 
set at liberty, with whom, if he come shortly, 
I will see you.' (xiii. 23.) It appears from 
the following passage in the Acts, (vi. 1.) 
1 when the number of the disciples was mul- 
tiplied, there arose a murmuring of the 
485 



Grecians against the Hebrews,' that certain 
persons were at this time known at Jeru- 
salem by the name of Hebrews. They seem 
to have been native Jews, inhabitants of 
Judea, the language of which country was 
Hebrew ; and hence they were called 
Hebrews, in contradistinction to those Jews 
who, residing commonly in other countries, 
though they occasionally came to Jeru- 
salem, used the Greek language, and were 
therefore called Grecians. 

This Epistle is a masterly supplemei.t 
to the Epistles to the Galatians and the 
Romans, which are so obscured and in- 
volved, and upon which it is a luminous 
commentary. It shows that the legal 
dispensation was originally designed to be 
superseded by the new and better covenant 
of the Christian, in a connected chain of 
argument, which evinces the profoundest 
knowledge of both. This work, indeed, 
has extorted the admiration of the most 
learned Rabbins, as worthy of a pupil of 
Gamaliel. It was addressed to the Jewish 
converts of Palestine, to keep them sted- 
fast in the faith, that they might not 
swerve under the persecutions they had 
already incurred from their unbelieving 
brethren ; nor under the still heavier which 
they were to expect in the impending 
Jewish war, the destruction of Jerusalem, 
and the desolation of Judea, by the Romans, 
(ii. 1. ; x. 32—37- ; xii. 4—20. ; xiii. 14.) Like 
the rest of St. Paul's Epistles, it concludes 
with a practical exhortation, peculiarly 
applicable to the Jewish nation, to cul- 
tivate brotherly love, to avoid covetousness, to 
beware of diverse and strange doctrines or 
heresies, and to do good, &c. Bishop Tom- 
line' s Elem. of Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 
452, &c. ; Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology , 
vol. ii. book ii. p. 1120, &c. ; Michaelis' s 
Introduction to the New Testament, vol. vi. p. 
210, &c. ; Lardner's Hist, of the Apostles and 
.Evangelists, &c. in Watson's Theolog. Tracts, 
vol. ii. p. 208, &c. 

HE'BRON, plan, x s A°wj/, signifies 
society ; otherwise, participation, or adhesion ; 
otherwise incantation, or paleness. Hebron, 
or Chebron, was one of the most ancient of 
cities, and was built seven years before 
Zoan in Egypt. (Numb. xiii. 22.) As the 
Egyptians gloried much in the antiquity 
of their cities, and their country was 
indeed among the first peopled after the 
dispersion from Babel, it may be concluded, 
that Hebron was extremely ancient. Some 
think, that it was founded by Arba, an 
ancient giant of Palestine, and therefore 
was called Kirjath-arba, the city of Arba, 
(Josh. xiv. 15.) which name was afterwards 
changed into Hebron. Arba was father of 
Anak, from whom the Anakim derive their 
name. These were still dwelling at Hebron, 
when Joshua conquered Canaan. (Josh. \\. 
13.) Some think, that this city was not 
called Hebron till it had been conquered I > 



HEB 



HEI 



Caleb, who denominated it Hebron from 
one of his sons of the same name. Calmet 
is of opinion, that the name Hebron is 
more ancient ; and that Caleb gave to his 
son the name of this ancient and celebrated 
place, where, perhaps, he was born : or per- 
haps he was born about the time this city 
came into Caleb's possession. Dr. Wells 
says, that it perhaps took its name from 
Hebron, one of the sons of Kohath, and 
grandson of Levi. 

Hebron was situated upon an emi- 
nence, twenty miles south of Jerusalem, 
and twenty north of Beersheba. Abraham, 
Sarah, and Isaac, were buried near Hebron, 
in tbe cave of Machpelab. (Gen. xxiii. 7> 8, 
9.) Hebron was allotted to Judah. The 
Lord assigned it to Caleb for his inheri- 
tance. (Josh. xiv. 13.) Joshua first took 
Hebron, and killed its king, named Ho- 
ham. (Josh. x. 3. 23. 37.) Afterwards, it 
was re-conquered by Caleb, who was as- 
sisted by the troops of his tribe, and by 
the valour of Othniel. It was appointed 
for a dwelling of the priests, and a city of 
refuge. After the death of Saul, David 
fixed here the seat of his government. At 
Hebron, Absalom began his rebellion. 
During the captivity of Babylon, the 
Edomites invaded the south of Judah, and 
took Hebron ; and hence in Josephus it is 
sometimes made a part of Edom. Here 
Zacharias and Elisabeth are supposed to 
have dwelt, and John the Baptist to have 
been born. 

' The city of Hebron,' says D'Arvieux, 
'is seven leagues from Jerusalem south- 
ward. It may boast of being one of the 
most ancient cities in the world. It for- 
merly stood on a hill to the north, but has 
insensibly changed its site in the course of 
its various rebuildings. A castle now stands 
on its highest elevation ; and this is its only 
defence. Its inhabitants are Mahometans, 
and lay heavy contributions on the few 
Jews whom they, not without difficulty, 
suffer to inhabit here. The Turks have so 
great a veneration for this city, that they 
admit into it neither wine nor brandy. 
Water only is drunk in it. They call it 
El Katil, the 'well-beloved,' which is 
one of the titles they give to Abraham. 
The situation of this city is very agree- 
able, and its district is very fertile and 
plentiful. It abounds in vineyards, whose 
produce is excellent. The grapes are 
carried to Jerusalem, and make good 
wine. The country people make raisins 
of them, which are as yellow as gold, 
and of exquisite flavour. Generally speak- 
ing, the fruits have all the perfection that 
can be desired. There are in Hebron some 
manufactories of glass, of all colours. They 
make cups, bottles, flower-vases, &c. The 
city and its environs appertain to the 
government of Jerusalem, which maintains 
a Soubachi and a few soldiers to enforce 
486 



the payment of its duties ; but the popu- 
lace is so mutinous that they rarely pay 
without force, and commonly a reinforce- 
ment from Jerusalem is necessary. The 
people are brave, and when in revolt ex- 
tend their incursions as far as Bethlehem, 
and make amends by their pillage for 
what is exacted from them. They are 
so well acquainted with the windings of 
the mountains, and know so well how to 
post themselves to advantage, that they 
close all the passages, and exclude every 
assistance from reaching the Soubachi.' 
Volney thus describes Hebron : ' Hebron 
is seven leagues south of Bethlehem. The 
Arabs have no other name for this village 
than El~hali, the well-beloved, which is the 
epithet they usually apply to Abraham, 
whose sepulchral grotto they still show. 
Hebron is seated at the foot of an emi- 
nence, on which are some wretched ruins, 
the misshapen remains of an ancient castle. 
The adjacent country is a sort of oblong 
hollow, five or six leagues in length, and 
not disagreeably varied by rocky hillocks, 
groves of fir-trees, stunted oaks, and a few 
plantations of vines and olive-trees.' 

Hebron is described in 1823, as being a 
large town, with a Turkish mosque erected 
over the supposed burial-place of the pa- 
triarchs. Carne's Letters, p. 280 ; Volney's 
Travels, vol. ii. p. 324 ; Scripture Geography ; 
Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 587 ; Wells's 
Geography, vol. i. p. 152. 

HEIFER, a young cow. As the words 
ox and bull, in their figurative sense, sig- 
nify rich and powerful persons, the great 
who live in affluence, and who forget God 
and contemn the poor ; so by heifers are 
meant women who are rich, delicate, and 
voluptuous, and make pleasure their god. 
' Israel slidethback, as a backsliding heifer.' 
(Hos. iv. 1C.) The prophets Isaiah, (xv. 
5.) and Jeremiah, (xlviii. 34.) give the cities 
of Zoar and Horonaim the epithets of 
' heifers of three years old.' This in the 
opinion of some denotes their vivacity and 
indocility, and signifies that they are cities 
not to be governed, nor to be brought under 
the yoke. Others infer, that the strength 
and vigour of Zoar and Horonaim are 
meant ; as if these cities knew their strength, 
and would not be subdued. Calmet thinks, 
that the Hebrew words Agola and Shalisha, 
1 an heifer of three years old,' denote two 
cities, one named Bethagla, and the other 
Baal-shalisha : the first was on the Dead 
Sea, (Josh. xv. 6. ; xviii. 19. 21.) and the 
other is mentioned in 1 Sam. ix. 4. ; and 
in 2 Kings iv. 42. Bishop Lowth on Isaiah 
xv. 5. observes, that the opinions of in- 
terpreters are various in regard to the 
meaning. 

In the prophetic language, the Gentile 
nations are sometimes compared to hei- 
fers. ' Egypt is like a very fair heifer, but 
destruction cometh ; it cometh out of the 



HE I 



HEI 



north.' (Jerem. xlvi. 20.) He means the 
Chaldaeans who were to subdue Egypt. Ho- 
sea says, (x. 11.) ' Ephraim is an heifer 
that is taught, and loveth to tread out the 
corn ; but I passed over upon her fair 
neck. I will make Ephraim to ride.' The 
meaning is, I will tame her, and force her 
to submit to be yoked. 

Samson (Judg. xiv. 18.) accuses the young 
men, his bride-men, with abusing the easy 
disposition of his wife, to get his secret 
from her : ' if ye had not ploughed with 
my heifer, ye had not found out my rid- 
dle.' Moses ordains, (Deut. xxi. 3) that 
if a murdered body be found within the 
liberties of any city, and the murderer 
be not known, the elders and judges 
shall sacrifice a heifer in that place. See 
Murder. 

Heifer, red, Sacrifice of the. The order 
respecting this service is given in Numb, 
xix. 2, &c. 

Spencer believes that this ceremony was 
instituted in opposition to Egyptian super- 
stitions. The Egyptians never sacrificed 
heifers ; and the Hebrews generally sacri- 
ficed male creatures only. The Egyptians 
abhorred red hair, and all red animals: 
the Hebrews made no distinction in the 
colour of victims except on this occasion. 
St. Jerome and others thought the red 
heifer was sacrificed yearly, and the ashes 
of it distributed among the towns and 
cities of Israel. But some of the rabbins 
maintain, that only one was burnt from 
Moses to Esdras ; and from Esdras to the 
destruction of the temple by the Romans 
only six, or at most nine. St. Jerome in- 
forms us, that this ceremony was always 
performed on the mount of Olives, directly 
over against the temple, after the ark was 
fixed at Jerusalem ; the Jews say, that after 
the building of the temple, the high-priest 
always sacrificed this victim. 

Some authors suppose, that the sacri- 
fice of the red heifer was one of those 
offered in the name of all the people. It 
was required to be without blemish or de- 
fect; the blood of it was sprinkled seven 
times towards the entrance of the taber- 
nacle; the whole body of it was burnt 
entirely : the ashes which remained were 
used in purifying from pollutions con- 
tracted by touching any dead body, and 
to prevent their defiling the sanctuary, and 
the holy things. 

Abrabanel says, that the red heifer was 
a sacrifice for the sins of the whole people 
of Israel. Calmet thinks, that it may be 
called a sacrifice for sin, but not an obla- 
tion, as this name is proper only to what 
was offered solemnly to God on the altar 
of burnt-offerings. The same judgment 
should be formed of that other heifer, the 
head of which was cut off for the expiation 
of murder by persons unknown. This sa- 
crifice, says Calmet, cannot be called an 
487 



oblation, because not made on the altar of 
burnt- offerings ; yet it was a real sacrifice 
for sin, since by it an atonement was made 
for a crime. 

Mr. Bruce gives a curious account of 
the substitution and execration of a camel, 
which, perhaps, may have some reference 
to the sacrifice of the red heifer, though 
Mr. B. observes in this act traces of the 
azazel, or scape-goat of the Jews. ' We 
found,' says this interesting traveller, ' that, 
upon some discussion, the garrison and 
townsmen had been fighting for several 
days, in which disorders the greatest part 
of the ammunition in the town had been 
expended ; but it had since been agreed 
on by the old men of both parties, that 
nobody had been to blame on either side, 
but the whole wrong was the work of a 
camel. A camel, therefore, was seized, 
and brought without the town, and there 
a number on both sides having met, they 
upbraided the camel with every thing that 
had been either said or done. The camel 
had killed men ; he had threatened to set 
the town on fire ; the camel had threatened 
to burn the Aga's house, and the castle ; 
he had cursed the Grand Seignior, and the 
Sheriffe of Mecca (the sovereigns of the 
two parties;) and, the only thing the poor 
animal was interested in, he had threat- 
ened to destroy the wheat that was 
going to Mecca. After having spent great 
part of the afternoon in upbraiding the 
camel, whose iniquity, it seems, was nearly 
full, each man thrust him through with 
a lance, devoting him, diis manibus et 
diris, by a kind of prayer, and with a 
thousand curses upon his head. After 
which every man retired, fully satisfied as 
to the wrongs he had received from the 
camel !' 

The red heifer sacrificed without the 
camp was a figure of Jesus Christ, whose 
blood cleanses our consciences from all 
sins. (Heb. x. 13.) When the red heifer 
was burned without the camp, its ashes 
were gathered and preserved in a clean 
place without the camp. Part of them 
were occasionally put into water, with 
which every one who had contracted any 
legal defilement was to be sprinkled ; or 
he was to be cut off from the congrega- 
tion. It was a water of separation. It 
is no where said in Scripture, that that 
water was used on the great day of expi- 
ation, if we except what the apostle ob- 
serves in the Epistle to the Hebrews, (ix. 
13.) Since, however, it is called the 
water of purification, (Numb. xix. 9.) and 
was always used when any particular 
person stood in need of cleansing, several 
have thought that it was employed also 
On that solemn day when the great body 
of the people were cleansed. Stipplciu. 
Addenda to Calmefs Dictionary; Fragment* 
annexed to Calmet' s Diet. No. exxxii. p. 6& 



HEL 



HEL 



HELIOP'OLIS, px, HXiottoXic, signifies 
the city of the sun ; and in Hebrew it is cal- 
led On, or Aun, which denotes force, riches, 
iniquity. The father-in-law of Joseph was 
high-priest of On, (Gen. xli. 45.) which is 
rendered Heliopolis by the Septuagint ver- 
sion, and is also noticed by Herodotus, who 
says that ' the Heliopolitans were reckoned 
the wisest of the Egyptians.' According 
to Berosus, this was the city of Moses ; and 
if so, it well accounts for his character in 
Scripture, ' that he was learned in all the 
wisdom of the Egyptians.' (Acts vii. 22.) 

This city was situated not far from the 
present Cairo. It still retains the name of 
Heliah, though some think Mattarea, its 
neighbour, may be the true On. It is fa- 
mous for a fine obelisk, still standing, of 
considerable size, and nearly seventy feet 
in height, covered with hieroglyphics, but 
not equal in execution to some remaining 
in the south of Egypt. Several others, 
which formerly stood here, have been car- 
ried to Rome, or to Constantinople. This 
city was also famous for a temple of the 
sun, in which was a looking glass, so dis- 
posed that it reflected the rays of that lu- 
minary all day long, and enlightened the 
whole temple with great splendour. Hence 
the name Heliopolis is said to have been 
given to this city. A fountain of excellent 
water contributes to the celebrity of Helio- 
polis. Niebuhr places Mattarea about two 
leagues from Cairo. He says it is famous 
among the Christians for a sycamore, the 
trunk of which is said to have afforded shel- 
ter to the holy family when in Egypt. This 
sycamore would seem to have the power of 
renewing itself; for of the crowds of super- 
stitious persons who visit it, each usually 
cuts off and carries away a piece. This 
village was formerly famous for the culti- 
vation of those trees which produced the 
Egyptian balsam. The last died in the 
beginning of the seventeenth century. Ibn 
Haukal says, ' Jin-al-Shems, or Fountain of 
the Sun, lies to the south of Fostat.' Dr. 
E. D. Clarke visited the ' remains of Heli- 
opolis, one of the most ancient cities of the 
world, of which a vestige can now be traced. 
More than eighteen hundred years ago, its 
ruins attracted the regard of the most en- 
lightened travellers of Greece and Rome. 
Nearly thirty years before the Christian 
era they were visited by Strabo ; and his 
description of them proves that the condi- 
tion of this once famous seat of science was 
almost as forlorn then as at the present 
period. The sphinxes which Pococke saw, 
were a part of the identical antiquities no- 
ticed by Strabo so many centuries before.' 
' In our way,' says the same learned tra- 
veller, ' we halted at Mattarea, a village 
which is generally believed to occupy a part 
of the ancient city. We then went to visit 
the renowned pillar of On, or obelisk of 
Heliopolis, (the only great work of antiquity 
488 



now remaining in all the Land of Goshen,) 
standing upon the spot where the Hebrews 
had their first settlement.' Upon this su- 
perb monument are hieroglyphics rudely 
sculptured ; and ' from the coarseness of the 
sculpture, as well as the history of the city 
to which this obelisk belonged, there is 
reason to consider it as the oldest monu- 
ment of the kind in Egypt. Each of the 
four sides exhibits the same hieroglyphic 
characters, and in the same order.' Clarke's 
Travels, vol. v. pp. 137 — 144, fourth edi- 
tion ; Sacred Geography ; Hales' s New Analy- 
sis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 376. 

HELL, in Hebrew, bixw, scheol. This 
word in Scripture frequently signifies the 
grave, a depth under the earth, where the 
bodies of the dead rest. Jacob says, that 
he shall go down to the grave, or into hell. 
(Gen. xxxvii. 35.) Korah, Dathan, and 
Abiram, were swallowed up by the earth, 
and descended quick into hell, that is, they 
were buried alive. (Numb. xvi. 30. 33.) 
' Our old English word hell, which though 
scarcely used but for the place of torment, 
yet being a derivative from the Saxon hil- 
lan or helan, to hide, or from hell, a cavern, 
anciently denoted the concealed or unseen 
place, of the dead in general.' 

Hell is often put for the place of Divine 
punishment after death. As all religions 
have supposed a future state of existence 
after this life, so all have their hell, or place 
of torment, in which the wicked are thought 
to be punished. 

Isaiah, (xiv. 9.) speaking to the king of 
Babylon, says, ' Hell from beneath is moved 
for thee to meet thee at thy coming : it stir- 
reth up the dead for thee, even all the chief 
ones of the earth.' Ezekiel, (xxxi. 15.) 
speaks nearly in the same manner to the 
king of Egypt. Here the rich man was 
buried : (Luke xvi. 22.) ' The rebellious 
angels were cast down into hell, and deli- 
vered into chains of darkness.' (2 Pet. 
ii. 4.) 

The learned are divided with respect to 
the origin, and authors of those descrip- 
tions of hell, tartarus, the elysian fields, 
&c. which we read in the Greek and Latin 
fathers, concerning the state of souls se- 
parated from the body. Some pretend that 
the ancient Jews acknowledged only tem- 
poral rewards and punishments for virtue 
and vice. The law seems to promise no 
other. It threatens untimely and ignomi- 
nious death, cutting off or extermination, 
excommunication, extinction of families, 
barrenness in the land, captivity and sla- 
very, a heaven of brass, and an earth of iron, 
&c. but not hell and eternal death. It 
promises long life, a numerous family, plen- 
tiful harvests, fruitful flocks, profound 
peace, victory, riches, plenty, honours, but 
not eternal life, glory, paradise, &c. Some 
of the learned are of opinion, that after the 
Jews became conversant with the Greeks, 



HEL 



HEL 



they inquired into the representations of 
Homer and other poets respecting hell, 
tartarus, and the elysian fields ; and that 
their doctors were divided in their senti- 
ments, some adopting the Greek notions, 
others adhering to the ancient opinions of 
their nation. This division produced, they 
say, those sects which afterwards appeared 
among the Jews : the Pharisees and Esse- 
nians favoured the opinions of the Greeks; 
the Sadducees maintained their ancient 
Jewish traditions. Others think, that the 
Jews received these opinions from the Per- 
sians and Egyptians, rather than from the 
Greeks ; because they obtained among them 
also, and there is a general prepossession, 
that the religion of the Greeks was derived 
from Egypt. These authors agree in their 
judgment of the Jews borrowing from other 
people their representations of hell and 
paradise; which the Christians received 
from them. 

But on examining the Hebrew writings, 
we shall find them coinciding with the an- 
cient Greeks, Homer, Hesiod, and others, 
their most ancient poets. Job, the Psalm- 
ist, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Eze- 
kiel, very clearly mention hell as a place 
where the wicked are detained. Moses 
himself takes notice of a fire which is kin- 
dled in God's anger, and shall burn into the 
lowest hell, and shall consume the earth 
with her increase, and set on fire the foun- 
dation of the mountains. (Deut. xxxii. 
22.) And in another place, (Deut. xxx. 
15.) ' I have set before thee this day life 
and good, and death and evil.' It is evi- 
dent, that good men are not always re- 
warded in this life, neither are the wicked 
adequately punished. Moses, therefore, 
intended to point out another life, and 
another death, other goods and other evils. 
And if the Hebrews expected nothing after 
death, why should Balaam desire that his 
end might resemble theirs 1 ' Let me die 
the death of the righteous, and let my last 
end be like his.' (Numb, xxiii. 10.) The 
author of the book of Job (xxvi. 6.) says, 
' Hell is naked before God, and destruction 
hath no covering.' Solomon, speaking of a 
debauched woman says, ' Her feet go down 
to death, her steps take hold on hell.' (Prov. 
v. 5.) The author of the eighty-eighth 
Psalm says to God - , ' shall thy wonders be 
known in the dark ? and thy righteousness 
in the land of forgetfulness ?' Here hell, 
destruction, and forgetfulness, are synony- 
mous terms. The Heathens placed the 
river Lethe, or of forgetfulness, in hell. 
The prophet Isaiah was nearly contempo- 
rary with Hesiod and Homer. Ezekiel 
lived some time after them. It may, how- 
ever, be affirmed, on very good grounds, 
that neither Isaiah nor Ezekiel had any 
knowledge of either their persons or their 
writings ; and that they speak of hell, and 
the state of the dead, at least as clearly as 
489 



those poets do, and in expressions almost 
similar. Isaiah, (lxvi. 24.) mentions the 
fire of the damned, which is never to be 
quenched, the worm which gnaws them 
and dies not, and the insupportable stench 
which every way surrounds them. The 
same prophet (xxvi. 14. 19.) says, 'They 
are dead, they shall not live ; they are de- 
ceased, they shall not rise ; therefore hast 
thou visited and destroyed them, and made 
all their memory to perish.' Here, there- 
fore, they are represented to be in hell, and 
in a state of oblivion. ' Thy dead men, 
(the Israelites) shall live, together with my 
dead body shall they arise. Awake and 
sing ye that dwell in dust : for thy dew is 
as the dew of herbs, and the earth shall 
cast out the dead.' The same Isaiah, (xiv. 
9.) speaking of the king of Babylon's fall, 
says, ' Hell from beneath is moved for thee.' 
This is a prosopopoeia very like those 
which occur in the poets and profane 
authors, who describe hell and the elysian 
fields. 

The Jews placed hell in the centre of 
the earth. They called it the deep, and 
destruction ; and they believed it to be 
situated under waters and mountains. 
They also frequently term it Gehennon or 
Gehenna; this signifies the valley of Hin- 
nom, or of the sons of Hinnom, which was, 
as it were, the common sewer of Jerusalem, 
where children were sacrificed to Moloch. 
In like manner, the Heathens believed the 
place of torture to be in the deepest place 
of the earth. 

Among Christians are two controverted 
points relative to hell : the one regards 
its locality, the other, the duration of its 
torments. The locality or place of hell, 
and the reality of its fire, were first con- 
troverted by Origen, who, interpreting the 
Scripture account metaphorically, consi- 
ders hell as consisting, not in external 
punishments, but in a consciousness or 
sense of guilt, and a remembrance of past 
pleasures. The generality of Christians 
admitted a local hell ; and conceiving the 
earth to be an extended plain, and the 
heavens an arch drawn over it, they were 
of opinion that hell is a place in the earth, 
and the farthest distant from heaven. 
Tertullian represents the Christians of 
his time as believing hell to be an abyss in 
the centre of the earth ; and this opinion 
was founded chiefly on what is said of the 
descent of Christ into hades or hell. (Matt, 
xii. 40.) Among the moderns, Mr. Wins- 
ton has advanced a new hypothesis. He 
thinks, that the comets are so many bolls, 
appointed in their orbits to carry the 
damned alternately into the confines of 
the sun, there to be scorched by the vie 
lent heat, and then to beyond the orb of 
Saturn, there to starve in those cold and 
dismal regions. Mr. Swindeii, not satis- 
fied with any hypothesis hitherto advanced, 



HEL 



HEL 



assigns the sun as the local hell. On this 
subject, however, as Dr. Doddridge ob- 
serves, we must confess our ignorance ; and 
we shall much better employ our time in 
studying by what means we may avoid this 
place of horror, than to discover its situation. 
With respect to the duration of the tor- 
ments of hell, Origen was the first that 
denied them to be eternal. It was his opi- 
nion, that not only men, but devils, shall be 
pardoned and restored to heaven, after a 
due course of punishment, suitable to their 
respective crimes. The chief principle on 
which Origen founded his opinion, was the 
nature of punishment, which he thought to 
be emendatory, and applied only as phy- 
sic for the recovery of the patient's health. 
Among modern writers the chief objection 
to the eternity of the torments of hell, is 
the disproportion between temporary crimes 
and eternal punishments. It is also ob- 
jected, that the word everlasting is not 
to be understood in its utmost extent, and 
that it signifies only a long time, or a time 
whose precise boundary is unknown. But 
to this it is answered, that though the words 
' for ever' and ' everlasting' do not in Scrip- 
ture always denote an endless duration, 
yet it cannot be denied that they are fre- 
quently used in the most unlimited sense : 
as, where eternity is attributed to God ; 
and he is said to ' live for ever and ever,' 
and where eternal happiness in another 
world is promised to good men, and that 
' they shall be for ever with the Lord.' 
The declaration of our Saviour seems de- 
cisive on this point, (Matth. xxv. 46.) : 
' These shall go away into everlasting 
punishment, but the righteous into life 
eternal.' In this passage, the same word 
aiojviog is used to denote the duration 
both of the joys of heaven, and the pains 
of hell. It is, therefore, argued, that if 
with respect to the former, it denotes 
what is universally granted, an eternal 
duration, it must also denote an eternal 
duration with respect to the latter. It is 
also argued, that the measure of penalties 
with respect to crimes is not, nor ought 
always to be taken from the quality and 
degree of the offence, much less from its 
duration and continuance, but from the 
ends and reasons of government, which 
requires such penalties as may be likely to 
secure the observance of the law. No go- 
vernment ever thought it a rule to be ob- 
served in punishing, according to equity 
and justice, that the pain and penalty 
inflicted should continue no longer than 
the time spent in committing the sin. 
Hence, some have been punished with 
death, others banished or imprisoned, for 
crimes which were committed in a short 
space of time. Would men seriously con- 
sider the vile and heinous nature of sin ; 
the excellency of the person against whom 
it is committed, even God, a being of in- 
490 



finite perfection ; the meanness of us who 
oppose and affront him by our wickedness ; 
and the many obligations under which we 
lie to serve and obey him ; they must ac- 
knowledge that eternal punishment ought 
justly to be inflicted for our sins and vile 
enormities. Tillotson's Sermons, vol. ii. p. 
278, &c. ; Warner's System of Divinity and 
Morality, vol. iv. p. 394 ; Broughton's His- 
torical Dictionary, vol. i. p. 476, &c. 

Hell, Christ's Descent into. It is not 
expressly asserted by any of the Evangel- 
ists that Christ descended into hell ; but 
they all relate that he had expired upon the 
cross, and that after three days he again 
appeared alive. It may, therefore, be in- 
ferred that in the intermediate time his soul 
went into the common receptacle for de- 
parted souls. But a more direct proof of 
this proposition may be found in St. Peter's 
Sermon, after the effusion of the Holy 
Ghost on the day of Pentecost, (Actsii. 27.) 
in which he applies to the resurrection of 
our Saviour the following passage in the 
Psalms : ' Thou wilt not leave my soul in 
hell, neither wilt thou suffer thine Holy 
One to see corruption.' (Ps. xvi. 10.) 
Christ's soul must have been in hell, since 
God is here represented as not finally leav- 
ing it there, but as re-uniting it to the body 
of Christ after a certain interval. It is to 
be observed, that the word rendered ' hell, 
in the preceding passage, both in Jrhe Sep- 
tuagint translation of the Psalms, and in 
the Acts, is" Ai$r}Q Hades. Dr. Campbell 
has shown that this word, which occurs 
eleven times in the New Testament, and is 
very frequently used in the Septuagint trans- 
lation of the Old, never signifies in Scrip- 
ture the place of torment to which the 
wicked are to be consigned after the day 
of judgment, but always the place appro- 
priated for the common reception of de- 
parted souls in the intermediate time between 
death and the general resurrection. 

We ought, therefore, to remember, in 
repeating these words in the Apostles' 
Creed, that this is the whole of what we 
are bound to profess by them. In what 
part of space, or of what nature, that re- 
ceptacle is, in which the souls of men 
continue from their death till they rise 
again, we scarcely know. We are sure, 
however, that it is divided into two ex- 
tremely different regions : the one is the 
dwelling of the righteous, and is called 
in St. Luke, ' Abraham's bosom,' where 
Lazarus was ; the other is that of the 
wicked, where was the rich man. We 
have no proof that our Saviour went into 
the latter place ; but as he told the peni- 
tent thief, that he should be that day with 
him in paradise, we are certain he was 
in the former, where they which die in the 
Lord rest from their labours, and are bles- 
sed, and where they wait for a still more 
perfect happiness at the resurrection of the 



HEL 



HEN 



last day. How the soul of our Saviour 
was employed in this abode, or for what 
•easons he continued there during this time, 
farther than that he might ' be like unto 
his brethren,' we are not informed. It is 
probable, that this doctrine of Christ's 
descent into hell was first introduced into 
creeds for the purpose of declaring the ac- 
tual separation of Christ's soul and body, 
in opposition to those heretics who asserted 
that the crucifixion produced only a trance 
or deliquium, and that Christ did not really 
suffer death. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christ. Theology, vol. ii. p. 155, &c. ; Seeker's 
Lectures on the Catechism, p. 71 ; Pearson 
on the Creed, p. 250, &c. ; Barrow on the 
Creed. 

HELLENISTS, 'the Grecians.' (Acts vi. 
1, &c.) Those were called Hellenistic 
Jews who lived in cities and provinces 
where the Greek tongue was common, and 
who, not being much accustomed to He- 
brew or Syriac, generally used the Greek 
version of the Septuagint both in public 
and private. This was disapproved by 
Hebraizing Jews, who could not endure 
that the Scriptures should be read in any 
language besides their original Hebrew. 
This seems to have been the only differ- 
ence between the Hellenistic and Hebra- 
izing Jews, who reproached their brethren 
with reading the Scripture after the Egyp- 
tian manner, that is, from the left to the 
right ; whereas the Rabbins say, that as 
the sun moves from east to west, so they 
should read from the right hand to the left. 
This difference, however, produced no schism 
or separation. Salmasius, indeed, endea- 
vours to prove, that they never read the 
Bible in Greek ; and he gives this reason 
for his assertion, namely, because they 
never read it in Arabic, a language which 
the Jews were much more generally ac- 
quainted with than Greek. 

The Hellenists, Hebrews both by nation 
and language, are thus properly distin- 
guished from the Hellenes, or Greeks, 
(John xii. 20.) who were Greeks by birth 
and nation, but proselytes to the Jewish 
religion. Salmas. Funus Lingua Hellenis- 
tica: ; Morin. Exercitat. Biblic. ; Voss. de 
LXX. Interpret. ; Doddridge on John xii. 20. 

HEMEROBAPTISTS, a sect among the 
ancient Jews, who derived their name 
from their washing and bathing every day 
in all seasons ; and they performed the 
custom with the greatest solemnity, as a 
religious rite necessary to salvation. Epi- 
phanius, who mentions this as the fourth 
heresy among the Jews, observes, that tbey 
held nearly the same opinions as the Scribes 
and Pharisees, but that, in common with 
the Sadducees, they denied the resurrection 
of the dead, and retained some other pecu- 
liarities of these last 

The sect who pass in the East under the 
denomination of Sabians, and call them- 
491 



selves Mendai. Ijahi, or the disciples of St. 
John, and whom Europeans entitle the 
Christians of St. John, because they still 
retain some knowledge of the Gospel, are 
thought by some to be of Jewish origin, 
and to have been derived from the ancient 
Hemerobaptists. Certain it is, that the 
John, whom they consider as the founder 
of their sect, bears no sort of similitude 
to John the Baptist, but rather resembles 
the person of that name whom the ancient 
writers represent as the chief of the Jewish 
Hemerobaptists. The^e ambiguous Christ- 
ians dwell in Persia and Arabia, and prin- 
cipally at Bassora ; and their religion con- 
sists in bodily washings performed frequently 
and with great solemnity, and attended with 
certain ceremonies which the priests mingle 
with this superstitious service. Broughton's 
Dictionary, vol. i. p. 483 ; Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. iii. p. 498. 

HENOTICON, a decree or edict of the 
emperor Zeno, which was dated at Con- 
stantinople in the year 482, and by which 
he intended to reconcile all the parties in 
religion under one faith. For this reason 
the decree was called Henoticon, which 
signifies union or uniting. It is generally 
agreed, that it was published by the advice 
of Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, who 
wished to reconcile the contending parties. 
This decree repeated and confirmed all that 
had been enacted in the councils of Nice, 
Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, 
against the Arians, Nestorians, and Euty- 
chians, without particularly mentioning the 
council of Chalcedon. The Henoticon was 
approved by all those of the two contend- 
ing parties who were remarkable for their 
candour and moderation ; but it was op- 
posed by violent and obstinate bigots, who 
complained that it was injurious to the ho- 
nour and authority of the most holy council 
of Chalcedon. Hence arose new contests 
and new divisions not less deplorable than 
those which this decree was intended to sup- 
press. The Catholics opposed it with all 
their strength, and it was condemned in form 
by pope Felix II. Broughton's Dictionary, 
vol. i. p. 483 ; Mosheim, vol. i. pp. 417, 418. 

HENRICANS, a sect in the twelfth 
century, that derived their name from 
Henry, a monk and hermit, who undertook 
to reform the superstitions and vices of the 
clergy. For this purpose he left Lausanne 
in Switzerland, and, removing from dif- 
ferent places, at length settled at Thou- 
louse, in the year 1147. Here he exercised 
his ministerial function, and declaimed 
with the greatest vehemence against the 
vices of the clergy, and the superstitions 
they had introduced into the Christian 
church. He was opposed by St. Bernard! 
and attempted to save himself by flight 
Being seized in his retreat, he was carried 
before pope Eugenios III., who presided in 
person at a council assembled at Kbeims, 



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and who, in the year 1148, committed 
Henry to a close prison, where he soon 
ended his days. Henry rejected the bap- 
tism of infants, severely censured the 
corrupt manners of the clergy, treated the 
festivals and ceremonies of the church with 
the greatest contempt, and held private as- 
semblies for inculcating his peculiar doc- 
trines. Mosheim, vol. ii. pp. 447, 448. 

HERESY, a'ipscng, signifies in general a 
sect, or choice. It is usually taken in a 
bad sense, for some fundamental error in 
religion, adhered to with obstinacy. Thus 
we say, the heresy of the Arians, Pelagians, 
Novatians, &c. St. Paul says, that there 
should be heresies in the church, that they 
who are tried may be made manifest. (1 
Cor. xi. 19. He requires Titus to shun, 
and even to avoid the company of, a heretic, 
after the first and second admonition. (Tit. 
iii. 10.) In the Acts, St. Luke speaks of 
the heresy of the Sadducees, and that of the 
Pharisees. (Acts v. 17- ; xv. 5.) 

It is evident that among the Jews these 
sects or heresies, especially that of the Phari- 
sees, were not odious ; as St. Paul, even after 
his conversion, declares himself to be of the 
sect of the Pharisees. (Acts xxiii. 6.) The 
same apostle says, that Christianity was 
called a sect or heresy. (Acts xxiv. 14.) It is 
true, that in the beginning, the Christian re- 
ligion was scarcely considered by strangers as 
anything more than a sect of Judaism ; and 
the primitive fathers made no difficulty of 
sometimes calling it a divine sect. Tertullus, 
the advocate of the Jews, accuses St. Paul 
before Felix, of being the head oftheNaza- 
renes. (Acts xxiv. 5.) St. Paul declares, that 
he had lived without reproach in the sect of 
the Pharisees, (Acts vxxi. 5. ; Philip, iii. 5, 6.) 
which was the most in repute among the 
Jews. The Jews of Rome, who met St. 
Paul, told him that they were desirous of 
knowing his thoughts concerning Christ- 
ianity ; and that for their parts they knew 
nothing of this sect, except that it was every 
where opposed. (Actsxxviii. 22.) 

From the very beginning of the Christian 
church were dangerous heresies, which at- 
tacked the most essential doctrines of our 
religion ; as the divinity of J esus Christ, his 
office of Messiah, the reality and truth of his 
incarnation, the resurrection of the dead, the 
liberty of Christians from legal ceremonies, 
and many other points. The most ancient 
of these heretics was Simon Magus, who 
desired to buy the gift of God with money, 
(Acts viii. 9, 10.) and who afterwards set 
himself up for the Messiah, God Almighty, 
the Creator. Cerinthus, and the false 
apostles, against whom St. Paul inveighs 
in his Epistles, determined that the faith- 
ful should receive circumcision, and sub- 
ject themselves to all the legal observances. 
(Gal. iv. 12, 13. 17- ; v. 11. ; vi. 12. Philip, 
iii. 18.) It is said, that the Nicolaitans 
allowed a community of women, committed 
492 



the most ignominious actions, and followed 
the superstitions of heathenism. They 
went over to the sect of the Cainists. Si. 
John (Rev. ii. 6. 15.) speaks of the Nico- 
laitans as producing great disorders in the 
churches of Asia. At the same time were 
false Christs and false prophets. St. Paul 
speaks of Hymeneus and Alexander, (1 
Tim. i. 20.) and of Hymeneus and Philetus, 
(2 Tim. ii. 17, 18.) who departed from the 
truth. He foretold, that in the last times 
some should forsake the truth, and give 
themselves up to the spirit of error, and to 
doctrines of devils. (1 Tim.iv. 1.) St. Peter 
and St. Jude foretell the same things, and 
in this only repeat what Jesus Christ him- 
self had said, that there should come false 
Christs and false prophets, who should seduce 
the simple. See Nicolaitans, Simon, &c. 

The principal sects of heretics, that dis- 
turbed the peace of the church, arose in the 
first six centuries ; most of the heresies in suc- 
ceeding ages were only the old ones revived. 

In England is no express law, which 
determines what shall be called heresy. 
The statute, 1 Eliz. c. 1. directed the high 
commission- court to restrain the same to 
what had been adjudged to be heresy by 
the authority of Scripture, or by the first 
four general councils ; or to what the par- 
liament, with the assent of the convoca- 
tion, should determine to be heresy. By 
the common law, the archbishop, or bishop 
of any diocese, has power to convict per- 
sons of heresy. Formerly, heresy was 
treason ; and the punishment for it was 
burning, by virtue of the writ de heretico 
comburendo ; but the heretic forfeited 
neither lands nor goods, because the pro- 
ceedings against him were pro salute animce. 
By the statute 29 Car. II. c. ix. the pro- 
ceedings on such writ, and all punishments 
by death in pursuance of ecclesiastical 
censures, are taken away ; but an obstinate 
heretic, being excommunicated, is liable 
to be imprisoned, by virtue of the writ 
de excommunicato capiendo. Denying the 
Christian religion, or the divine authority 
of the Scriptures, renders a person liable, 
for the second offence, to three years' im- 
prisonment, and to different disabilities, 
by the statute 9 and 1 of W. III. c. xxxii. 
Broughton' s Dictionary, vol. i. p. 489 ; Burn's 
Eccles. Law, vol. i. p. 589. 

HERMAS, whom Paul mentions, (Rom. 
xvi. 14.) was, according to several of 
the ancients, and many learned modern 
interpreters, the same as the Hermas, 
whose works are still extant, and have 
been placed by some among the canonical 
Scriptures. ' The Pastor of Hermas,' says 
Dr. Gregory, ' is generally allowed to be ge- 
nuine, and it is also probable that it was the 
work of that Hermas who is spoken of by St. 
Paul, though some have ascribed it to a cer- 
tain Hermas, or Hermes, brother to Pius, 
bishop of Rome, who lived in the succeeding 



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century. The work is entirely allegorical, 
consisting of visions and similitudes. Like 
all works of this nature, it is extremely un- 
equal as a composition, and, I confess, but 
little satisfactory to my judgment. It was, 
however, in high estimation in the early 
ages, and is spoken of as Scripture both by 
Irenaeus and Tertullian.' This work is 
supposed to have been written at Rome, 
or in the neighbourhood, about A.D. 92, 
before Domitian's persecution. Gregory's 
Hist, of the Christ. Church, vol. i. p. 64. 

HERMOGENIANS, a denomination 
that arose in the second century, and de- 
rived their name from their leader, Her- 
mogenes. He regarded matter as the 
fountain of all evil, and could not per- 
suade himself that God had created it from 
nothing by an almighty act of his will. He, 
therefore, maintained that the world, with 
whatever it contains, and also the souls of 
men and other spirits, were formed by the 
Deity from an uncreated and eternal mass of 
corrupt matter. Mosheim, vol. i. p. 191. 

HER'MON, pra-in, signifies destruction 
or execration; otherwise, a net, or net- 
work ; otherwise, dedicated, or consecrated, 
that is, to God. Hermon is the name of 
a mount which was called by the Sido- 
nians Sirion, and by the Amorites Shenir. 
(Deut. iii. 9.) St. Jerome says, that this 
mountain lies higher than Pancas, and 
that in summer-time snow was carried 
from thence to Tyre, that people might 
drink al fresco. The Chaldee and Sama- 
ritan interpreters on Deut. iv. 48. where 
Sion is spoken of as if it were a part of 
Hermon, call it the mountain of snow, 
because it is always covered with snow, 
on account of its height. The Scripture 
places Mount Hermon as the northern 
boundary of the land beyond Jordan, and 
the brook Arnonasthe southern. (Deut. iii. 
8.; iv. 48.) Mount Hermon belonged 
to king Og, and lay at the northern ex- 
tremity of his dominions, before the Is- 
raelites conquered them. Baal-gad was 
situated in the plain of Libanus, at the 
foot of Mount Hermon ; and the Hivites 
dwelt under the same mountain in the 
land of Mizpeh, from Baal-hermon unto 
the entering in of Hamath. (Judg. iii. 3.) 
Some have thought, that Mount Hermon is 
the same as that which is called Mount Hor, 
(Num. xxxiv. 7> 8.;) but, says Dr. Hales, 
Mount Hor, or as it should be translated ' the 
mountain of the mountain,' or ' the double 
mountain,' corresponded to all Lebanon, and 
included Mount Hermon. 

Besides this Mount Hermon, which 
lies on the north border of the country 
beyond Jordan, there is said to be another 
mount of the same name, situated within 
the land of Canaan, on the west of the 
river Jordan, and not far from Mount 
Tabor. Of this mountain is understood 
what the Psalmist savs : ' The north and 
493 



the south, thou hast created them ; Tabor 
and Hermon shall rejoice in thy name.' 
(Ps. lxxxix. 12.) ' As the dew of Her- 
mon, and as the dew that descended upon 
the mountains of Zion.' (Ps. cxxxiii. 3.) 
Mr. Maundrell notices this Mount Her- 
mon, and tells us, that in three hours and 
a half from the river Kishon, he came to 
a small brook, near which was an old 
village and a good kane called Legune : 
not far from this his company took up their 
quarters. From this place they had a 
large prospect of the plain of Esdraelon. 
At about six or seven hours' distance east- 
ward stood within view Nazareth, and 
the two mountains, Tabor and Hermon. 
He adds, that they were sufficiently in- 
structed by experience, what the holy 
Psalmist means by the dew of Hermon, 
as their tents were as wet with it as if it 
had rained all night. MaundrelVs Travels 
p. 57; Wells's Geography, vol. i. p. 328; 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. 
p. 416. 

HEROD, 'HpuSne,, signifies the glory of 
the skin; or rather, son of the hero; according 
to the Syriac, a dragon in the fire. 

Herod the Great, son of Antipater 
and Cypros. His brothers were Phasael, 
Joseph, and Pheroras ; and he had a sister 
named Salome. He married several wives : 

1. Doris, by whom he had Antipater. 

2. Mariamne, the daughter of Alexander, 
son to Aristobulus, of the Asmonaean 
family ; by whom he had Alexander, 
Aristobulus, Herod, Salampso, and Cy- 
pros. 3. Mariamne, daughter of Simon 
the high-priest, by whom he had Herod, 
the husband of Herodias. 4. Malthace, 
by whom he had Archelaus, Philip, and 
Olympias. 5. Cleopatra, by whom he 
had Herod Antipas and Philip. 6. Pallas, 
by whom he had Phasael. 7- Phaedra, by 
whom he had Roxana. 8. Elpis, by whom 
he had Salome, who married one of the 
sons of Pheroras. He had also two other 
wives, whose names are not known. 

Herod was born in the year of the 
world 3932, and before Christ 72. Ac- 
cording to some, his father Antipater was 
by nation an Idumaean : others say, by 
extraction a Jew, deriving his birth from 
some of the Jews who returned from Ba- 
bylon : others maintain, that Antipater 
was a heathen, and guardian of one of 
Apollo's temples at Askelon, and that 
having been taken prisoner by some 
Iduma j an scouts, he was carried into Idu- 
maea and brought up according to the 
manners of the Jews; for since the time 
of John Hyrcanus, the Idumceans had ob- 
served the laws of Moses. 

Herod was only twenty-five years old 
when his father Antipater gave him the 
government of Galilee, with the appro- 
bation of Hyrcanus. He behaved with 
so much prudence and valour, that he 



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restored the peace of this province, which 
had been disturbed by hordes of thieves, who 
committed great ravages. Among others, 
he took one Hezekiah, captain of these 
banditti ; and by this means he procured 
the friendship and esteem of Sextus Caesar, 
governor of Syria. But the chief people 
of the Jews, growing jealous of the au- 
thority which Antipater assumed, and of 
the power which he gave to his sons, com- 
plained of it to Hyrcanus, who cited Herod 
to justify his conduct at Jerusalem. Thither 
Herod came, but well armed, and attended 
with good troops. His countenance ter- 
rified the judges. Sameas was the only 
one who had the courage to lay the fault 
of Herod's misconduct on the judges them- 
selves, and Hyrcanus, who had permitted 
him to assume too much authority. But 
Hyrcanus observing that the judges were 
more disposed to condemn him than to 
absolve him, deferred judgment till the 
next day, and gave advice privately to 
Herod, that he should escape in the night. 
He retired therefore to Sextus Caesar, at 
Damascus, and by him was entrusted with 
the government of Coele-Syria. Being 
desirous to revenge the insult offered him 
by citing him to Jerusalem, he marched 
toward that city with an army ; but Anti- 
pater his father, and Phasael his brother, 
persuaded him to return. After the death of 
Julius Caesar, Herod was appointed gover- 
nor of all Ccele-Syria, by Cassius and Mar- 
cus Brutus. They gave him troops, and 
promised him the kingdom of Judea, when 
the war between Mark Antony and young 
Caesar should be ended. About the same 
time Antipater, Herod's father, was poisoned 
at Jerusalem by one Malichus ; but Herod 
put Malichus to death at Tyre, in the year 
of the world 3961. 

Mark Antony coming into Syria, and 
being at Daphne near Antioch, a hundred 
Jews of the best rank came to him, with 
accusations against Herod and his brother 
Phasael. Hyrcanus, who had promised 
his grand-daughter Mariamne to Herod, was 
there. Mark Antony having heard what 
was alleged against Herod, asked Hyr- 
canus whether Herod and Phasael, or their 
accusers were fittest to govern the state ? 
Hyrcanus answered, the two brothers. An- 
tony, therefore, made them tetrarchs, and 
entrusted the government of all Judea to 
them. He ordered letters to be dispatched 
forthwith to this purpose, and fifteen of the 
most mutinous of their enemies to be impri- 
soned, and would have put them to death, 
if Herod had not interceded for them. 

Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, having 
undertaken to dispossess Hyrcanus, the 
prince and high-priest of the Jews, engaged 
the Parthians, by great promises, to march 
against Jerusalem. Phasael defended the 
walls of the city, and Herod defended 
the palace. Pacorus, the king of Par- 
494 



thia's son, having persuaded Hyrcanus 
and Phasael to meet Barzaph ernes, who 
was in Galilee, in order to agree on some 
accommodation, he himself accompanied 
them thither. But Hyrcanus and Phasael 
discovered very soon that they were be- 
trayed. When they came to Ecdippa, a 
maritime town of Phoenicia, they were 
seized by the Parthians, and put in chains. 
Herod, informed of what had passed, de- 
parted from Jerusalem, with his mother 
Cypros, his sister Salome, Mariamne his 
bride, and Alexandra, her mother. These 
he lodged in the castle of Massada, and 
took the way to Petra, hoping for assist- 
ance from Malchus, king of the Arabians. 
But before he reached Petra, he received 
a message from Malchus, desiring him to 
depart, because he feared to offend the Par- 
thians by receiving him. 

Herod, therefore, went to Rhinocorura, 
where he was informed that his brother 
Phasael had killed himself, to avoid the 
ill-treatment of the Parthians. From Rhi- 
nocorura he went to Damietta, where, 
after some difficulty, he embarked, the 
season being already far advanced. At 
sea he was assailed by a violent storm, 
which obliged him to throw part of his 
effects overboard, and with much difficulty 
he arrived at Rhodes. Here he was as- 
sisted by two of his friends ; and his neces- 
sity could not prevent him from doing 
good to this city, which had suffered ex- 
tremely in Cassius's war. From Rhodes 
he went to Rome, where he opened his 
affairs to Mark Antony. Antony remem- 
bered the good offices which Antipater, 
Herod's father, had done him formerly in 
Syria : he was besides exasperated against 
Antigonus, whom he considered as a tur- 
bulent man, and an enemy to the Roman 
people ; and he was moreover swayed by 
the promises which Herod made, of a 
large sum of money, if he would procure 
him to be declared king. Octavius Caesar, 
afterwards Augustus, was equally desirous 
of obliging Herod. Antony and Caesar 
used their interest so effectually, that the 
senate gave him the kingdom of Judea, 
and declared Antigonus an enemy to the 
commonwealth, in the year of the world 
3964. 

Seven days afterwards, he departed from 
Rome, and landing at Ptolemai's, began 
to gather troops to march against Anti- 
gonus, who kept the castle of Massada 
besieged. He fortunately relieved this 
fortress, and thence marched against Je- 
rusalem, with Silo, a captain of some Ro- 
man troops. But Antigonus shut the 
gates against him, and winter coming on, 
Herod and Silo put their troops into quar- 
ters. Yet he did not remain idle ; but 
he seized several posts, and took several 
towns from Antigonus, as well in Judea 
as in Galilee. The next year there were 



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skirmishes between Antigonus's party and 
Herod's, in which the latter generally had 
the advantage. In the beginning of his 
third year's reign, Herod came in earnest, 
and besieged Jerusalem: he attacked it 
on the same side as Pompey had done 
several years before. Whilst preparing 
for the siege, he went to Samaria, where 
he married Mariamne, the daughter of 
Alexandra. After his marriage, he returned 
to the siege with reinforcements ; soon 
after also came Sosius, captain of the Ro- 
man troops, who brought powerful succours 
to him from Syria ; so that after a siege 
of five months, the first inclosure of the 
city was taken by assault. Some time after, 
the second enclosure was also forced. An- 
tigonus retired to the temple, but did not 
long resist. The city and temple were 
taken ; and Antigonus came, and threw 
himself at the feet of Sosius, who insulted 
him, and called him Antigona, instead of 
Antigonus. Thus Herod acquired the king- 
dom of Judea. 

Hitherto the high-priesthood had been 
possessed by kings of the Asmonsean race. 
Herod being neither of a family of the 
priests, nor qualified to exercise his minis- 
try, and Hyrcanus being at that time in 
captivity among the Parthians, the king 
sent for one Ananel from Babylon to 
perform the office of high- priest. Ananel 
was of the family of Aaron ; but all his 
merit was his acquaintance with Herod, 
who had long had a regard for him. Ma- 
riamne, Herod's wife, had a brother 
named Aristobulus, to whom the high- 
priesthood by right of birth belonged. 
The queen never ceased to solicit Herod 
till he had divested Ananel, and restored 
this dignity to Aristobulus, who was then 
only seventeen years of age, and who 
did not enjoy the high-priesthood longer 
than one year, being drowned by order 
of Herod. Alexandra, the mother of Aris- 
tobulus, complained very much of his 
death to Cleopatra, who incensed Antony 
against Herod. Antony sent for Herod, 
to justify himself; but he effectually per- 
suaded Antony by his presents and his dis- 
courses. 

War being declared between Augustus 
and Mark Antony, Herod espoused the 
party of his benefactor Antony. But An- 
tony being overcome, Herod was obliged 
to solicit the clemency of Augustus, whom 
he met at Rhodes, and before whom he 
appeared with all the royal ornaments, 
except the diadem. He spoke to Augustus 
with admirable constancy and magnanimity: 
confessed he had favoured Antony's partv, 
that he should have done more for him, 
had he not been hindered by the war in 
Arabia : that he was disposed to do as 
much for Augustus, and to serve him with 
the same fidelity as he had done Antony. 
if Augustus would restore him his king- 
495 



dom, and admit him to his favour. Au- 
gustus, charmed with his behaviour, granted 
what he desired ; and Herod made great 
presents to that prince and his friends. 
When Augustus afterwards passed through 
Palestine in his way to Egypt, Herod ac- 
companied him, and furnished his army 
plentifully. 

Herod seemed now to be in full posses- 
sion of all he could wish. But his peace 
was soon disturbed by domestic divisions, 
and misfortunes of different kinds ; which 
in the midst of the greatest prosperity, 
rendered him one of the most 'unhappy 
princes of his age. He had so great a 
passion for Mariamne, his wife, that he 
could not moderate it ; but the affection of 
Mariamne was alienated from him, and 
she despised him. Herod's mother and 
sister, envying his wife Mariamne, forgot 
nothing that might irritate Herod against 
her; and, after several little quarrels had 
risen to animosity, in a transport of fury, 
he commanded Mariamne to be put to 
death. But when his fury had subsided, 
he was so afflicted at what he had done, 
that he fell dangerously ill, and was very 
near death. Some little time afterwards, 
he ordered the execution of Alexandra, 
who had too easily credited the news of 
his death. 

He spent the following years in raising 
several public and private edifices in the 
province, and elsewhere, in exhibiting 
shows and games, and in building temples 
in honour of Augustus. He sent his two 
sons by Mariamne to Rome, to receive 
an education suitable to their birth. But 
his most important work, undertaken at 
this time, was the rebuilding of the temple 
at Jerusalem. The people, surprised, could 
scarcely be induced to consent to it at 
first; fearing, that after he had demo- 
lished the old temple, he might leave the 
new edifice imperfect. But Herod assured 
them, that he would not touch the old 
building, till he had provided every neces- 
sary for raising the new. He finished it 
in nine years, and dedicated it in the year 
of the world 3996. This, which by some 
is called the third temple, was properly 
Zerubbabel's renewed and enlarged ; for 
such parts of it as Herod intended to make 
more lofty and magnificent, were pulled 
down by degrees, and the sacrifices and 
religious offices were never interrupted. 
Hence the prophet Haggai's prediction 
concerning the glory of the second house 
was verified; which would apparently be 
false, if this of Herod's were supposed to be 
a third temple. 

Some time after beginning this work he 
went to Home, designing to make his court 
to Augustus, and to see his tWO sons. 
Augustus received him very well, and 
Herod every where, both on his journey 
and at Koine, manifested his munificence. 



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He brought his two sons with him into 
Judea, where he married Aristobulus to 
Berenice, daughter of Salome, and Alex- 
ander to Glaphyra, daughter of Archelaus, 
king of Cappadacia. About this time 
Agrippa coming into Asia, Herod invited 
him into his kingdom, and showed him the 
cities of Samaria, otherwise Sebaste, and 
Caesarea, which he had built in honour of 
Augustus; and he received him with so 
much magnificence at Jerusalem, that 
Agrippa could not sufficiently express his 
satisfaction. Divisions again arising in 
Herod's family, he imbibed a jealousy 
of his two sons, Aristobulus and Alex- 
ander. To check their pride, Herod sent 
for Doris, and his son by her, Antipater, to 
court, and showed them much esteem and 
consideration. This preference exaspe- 
rated the two princes, who expressed their 
discontent too openly. Herod carried 
them to Rome, designing to accuse them 
before Augustus : but Augustus reconciled 
them to their father, and Herod, on his re- 
turn to Jerusalem, declared, before a great 
assembly of the people, that his intention 
was, that his three sons should reign after 
him ; first Antipater, then Alexander and 
Aristobulus. 

Herod was again disturbed by the ma- 
lice of Antipater, and the artifices of Phe- 
roras and Salome, Herod's brother and sis- 
ter. Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, 
coming into Judea, in the year of the 
world 3996, once more reconciled the two 
brothers to Herod. But at last the ca- 
lumnies of Antipater and Salome prevailed, 
and Herod, believing they had some de- 
signs on his life, ordered Alexander and 
Aristobulus to be strangled, in the year of 
the world 3999. 

Antipater having thus got rid of his 
brothers, who gave him most umbrage, 
began to consider how he might dispose of 
Herod himself, whose resentment and 
inconstancy he continually feared. To 
conceal his intrigues, he procured the king's 
leave to visit Rome. But during his ab- 
sence Herod discovered his conspiracy, 
and several months were employed in 
examining depositions against him. 

In the mean time, the Saviour of the 
world was born at Bethlehem ; and wise 
men from the East came to pay their ho- 
mage to him. When arrived at Jerusalem, 
they asked, Where was the new-born king 
of the Jews ? Their arrival occasioned 
a great and universal sensation. Herod, 
who was then at Jericho, under cure for a 
languishing illness, of which he died soon 
after, was also much concerned at it, and 
convened the priests and doctors of the 
law to know of them where the Messiah 
was to be born. They told him in Bethle- 
hem of Judah, according to the predic- 
tion of the prophet Micah, (v. 2.) Herod, 
therefore, sending privately for the wise 
496 



men, inquired of them very carefully the 
time when the star had appeared to them. 
He sent them to Bethlehem, and directed 
them to return to him when they had found 
the child. But the angel of the Lord dis- 
covered to them in a dream the wicked 
designs of Herod ; and they returned into 
their own country by another way. Jo- 
seph also was warned by an angel to flee 
into Egypt, with the child and his mother. 
Herod, finding himself deceived by the 
Magi, was very angry; and sending to 
Bethlehem, he ordered all the male chil- 
dren of two years old and under, or ra- 
ther, perhaps, those entered on the second 
year, to be killed, according to the time 
concerning which he had inquired exactly of 
the wise men. 

In the beginning of this year, which is the 
first of Jesus Christ, Antipater, who was ig- 
norant of what had passed against him, re- 
turned from Rome, and was admitted to his 
father's presence only to hear from his mouth 
those reproaches which he deserved. He was 
loaded with chains and imprisoned. Besides, 
Herod made a new will, in which he declared 
Herod Antipas, his youngest son, to be his 
heir. 

It being reported that Herod was dead, 
some young people at noon-day beat down 
a golden eagle, which Herod had placed 
over the great portal of the temple, con- 
trary to the law and customs of the Jews. 
The authors of this exploit, with forty of 
their followers, were seized by order of 
Herod, and burnt alive. Herod's diseases 
increased daily: his fever was not vio- 
lent ; but a slow internal heat wasted him. 
His hunger was so raging as to be insatia- 
ble. His bowels ulcerated ; he had conti- 
nual pains in his belly ; his legs swelled like 
those of dropsical persons ; certain parts 
were so rotten, that worms were seen to 
come out of them; and he had an insup- 
portable itch over his whole body. A little 
before his death, he sent for all who were 
considerable persons in Judea to Jericho, 
threatening them with death, if they failed. 
When they were come, he ordered them to 
be confined in the circus, and with tears 
constrained his sister Salome, and Alexas. 
his brother-in-law, to promise him, that as 
soon as he was dead, they should massacre 
all these persons, that so the Jews through- 
out the land might, at least in appearance, 
shed tears at his death. But this order was 
not executed. 

After this, he received letters from Rome, 
informing him that Augustus permitted him 
either to banish Antipater, or to kill him. 
This news revived him a little : but his 
pains returning with great violence, he 
wished to deliver himself from them by 
death. He called for a knife to pare an 
apple, as he had been used to do, but, in- 
stead of that service, he attempted to 
plunge it into his body ; his cousin, Achiab, 



HER 



HER 



held his hands, and at the same time he 
made a loud exclamation, which disor- 
dered the whole palace, and every one 
supposed the king was dead. Antipater, 
hearing this report, thought Herod had ex- 
pired, and endeavoured to persuade his 
guards to liberate him ; but the officer that 
had the charge of him went and gave no- 
tice of it to Herod, who commanded him 
to be killed immediately. He survived 
his son only five days, during which inter- 
val he changed his will, and gave the 
kingdom to Archelaus ; the Gaulonitis, 
Trachonitis, and Batanaea, to Philip, own 
brother to Archelaus ; and Galilee and 
Peraea to Herod Antipas. Thus died He- 
rod the Great, at near seventy years of 
age, after a reign of six or seven-and- 
thirty years, from the time of his being de- 
clared king by the senate, and thirty-four 
years from his being master of Judea by 
the death of Antigonus, in the year of the 
world 4001. Joseph. Antiq. lib. xiv. cap. 23. 
25, 26. 28; lib. xvi. cap. 7, 8. 11,12; lib. 
xvii. cap. 6\ Be Bello, lib. 8. ; Lud. Capelli 
Templi Hierosol. delineat. ex Villalpando, p. 
3800 ; Additions to Calmet's Dictionary. 

Herod, called Philip, (Mark vi. 17- 
Luke iii. 1.) son of Herod the Great and 
Mariamne, daughter of Simon the high- 
priest, was at first named in Herod's will 
as heir to his kingdom, after the deaths of 
Alexander and Aristobulus, and the disco- 
very of Antipater's conspiracy ; but the 
king having discovered, that Mariamne, 
this Herod's mother, was concerned in 
that conspiracy, he erased Herod from 
his will, and substituted Archelaus. Herod 
Philip married Herodias, grand-daughter to 
Herod the Great, by whom he had Salome, 
who is mentioned in the Gospel as a graceful 
dancer. Herod Antipas, the tetrarch, bro- 
ther to Philip, having been some time with 
him when on a journey to Rome, conceived 
a criminal passion for Herodias, and pro- 
posed to marry her. Herodias consented, on 
condition that Antipas would divorce the 
daughter of king Aretas, whom he had mar- 
ried long before. 

Antipas, when returned from Rome, per- 
formed his promise, and married Herodias, 
his brother Herod Philip's wife. Against 
this incestuous marriage, John the Baptist 
inveighed vehemently ; and this was the He- 
rodias who procured that great man's head 
to be cut off. (Matt. xiv. Mark vi. 17.) 

Herod Antipas, see Antipas Herod. 
Herod Agrippa, see Agrippa. 

HER'ODIANS, a sect of the Jews in the 
time of our Saviour. This sect was not an- 
cient, and could not have been earlier than 
the reign of the Herods. Neither Josephus 
nor Philo speaks of it under the name of 
Herodians ; but the Gospel does. (Matt. xxii. 
10. Mark iii. 6. ; viii. 15. ; xii. 13.) 

The Herodians may, perhaps, be consi- 
dered as a political rather than a religfious 
497 



sect ; but we ought to remember, that among 
the Jews religious and civil opinions were 
almost necessarily blended. Tertullian, and 
some other ancient authors, thought that the 
Herodians were so called because they be- 
lieved Herod to be the Messiah ; but Jerome 
treats this opinion with a sort of contempt. 
Indeed, there seems to be no foundation for 
it in Scripture, unless we suppose that it is 
alluded to in our Lord's caution to his disci- 
ples against ' the leaven of Herod.' It seems 
more probable that the Herodians were 
only a set of men strongly attached to the 
family of Herod, and of particularly pro- 
fligate principles. The opinion of Dr. 
Prideaux is, that they derived their name 
from Herod the Great, and were distin- 
guished from the Pharisees and other Jews, 
by concurring in Herod's scheme of sub- 
jecting himself and his dominions to the 
Romans, and also by complying with 
many of the heathen customs of the Ro- 
mans. In their zeal for the Roman au- 
thority, they were diametrically opposite 
to the Pharisees, who considered it unlaw- 
ful to submit, or pay taxes, to the Roman 
emperor ; an opinion founded on its being 
forbidden by the law to set over them a 
stranger, as their king, who was not one 
of their own nation. The conjunction of 
the Herodians with the Pharisees against 
Christ is, therefore, a memorable proof 
of the severity of their resentment and 
malice against him ; especially when we 
consider that they united in proposing to 
him an ensnaring question, on a subject 
which was the ground of their mutual dis- 
sension, namely, Whether it was lawful to 
pay tribute to Caesar ? If Christ had an- 
swered in the negative, the Herodians 
would have accused him of treason 
against the state: and if in the affirmative, 
the Pharisees were equally ready to excite 
the people against him, as an enemy to their 
civil liberties and privileges. 

St. Mark (viii. 15.) tells us, that Christ 
charged his disciples to ' beware of the 
leaven of Herod,' and in the parallel pas- 
sage of St. Matthew's Gospel, (xvi. 6.) 
Christ says, • Beware of the leaven 
of the Sadducees.' Hence some com- 
mentators have supposed that the He- 
rodians belonged to the sect of the Sad- 
ducees. Dr. Doddridge says, ' These men, 
from their high regard to Herod, would 
naturally be zealous for the authority of 
the Romans, by whose means Herod was 
made and continued king.' It is proba- 
ble, as Dr. Prideaux conjectures, that 
' they might incline to conform to Roman 
customs in some particulars, which the 
law would not allow, and especially in the 
admission of images, though not in the 
religious, or rather idolatrous use of them. 
Herod's attempt to set up a goldei 
over the east gate of the temple 
known. These complaisant courtiers 
K k 



HER 



HEX 



would, no doubt, defend it, and the same 
temper might discover itself in other in- 
stances.' Hence some have thought, that 
this symbolizing with idolatry, or views of 
interest and worldly policy, was probably 
the leaven of Herod, against which our 
Lord cautioned his disciples. Jenning's 
Jewish Antiquities, book i. chap. xiii. ; Bishop 
Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theol. vol. i. pp. 
259, 260 ; Doddridge's Family Expositor, vol. 
i. p. 27 4, note ; Prideaux's Connection, partii. 
book v. p. 516. 

HERO'DIAS, daughter of Aristobulus 
and Berenice, sister to king Agrippa, and 
grand-daughter to Herod the Great. Her 
first husband was her uncle Herod Philip, 
by whom she had Salome. Herodias 
having accepted the proposals of Herod 
Antipas, her uncle, tetrarch of Galilee, of 
marrying her when he returned from 
Rome, she removed from Philip's house, 
into that of Antipas, together with her 
daughter Salome. As John the Baptist 
censured this incestuous marriage, (Matt. 
xiv. 3. Mark vi. 17.) Antipas ordered 
him to be imprisoned. Some time after, 
Herodias suggested to her dancing daughter, 
Salome, to ask the head of John the Bap- 
tist, who was accordingly beheaded. 

Herodias, mortified to see her husband 
tetrarch only, while her brother Agrippa, 
whom she had known in a state of indi- 
gence and humiliation, was honoured 
with the title of king, persuaded her 
husband Antipas to visit Rome, and 
desire of the emperor Caius the royal 
title. But Agrippa, still more meanly 
jealous, sent his servant with letters to the 
emperor, importing that Herod in his 
arsenals had arms, with which to arm 
seventy thousand men. Antipas, unable 
to deny this fact, was banished to Lyons. 
Caius understanding that Herodias, who 
accompanied her husband, was sister to 
Agrippa, inclined to pardon her: but 
she chose rather to follow her husband in 
the calamity which she had brought upon 
him, than to owe any thing to her brother's 
fortune. See Antipas Herod, Agrippa. 

HESH'BON, yiyam signifies a number, 
or thinking ; otherwise, hastening to under- 
stand, or to build. Heshbon was a cele- 
brated city beyond Jordan. It had been 
the capital of the Amorites, who con- 
quered it from the Moabites. It was 
afterwards included in the tribe of Reu- 
ben, and was given to the Levites. Je- 
rome says, that it was in his time a very 
considerable city, situated twenty miles 
beyond Jordan, in the mountains of 
Arabia. It was remarkable for excellent 
fish-pools. (Cant. vii. 4.) After the capti- 
vity of the ten tribes, it was repossessed 
by the Moabites; and hence in the pro- 
phecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah, (Isai. xv. 
xvi. Jer. xlviii. xlix.) against Moab, it is 
frequently mentioned. 
498 



Heshbon is supposed to be the same place 
as that now called Hubhzan. Numerous 
ruins attest its ancient splendour. This town 
is situated upon so commanding a position, 
that the view from it extends at least thirty 
miles in every direction ; and to the south- 
ward, where the prospect is most extensive, 
the eye ranges, probably, a distance of sixty 
miles in a direct line. Buckingham's Tra- 
vels among the Arab tribes, p. 106; Home's 
Introduction, vol. iii. p. 588 ; Sacred Geogra- 
phy ; Wells's Geography, vol. i. p. 284. 

HEXAPLA, the name of a Bible dis- 
posed in six columns, containing the text 
and different versions. It was compiled 
and published by the celebrated Origen, 
who was born in Egypt towards the end 
of the second century, and died at Tyre 
soon after the middle of the third cen- 
tury. The Hexapla contained the whole 
of the Old Testament, divided into co- 
lumns like our modern Polyglot Bibles. 
The first column was occupied by the 
Hebrew. But, as very few of those per- 
sons, to whose immediate benefit the 
labours of Origen were directed, were 
acquainted even with the letters of that 
language, he added, in a second column, 
the Hebrew words in Greek letters, that 
his readers might have at least some 
notion of the form and sound of the He- 
brew words. To express their meaning, 
he added, in a third column, a Greek trans- 
lation from the Hebrew, which had been 
lately made by a Jew, of the name of 
Aquila, and which adheres so closely to 
the original, as frequently to violate the 
common rules of Greek construction. 
The fourth column was occupied by ano- 
ther Greek translation of the Hebrew 
Bible, also lately made, but probably 
after the translation of Aquila. The 
author of this second Greek translation 
was Symmachus, whose object was to give 
not so much a literal translation of the 
Hebrew, as a translation expressive of 
the sense, and as free as possible from 
Hebraisms. Origen placed in the fifth 
column an amended text of the Septua- 
gint; and in the sixth column another Greek 
translation, which had been lately made by 
Theodotion. 

In revising the Septuagint, the first 
part of Origen's labour was to collate it 
throughout with the Hebrew. Wherever 
he found any word or words in the former, 
to which there was nothing correspondent 
in the latter, he inclosed such word or 
words within certain marks expressive of 
their absence from the Hebrew, namely, 
with an obelus or mark of minus prefixed, 
and a crotchet at the end to express how 
far the obelus or mark of minus was meant 
to extend. On the contrary, where the 
Hebrew had any word or words, to which 
there was nothing correspondent in the 
Septuagint, there he inserted such word 



HEX 



HEZ 



or words as were necessary to supply the 
deficiency. That the reader might always 
know where such insertions were made, 
he prefixed to them an asterisk, or mark 
of plus, again denoting by a crotchet at 
the end, what words the asterisk was 
meant to include. As the version of 
Theodotion held a middle rank between 
the closeness of Aquila, and the freedom 
of Symmachus, the additions in question 
were chiefly made in the words used by 
Theodotion. Besides the style of Theodo- 
tion more nearly resembled the style of the 
Septuagint, than either of the other trans- 
lations, and was therefore better adapted 
to the purpose to which Origen applied 
it. Hence also the translation of Theodo- 
tion very properly occupied the columns 
adjacent to the corrected version of the 
Septuagint. In some instances, either 
where Theodotion's translation was de- 
fective, or for other reasons at present 
unknown, Origen used the words of A- 
quila. However, in all cases he expressed 
by the initials A, 6, S, the translations 
from which he copied. These were the 
sources from which Origen drew in every 
part of the Old Testament. But in some 
books he used two other Greek transla- 
tions, of which the authors are unknown ; 
and in certain passages even a seventh 
Greek version, of which the author is also 
unknown. 

The name by which this work of Ori- 
gen is commonly designated, is Biblia Hex- 
apla, or Bible in six columns, which it 
contained throughout, namely the Hebrew, 
the Hebrew in Greek characters, the ver- 
sion of Aquila, the version of Symmachus, 
the Septuagint version, and that of Theo- 
dotion. In those books which contained 
two anonymous versions, and therefore 
filled eight columns, it was called Biblia 
Octapla ; and in the passages, where the 
third anonymous version occupied a ninth 
column, it received the name of Ennea- 
pla. On the other hand, as out of the 
six columns which went through the whole 
work, only four were occupied with Greek 
translations, the same work, which most 
writers call Hexapla, has by others been 
denominated Tetrapla. They are only 
different names of the same work viewed 
in different lights, though some authors 
have fallen into the mistake of supposing, 
from the difference in the names, that they 
denoted different works. 

Origen is said to have employed twenty- 
eight years in making preparations for this 
work, independently of the time employed 
in writing it. It was begun at Csesarea, 
and probably finished at Tyre. The text 
of the Septuagint, as settled by Origen, is 
called the Hexaplarian text, to distinguish 
it from the text of the Septuagint, as it 
existed before the time of Origen, which is 
therefore called the Antehexaplarian. On 
499 



the value of the Hexapla, modern writers 
are divided ; and it has been considered by 
some recent writers rather as a mechanical 
than as a critical undertaking. It is true, 
that great as the labour was, much was 
still wanting to render it a perfect work. 
If, in the execution of this work, the rules 
which modern critics have learnt from longer 
experience are not discernible., it must be 
remembered that this was the first effort that 
was ever made to amend a corrupted text 
either of the Old or of the New Testament. 

The Hexapla, in its entire state, has long 
ceased to exist ; and we are indebted for 
our knowledge of it to Eusebius and Je- 
rome, both of whom had seen it in the 
library of Caesarea, whither the original 
itself was removed from Tyre, where Ori- 
gen died, by Pamphylus the founder of the 
Caesarean library. But as the magnitude 
of the work was such, that it could not be 
transcribed without a heavy expense, no 
copy, as far as is known, was ever taken of 
the whole ; and the original perished in the 
flames, which consumed the library of 
Csesarea, on the irruption of the Saracens. 
But that column of the Hexapla, which 
contained the corrected text of the Septua- 
gint, with its critical remarks, was trans- 
cribed by Eusebius and Pamphilus, with 
occasional extracts from the other versions. 
This column, however, has descended to 
us only in fragments, which have been 
collected by the industry of the learned, 
particularly of Montfaucon, the author of 
the Palaeographia Grseca, who published 
them at Paris, in 1714, in two folio vo- 
lumes, under the title of ' Hexaplorum 
Origenis quae supersunt.' Dr. Herbert 
Marsh's Course of Lectures, part i. lecture 
iii. pp. 57 — 63 ; Prideaux's Connection, part 
ii. book i. pp. 74—80. 

HEZEKI'AH, rvpm, signifies, strength 
of the Lord; otherwise, taken and supported 
by the Lord. Hezekiah, king of Judah, son 
of Ahaz and Abi, was born in the year of 
the world 3251, when Ahaz his father was 
barely eleven years of age. This occasions 
some difficulty. As the Scripture asserts, 
that Ahaz was only twenty years old when 
he began to reign, and that he reigned 
only sixteen years, it follows that he did 
not live longer than thirty-six years. Yet 
the Scripture says, that Hezekiah was 
twenty-five years old, when he began to 
reign. We must, therefore, conclude, that 
Hezekiah was born when Ahaz was only 
eleven years old. This is very extraordi- 
nary. To obviate this difficulty, tome 
have supposed, that Hezekiah was the 
first born son after Ahaz dame to tin- crown, 
and consequently had a natural right »£ 
succession to the throne, after his lather, 
agreeably to the custom of the East Hence 
they think, that Hezekiah was marly fifteen 

years of age when he came to the crown. 

See Dial. 
k k 1 



HEZ 



HEZ 



Hezekiah succeeded his father Ahaz in 
the year of the world 3277, or 3278, and 
before Christ 726. He did what was 
agreeable to God. He destroyed the high- 
places, cut down the groves, and broke the 
statues which the people had adored. He 
also broke the brazen serpent which Moses 
had made, because to it the children of 
Israel burned incense. He ordered the 
great doors of the Lord's house to be opened 
and repaired. He exhorted the priests and 
Levites to purify the temple, and to sacri- 
fice in it as formerly ; and these sacrifices 
were furnished by the king. 

As the institution of the passover had 
been neglected, Hezekiah invited not only 
his own subjects, but also all Israel, to keep 
it. Some ridiculed his proposal, but many 
observed it ; and this was a most solemn 
passover. Hezekiah took all necessary care 
to maintain the good regulations which he 
had established in the temple, and to pro- 
vide for the priests and ministers. 

Some years after, Hezekiah shook off 
the Assyrian yoke, and refused to pay tri- 
bute. He defeated the Philistines, and 
destroyed their country, in the year of 
the world 3290, or 3291. (2 Kings xviii. J. 
2 Chron. xxxii.) He repaired and forti- 
fied the walls of Jerusalem, laid in stores, 
appointed good commanders over his troops, 
stopped up the springs without the city, 
and put himself in a condition of making a 
vigorous defence. 

Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invaded 
the territories of Judah, and subdued al- 
most every town. Hezekiah observing 
that the kings of Egypt and Cush, with 
whom he had entered into an alliance, did 
not come to his assistance, sent ambassa- 
dors to Sennacherib, and desired terms of 
peace. Sennacherib demanded three hun- 
dred talents of silver, and thirty talents 
of gold. To raise this sum, Hezekiah 
exhausted his treasures, and pulled off 
the gold plates with which he formerly 
overlaid the doors of the temple. But 
Sennacherib having received this money, 
instead of quitting Hezekiah, sent three 
of his principal officers from Lachish, 
which he was besieging, to Jerusalem, 
with a summons to Hezekiah to surrender. 
Hezekiah sent to hear their proposals Elia- 
kim, Shebna, and Joah, to whom Rabsha- 
keh spoke with extreme insolence. Heze- 
kiah, being informed of his blasphemies, 
rent his clothes, put on sackcloth, went to 
the house of the Lord, and sent to the pro- 
phet Isaiah an account of Rabshakeh's 
speeches. But Tsaiah gave him comfort. 
Sennacherib, sitting down before Libnah, 
was told that Tirhakah, king of Cush, was 
marching against him. He went, there- 
fore, to meet Tirhakah, and sent to Heze- 
kiah letters, in which he told him not to 
place his confidence in his God. Hezekiah, 
having received these letters, went up to 
500 



the temple, and spread them before the 
Lord, whom he entreated to deliver him 
from this insolent enemy. The Lord heard 
his prayer, and sent the prophet Isaiah to 
inform him, that Sennacherib should not 
besiege Jerusalem. The very night after 
this prediction, an angel of the Lord de- 
stroyed in the camp of the Assyrians an 
hundred fourscore and five thousand men 
of the army of Sennacherib, who was 
obliged to retire immediately lo Nineveh. 
The instrument of vengeance was proba- 
bly the blast, or hot pestilential south wind, 
which blows from the desert of Libya, 
and is called Samum or Simoom. See 
Angel. 

Soon after, or as some think during the 
invasion of Sennacherib, Hezekiah fell 
dangerously sick. Isaiah came to him, 
and said, ' Thou shalt die, and not live.' 
Hezekiah, turning his face to the wall, 
prayed to God. Before Isaiah had gone 
out of the king's apartment into the middle 
court of the palace, he was commanded 
to return to Hezekiah, saying, I will heal 
thee, and will add unto thy days fifteen 
years. But Hezekiah said, By what sign 
shall I know that the Lord will heal me ? 
Isaiah said, Would you have the shadow 
advance ten degrees, or retire ten degrees, 
on the dial of Ahaz? Hezekiah desired 
that the shadow might go back ten degrees, 
which seemed to him most difficult ; and 
the prophet calling on the Lord, the shadow 
returned ten degrees. It is very proba- 
ble, that this retrogradation, which was 
very sensible and real on the dial of Ahaz, 
was caused by some reflection, or refrac- 
tion, of the sun's rays, without any real 
retrogradation of the luminary. After his 
recovery, Hezekiah composed a song of 
thanksgiving, which has been preserved 
by Tsaiah, (xxxviii. 10, 11.) The date of 
Hezekiah's sickness and recovery is fixed 
to the fourteenth year of his reign. 

After this, Merodach-Baladan, king of 
Babylon, sent letters and a present to 
Hezekiah, to congratulate him on his re- 
covery, and ' to enquire about the wonder,' 
of the regression of the sun's shadow, 
which proves that it was only a partial 
phenomenon, confined probably to Jeru- 
salem. (2 Chron. xxxii. 31.) Hezekiah, 
flattered with this embassy, in the pride of 
his heart showed the envoys all his trea- 
sures, spices, rich vessels, &c. and con- 
cealed nothing from them. Isaiah after- 
wards told the king, that a time would 
come, when all he had shown would be 
removed to Babylon, and when his sons 
would be made eunuchs in the palace of 
that king. Hezekiah received the message 
with due submission to the will of the Lord, 
thankful that the evil was not to be in- 
flicted in his own days. This prince passed 
the latter years of his life in tranquillity, 
laid up great riches, and conveyed water 






HIG 



H1R 



into Jerusalem. He died in the year of 
the world 3306, and before Christ 698, or, 
according to Dr. Hales, 696. The sacred 
writings praise his piety and merit; and 
the author of Ecclesiasticus hath an en- 
comium on him. (Ecclus. xlviii.) Hales's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
pp. 465 — 468. Fragments annexed to Calmefs 
Dictionary. 

HIGH PLACES. The prophets re- 
proach the Israelites for nothing with more 
zeal, than for worshipping upon the high 
places. The destroying of these high 
places is a commendation given only to 
few princes in Scripture ; and many, though 
zealous for the observance of the law, 
had not courage to prevent the people 
from sacrificing upon these eminences. 
Before the temple was built, the high 
places were not absolutely contrary to the 
law, provided God only was there adored, 
and not idols. They seem to have been 
tolerated under the judges ; and Samuel 
offered sacrifices in several places, where 
the ark was not present. Even in David's 
time, they sacrificed to the Lord at Shiloh, 
Jerusalem, and Gibeon. But after the 
temple was built at Jerusalem, and the 
ark had a fixed settlement, it was no 
longer allowed to sacrifice out of Je- 
rusalem. 

The high places were much frequented 
in the kingdom of Israel. The people 
sometimes went upon those mountains 
which had been sanctified by the presence 
of patriarchs and prophets, and by ap- 
pearances of God, to worship the true 
God there. This worship was lawful, ex- 
cept as to its being exercised where the 
Lord had not chosen. But they frequently 
adored idols upon these hills, and com- 
mitted a thousand abominations in groves, 
and caves, and tents ; and hence arose 
the zeal of pious kings and prophets, to 
suppress the high places. 

Dr. Prideaux thinks it probable, that 
the proseuchae, open courts, built like 
those in which the people prayed at the 
tabernacle and the temple, and in one of 
which our Saviour is said to have conti- 
nued at his devotion all night, (Luke vi. 2.) 
were the same as those called high places 
in the Old Testament. He thinks him- 
self confirmed in this opinion, because 
the proseuchae had groves in or near them, 
in the same manner as the high places. 
Prideaux's Connection, part i. book vi. pp. 
556, 557. 

HIN, |»n, a liquid measure; as of oil, 
(Exod. xxx. ; xiv. 46.) or of wine. (Exod. 
xxix. Levit. xxiii.) According to Jose- 
phus, it contained two Attic congii, and 
was therefore the sixth part of an ephah. 
Josephus says, that they offered with an 
ox half a bin of oil ; in English measure, 
according to Josephus, six pints, 25,598 
solid inches, but according to the tables, 
501 



five pints, 1,267 solid inches. With a ram 
they offered the third part of a hin, or three 
pints, 10,469 solid inches; with a lamb, 
the fourth part of a hin, or two pints, 
15,071 solid inches. The prophet Ezekiel 
was commanded to drink an allowance of 
water to the quantity of the sixth part of a 
hin, that is one pint, 19,672 solid inches. 
Arbuthnot' 's Tables, Sfc. p. 99. 

HINNOM, mn, signifies there they are ; 
otherwise, their riches. The valley of 
Hinnom branched off from the valley of 
the brook Kidron at Jerusalem. Hinnom 
is remarkable on account of the inhuman 
and barbarous, as well as idolatrous, wor- 
ship here paid to Moloch ; • parents making 
their children to pass through the fire,' or 
' burning them in the fire,' as a sacrifice 
to that idol. It is sometimes also called 
the valley of Tophet. From the burning 
of persons in this place, it was denomi- 
nated Gehinnom, which in Hebrew sig- 
nifies the valley of Hinnom, and which was 
changed by the Greeks into Gehenna, and 
is used in Scripture to denote hell or 
hell-fire. This valley is only strait or 
narrow, as Mr. Sandys informs us; and 
on the south side of it, near where it joins 
the valley of Jehoshaphat, is shewn the 
spot of ground formerly called the potter's 
field, but afterwards aceldama, or the 
field of blood. Wells's Geography, vol. ii. 
p. 39. 

HI 'RAM, OTn, Xeipa.fi, signifies, ac- 
cording to the Hebrew, elevation or ex- 
altation of life ; otherwise, their whiteiiess ; 
otherwise, their hole, or their liberty; 
otherwise he that destroys or anathematizes. 
Hiram, king of Tyre, and son of Abibal, 
is mentioned by profane authors as dis- 
tinguished for his magnificence, and for 
adorning the city of Tyre. When David 
was acknowledged king by all Israel, Hi- 
ram sent ambassadors with artificers, and 
cedar to build his palace. Hiram also 
sent ambassadors to Solomon, to congratu- 
late him on his accession to the crown. 
Solomon desired of him timber and stones 
for building the temple, with labourers. 
These Hiram promised, provided Solomon 
would furnish him with corn and oil. 

These two princes lived on the best un- 
derstanding with each other. Dius, who 
wrote the annals of Tyre, relates, that they 
corresponded ; and in the time of Josephus 
Hiram's letters, with Solomon's answers, 
were said to be extant. Menander of Ephe- 
sus, and the same Dius, speak of certain 
riddles which these two princes proposed to 
each other. Dius says, that Solomon first 
sent some to Hiram, which the latter was 
not able to solve, and therefore paid a great 
sum of money to Solomon. But after- 
wards, Hiram, with the assistance of one 
Abdemon, explained them ; and then pro- 
posing others to Solomon, which he could 
not solve, Hiram received a much larger 



HIR 



HIV 



sum of money than he himself had paid 
on the like occasion. Joseph. Antiq. lib. viii. 
cap. 2. 

After Solomon had finished all his works, 
he presented to Hiram twenty towns in 
Galilee. When Hiram had viewed these 
places, be was not pleased with them, and 
called them the land of Cabul, saying, Are 
these, my brother, the towns which you have 
given me? The Scripture remarks, that 
Hiram lent Solomon an hundred and 
twenty talents of gold, (657,000^.) whilst 
he was employed in building. (1 Kings ix. 
14.) 

HIRELING, in the writings of Moses, 
is taken sometimes for a labourer, or 
foreign servant, who was not a Jew: for 
example, he forbids the stranger to eat 
the passover. (Exod. xii. 45.) In another 
place, (Levit. xxii. 10.) by this word is 
meant a hired Jew, who is not a priest: 
he is forbidden to eat of meat that is sanc- 
tified and sacrificed to the Lord. In the 
Gospel, (John x. 12, 13.) the hireling is 
set in opposition to the true shepherd ; the 
first neglects the sheep, the other loves and 
guides them carefully. 

The hirelings, whom the Father of the 
family (God) sends into his vineyard, are 
the prophets and apostles, Jews and Chris- 
tians : the second succeed the first, and 
all receive their reward when their work is 
finished. (Matt. xx. 8.) 

' The labourer, or the hireling, is wor- 
thy of his hire,' or wages, is used as a pro- 
verb. (Matt. x. 10. 1 Tim. v. 18.) 

HISS. To hiss is an expression of insult 
and contempt. ' And at this house, which 
is high, every one that passeth by it shall 
be astonished, and shall hiss ; and they 
shall say, ' Why hath the Lord done tbus 
unto this and, land to this house ?' (1 
Kings ix. 8.) Job (xxvii. 23.) speaking 
of the wicked, says, that 'they shall clap 
their hands at him, and shall hiss him out of 
his place.' I will make this city the sub- 
ject of ridicule and scorn. (Jer. xix. 8.) 
' I will make it desolate and an hissing ; 
every one that passeth thereby shall be 
astonished and hiss, because of all the 
plagues thereof.' See also Jer. xlix. 17- ; 
1. 13. Lam. ii. 15, 16. Ezek. xxvii. 36. 
Zeph. ii. 15. 

To hiss, or to call any one with hissing, 
is a mark of power and authority. The 
Lord says, that in his anger he shall hiss, 
and call the enemy against Jerusalem : 
' He will hiss unto them from the end of 
the earth.' (Isai. v. 26.) He will bring 
them with a hiss from the very extremities 
of the earth. Isaiah (vii. 18.) says, ' The 
Lord shall hiss for the fly, and shall bring 
it to bim that is in the uttermost part of 
the rivers of Egypt, and for the bee that 
is in the land of Assyria.' Zechariah 
(x. 8.) speaking of the return from the 
Babylonish captivity, says, that the Lord 
502 



will gather the house of Judah, as it were, 
with a hiss, and bring them back into their 
own country ; this shows the ease and au- 
thority with which he would perform this 
great work. 

HIT'TITES, D^nn, Xerrtf*, signifies who 
is broken, ox fears ; or, according to the Sy- 
riac, who descends. * A man of Bethel 
went into the land of the Hittites, and 
built a city, and called the name thereof 
Luz.' (Judg. i. 26.) Calmet is of opinion, 
that this man retired into the land of the 
Hittites, south of the tribe of Judah, and 
built Lusa, Elysa, or Lussa, of which geo- 
graphers speak. Josephus says, that the 
Jews took the city of Lussa from the Ara- 
bians. In memory of his native place, 
this man of Bethel called his new city by 
the name of Lussa. The Hittites were the 
descendants of Heth. 

Dr. Wells observes, that Sidon seated 
himself in the north of the land of Ca- 
naan, and Heth in the southern parts, 
near Hebron. We read, that when Sarah 
was dead at Hebron, 'Abraham spake 
to the sons of Heth,' respecting the 
purchase of a burying-place ; to which 
when they readily agreed, it is said, that 
' Abraham stood up, and bowed himself 
to the people of the land, even to the 
children of Heth.' (Gen. xxiii. 3. 7-) We 
also read, (Gen. xxvi.) that during Isaac's 
dwelling at Beersheba, another city in the 
south of the land of Canaan, his son Esau 
took to him two Hittite women for wives. 
Hence it may be reasonably inferred, that 
the family of Heth settled in the parts 
about Hebron, between this and Beer- 
sheba, that is, in the southern parts of the 
land of Canaan, and especially in the moun- 
tainous part, or hill-country, as it is 
called. (Luke i. 39.) Agreeably to this, 
the Hittite is mentioned as dwelling in the 
mountains. (Josh. xi. 3.) Wells's Geogra- 
phy, vol. i. pp. 129, 130. 

HI'VITES, D s iy, sfiaZa, signifies those 
who live, or speak, or give notice : from 
the Syriac, adders. The Hivites were a 
people descended from Canaan. They 
dwelt first in the country afterwards pos- 
sessed by the Caphtorim, or Philistines. 
The Caphtorim expelled the Hivites, who 
dwelt from Hazerim unto Azzah. (Deut. ii. 
23.) There were Hivites also at Shechem, 
and Gibeon, (Josh. xiii. 14.) in the centre 
of the promised land ; for the inhabitants 
of Shechem, and the Gibeonites, were 
Hivites. (Josh. xi. 19.) Lastly, there were 
some beyond Jordan, at the foot of Mount 
Hermon. (Gen. xxxiv. 2.) 

The name Hivites, in the Chaldee, im- 
ports serpents; and we find people so 
called in many places. Whether, as some 
supposed, the Hivites were Troglodytes, 
and dwelt in caves, and from that cir- 
cumstance derived their name by com- 
parison with serpents ; or whether they 



HOF 



HOL 



were countrymen, Mghlanders, mountaineers, 
especially in Mount Lebanon, as is indi- 
cated, (Josh. xiii. 3.) writers are not 
agreed. They might be the widely-spread 
serpent family and nation, yet might 
dwell in Mount Lebanon as their abode. 
(Gen. x. 17. ; xxxiv. 2. ; xxxvi. 2.) In 
Gen. xv. 21. the Samaritan and Septua- 
gint insert Hivite after Canaanite, appa- 
rently with propriety. Sacred Geography 

HOFFMANISTS, tbose who espoused 
the sentiments of Daniel Hoffman, pro- 
fessor in the university of Helmstadt. 
In the year 1598, Hoffman taugbt that 
the light of reason, even as it appears in 
the writings of Plato and Aristotle, is 
adverse to religion ; and that the more 
the human understanding is cultivated 
by philosophical study, the more per- 
fectly is the enemy supplied with weapons 
of defence. Enfield's Hist, of Philosophy, 
vol. ii. p. 506. Adams's View of Religions, 
p. 168. 

HOLINESS, freedom from sin, or the 
conformity of the heart to God. When 
the faculties and powers of our nature 
had been corrupted and impaired by the 
transgressions of our first parents, God 
sent his only son Jesus Christ to lay down 
his life to save ours ; and by the inesti- 
mable merit of his death and passion, to 
procure the pardon of God for our sins, 
and restore us to the divine favour. Having, 
therefore, been rescued from the guilt, 
the dominion, and punishment of our 
sins, by the effusion of the blood of Christ, 
we are under the highest obligations to pay 
obedience to the Author of our being, 
and to the Redeemer of our forfeited 
lives. Hence, if we are true members 
of this holy state, the love and fear of 
God, and of his Son Jesus Christ, will 
be the governing principle of our hearts, 
and have a powerful influence over all 
our actions. The necessary conditions of 
a holy life are, that we diligently and care- 
fully instruct ourselves in all its duties, 
and faithfully and sincerely practise what 
we find to be our duty. If sin has do- 
minion over us, our souls cannot be a 
suitable dwelling for God's Holy Spirit 
to inhabit. Yet, God requires no more 
of us than he enables us to perform. If 
we heartily pray for the divine assistance, 
if we carefully watch to avoid all occa- 
sions of sin, sincerely and resolutely op- 
pose all temptations, we shall be able to 
mortify and subdue our fleshly lusts and 
vile affections. There is no ground to 
encourage men, who customai-ily allow 
themselves in any one heinous sin, to think 
that their condition is good and accepta- 
ble to God. There are many sins of so 
malignant a nature, that God has declared 
he will exclude those, who habitually 
practise them, from the kingdom of hea- 
ven. We ought humbly and earnestly to 
503 



beg of God the pardon of our sins, who 
alone can forgive them ; and that he, who 
has the power of life and death in his hands, 
would enable us to live innocently and to 
die peaceably. We should testify the sin- 
cere gratitude of our souls, by magni- 
fying the power, admiring the wisdom, 
and adoring the goodness of God, our 
best friend, our greatest benefactor, and 
our most compassionate father. We should 
do all the good, and show all the mercy we 
can to our neighbours ; preserve purity, 
patience, and contentment in our souls, 
and holiness in our whole conversation. 
When a custom of holy living has van- 
quished the difficulties which attended its 
commencement, the heavenly virtues which 
a man has acquired will be so many pre- 
servatives against his falling into sin. 
His humility will secure him from presum- 
ing too much on his own strength. His 
experience of God's help and favour in 
former troubles will induce him to resist 
the allurements of unlawful pleasures, and 
patiently to endure any afflictions, rather 
than comply with what is evil. The sense 
of religion and humanity deeply rooted in 
his mind will oblige him, in his whole con- 
duct, to have a regard to truth, justice, 
equity, and compassion. It is objected 
by some, that they despair of arriving at 
such a pitch of virtue, as is related of 
some good men. To this it may be an- 
swered, that though they may never reach 
such a height of virtue as many have 
done, yet there is no reason to despond. 
In the celestial mansions will be different 
degrees of honour ; ' one star will shine 
above another star in glory.' They who 
shall not sit on the right hand of God, 
may nevertheless be admitted to a less 
degree of honour. The failings of Noah, 
David, Hezekiah, St. Peter, and other 
eminent saints, are recorded in Scripture, 
as a caution to the best men not to be 
too secure ; and as encouragement to the 
weak and feeble, but sincere worshippers 
of God, not to despair. In order to pro- 
mote our improvement and growth in grace, 
we should endeavour to obtain a meek and 
humble frame of spirit. We should con- 
sider our wants and imperfections, the 
weaknesses of which we are guilty, the 
graces we want, and how much we stand 
in need of the divine assistance. We 
should constantly attend the offices of 
religion, both public and private, for 
these are the means appointed by God, 
to convey grace to men. We ought fre- 
quently to look into the state and condi- 
tion of our souls. We should set aparr 
some certain portion of our time, daily 
or weekly, to examine ourselves, and ob- 
serve what advances we make in the ways 
of religion and holiness, ami the sins of 
which we have been guilty. We should 
entertain and cherish the motions of God'a 



HOL 



HOL 



Holy Spirit; and when we find any good 
thoughts arise in our minds, we should 
impress them on our memories, improve 
them by meditation, and transcribe them 
into our actions. We have daily new vices 
to mortify, virtuous dispositions to exer- 
cise and cultivate, temptations to resist, 
and afflictions to encounter ; and all these 
require the assistance of God's grace, 
which is never wanting to those who ask 
it with faith, and employ it with diligence. 

God is holy in a transcendent and in- 
finitely perfect manner. He is the fountain 
of holiness, purity, and innocence. He sanc- 
tifies his saints, his people, his priests. He 
requires perfect holiness in those who ap- 
proach him, and to be honoured by his ser- 
vants. He rejects all worship which is not 
pure and holy, whether internal or external. 
The prophets called the Lord the Holy 
One of Israel, as if holy were synonymous 
with God. The Messiah is called the holy 
one : ' Thou shalt not suffer thine Holy One 
to see corruption.' (Ps. xvi. 10.) ' Thy re- 
deemer is the Holy One of Israel.' (Isa. xli. 
14.) In the Gospel, * I know thee who thou 
art, the Holy One of God.' (Luke iv. 34., 
Again, ' The Holy Thing which shall be born 
of thee, shall be called the Son of God.' 
(Luke i. 35.) Jesus Christ is called simply 
the Holy One : ' Ye denied the Holy One 
and the Just, and desired a murderer to be 
granted to you.' (Acts iii. 14.) Holy is the 
common epithet given to the third person of 
the Trinity, the Holy Ghost. 

In Scripture, the Israelites are generally 
called holy, because they are the Lord's ; 
they profess the true religion, are called to 
holiness, &c 'Ye shall be an holy nation. 
Ye shall be holy unto me.' (Exod. xix. 6.) 
' All the congregation are holy, every one of 
them.' (Lev. xi. 44, 45. Num. xvi. 3.) 

From the infinite holiness of God, every 
thing belonging to him should be styled 
holy ; his temples, his ministers, his solem- 
nities, &c. 

Christians are more particularly de- 
clared holy, as heing called to, and designed 
for, a more excellent holiness, and having 
received earnests of the Holy Spirit in a more 
plentiful and perfect manner. St. Luke in 
the Acts, and St. Paul in his Epistles, gene- 
rally describe Christians under the name of 
saints, that is, holy. Warner's System of 
Divinity and Morality, vol. iv. pp. 73 — 82. 

HOLY GHOST, Holy Spirit, or 
Spirit, the name given to the third 
person in the Trinity. Tertullian says, 
' In the mean time he poured forth the 
Holy Ghost, a gift which he had received 
from the Father, the third person in the 
Godhead, and the third name of Majesty.' 
The Old Testament frequently mentions 
the Spirit of God; as at the creation of 
the world the Spirit is said to have 
' moved upon the face of the waters.' (Gen. 
i. 2.) When the prophets received any su- 
504 



pernatural power or knowledge, or any im- 
pression was made upon their minds for a 
particular purpose, it is generally ascribed 
to the Spirit of God. 

It is recorded by St. John, that Christ, 
not long before his crucifixion, said to his 
disciples, ' I will pray the Father, and 
he shall give you another Comforter, that 
he may abide with you, even the Spirit of 
Truth.' (John xiv. 16, 17.) In the follow- 
ing passage, our Saviour speaks of the 
office of the Holy Spirit, as having a 
close and intimate connexion with his 
own personal ministry, and as being of the 
highest importance to the complete execu- 
tion and accomplishment of the great 
scheme of human redemption: ' 1 tell 
you the truth ; it is expedient for you that 
I go away ; for if I go not away, the Com- 
forter will not come unto you ; hut if I 
depart, I will send him unto you ; and he 
shall teach you all things, and bring all 
things to your remembrance, whatsoever I 
have said unto you.' (John xvi. 7. ; xiv. 26.) 
Agreeably to this promise and declara- 
tion, on the day of Pentecost, and a few 
days after the ascension of our Saviour 
into heaven, the Holy Ghost descended 
visibly on the apostles, and instanta- 
neously communicated to them the power 
of speaking a great variety of languages, 
enabled them to work miracles in confir- 
mation of the doctrines which they were to 
preach, and furnished them with zeal and 
resolution, and with every other qualification 
necessary to the effectual discharge of their 
ministry. The Holy Ghost also ' abode with 
them,' as our Saviour promised ; for we find 
them constantly acting under his immediate 
and directing influence; and the success 
which attended the first preaching of the 
Gospel is always ascribed to ' the power of 
the Spirit of God.' (Rom. xv. 19.) Besides 
these great gifts communicated to the apos- 
tles and others, and these particular interpo- 
sitions for important purposes at the first 
promulgation of Christianity ; and which are 
called by modern divines the extraordinary 
operations of the Spirit, there are other com- 
munications of a more general nature, which 
are called the ordinary operations of the 
Spirit. These consist in causing a change 
and renewal of men's minds, and in afford- 
ing them inward and secret assistance to 
become good and virtuous. Christ said to 
Nicodemus, ' Except a man be born of 
water and of the Spirit, he cannot see the 
kingdom of God.' ("John iii. 5.) ' The fruit 
of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffer- 
ing, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, 
temperance.' (Gal. v. 22, 23.) St. Peter, in 
his sermon on the day of Pentecost, said, 
' repent, and be baptized every one of you, 
in the name of Jesus Christ, for the 
remission of sins, and ye shall receive the 
gift of the Holy Ghost. For the promise 
is unto you, and to your children, and to 



HOL 



HOL 



all that are afar off, even as many as the 
Lord our God shall call.' (Acts ii. 38, 39.) 
In these and some other passages, the 
influence of the Spirit spoken of must be 
common to all Christians, and cannot 
mean the extraordinary and miraculous 
communications, which were the portion 
of very few, and continued only for a 
short time ; and hence we derive this 
comfortable and important assurance, that 
the Spirit of God co-operates with our 
sincere endeavours after righteousness, and 
assists us in all our virtuous exertions. 

That the Holy Ghost proceeds from 
the Father we learn from the express 
authority of St. John, (xv. 26.) who says, 
' the Spirit of Truth which proceedeth 
from the Father.' As Christ in the same 
verse says, ' I will send the Spirit,' and 
St. Paul tells the Galatians that God hath 
sent forth the Spirit of his Son into their 
hearts,' (Gal. iv. 6.) we infer, that the 
Spirit proceeds from the Son also. Indeed, 
the union between the Father and the Son 
is such, that we cannot conceive how the 
Spirit can proceed from the one without 
at the same time proceeding from the 
other. But we must acknowledge that 
the procession of the Holy Ghost, though 
to be believed as being asserted in Scrip- 
ture, is far beyond our comprehension ; 
and in subjects of this kind we cannot be 
too cautious and diffident in what we say 
and think. 

The following passages prove the divi- 
nity of the Holy Ghost. St. Peter, in 
punishing Ananias and Sapphira, uses 
the expressions, ' lying to the Holy 
Ghost,' and ' lying to God,' (Acts v. 3, 
4.) as synonymous ; the Holy Ghost is 
said to be eternal ; (Heb. ix. 14.) to teach 
all things ; (John xiv. 26.) to guide into 
all truth ; (John xvi. 13.) to shew things to 
come ; (John xvi. 13.) to search all things, 
even the deep things of God; (1 Cor. ii. 
10.) to make intercession for the saints; 
(Rom. viii. 27-) to change us into the 
same image with Christ; (2 Cor. iii. 18.) 
to bring all things to remembrance ; (John 
xiv. 26.) to reprove the world of sin, of 
righteousness, and of judgment ; (John xvi. 
8.) and to have raised Christ from the 
dead. (1 Pet. iii. 18.) Christ himself calls 
the Holy Ghost ' another Comforter,' 
(John xiv. 16.) to be sent in his stead, 
or to supply his absence. St. Paul attri- 
butes to the Holy Ghost the communica- 
tion of a great variety of qualities and 
powers: ' now there are diversities of 
gifts, but the same Spirit. ; to one is given 
by the Spirit the word of wisdom, to 
another the word of knowledge by the 
same Spirit; to another faith by the 
same Spirit; to another the gifts of 
healing by the same Spirit; to another 
the working of miracles ; to another pro- 
phecy ; to another discerning of spirits ; 
505 



to another divers kinds of tongues; to 
another the interpretation of tongues ; 
but all these worketh that one and the 
self-same Spirit, dividing to every man 
severally as he will.' (1 Cor. xii. 4. 8, &c.) 
In all these passages the Holy Ghost is 
plainly spoken of, not merely as a quality 
or operation, but as a person ; and the powers 
attributed to him are such, that they can 
belong only to a divine person. 

" Those who deny the personality of 
the Holy Ghost, contend that it is ordinary 
in the Scriptures to find the like expres- 
sions, which are proper unto persons, 
given unto those things which are no per- 
sons ; as when the apostle saith, ' charity 
suffereth long, and is kind, charity en- 
vieth not; charity vaunteth not itself; is 
not puffed up ; doth not behave itself 
unseemly ; seeketh not her own ; is not 
easily provoked ; thinketh no evil ; re- 
joiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the 
truth; beareth all things; believeth all 
things ; hopeth all things ; endureth all 
things.' (1 Cor. xiii. 4, &c.) All which 
personal actions are attributed to charity, 
which is no person, as in other cases it is 
usual, but belong to that person which is 
charitable ; because that person which is 
so qualified doth perform these actions 
according to, and by virtue of, that charity 
which is in him. In the same manner say 
they, personal actions are attributed to 
the Holy Ghost, which is no person, but 
the virtue, power, and efficacy of God 
the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ ; 
because that God the Father is a person, 
and doth perform those personal actions 
attributed to the Holy Ghost by that 
virtue, power, and efficacy in himself, 
which is the Holy Ghost : as when we 
read, ' the Spirit said unto Peter, Behold, 
three men seek thee ; arise, therefore, and 
get thee down, and go with them, doubting 
nothing, for I have sent them ;' we must 
understand that God the Father was the 
person who spake these words, who 
had called Barnabas and Saul, and to 
whom they were to be separated. But 
because God did all this by that power 
within him which is his Spirit, therefore 
those words and actions are attributed to 
the Holy Ghost. This is the sum of their 
answer, and more than this, I conceive, 
cannot be said in answer to that argument 
which we urge from those personal ex- 
pressions attributed to the Spirit of God, 
and, as we believe, as to a person. But 
this answer is most apparently insufficient, 
as giving no satisfaction to the argument ; 
for if all the personal actions attributed in 
the Scriptures to the Spirit, might pro- 
ceed from the person of God the Father, 
according to the power which is in him, 
then might this answer seem satisfactory : 
but if these actions be personal, as they 
are acknowledged and cannot be denied ; 



HOL 



HOL 



if the same cannot be attributed to the 
person of God the Father, whose Spirit it 
is ; if he cannot be said to do that by the 
power within him, which is said to be 
done by the Holy Ghost, then is that de- 
fence not to be defended; then must the 
Holy Ghost be acknowledged a person : 
but I shall clearly prove that there are 
several personal attributes given in the 
sacred Scriptures expressly to the Holy 
Ghost, which cannot be ascribed to God 
the Father; which God the Father, by 
tbat power which is in him, cannot be 
said to do ; and consequently, there cannot 
be any ground why those attributes should 
be given to the Spirit, if it be not a person. 
To make intercession is a personal ac- 
tion, and this action is attributed to the 
Spirit of God, because he maketh inter- 
cession for the saints, according to the 
will of God ; but to make intercession is 
not an act which can be attributed to 
God the Father, neither can he be said to 
intercede for us according to that power 
which is in him ; and therefore this can 
be no prosopopoeia, or feigning of a per- 
son: the Holy Ghost cannot be said to 
exercise the personal action of interces- 
sion for that reason, because it is the 
Spirit of the person which intercedeth for 
us. To come unto men, as being sent unto 
them, is, as I have said before, a personal 
action ; but to come unto men, as being 
sent, cannot be ascribed to God the Fa- 
ther, who sendeth, but is never sent, es- 
pecially in this particular, in which he is 
said expressly to send, and that in the 
name of the Son ; for our Saviour's words 
are, 'whom the Father will send in my 
name.' When, therefore, the Holy Ghost 
cometh to the sons of men, as sent by the 
Father in the name of the Son, and sent 
by the Son himself, this personal action 
cannot be attributed to the Father, as 
working by the power within him, and 
consequently cannot ground a prosopo- 
poeia, by which the virtue or power of 
God the Father shall be said to do it. To 
speak and hear are personal actions, and 
both together attributed to the Spirit in 
such a manner, as they cannot be ascribed 
to God the Father ; ' when he,' saith Christ, 
' the Spirit of truth is come, he will guide 
you into all truth ; for he shall not speak 
of himself, but whatsoever he shall hear, 
that shall he speak.' (John xvi. 13.) Now 
to speak, and not of himself, cannot be 
attributed to God the Father, who doth 
all things of himself; to speak what he 
heareth, and that of the Son, to deliver 
what he receiveth from another, and to 
glorify him from whom he receiveth, by 
receiving from him as Christ speaketh of 
the Holy Ghost, 'he shall glorify me, for 
he shall receive of mine, and shall show it 
unto you,' (John xvi. 14.) is by no means 
applicable to the Father, and, consequently, 
506 



it cannot be true that the Holy Ghost is 
therefore said to do these personal actions, 
because that Person whose Spirit the Holy 
Ghost is, doth these actions by, and ac- 
cording to, his own power, which is the 
Holy Ghost. It remaineth, therefore, that 
the answer given by the adversaries of 
this truth is apparently insufficient ; and, 
consequently, that our argument, drawn 
from the personal actions attributed in 
the Scriptures to the Spirit, is sound and 
valid. I thought this discourse had fully 
destroyed the Socinian prosopopoeia; and 
indeed as they ordinarily propound their 
answer, it is abundantly refuted ; but I 
find the subtlety of Socinus prepared 
another explication of the prosopopoeia, 
to supply the room, when he foresaw the 
other would not serve ; which double 
figure he grounded upon this distinction ; 
the Spirit, that is, the power of God, says 
he, may be considered either as a pro- 
priety and power in God, or as the things 
on which it worketh are affected with it : 
if it be considered in the first notion, then, 
if any personal attribute be given to the 
Spirit, the Spirit is there taken for God, 
and by the Spirit God is signified. If it 
be considered in the second notion, then, 
if any personal attribute be given to the 
Spirit, the Spirit is there taken for that 
man in which it worketh ; and that man 
affected with it, is called the Spirit of 
God. So that now we must not only 
show, that such things as are attributed 
to the Holy Ghost cannot be spoken of 
the Father, but we must also prove, that 
they cannot be attributed unto man, in 
whom the Spirit worketh from the Father. 
And this also will be very easily and 
evidently proved. The Holy Ghost is said 
to come unto the Apostles, as sent by the 
Father and the Son ; and to come as so 
sent, is a personal action, which we have 
already showed cannot be the action of the 
Father who sent the Spirit; and it is as 
certain, that it cannot be the action of the 
apostle who was affected with the Spirit 
which was sent, except we can say, that 
the Father and the Son did come unto St. 
Peter; and St. Peter, being sent by the 
Father and the Son did come unto St. 
Peter. Again, our Saviour, speaking of 
the Holy Ghost, saith, ' he shall receive 
of mine,' therefore the Holy Ghost in that 
place is not taken for the Father ; ' and 
show it unto you,' therefore he is not taken 
for an apostle : in that he ' receiveth,' the 
first Socinian prosopopoeia is improper; 
in that he ' showeth' to the apostle, the 
second is absurd. The Holy Ghost then 
is described as a person distinct from the 
person of the Father, whose power he is ; 
and distinct from the person of the apostle, 
in whom he worketh ; and, consequently, 
neither of the Socinian figures can eva- 
cuate or enervate the doctrine of his 



HON 



HON 



proper and peculiar personality. Se- 
condly, for those attributes or expressions 
used of the Holy Ghost in the sacred 
Scriptures, and pretended to be repug- 
nant to the nature of a person ; either 
they are not so repugnant, or if they be, 
they belong unto the Spirit, as it signifieth 
not the person, but the gifts or effects of 
the Spirit. They tell us that the Spirit 
is given, and that, sometimes in measure, 
sometimes without measure ; that the Spirit 
is poured out, and that men drink of it, 
and are filled with it ; that it is doubled 
and distributed, and something is taken 
from it, and that sometimes it is extin- 
guished; and from hence they gather, that 
the Holy Ghost is not a person, because 
these expressions are inconsistent with 
personality. But a satisfactory answer 
is easily returned to this objection. It is 
true, that God is said to have given the 
' Holy Ghost to them that obey him ;' 
(Acts v. 32.) but it is as true that a 
person may be given. So we read ■ unto 
us a Son is given ;' (Is. ix. 6.) and we are 
assured that 'God so loved the world, that 
he gave his only-begotten Son ; (John iii. 
16.) and certainly the Son of God is a 
person. And if all the rest of the expres- 
sions be such as they pretend, that is, not 
proper to a person, yet do they no way 
prejudice the truth of our assertion, be- 
cause we acknowledge the effects and 
operations of the Spirit to have in the 
Scriptures the name of the Spirit, who is 
the cause of those operations. And since 
to that Spirit, as the cause, we have 
already shown those attributes to be given, 
which can agree to nothing but a person, 
we therefore conclude, against the Socin- 
ians and the Jews, that the Holy Ghost 
is not an energy, operation, quality, or 
power, but a person, a spiritual and intel- 
lectual subsistence." Veneer, Expos, of the 
Fifth Art. ; Bishop Tomline's Elem, of Christ. 
Theology, vol. ii. p. 171, &c 

HONEY. Bees are some of the small- 
est creatures that fly; but the produce 
of them is the sweetest thing in the world. 
The Scripture, describing a troop of ene- 
mies pursuing with obstinacy and warmth, 
uses the similitude of bees : ' The Amorites 
chased you as bees do.' (Deut. i. 44.) ' They 
compassed me about like bees.' (Ps. cxviii. 

God did not permit honey to be offered 
on his altar : ' ye shall burn no leaven, nor 
any honey, in any offering of the Lord 
made by fire.' (Levit. ii. 11.) Many reasons 
are given for this law : as, that honey does 
not agree well with other things, as with 
roast meat, which was offered in sacrifice, 
and that it makes bread sour; or because 
bees are unclean insects ; or because 
honey is the symbol of carnal pleasures ; 
or because the Heathens offered honey in 
their sacrifices. As the god of flies is 
507 



considered the same as the god of bees, 
this might be one reason why honey was 
forbidden to be offered on the altar of the 
Lord. Some think, that the reason of 
this prohibition was, because honey is apt 
to gripe and prove purgative ; and hence the 
College of Physicians have totally left it 
out of all medicinal preparations. 

Though God forbids honey to be offered 
in sacrifice, yet he commands the first-fruits 
of it to be presented to him ; these first 
fruits and offerings being designed for the 
support of the priests, and not to be offered 
on the altar. By the word honey, iwi 
debasch, the rabbins and authors of Hebrew 
dictionaries understand not only the honey 
of bees, but also the honey of dates, of the 
fruits of the palm-tree, or the dates them- 
selves, from which honey is extracted : and 
when God enjoins the first-fruits of honey 
to be offered to him, the first-fruits of dates 
seem to be meant : for we know that gener- 
ally the produce only of fruits was offered. 

Honey was formerly very common in 
Palestine. The frequent expressions of 
Scripture, which import that this country 
was a land flowing with milk and honey, 
are proofs of this. Moses says, that the 
' Lord made his people to suck honey out 
of the rock, and oil out of the flinty rock.' 
(Deut. xxxii. 13.) Honey ran upon the 
ground in the forest, where Jonathan 
dipped the end of his staff in a honey-comb, 
and sucked it. (1 Sam. xiv. 25, 26, 27.) 
Hence it appears, that the country 
abounded in wild bees, which hiving in the 
rocks, furnished honey. Travellers observe 
that honey is at this day very plentiful in 
Palestine ; and that the inhabitants mix it 
in all their sauces. Hasselquist says, that 
between Acra and Nazareth 'great numbers 
of wild bees breed, to the advantage of the 
inhabitants.' Maundrell observes of the 
great salt plain near Jericho, ' that he per- 
ceived in it in many places, a smell of 
honey and wax, as strong as if he had been 
in an apiary.' John the Baptist fed on wild 
honey found in the rocks or in hollow trees. 
(Matt. iii. 4.) Children were fed with milk, 
cream, and honey. ' Butter and honey 
shall he eat, that he may know how to refuse 
the evil, and choose the good.' (Isai. vii. 
15.) Scripture Illustrated; Dr. Adam 
Clarke on Leviticus ii. 11 ; Maundrell' s 
Travels, pp. 66. 86. 

HONOUR is taken not only for the 
inward or outward respect paid to superiors, 
those to whom we owe particular deference 
and distinction; but for real services; 
' honour thy father and mother,' (Exod. xx. 
12.); that is, not only show respect and 
deference, but assist them, and perform such 
services to them as they need. By honour 
is also understood that adoration which is 
due to God only: 'give unto the Lord the 
honour due unto his name.' (Psal. xxix. 2.) 

By the true honour of man is to be under- 



HON 



HOP 



stood, not what commands merely external 
respect, but what commands the respect of 
the heart : what raises one to acknowledged 
eminence above others ; what always creates 
esteem, and in its highest degree produces 
veneration. Honour does not arise from 
riches. These may belong to the vilest of 
mankind ; and daily experience proves that 
the possession of them is consistent with 
the greatest contempt. Honour does not 
arise from mere dignity of rank or office. 
If such distinctions were always, or even 
generally, obtained in consequence of un- 
common merit, they would, indeed, confer 
honour on the character. But, in the pre- 
sent state of society, it is too well known 
that this is not the case. They are fre- 
quently the consequence of birth alone. 
They are sometimes the fruit of mere de- 
pendence and assiduity ; and they may be 
the recompence of flattery, versatility, and 
intrigue. The proper honour of man does 
not arise from some of those splendid 
actions and abilities which excite great 
admiration. Courage and prowess, military 
renown, signal victories and conquests, may 
render the name of a man famous, without 
rendering his character truly honourable. 
The laurels of the warrior must at all times 
be dyed in blood, and bedewed with the 
tears of the widow and the orphan. But if 
they have been stained by rapine and in- 
humanity ; if sordid avarice has marked his 
character, or low and gross sensuality de- 
graded his life ; the great hero degenerates 
into a mean and little man. The refined 
politics of the statesman, or the literary 
efforts of genius and erudition, bestow, and 
within certain bounds ought to bestow, 
eminence and distinction on men. Hence 
they frequently give rise to fame. But we 
must distinguish between fame and honour. 
The former is a loud and noisy applause ; 
the latter is a more silent and internal 
homage. Fame floats on the breath of the 
multitude ; honour rests on the judgment of 
the considerate. In order, therefore, to dis- 
cern where true honour lies, we must not 
look to any adventitious circumstance, nor 
to any single sparkling quality, but to the 
whole of what forms a man ; in a word we 
must look to the soul. It will discover itself 
by a mind superior to fear, to selfish interest 
and corruption ; by an ardent love to the 
Supreme Being, and by the principles of 
uniform rectitude and integrity. Jt will 
make us neither afraid nor ashamed of 
discharging our duty, true to the God whom 
we worship, and to the faith in which we 
profess to believe, and full of affection to 
our brethren of mankind. It will influence 
us to be magnanimous, without being proud; 
humble, without being mean ; just, without 
being harsh ; simple in our manners, but 
manly in our feelings. The honour thus 
formed by religion, or the love of God, is 
more independent and complete, than what 
508 



can be acquired by any other means. It is 
independent of any thing foreign or ex- 
ternal ; it does not procure partial, but en- 
tire, respect. Where fortune is concerned, 
it is the station or rank which commands 
our deference. Where some shining quality 
attracts admiration, it is only to a part of 
the character that we pay homage. But 
when a person is distinguished for eminent 
worth and goodness, it is the man, the 
whole man, whom we respect. The honour 
which he possesses is intrinsic. If he be 
placed in an obscure situation, he will be 
revered as a private citizen, or as the father 
of a family. If in higher life he appear 
more illustrious, it is because a nobler 
sphere of action is opened to him ; and, 
placed in such conspicuous view, he seems 
to grace and adorn the station which he 
fills. The universal consent of mankind in 
honouring real virtue, sufficiently shows 
what the genuine sense of human nature is 
on this subject. All other claims of honour 
are changeable. The honour acquired by 
religion is honour divine and immortal. It 
is honour, not in the estimation of men 
only, but in the sight of God, whose judg- 
ment is the standard of truth and right. 
All the honour we can gain among men is 
limited and confined. Its circle is narrow, 
its duration short and transitory. But the 
honour founded on religion accompanies us 
through the whole progress of our existence. 
It enters with man into a future state, and 
continues to brighten throughout eternal 
ages. The honour which proceeds from 
God is unmixed and pure. It is a lustre 
which is derived from heaven. On the 
contrary, the honours which proceed from 
any other source, resemble the feeble and 
twinkling flame of a taper, which is often 
clouded by the smoke it sends forth, and is 
always wasting, and soon dies totally away. 
Blair's Sermons, Serm. xxxi. 

HOPE, is the desire of some good at- 
tended with at least the possibility of ob- 
taining it, and is enlivened with joy, greater 
or less, according to the probability of pos- 
sessing the objects of our hope. Whatever 
may be the sufferings in this life to which 
we are exposed, hope is the balm that 
heals our present woes. Hope, of which 
those who trust in God can never experi- 
ence the privation, is, in itself, a most 
pleasurable feeling. The anticipation of 
future good cannot but serve to blunt the 
edge of present suffering. We often volun- 
tarily submit to present loss of fortune, 
or of ease, in order to obtain some distant 
and future benefit; and it is the prospect 
of the benefit which reconciles the mind 
to the endurance of the loss. And will 
not the certain assurance of an eternal 
recompence in a better life invigorate 
our fortitude, exhilarate our hopes, and 
make us deem our burthen easy, and our 
affliction light ? We have before us the 



HOP 



HOP 



example of the blessed Jesus, who, for 
the joy that was set before him, endured 
the cross, despising the shame. We have 
the examples of the holy apostles, who 
cheerfully sustained accumulated woes. We 
know from Christianity, that this life is 
a state of probation ; that its troubles are 
trials of our faith ; that no believer shall 
be tempted above what he is able to bear ; 
that he shall have support from Heaven ,• 
and that his afflictions, which endure com- 
paratively but for a moment, shall be re- 
warded with an eternal and exceeding weight 
of glory. 

Under the pressure of adversity, the 
true Christian looks up to God as to a 
friend and father, with hope and confi- 
dence, and sees, amidst the gloominess 
which surrounds him, a bright effulgence 
bursting from the lowering horizon ; a se- 
rene sky, which forbodes that the clouds 
immediately surrounding him will soon be 
dispelled. Though he travel with weary 
steps in the vale of sorrow and darkness, 
and his feet be ready to slip in the danger- 
ous and rugged road, yet shall God be 
his support and guide. Though he stumble, 
yet shall he not fall ; the arm of the 
Almighty shall be stretched out to raise 
him up, and, through hope in the aid of' his 
God, he shall persevere with alacrity, and 
finally conquer, and be crowned with im- 
mortality. In every calamity to which 
man is heir, he, whose hope is placed in 
the Almighty, will find comforts springing 
up like flowers under his feet in a desert. 
He will experience, that God is the Father 
of the fatherless, the husband of the widow, 
the friend of the friendless, and the sure 
guardian of all those who have none to 
help them. An inward strength is sup- 
plied to him, who, in the midst of misery, 
abounds in faith, and indulges hope. True 
religion possesses a power resembling that 
of oil poured on the troubled sea, which 
smoothes the waves to a glassy expanse of 
limpid water. True religion is the pa- 
nacea, the anodyne of woe, the universal 
medicine of mental disease. Little does 
the man of the world know of that health 
of mind, that serene cheerfulness, that 
divine complacency, which soothes the re- 
signed Christian, who, whenever his soul 
has a tendency to be disquieted within him, 
resolves to hope in God. In consequence 
of this firm reliance, he finds the light of 
God's countenance beaming upon him with 
the most animating warmth, and the bright- 
est illumination ; like the day-spring from 
on high chasing away the shades of night. 
He stands as a rock in the sea ; the waves 
beat on its base, but eternal sunshine set- 
tles upon its head. 

Hope in God will sweeten every enjoy- 
ment in a successful season, and alleviate 
the burden of every evil in the day of our 
calamities. Happy situation! to have the 
509 



all-powerful and most merciful Lord of 
heaven and earth our friend and protec- 
tor against the assaults of adversity. He 
shall defend us, under the shadow of his 
wing, from every evil which the devil or 
man worketh against us. Though we 
appear unfortunate in the eyes of the 
world ; though we be poor and despised, 
who were once rich and honoured ; though 
we may suffer in our reputation ; though we 
be tormented with pain and the languor of 
ill health ; though death tear from us the 
objects of our love ; yet will we hope in 
God, who will infuse a balsam into our 
hearts, which will assuage every anguish, 
and heal every sore. The fear of death, 
which torments the sinful, shall have no 
painful effects on the man who really hopes, 
and freely trusts, in Him who hath subdued 
death, and brought life and immortality to 
light by the Gospel. Knox's Sermons, pp. 
25, 26, &c. ; Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol. ii. p. 433. 

HOPHNI, s 39n, signifies he that covers, 
otherwise, my fist. Hophni and Phinehas, 
sons of Eli, the high-priest, were, says the 
Scripture, sons of Belial, wicked and dis- 
solute. (1 Sam. ii. 12, 13, &c.) They knew 
not the Lord, nor performed the functions 
of their ministry in the tabernacle as they 
ought ; for when any Israelite had sacri- 
ficed a peace-offering, the son or servant 
of the priest came whilst they were dress- 
ing the flesh of it, and holding a fork 
with three teeth in his hand, he put it into 
the pot, and what he could take up with 
it was the priest's portion. In like man- 
ner also, before the fat was burnt, the 
priest's servant came and said to him 
who sacrificed, Give me flesh to roast, 
for I will have the flesh raw. Let us 
first burn the fat, according to custom, 
said he who sacrificed. To this the servant 
replied, No ; you shall give it me instantly, 
or I will take it by force. Rightly to un- 
derstand this place, it must be observed, 
that the text regards not burnt-offerings 
or sacrifices for sin, but only peace-offer- 
ings, or those presented out of voluntary 
devotion ; the blood of which, the fat, the 
kidneys, and the caul which covers the 
intestines, were offered to the Lord ; all 
the rest of the sacrifice belonged to him 
who offered it, and who was to give the 
priest for his fee the right shoulder and 
the breast. Moses does not say, (Levit. 
vii. 31, 32.) whether this should be given 
dressed or raw. It appears, however, from 
this place, 1. that it was not given to the 
priest till it was dressed ; and 2. that the 
priest had no right to demand it, till 
the fat was offered on the fire of the 
altar. 

To the irregularities of his sons, the high- 
priest Eli was no stranger. He reproved 
them, but so faintly, that they did not 
change their behaviour. The Lord, there- 



HOP 



HOP 



fore, sent a threatening message to Eli, 
foretelling the destruction of his house. 
Some years after, the Lord caused Eli and 
his sons to be threatened by the young 
prophet Samuel. Accordingly, the Philis- 
tines haying declared war against Israel, 
Israel lost about 4000 men. The elders of 
Israel said, Bring hither the ark of the 
Lord, that it may save us from our ene- 
mies ; and the two sons of Eli, Hophni 
and Phinehas, brought the ark into the 
camp. But God permitted the Philistines 
to obtain another victory ; and they killed 
30,000 men, among whom were Hophni and 
Phinehas, and carried away the ark of the 
covenant. 

HOPKINSIANS, so called from the 
Rev. Samuel Hopkins, D.D., an American 
divine, who in his sermons and tracts has 
made several additions to the sentiments 
first advanced by the celebrated Jonathan 
Edwards, late president of New Jersey 
college. 

The following is a summary of the dis- 
tinguishing tenets of the Hopkinsians, to- 
gether with a few of the reasons they bring 
forward in support of their sentiments. 

1. That all true virtue, or real holiness, 
consists in disinterested benevolence. The 
object of benevolence is universal being, 
including God and all intelligent creatures. 
It wishes and seeks the good of every 
individual, so far as is consistent with the 
greatest good of the whole, which is com- 
prised in the glory of God, and the per- 
fection and happiness of his kingdom. 
The law of God is the standard of all moral 
rectitude or holiness. This is reduced into 
love to God and our neighbour as our- 
selves ; and universal good-will compre- 
hends all the love to God, our neighbour, 
and ourselves, required in the divine law, 
and, therefore, must be the whole of holy 
obedience. Let any serious person think 
what are the particular branches of true 
piety ; when he has viewed each one by 
itself, he will find that disinterested friendly 
affections is its distinguishing character- 
istic. For instance, all the holiness in 
pious fear, which distinguishes it from the 
fear of the wicked, consists in love. Again, 
holy gratitude is nothing but good-will 
to God and our neighbour, in which we 
ourselves are included ; and correspondent 
affection, excited by a view of the kind- 
ness and good-will of God. Universal 
good-will also implies the whole of the 
duty we owe to our neighbour ; for justice, 
truth, and faithfulness, are comprised in 
universal benevolence ; so are temperance 
and chastity. For an undue indulgence 
of our appetites and passions is contrary 
to benevolence, as tending to hurt our- 
selves or others ; and so opposite to the 
general good, and the divine command, 
in which all the crime of such indulgence 
consists. In short, all virtue is nothing 
510 



but benevolence acted out in its proper 
nature or perfection ; or love to God and 
our neighbour, made perfect in all its ge- 
nuine exercises and expressions. 

2. That all sin consists in selfishness. 
By this is meant an interested selfish 
affection, by which a person sets himself up 
as supreme, and the only object of regard ; 
and nothing is good or lovely in his view, 
unless suited to promote his own private 
interest. This self-love is in its whole na- 
ture, and every degree of it, enmity against 
God ; it is not subject to the law of God, 
and is the only affection that can oppose 
it. It is the foundation of all spiritual 
blindness, and, therefore, the source of all 
the open idolatry in the heathen world, 
and false religion under the light of the 
Gospel ; all this is agreeable to that self- 
love which opposes God's true character. 
Under the influence of this principle, men 
depart from truth ; it being itself the 
greatest practical lie in nature, as it sets 
up that which is comparatively nothing 
above universal existence. Self-love is 
the source of all profaneness and impiety 
in the world, and of all pride and ambi- 
tion among men, which is nothing but 
selfishness, acted out in this particular way. 
This is the foundation of all covetousness 
and sensuality, as it blinds people's eyes, 
contracts their hearts, and sinks them 
down, so that they look upon earthly en- 
joyments as the greatest good. This is the 
source of all falsehood, injustice, and op- 
pression, as it excites mankind by undue 
methods to invade the property of others. 
Self-love produces all the violent passions; 
envy, wrath, clamour, and evil-speaking: 
and every thing contrary to the divine law, 
is briefly comprehended in this fruitful 
source of all iniquity, self-love. 

3. That there are no promises of rege- 
nerating grace made to the doings of the 
unregenerate. For as far as men act from 
self-love, they act from a bad end : for 
those who have no true love to God, really 
do no duty when they attend on the ex- 
ternals of religion. And as the unregene- 
rate act from a selfish principle, they do 
nothing which is commanded : their im- 
penitent doings are wholly opposed to re- 
pentance and conversion ; therefore, not 
implied in the command to repent, &c. ; 
so far from this, they are altogether dis- 
obedient to the command. Hence it ap- 
pears, that there are no promises of salva- 
tion to the doings of the unregenerate. 

4. That the impotency of sinners, with 
respect to believing in Christ, is not na- 
tural, but moral; for it is a plain dictate 
of common sense, that natural impossibi- 
lity excludes all blame. But an unwilling 
mind is universally considered as a crime, 
and not as an excuse, and is the very thing 
in which our wickedness consists. That 
the impotence of the sinner is owing to a 



HOP 



HOP 



disaffection of heart, is evident from the 
promises of the Gospel. When any ob- 
ject of good is proposed and promised to us 
upon asking, it clearly evinces that there 
can be no impotence in us with respect to 
obtaining it, besides the disapprobation of 
the will ; and that inability which consists 
in disinclination, never renders any thing 
impi-operly the subject of precept or com- 
mand. 

5. That in order to faith in Christ, a 
sinner must approve in his heart of the di- 
vine conduct, even though God should cast 
him off for ever ; which, however, neither 
implies love to misery, nor hatred of hap- 
piness. For if the law is good, death is 
due to those who have broken it. The 
Judge of all the earth cannot but do right. 
It would bring everlasting reproach upon 
his government to spare us, considered 
merely as in ourselves. When this is felt in 
our hearts, and not till then, we shall be 
prepared to look to the free grace of God, 
through the redemption which is in Christ, 
and to exercise faith in his blood, who 
is set forth to be a propitiation to declare 
God's righteousness, that he might be just, 
and yet be the justifier of him who be- 
lieveth in Jesus. 

6. That the infinitely wise and holy God 
has exerted his omnipotent power in such 
a manner as he purposed should be fol- 
lowed with the existence and entrance of 
moral evil into the system. For it must 
be admitted on all hands, that God has a 
perfect knowledge, foresight, and view of 
all possible existences and events. If that 
system and scene of operation, in which 
moral evil should never have existence, was 
actually preferred in the divine mind, 
certainly the Deity is infinitely disap- 
pointed in the issue of his own operations. 
Nothing can be more dishonourable to God 
than to imagine, that the system which is 
actually formed by the divine hand, and 
which was made for his pleasure and 
glory, is yet not the fruit of wise con- 
trivance and design. 

7. That the introduction of sin is, upon 
the whole, for the general good. For the 
wisdom and power of the Deity are dis- 
played in carrying on designs of the great- 
est good ; and the existence of moral evil 
has, undoubtedly, occasioned a more full, 
perfect, and glorious discovery of the 
infinite perfections of the divine nature, 
than could otherwise have been made to 
the view of creatures. If the extensive 
manifestations of the pure and holy nature 
ofGod, and his infinite aversion to sin, and 
all his inherent perfections, in their genuine 
fruits and effects, is either itself the greatest 
good, or necessarily contains it ; it must ne- 
cessarily follow, that the introduction of sin 
is for the general good. 

8. That repentance is before faith in 
Christ. By this is not intended that re- 

511 



pentance is before a speculative belief of 
the being and perfections of God, and of 
the person and character of Christ; but 
only, that true repentance is previous to 
a saving faith in Christ, in which the 
believer is united to Christ, and entitled 
to the benefits of his mediation and atone- 
ment. That repentance is before faith 
in this sense, appears from several consi- 
derations. (1.) As repentance and faith 
respect different objects, so they are dis- 
tinct exercises of the heart ; and, there- 
fore, one not only may, but must be prior 
to the other. (2.) There may be genuine 
repentance of sin, without faith in Christ ; 
but there cannot be true faith in Christ, 
without repentance of sin ; and since re- 
pentance is necessary in order to faith in 
Christ, it must necessarily be prior to faith 
in Christ. (3.) John the Baptist, Christ, 
and his Apostles, taught that repentance 
is before faith. John cried, Repent, for 
the kingdom of heaven is at hand; 
intimating that true repentance was neces- 
sary in order to embrace the Gospel of the 
kingdom. Christ commanded, Repent ye, 
and believe the Gospel. And Paul preached 
repentance toward God, and faith toward 
our Lord Jesus Christ. 

9. That though men became sinners by 
Adam, according to a divine constitution, 
yet they have, and are accountable for no 
sins but personal: for, (1.) Adam's act, 
in eating the forbidden fruit, was not the 
act of his posterity ; therefore they did 
not sin at the same time he did. (2.) The 
sinfulness of that act could not be trans- 
ferred to them afterwards; because the 
sinfulness of an act can no more be trans- 
ferred from one person to another, than an 
act itself. 3. Therefore Adam's act, in eat- 
ing the forbidden fruit, was not the cause, 
but only the occasion, of his posterity's being 
sinners. God was pleased to make a con- 
stitution, that if Adam remained holy 
through his state of trial, his posterity 
should, in consequence, be holy also ; but 
if he sinned, his posterity should be sinners 
likewise. Adam sinned, and now God 
brings his posterity into the world sinners. 
By Adam's sin we are become sinners, 
not for it ; his sin being only the occasion, not 
the cause of our committing sins. 

10. That though believers are justified 
through Christ's righteousness, yet his 
righteousness is not transferred to them. 
For (1.) personal righteousness can no 
more be transferred from one person to 
another than personal sin. (2.) If Christ's 
personal righteousness were transferred to 
believers, they would be as perfectly holy 
as Christ ; and so stand in no need of for- 
giveness. (3.) But believers are not con- 
scious of having Christ's personal righte- 
ousness ; but feel and bewail much in- 
dwelling sin and corruption. (4.) The 
Scripture represents believers as receiv- 



HOR 



HOR 



ing only the benefits of Christ's righteous- 
ness in justification, or their being pardon- 
ed and accepted for Christ's righteous- 
ness' sake : and this is the proper Scripture 
notion of imputation. Jonathan's righteous- 
ness was imputed to Mephibosheth, when 
David showed kindness to him for his father 
Jonathan's sake. 

The Hopkinsians warmly advocate the 
doctrine of the divine decrees, that of 
particular election, total depravity, the 
special influence of the Spirit of God in 
regeneration, justification by faith alone, 
the final perseverance of the saints, and 
the consistency between entire freedom 
and absolute dependence; and therefore 
claim it as their just due, since the world 
will make distinctions, to be called Hop- 
kinsian Calvinists. Adams's View of Reli- 
gions, p. 168, &c. ; Hopkins on Holiness, 
p. 7—202 ; Edwards on the Will, pp. 234— 
289 ; Edwards on Virtue ; West's Essays 
on Moral Agency, pp. 170 — 181 ; Spring's 
Nature of Duty, p. 23 ; Moral Disquisitions, p. 
40 

HO'REB, mn, XwpjJjS, signifies desert, 
solitude, destruction, dryness, the sword. Horeb 
is a mountain in Arabia Petraea, so near 
Mount Sinai, that Horeb and Sinai appear 
to be two hills of the same mountain. Sinai 
is on the east, and Horeb on the west : and 
hence, when the sun rises, the latter 
is covered with the shadow of Sinai. 
There are springs and fruit-trees upon 
Horeb, but only rain-water upon Sinai. 
At Horeb, God appeared to Moses in a 
burning bush. (Exod. iii. 1, 2, 3.) At the 
foot of this mountain Moses struck the 
rock, and drew water from it. (Exod. xvii. 
6.) Elijah retired hither to avoid the per- 
secution of Jezebel. (1 Kings xix. 8.) It 
is frequently said, that God gave the law at 
Horeb, though other places expressly name 
Sinai ; because Horeb and Sinai in some sort 
form but one mountain. 

HO'RITES, ETTin, XoppaToi, signifies 
princes, heroes, or free-men ; otherwise, who 
are in a passion. The Horites were an 
ancient people, who dwelt in the moun- 
tains of Seir beyond Jordan. (Gen. xiv. 6.) 
They had princes, and were powerful 
before Esau conquered their country. 
Afterwards, the Horites and the Edomites 
seem to have composed but one people. 
They dwelt in Arabia Petraea, and Arabia 
Deserta, south-east of Judea. (Deut. ii. 1. ; 
xxxiii. 2. Judg. v. 4.) 

The Hebrew Chori, or Chorim, translated 
Horites in Genesis, is used in an appel- 
lative sense in other passages of Scripture, 
and signifies heroes, great and powerful 
men. Hence, says Calmet, the Greeks 
probably derived their heroes, as they derived 
Anax, a king, from Anak, the giant, and his 
sons, (1 Kings xxi. 8. 11. Nehem. ii. 16.; 
iv. 1 4. ; v. 7- ; vi. 17 ; vii. 5. ; xiii. 17. ; Eccles. 
x. 17- Isa. xxxiv. 12.) 
512 



HOR'MAH, nain, signifies destruction, 
or destructive curse; otherwise, net-work, 
or a small net; otherwise, dedicated, or 
consecrated to God. The original name of 
this city was Zephath, a mirror, which was 
changed by the Hebrews to Hormah. 
What occasioned this denomination was as 
follows: the king of Arad, a Canaanite, 
who dwelt south of the Land of Promise, 
having attacked the Hebrews, put them to 
flight, and took a very rich booty. The 
Israelites, therefore, engaged themselves 
by vow to devote every thing belonging to 
the king of Arad, and entirely destroy it. 
It is very probable, that this vow was not 
executed till after Joshua entered the Land 
of Promise. (Josh. xv. 30.) Hormah after- 
wards belonged to the tribe of Simeon. 

It is certain, that things irrevocably 
consecrated to God were not, therefore, 
destroyed, but that the use of those things 
was continued in the divine service. In 
like manner, it has been asked, What 
forbids our supposing that the property of a 
town was vested in the national institutions 
for worship ? that its revenues, &c. were 
wholly appropriated, in perpetuity, to the 
tabernacle, or the temple, so that they were 
irrevocable on the part of the nation, without 
including the idea of utter destruction of 
the thing, or place, &c. vowed to the Lord ? 
Sacred Geography. 

HORN. By horns the Hebrews some- 
times understood an eminence, or angle, a 
corner, or a rising. By horns of the altar of 
burnt-offerings many understand the angles 
of that altar ; but there were also horns, or 
eminences, at the corners of that altar. 
(Exod. xxvii. 2. xxx. 2.) 

Horn also signifies glory, brightness, 
rays. God's ' brightness was as the light, 
he had horns coming out of his hand,' that 
is, refulgent beams issuing from the hollow 
of it. (Hab. iii. 4.) 

As the ancients frequently used horns to 
hold liquors, vessels containing oil, and per- 
fumes, are often called horns, whether made 
of horn or not. Fill thine horn with oil, 
says the Lord to Samuel, and anoint David. 
(1 Sam. xvi. 1.) Zadok took an horn of 
oil out of the tabernacle, and anointed 
Solomon. (1 Kings i. 39.) Job called one 
of his daughters, Kerenhappuch, Horn of 
Antimony, or horn to put antimony (stibium) 
in, which the women of the East still use at 
this day. (Job xlii. 14.) 

The principal defence and strength of 
horned beasts consist in their horns ; and 
hence the Scripture mentions the horn as 
a symbol of strength. The Lord exalte th 
the horn of David ; the horn of his people ; 
he breaketh the horn of the ungodly ; he 
cutteth off the horn of Moab, he cutteth 
off the horn of Israel ; he promiseth to 
make the horn of Israel to bud forth ; to 
re-establish the honour of it, and restore 
its former vigour. Moses compares Joseph 



HOR 



HOS 



to a young bull, and says, that he has horns 
like those of a unicorn. The sacred authors 
frequently express victory in words like the 
following : Thou shalt toss them into the air 
with horns, &c. 

Kingdoms with great powers are often 
described by the symbol of horns. (Ecclus. 
xlvii. 7.) In Dan. vii. viii. horns represent 
the power of the Persians, of the Greeks, 
of Syria, of Egypt, or of pagan and papal 
Rome. The prophet represents three 
animals as having many horns, one of 
which grew from the other. This should 
not surprise us, since in the East are rams 
which have many horns. 

HORNET, a kind of large wasp, which 
has a powerful sting. We learn, (Deut. vii. 
20. Josh. xxiv. 12.) that the Lord drove 
out the Canaanites before Israel by means 
of this insect. It has been suggested, that 
possibly this hornet was the zimb of Ethiopia, 
before which neither man nor beast can 
subsist. If the zimb was one of the plagues 
of Egypt, as has been supposed, it might be 
also in the hand of Providence a very 
effectual plague on the Canaanites ; and it is 
worthy of observation, that the Israelites 
in the sandy wilderness would escape the 
violence of this creature. Supplementary 
Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 

HORSE, a beast well known, but not 
so common among the Hebrews till Solo- 
mon's time, as afterwards. Before that time 
we find no horsemen mentioned in the 
armies of Israel. God forbade their kings 
to keep many horses. (Deut. xvii. 16.) 
The judges and princes of Israel generally 
rode on mules. After David's time, horses 
were more used in Judah, &c. than before. 
Solomon is the first king of Judah who had 
many horses ; but we do not read that he 
undertook any military expeditions. He 
received his horses from Egypt, and eveiy 
set cost him more than six hundred shekels, 
about ninety pounds. 

We read, (2 Kings xxiii. 11.) that Josiah 
took away the horses which the kings of 
Judah, his predecessors, had consecrated to 
the sun. The sun was worshipped over all 
the East, and the horse was consecrated 
to this deity, who was represented as riding 
in a chariot drawn by the most beautiful 
and swiftest horses in the world, and per- 
forming every day his journey from East 
to West, to enlighten mankind. It has 
been disputed whether the people of Judah 
sacrificed these horses to the sun, as the 
Persians, Armenians, and others did, or 
only led them out in state every morning, 
to meet and salute the sun at its rising. 
Bochart supposes, that these horses were 
designed to draw the chariots, containing 
the king and his great officers, who were 
idolaters, out at the east gate of the city, 
every morning, to salute and adore the 
sun on his appearing above the horizon. 
BocharVs Hieroz. part i. lib. xi. c. 10. 
513 



HOSAN'NA, or rather Hosa-na, is an 
Hebrew word which signifies, save, I beseech 
you. It is a form of blessing, or wishing 
well. At our Saviour's entrance into Jeru- 
salem, when the people cried, Hosanna, 
their meaning was, Lord, preserve this son 
of David ; heap favours and blessings on 
him. 

Mr. David Levi gives the following in- 
formation, extracted from the Talmud : 
' The willow (used in the Feast of Taber- 
nacles) is of the foundation of the pro- 
phets : that is, the prophets instructed the 
people in the proper form and manner 
thereof, as it was delivered by tradition ; 
and which, having been forgot, was re- 
stored by the prophets. Hence we meet 
in Rabbinical Hebrew, with the phrase, 
* the precept of the willow, on Hosanna 
the Great.' This is the seventh day 
of the Feast of Tabernacles, when each 
person carries a branch of willow, and, in 
the prayer of the day, frequently makes 
use of the word Hoshana! that is, save, 
we beseech thee, from whence the willows 
used at that time are called the Hosha- 
nuth ' — hosannas. 

If this be correct, we see that the people 
applied to our Lord a custom with which 
they were well acquainted, and which, in- 
deed, formed an annual ceremony. We 
may observe, that the evangelists, (Matt. 
xxi. 8. Mark xi. 8.) do not say what kind 
of trees were cut down by the people, but 
' they cut down branches from the trees, 
and strewed them in the way.' We may 
supply willow trees, if then in season ; or, 
perhaps, they were branches from such trees 
as were nearest at hand. Perhaps, they 
were palm leaves, or branches. 

The people, therefore, as they were wont 
to do on Hosanna the Great, formed a pro- 
cession ; and those who composed the lead- 
ing division of it, cried, Hosanna ! blessed 
is the king of Israel, who cometh in the name 
of the Lord. Peace in heaven ! Glory in the 
highest! To this, those who brought up 
the rear of the procession, answered, 
Blessed be the kingdom of our father Da- 
vid, that cometh in the name of the Lord ! 
Hosanna in the highest! That is, the great 
Hosanna, as we have been used to shout 
at our Feast of Tabernacles. 

Under this elucidation, this history has 
a clearer reference of the Feast of Taber- 
nacles to the Messiah ; and a reference that 
was, in some degree, wanted. The shouts 
of the multitude are strong indications of 
what they so earnestly looked for — a king 
to deliver them from their present bond- 
age. Did the prophets hint at such a 
king, to be expected, when they appointed 
the willows of the great Hosanna ? Is 
this the covert meaning of the rulers of 
the synagogue, ' hearest thou what those 
children say? in allusion to a kiii£ whom 
we expect; which they refer to thee.' Is 
l 1 



HOS 



HOU 



this the import of our Lord's answer, 
' Yea ; did you never hear the remark, that 
children will tell the truth when men will 
not; that when men are afraid, or incre- 
dulous, the mouths of babes and suck- 
lings may strongly proclaim due and pro- 
per praise?' Was our Lord's act in driv- 
ing the intruding dealers out of the temple 
an act of royalty, coincident with these 
acclamations, and with these ideas, which, 
on this occasion, he thought proper to 
exert, and to which those concerned thought 
proper at this time to submit ? Supplement- 
ary Addenda to Calmefs Dictionary. 

HOSE'A, jwin, Avofi, signifies Saviour, 
or safety. Hosea, son of Beeri, the first 
of the Minor Prophets. He is generally 
considered as a native and inhabitant of 
the kingdom of Israel, and is suppc ed to 
have begun to prophesy about 800 years 
before Christ. He exercised his office sixty 
years ; but it is not known at what periods 
his different prophecies, now remaining, 
were delivered. Most of them are di- 
rected against the people of Israel, whom 
he reproves and threatens for their idolatry 
and wickedness, and exhorts to repentance, 
with the greatest earnestness, as the only 
means of averting the evils impending 
over their country. The principal pre- 
dictions contained in this book, are the 
captivity and dispersion of the kingdom 
of Israel ; the deliverance of Judah from 
Sennacherib ; the present state of the Jews ; 
their future restoration, and union with 
the Gentiles in the kingdom of the Mes- 
siah ; the call of our Saviour out of Egypt, 
and his resurrection on the third day. 

The style of Hosea is peculiarly obscure : 
it is sententious, concise, and abrupt ; the 
transitions of person are sudden ; and 
the connexive and adversative particles 
are frequently omitted. The prophecies 
are in one continued series, without any 
distinction as to the times when they 
were delivered, or the different subjects to 
which they relate. They are not so clear 
and detailed, as the predictions of those 
prophets who lived in succeeding ages. 
When, however, we have surmounted those 
difficulties, we shall see abundant reason 
to admire the force and energy with which 
this prophet writes, and the boldness of the 
figures and similitudes which he uses. Bi- 
shop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. 
i. pp. 119, 120. 

Hosea, or Hoshea, son of Elah, was 
the last king of Israel. Having conspired 
against Pekah, son of Remaliah, king of 
Israel, he killed him, in the year of the 
world 3265, and before Jesus Christ 739. 
However, the elders of the land seem to 
have taken the government into their 
hands ; for Hoshea was not in possession 
of the kingdom till nine years after. (2 
Kings xv. 30. ; xvii. 1.) Hoshea did evil 
in the sight of the Lord, but not equal to 
514 



the kings of Israel who preceded him ; that 
is, say the Jewish doctors, he did not re- 
strain his subjects from going to Jerusalem 
to worship, if they would ; whereas the kings 
of Israel, his predecessors, had forbidden 
it, and had placed guards on the road to 
prevent it. 

Salmaneser, king of Assyria, being in- 
formed that Hoshea meditated a revolt, and 
had concerted measures with So, king of 
Egypt, to shake off" the Assyrian yoke, 
marched against him, and besieged Sama- 
ria. After a siege of three years, in the 
ninth year of Hoshea's reign, the city was 
taken, and was reduced to a heap of ruins, 
in the year of the world 3282. The king 
of Assyria removed the Israelites of the 
ten tribes to countries beyond the Eu- 
phrates. Prideaux's Connection, part i. 
book i. 

HOURS. The ancient Hebrews did not 
divide the day by hours, but into four parts ; 
morning, noon, the first evening, and the 
last evening. The night was divided into 
three parts ; night, midnight, and the morn- 
ing watch. Hours, in the Septuagint, sig- 
nify the seasons, as in Homer and He- 
siod. 

The word hour is used with very great 
latitude in Scripture. It seems sometimes 
to imply the space of time occupied by a 
whole watch : (Matth. xxvi. 40. Mark xiv. 
37.) ' What, could ye not watch one hour V 
one space of time allotted to that duty. 
' If thou shalt not watch, thou shalt not 
know what hour I will come upon thee.' 
(Rev. iii. 3.) ' Watch, therefore, for ye 
know neither the day nor the hour wherein 
the Son of man cometh.' (Matth. xxv. 13.) 
These instances seem to prove, that there 
was a connexion between the word hour, 
and the period of a watch. The same may 
be observed in some of the following pas- 
sages : Peter having denied his knowledge 
of Jesus to the guard, a new set of guards 
came to relieve the former ; and among 
them was one who challenged Peter, about 
the space of one hour — one watch — after 
his former denial. (Luke xxii. 59.) Felix 
ordered Paul to be sent away at the third 
hour — perhaps a military watch of the night. 
(Acts xxiii. 23.) 

The hours of prayer are alluded to in 
2 Esdras ix. 44. : ' Day and night and every 
hour I prayed.' Hour is used in a very 
extensive sense. ' But of that day, and 
that hour, knoweth no man.' (Matth. xxiv. 
36.) 'I will keep thee from the hour of 
trial, which is to try all the world.' (Rev. iii. 
10. ; xvii. 12.) 

It appears that in India are dials on 
which every hour is divided into three 
parts, which, varying with the season, con- 
tain from twenty to twenty-four of our 
minutes each. These divisions are called 
ghuri. The word hour may be sometimes 
used to express a much smaller portion of 



HUM 



HUR 



time. ' Daniel was astonished one hour,' 
one schaale, — turn, pause, or interval. Was 
this one ghuree, or division of time, that 
is, about one-third of an hour ? In Chaldee 
this word signifies to declare, to tell, one 
notice, or declaration ; and, perhaps, such 
is its import throughout this prophet. It 
is, indeed, observable, that the ghurees de- 
note also the number of bells which are to 
be struck, or the number of strokes which 
are to be made, on a bell, during the course 
of a watch. We learn, that Tobit conti- 
nued prostrate about two hours; but the 
Chaldee reads three hours, perhaps three 
ghurees, or rather more than one of our 
hours. This shorter period is implied in 
Gal. ii. 5. 

In the New Testament, the day is fre- 
quently divided into twelve equal hours, 
after the manner of the Greeks and Ro- 
mans. (Matth. xx. 3, 4, 5.) These hours 
were equal to each other, but unequal with, 
respect to the different seasons of the year. 
The twelve hours of the longest day in 
summer were much longer than those of 
the shortest day in winter. The first hour 
was that which followed sun-rising, or 
our six o'clock in the morning, at the 
equinox ; the third hour corresponded with 
our nine o'clock of the morning, at the 
equinox ; the sixth, at all times to noon, 
&c. In the New Testament we observe 
also, that the night is divided into four 
watches, which custom the Jews received 
from the Romans. Fragments annexed to 
Calmefs Dictionary, No. cii. cclxiii. 

HUMILITY. Humility is the virtue of 
Christ and of Christians. It consists in 
low thought of ourselves, founded on the 
knowledge of our unworthiness, and our 
dependence on God for aid. ' Learn of me, 
for I am meek and lowly in heart,' says our 
Saviour. (Matt. xi. 29.) ' God giveth grace 
to the humble,' says St. Peter. (1 Epist. 

v ' 5 -) .. . 

Though humility is not too much in 

favour among men, yet many excellent 
things are said of it in Scripture : ' Before 
honour is humility.' (Prov. xv. 33.) ' By 
humility, and the fear of the Lord, are 
riches, and honour, and life.' (Prov. xxii. 
4.) Humility is a virtue seated in the 
mind ; and it is, in fact, a settled and per- 
manent disposition of the mind. Perhaps 
it may often be best distinguished by con- 
trast with its opposite, pride and haughti- 
ness. But though humility is an internal 
quality, yet it shows itself in external actions, 
and is very expressively alluded to by the 
apostle Peter: (1 Epist. v. 5.) ' Be clothed 
with humility,' as with an outer ornamental 
garment, tied closely upon the wearer. 
This implies, that the humility of Chris- 
tians should constantly be manifested in 
their deportment and behaviour ; should 
constantly envelope every other graer, or 
excellence, or amiable qualitv, which tliev 
515 



may possess or practise, as an outer robe 
envelopes inner garments : — an outer robe 
bound around them, and attached to them 
by the firmest connexions, — by connexions 
proof against temptation, calamities, or pros- 
perities. 

It may be doubted, whether the ' low 
estate 1 of the Virgin, (Luke i. 48.) refers to 
her disposition of mind, or to her situation 
in life. The word ra7r6ivoj<nv occurs also 
in Acts viii. 33. ' In his humiliation his judg- 
ment was taken away:' in Philip, iii. 21, 
' who shall change the body of our abase- 
ment — (vile body) — to the likeness of his 
glorious body :' and in Jam. i. 9, 10. ' Let 
the humbled, abased brother, glory in his 
exaltation ; but the rich brother in that he 
is abased, — humbled, made low.' In this 
last passage, it would seem clearly to refer 
to a disposition of mind ; for no man is 
called to rejoice in loss of wealth, or of 
property : but he may well and wisely re- 
joice in receiving an humble disposition of 
mind, as a divine grace — or which is im- 
parted by divine grace — and which will 
lead him to think less vainly, less super- 
ciliously of his riches, and to value them 
less than before. Besides, if the poor bro- 
ther is to rejoice in attaining that state 
which this person is to rejoice at quitting, 
there appears to be a contradiction in the 
spirit of the precepts : but as one brother 
may possess a mind exalted by divine grace, 
yet continue poor in the world, so another 
brother may possess a mind humbled by 
divine grace, notwithstanding the tempta- 
tion to which his worldly riches subject 
him. This, indeed, is impracticable to 
man, but practicable to God. If this sense 
of the word be admitted, it does not fol- 
low from the use of it in the Virgin's song, 
that her station in life is described by it, 
determinately and exclusively, whatever 
Erasmus might urge to the contrary. 

That there may be a vicious or spurious 
kind of humility, or that humility may 
exceed in degree, or in object, would ap- 
pear from the apostle's caution, (Col. ii. 18.) 
against an over-weening, wilful humility, 
which might refer to the agents of God 
what should be referred only to God him- 
self. This kind of supposed humility 
originates in real pride, ' being vainly puffed 
up of a fleshly mind.' Additions to Calmet's 
Dictionary. 

HUR, Tin, *Qp, signifies liberty ; other- 
wise, whiteness, hole, cavern. Hur, son of 
Caleb, son of Esron, different from Caleb, 
the son of Jephunneh. According to Jo- 
sephus, Hur was husband to Miriam, the 
sister of Moses ; but others say, that he 
was his son. When Moses had sent Joshua 
against the Amalekites, he went up the 
mountain witli Hur and Aaron ; (Exod. xvii. 
10.) and whilst he lifted up his hands 
in prayer, Aaron and Hur supported his 
arms, to prevent their growing weary. 



HUS 



HUS 



When Moses ascended Mount Sinai to re- 
ceive the law, he referred the elders, if any 
difficulty should arise, to Aaron and Hur. 
(Exod. xxiv. 14.) 

HU'SHAI,"tnn,Xov(r}, signifies their haste, 
or their sensuality ; otherwise their silence. 
Hushai, the Archite, David's friend, being 
informed of Absalom's rebellion, and that 
David was obliged to flee from Jerusalem, 
met his king and his friend upon an emi- 
nence without the city, with his clothes 
rent, and his head covered with earth. 
David told him, that if he went with him, 
he would be a burden to him ; but that he 
might render him important service, if he 
remained, and pretended to be in Absa- 
lom's interest, in order to defeat the coun- 
sel of Ahithophel. 

Hushai, therefore, returned to Jerusa- 
lem, and saluted Absalom as king. Absa- 
lom said, Do you use your friend in this 
manner 1 Why are you not with David ? 
Hushai answered, I will be with him whom 
the Lord has chosen ; whom this people, 
even all Israel, have acknowledged. After 
this Hushai, by opposing the counsel of 
Ahithophel, and gaining time for David, 
to whom he sent advice, was the cause of 
Ahithophel's suicide, and of Absalom's mis- 
carriage. 

HUSKS. Shells or husks of pease or 
beans. The prodigal son, oppressed with 
want, and pinched by hunger, desired to 
feed on the husks provided for the hogs. 
(Luke xv. 16.) The most learned inter- 
preters are of opinion that the Greek, 
Kepdria signifies Carob-beans, the fruit of 
a tree growing in Egypt, of the same name. 
This fruit is common in Palestine, Greece, 
Italy, Provence, and Barbary. It is suf- 
fered to ripen and grow dry on the tree ; 
the poor eat it, and cattle are fattened 
with it. 

HUSSITES. A party of reformers, the 
followers of John Huss, who derived his 
name from Hussinetz in Bohemia, the 
place of his nativity. In the university 
of Prague, where he studied, Huss was 
early distinguished ; and after taking his 
degree, he continued to reside at Prague, 
and enjoyed a very high reputation, both 
on account of the sanctity of his manners 
and the purity of his doctrine. He was 
distinguished by his uncommon erudition 
and eloquence, and was chosen to fill the 
important functions of professor of divinity 
in the university, as well as those of pastor 
in the church of that city. This emi- 
nent ecclesiastic declaimed with vehemence 
against the vices which had corrupted all 
the different ranks and orders of the clergy : 
he even went farther ; and, from the year 
1408, he used his most assiduous endeavours 
to withdraw the university of Prague from 
the jurisdiction of Gregory XII., whom 
the kingdom of Bohemia had hitherto ac- 
knowledged as lawful head of the church. 
516 



The archbishop of Prague, and the clergy 
in general, who were warmly attached to 
the interests of Gregory, became naturally 
exasperated at these proceedings. A vio- 
lent dispute arose between the incensed 
prelate and the zealous reformer, which 
the latter greatly inflamed and augmented 
by his pathetic exclamations against the 
court of Rome, and tbe corruptions preva- 
lent among the sacerdotal orders ; he even 
proceeded to recommend openly the writ- 
ings and opinions of Wickliff. Hence an 
accusation was brought against him, in 
the year 1410, before the tribunal of John 
XXIII. , by whom he was solemnly ex- 
pelled from the communion of the church. 
He treated, it is true, this excommunication 
with contempt ; and the fortitude and zeal 
which he discovered on this occasion were 
almost universally applauded. 

This eminent man, whose piety was 
truly fervent and sincere, though his zeal 
was, perhaps, rather too violent, and his 
prudence not always equally circumspect, 
was summoned to appear before the coun- 
cil of Constance. He was obedient to 
this order, and thought himself secured 
from the rage of his enemies, by the 
safe-conduct which had been granted him 
by the emperor Sigismund, for his journey 
to Constance, his residence in that place, 
and his return to his own country. Huss 
was accompanied on this occasion by his 
faithful and intimate friend Jerome of 
Prague, who voluntarily came to the coun- 
cil with the generous design of supporting 
and seconding his fellow-labourer. Jerome 
had early imbibed in England the doctrines 
of Wickliff, and had brought home to his 
native country the books of that reformer. 
When Huss appeared before the council, 
he declaimed, with extraordinary vehe- 
mence, against the abuses of the church ; 
but this freedom was not considered as 
unlawful in the council of Constance, where 
the tyranny of the court of Rome, and 
the corruption of the sacerdotal and mo- 
nastic orders, were censured with unre- 
served severity. Personal enmity, how- 
ever, was supposed to co-operate with 
ecclesiastical tyranny, in the persecution 
of the Bohemian reformer. His active and 
malignant adversaries coloured the accu- 
sation brought against him with such arti- 
fice and success, that he was cast into 
prison, declared a heretic, because he re- 
fused to obey the order of the council, 
commanding him to plead guilty against 
the dictates of his conscience, and was 
burnt alive, the 6th of July, 1415. The 
courage which he had manifested in the 
pulpit, did not forsake him at the stake. 
He endured with unparalleled magna- 
nimity and resignation the dreadful punish- 
ment, expressing in his last moments the 
noblest sentiments of love to God, and the 
most triumphant hope of the accomplish- 



HUT 



HUT 



ment of those promises with which the 
Gospel arms the true Christian at the ap- 
proach of eternity. 

The same unhappy fate was endured by 
Jerome. Terrified, however, by the near 
prospect of a cruel death, Jerome at first 
appeared willing to submit to the orders of 
the council, and to abandon the tenets and 
opinions which he had affirmed in his writ- 
ings. But this submission was not attended 
with the advantages he expected from it, 
nor did it deliver him from the close and 
severe confinement in which he was retained. 
He, therefore, resumed his fortitude, pro- 
fessed anew, with an heroic constancy, the 
opinions which the sudden impression of 
fear had caused him to desert, and main- 
tained them in the flames, in which he ex- 
pired on the 30th of May, 1410. Before 
sentence was pronounced against John 
Huss, and Jerome of Prague, the famous 
Wickliff, whose opinions they were sup- 
posed to adopt, and who had been long 
since dead, was called from his rest by 
this tribunal, and his memory was solemnly 
branded with infamy by a decree of the 
council. On the 4th of May, 1415, a long 
list of propositions selected from his writ- 
ings, was examined and condemned ; and 
an order was issued to commit all his works, 
together with his bones, to the flames. 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. ii. 
pp. 234, &c. ; Mosheim's Eccles. Hist., vol. 
iii. pp. 227, &c. 

HUTCHINSONIANS, a denomination 
of Christians, the followers of John Hut- 
chinson, Esq., a learned and respectable 
layman, who was born at Spennythorn, 
in Yorkshire, in 1074. Mr. H. received 
a private education, which, however, was 
liberal and excellent ; and at the age of 
19, he became steward to a gentleman, 
in which capacity he afterwards served 
the duke of Somerset. Having a great 
taste for natural history and mineralogy, 
he improved the opportunities which his 
station in life afforded him, and made a 
large collection of fossils, which he put 
into the hands of Dr. Woodward, the phy- 
sician, with observations, for him to digest 
and publish. This large and noble collec- 
tion was afterwards bequeathed by Dr. 
Woodward to the University of Cam- 
bridge. The doctor is said to have de- 
ceived Mr. H. with fair promises, and 
never to have begun the work. In 1724, 
Mr. H. published the first part of that 
curious work,' his 'Moses's Principia,' in 
which he ridiculed Dr. Woodward's Natural 
History of the Earth, and exploded the 
doctrine of gi-avitation established in Sir 
Isaac Newton's Principia. In the second 
part of this work, published in 1727, he 
maintained, in opposition to the Newtonian 
system, that a plenum is the principle of 
the Scripture philosophy. In this work 
he also intimated, that the idea of the 
M7 



Trinity is to be taken from the grand 
agents in the natural system, fire, light, 
and spirit. From this time he continued 
to publish a volume every year or two, 
till his death ; and a correct and elegant 
edition of his works, including the MSS. 
which he left, was published in 1748, 
in 12 vols. 8vo., intituled, ' The Philo- 
sophical and Theological Works of the late 
truly learned John Hutchinson, Esq.' On 
the Monday before his death, Dr. Mead 
urged Mr. H. to be bled, saying pleasantly, 
' I will soon send you to Moses,' mean- 
ing his studies. This Mr. H. under- 
stood in the literal sense, and answered in 
a muttering tone, ' I believe, doctor, you 
will ;' and he was so much displeased, that 
he dismissed him for another physician, but 
died a few days after, August 28, 1 737- 

Mr. H. thought that the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures comprise a perfect system of natural 
philosophy, theology, and religion. He en- 
tertained so high an opinion of the Hebrew 
language, that he thought the Almighty 
must have employed it to communicate 
every species of knowledge, human and 
divine ; and that, accordingly, every species 
of knowledge is to be found in the Old 
Testament. Both he and his followers laid 
a great stress on the evidence of Hebrew 
etymology. After Origen, and other emi- 
nent commentators, he asserted, that the 
Scriptures are not to be understood and 
interpreted in a literal, but in a typical 
sense, and according to the radical import of 
the Hebrew expressions : — that even the 
historical parts, and particularly those re- 
lating to the Jewish ceremonies, and levitical 
law, are to be considered in this light : and 
he also asserted, that, agreeably to this 
mode of interpretation, the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures would be found amply to testify con- 
cerning the nature and offices of Jesus 
Christ. His plan was to find Natural Philo- 
sophy in the Bible, where hitherto it had 
been thought no such thing was to be met 
with, or ever intended. His editors tell us, 
he found, upon examination, f That the 
Hebrew Scriptures no where ascribe motion 
to the body of the sun, nor fixedness to the 
earth ; that they describe the created system 
to be a plenum without any vacuum at all, 
and reject the assistance of gravitation, at- 
traction, or any such occult qualities, for 
performing the stated operations of nature, 
which are carried on by the mechanism of 
the heavens, in their three-fold condition of 
fire, light, and spirit, or air, the material 
agents set to work at the beginning: — that 
the heavens, thus framed by Almighty 
wisdom, are an instituted emblem and 
visible substitute of Jehovah Alcim, the 
eternal three, the co-eqnal, and co-adorable 
Trinity in Unity : — that the unity of sub- 
stance in the heavens points out the unity 
of essence, and the distinction of conditions, 
the personality in Deity, without confound- 



HUT 



HYP 



ing the persons, or dividing the substance. 
And that from their being made emblems, 
they are called in Hebrew Shemim, the 
names, representatives, or substitutes ; ex- 
pressing by their names, that they are 
emblems, and by their conditions or offices, 
what it is they are emblems of.' Mr. H. 
also found, that the Hebrew Scriptures have 
some capital words, which he has proved, 
or endeavoured to prove, contain in their 
radical meaning the greatest and most com- 
fortable truth. Thus, the word Eloim, which 
we call God, he reads Aleim, and refers 
it to the oath or conditional execration, 
by which the eternal covenant of grace 
among the persons in Jehovah, was and is 
confirmed. The word Berith, which our 
translation renders Covenant, and upon 
which is built the favourite doctrine of 
mutual covenants between God and man, 
between Creator and creature, yea, as 
matters now stand, between king and rebel, 
he construes to signify, ' he or that which 
purifies,' and so the Purifier or purification 
for, not with, man. The Cherubim, which 
have been made ? Angels placed as a guard 
to frighten Adam from breaking into Eden 
again,' he explains to have been an hiero- 
glyphic of divine construction, or a sacred 
image, to describe, as far as figures could 
go, the Aleim and man taken in, or Huma- 
nity united to Deity. In like manner, he 
treats several other words of similar, though 
not quite so solemn, import. Hence he 
drew this conclusion, ' that all the rites and 
ceremonies of the Jewish dispensation were 
so many delineations of Christ, in what he 
was to be, to do, and to suffer, and that the 
early Jews knew them to be types of his 
actions and sufferings, and by performing 
them as such, were in so far Christians, 
both in faith and practice.' His followers 
maintain, that the Cherubim, and the glory 
around them, with the divine presence in 
them, were not only emblematical figures, 
representing the persons of the ever-blessed 
Trinity, as engaged in covenant for the re- 
demption of man, but also that they were 
intended ' to keep or preserve the way of 
the tree of life, — to show the man the way 
to life eternal, and keep him from losing 
or departing from it.' That Melchizedec 
was an eminent type of Christ, there can be 
little doubt; but that he was actually the 
second person of the Trinity, in a human 
form, is a tenet of the Hutchinsonians, 
though not entirely peculiar to them. Mr. 
H. supposes " the air exists in three condi- 
tions, fire, light, and spirit; the two latter 
are the finer and grosser parts of the air 
in motion: from the earth to the sun, the 
air is finer and finer till it becomes pure 
light near the confines of the sun, and fire 
in the orb of the sun or solar focus. From 
the earth towards the circumference of this 
system, in which he includes the fixed stars, 
the air becomes grosser and grosser, till it 
518 



becomes stagnant, in which condition it is 
at the utmost verge of this system ; from 
whence (in his opinion) the expression of 
f outer darkness, and blackness of darkness,' 
used in the New Testament, seems to be 
taken." These are some of the principal 
outlines of this author's doctrines, which 
have been patronized by several eminent 
divines, both of the church and among the 
dissenters. 

The followers of Mr. Hutchinson have 
not erected themselves into a sect or sepa- 
rate community, though they have suffered 
much obloquy from their brethren, and 
have been accounted by the world little 
better than madmen. They are of all men 
the most averse from schism, — are, perhaps, 
amongst the best and truest churchmen of 
these modern times, and not far behind 
the most learned in the church. Among 
them may still be reckoned some eminent 
and respectable divines, both in England 
and Scotland; but their numbers seem at 
present to be rather on the decrease. Of 
those who, in their day, were ranked in the 
list of Hutchinsonians, perhaps the most 
eminent were the following : Mr. Julius 
Bate, and Mr. Parkhurst, the lexicogra- 
phers : Mr. Holloway, author of ' Originals,' 
and ' Letter and Spirit ;' Dr. Hodges, pro- 
vost of Oriel College, Oxford ; Mr. Henry 
Lee, author of Sophron, or ' Nature's 
Characteristics of the Truth ;' Dr. Wetherell, 
late master of University College, Oxford ; 
Mr. Romaine ; bishop Home ; and Mr. 
William Jones, the bishop's learned friend 
and biographer. 

It was in the etymological quarter, that 
the Hutchinsonians seemed most vulner- 
able, or that they might, at least, be an- 
noyed with most appearance of advantage. 
Even some of Mr. Hutchinson's friends 
acknowledge, that he laid too great a stress, 
in many instances, on the evidence of He- 
brew etymology, and admit, that some of 
his followers adopted a mode of speaking, 
which had a nearer resemblance to cant and 
jargon, than to sound and sober learning. 
Adams's Religious World, vol. iii. pp. 350 — 
360 ; Skinner's Eccles. Hist, of Scotland, vol. 
ii. p. 673, &c. : Evans's Sketch, p. 206. 

HYMENiEUS, 'Y/*6i/aiO£, signifies, nup- 
tial, or marriage, or the god of marriage. 
Hymenaeus is supposed to have been a 
citizen of Ephesus, converted by St. Paul. 
He afterwards fell into the heresy of those 
who denied the resurrection of the body, or, 
rather, who maintained that the term was to 
be understood figuratively in reference to 
conversion, as being a resurrection from 
their former death in trespasses and sins, 
and that no other resurrection was to be 
expected. (2 Tim. ii. 17.) Bloomfield's 
Recensio Synoptica, viii. p. 313 ; Home's 
Introduction, vol. iii. p. 589. 

HYPOCRITE, from the Greek, signifies 
one who feigns to be what he is not ; who 



HYP 



HYP 



puts on a false person, like actors in trage- 
dies and comedies. It is generally applied 
to those who assume appearances of a virtue, 
without possessing it in reality. Our Saviour 
accused the Pharisees of hypocrisy. In the 
Old Testament, the Hebrew word caneph, 
which is rendered hypocrite, counterfeit, 
signifies, also, a profane wicked man, a man 
polluted, corrupted, a man of impiety, a 
deceiver. 

Hypocrisy is vain and foolish, and, though 
intended to cheat others, is, in truth, de- 
ceiving ourselves. No man would flatter or 
dissemble, if he thought that he was seen 
and discovered. All his hypocrisy, however, 
is open to the eye of God, from whom no- 
thing can be hid. The ways of man are before 
the eyes of the Lord, and he seeth all his 
doings ; there is no darkness nor shadow of 
death, where the workers of iniquity may 
hide themselves. Whoever dissembles and 
seems to be what he is not, thinks that he 
ought to possess such a quality as he pre- 
tends to ; for to counterfeit and dissemble, 
is to assume the appearance of some real 
excellence. But it is best for a man to be 
in reality what he would seem to be. It is 
difficult to personate and act a false part 
long; because where truth does not exist, 
nature will endeavour to return, and make 
a discovery. Truth carries its own light 
and evidence with it, and not only com- 
mends us to every man's conscience, but to 
God, the searcher of our hearts. Hence 
sincerity is the truest wisdom ; for integrity 
has many advantages over all the artful 
ways of dissimulation and deceit. It is 
a more plain and easy, a more safe and 
secure way of dealing. It has less of 
trouble and difficulty, of danger and hazard ; 
it is the shortest and nearest way to our 
end, and will carry us thither in a straight 
line. By integrity a man confirms his re- 



putation, and encourages others to repose 
the greater trust and confidence in him. 
This is a very considerable advantage in the 
affairs of life. 

On the contrary, a dissembler must be 
always upon his guard, lest he contradict 
his own pretences. He acts an unnatural 
part, and puts a continual force and re- 
straint upon himself. Truth always lies 
uppermost, and will be apt to make its 
appearance ; but he who acts sincerely has 
an easy task, and needs not invent pre- 
tences before, or excuses after, for what 
he says or does. Insincerity is difficult to 
manage ; for a liar will be apt to contra- 
dict at one time what he said at another. 
Truth is always consistent with itself, needs 
nothing to assist it, and is always near at 
hand; but a lie is troublesome, it sets a 
man's invention upon the rack, and is fre- 
quently the occasion of many more. Truth 
and sincerity in our words and actions will 
carry us through the world, when all the 
arts of cunning and deceit shall fail and 
deceive us. 

In the day when God shall judge the 
secrets of men by Jesus Christ, plainness 
and sincerity will appear the most perfect 
beauty ; the craftiness of men, who lie in 
wait to deceive, will be stripped of all 
its colours ; all specious pretences, all the 
methods of deceit, will then be disclosed 
before men and angels ; and no artifice to 
conceal the deformity of iniquity can there 
take place. Then the ill-designing men of 
this world shall with shame be convinced, 
that the upright simplicity, which they 
despised, was the truest wisdom ; and that 
those dissembling and dishonest arts, which 
they so highly esteemed, were in reality the 
greatest folly. Warner's System of Divinity 
and Morality, vol. iii. p. 323, &c. 



J. 



JAB 



JAB 



JA'BAL, bn*, 'I(o(3r)\, signifies which 
glides away ; or, that brings ; or, that pro- 
duces ; or, the trumpet of the jubilee. Jabal, 
son of Lamech and Adah, was father of 
those who lodge under tents, and of shep- 
herds, (Gen. iv. 20.); that is, he was institu- 
tor of those, who, like the Arab Bedouins, 
live under tents, and are shepherds. See 
Father. 

JAB'BOK, pa*, signifies evacuation, or 

dissipation ; otherwise, lamentation. Jab- 

bok is a brook on the other side of the 

Jordan, whose spring is in the mountains of 

519 



Gilead. It runs into the river Jordan, south 
of the sea of Galilee. Near this brook the 
patriarch Jacob met the angel, who wrestled 
with him. (Gen. xxxii. 1 — 23.) It separated 
the land of the Ammonites from the Gaula- 
nitis, and that of Og, king of Bashan. It is 
a rapid stream, flowing over a rocky bed : its 
waters are clear, and agreeable to the taste ; 
and its banks are very thickly wooded with 
oleander and plane trees, wild olives, wild 
almonds, and numerous other trees. By the 
Arabs it is now termed Nitrh-el-Zcrttaht or 
the river of Zcrkah, from a neighbour sta- 



JAB 



JAC 



tion or village of that name. Buckingham's 
Travels in Palestine, p. 325 ; Wells's Geogra- 
phy, vol. i. p. 182 ; Home's Introduction, vol. 
iii. p. 38. 

JA'BESH, wn», signifies dryness, or 
confusion of the heap of the testimony. Ja- 
besh, or Jabesh-Gilead, was the name 
of a city in the half- tribe of Manasseh to- 
wards Jordan. It was generally called 
Jabesh-Gilead, because it was situated in 
Gilead, at the foot of the mountains so 
named. Eusebius places it six miles from 
Pella towards Gerasa -, and, consequently, 
it must have been east of the sea of Tibe- 
rias. Jabesh-Gilead was sacked by the 
Israelites, because it refused to join in the 
war against Benjamin. (Judg. xxi. 8.) Na- 
hash, king of the Ammonites, laid siege 
to Jabesh, and proposed hard conditions 
to the inhabitants, from which Saul re- 
lieved them. They ever after showed great 
gratitude to Saul and his family. They 
carried off the bodies of Saul and his son 
Jonathan, which the Philistines had hung 
upon the walls of Bethshan, and buried 
them honourably in a wood near their city. 
(1 Sam. xxxi. 11, 12, &c.) 

JA'BIN, } s a*, signifies he that under- 
stands, he that builds. Jabin was a king 
of Hazor, in the northern part of Canaan. 
(Josh. xi. 1, 2, 3, &c.) Amazed at the 
conquests of Joshua, who had already sub- 
dued the south of Canaan, Jabin engaged 
the other kings in the northern part along 
the Jordan and on the Mediterranean, and 
in the mountains, in a league offensive and 
defensive. These kings and their troops 
rendezvoused at the waters of Merom. 
Joshua marched against them, attacked 
them suddenly, defeated them, and pursued 
them to Great Zidon and the valley of 
Mispeh. He lamed their horses, and burnt 
their chariots. He took Hazor, and killed 
king Jabin. 

Jabin was the name of another king of 
Hazor, who oppressed the Israelites twenty 
years, from the year of the world 2699 to 
2719. (Judg. iv. 1, &c.) Sisera, his general, 
was defeated by Barak at the foot of Mount 
Tabor. 

JA'COB, Spy, signifies he that supplants, 
or undermines; otherwise, the heel. Jacob, 
son of Isaac and Rebekah, was born 
in the year of the world 2168, and before 
Jesus Christ 1836. At his birth, he held 
his brother Esau's heel ; for this reason he 
was called Jacob, as if the heeler, one who 
supplants, or strikes up, his adversary. 
(Gen. xxv. 26.) This was a kind of prog- 
nostic of his future conduct in life. While 
Rebekah was with child, Isaac consulted 
the Lord concerning the struggling . of 
these twins in their mother's womb ; and 
God declared that Rebekah should have 
two sons, who should become two great 
people, but that the elder should be subject 
to the younger. Jacob was meek and 
520 



peaceable, and lived at home ; but Esau 
was more turbulent, fierce, and passion- 
ately fond of hunting. Isaac was fond of 
Esau, and Rebekah of Jacob. One day, 
Jacob having prepared a mess of pottage, 
Esau returned weary from hunting, and 
desired his brother to give him some. Ja- 
cob, however, refused, unless Esau would 
resign his right of seniority to him, which 
he did. 

Long after this, when the two brothers 
were seventy-seven years of age, and Isaac 
their father one hundred and thirty- 
seven, Isaac fell into a languishing indis- 
position. Believing his death to be near, he 
called Esau, whom he considered as his 
eldest son, bade him hunt for some venison, 
and dress it as he knew he liked, and then 
he would give him his last blessing. At this 
time, Isaac's sight was dim with age, and his 
wife Rebekah, who had heard his commands 
to Esau, substituted Jacob, who by such 
guile procured the prophetic blessing in- 
tended for his brother. Isaac had scarcely 
finished bestowing his blessing, when Esau 
came, and brought his venison to him. Isaac, 
surprised and vexed, could now give only an 
inferior blessing to him, and foretell inferior 
advantages to his posterity. 

From this time Esau bore a secret hatred 
to Jacob, and said in his heart, The time of 
mourning for my father is near, and then I 
will get rid of my brother Jacob. Rebekah 
being informed of Esau's design, sent Jacob 
to his uncle Laban, at Haran, till Esau's 
passion should be cooled. Isaac, therefore, 
gave Jacob his blessing, and directed him to 
go into Mesopotamia, and marry 01 e of his 
uncle Laban's daughters. Jacob departed 
privately, and coming after sun-set to a cer- 
tain place, he took one of the stones which 
he found there, and which he used for a 
pillow, and fell asleep. In a dream, he 
saw a ladder resting on the earth, but 
reaching to heaven ; he saw likewise angels 
of God ascending and descending by it. 
The Lord, standing above it, said to him, ' I 
am the Lord God of Abraham thy father, 
and the God of Isaac : the land where- 
on thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to 
thy seed : and in thee and in thy seed shall 
all the families of the earth be blessed.' Ja- 
cob awaking, said, ' Surely the Lord is in 
this place; and 1 knew it not.' Rising 
early, he took the stone upon which he had 
rested his head, set it up as a monument, 
poured oil upon it, and called the place 
Bethel, the House of God, begging God's 
protection in his journey. 

Proceeding into Mesopotamia, near the 
city of Haran, where his uncle Laban 
lived, he met with Laban's daughter, Ra- 
chel, coming to the well to water her flock. 
Jacob removed the stone which covered 
the well, assisted her in watering her 
sheep, and informed her that he was her 
cousin, the son of Rebekah, Laban's sister. 



JAC 



JAC 



Laban had two daughters, the elder 
named Leah, and the younger Rachel. 
Jacob agreed with Laban to serve him 
seven years, as a dowry or purchase for 
Rachel as his wife ; but in the evening, La- 
ban cunningly gave Leah to Jacob instead of 
Rachel. The next morning, Jacob com- 
plained violently to Laban of this decep- 
tion ; but he agreed to serve Laban another 
seven years for Rachel, whom he preferred 
to Leah. Whether Jacob married at the 
beginning or end of his first seven years of 
stipulated service for Rachel, is a question 
which has divided and embarrassed chrono- 
logers. Demetrius and Josephus, followed 
by Petavius, Jackson, Kennicott, &c. sup- 
pose the latter. On the other hand, Usher, 
Lloyd, Clayton, Hales, &c. contend that his 
marriage with Leah took place about a 
month after his arrival at Charran, at the 
beginning of the seven years ; and his mar- 
riage with Rachel the week following. In 
favour of this latter opinion, Dr. Hales has 
offered some sensible and very plausible ar- 
guments. 

1. Jacob's demand, ' Give me my wife, for 
my days are fulfilled,' (Gen. xxix. 21.) seems 
rather to relate to the expiration of the 
days of courtship, which, by a decorous usage, 
were a month, during which a bride, though 
betrothed, might put off the consummation of 
her marriage. This privilege was afterwards 
extended by the Mosaic law even to a female 
captive, who was granted this respite before 
her marriage * to bewail her father and mo- 
ther.' (Deut. xxi. 13.) The words, ' Jacob 
served seven years for Rachel, and they 
seemed unto him but a few days, for the love 
he had to her,' are plainly parenthetical, and 
state by anticipation the performance of the 
agreement. — 2. It is admitted, that the se- 
cond seven years were subsequent to his 
marriage with Rachel ; and why not the first 
seven years subsequent to his marriage with 
Leah, which was only a week earlier than 
Rachel's ? — 3. Is it to be imagined, that Ja- 
cob, at the advanced age of seventy-seven, 
when he went to Charran, would have pa- 
tiently waited seven years before he mar- 
ried ? And would not the policy of the sel- 
fish Laban have rather wished to secure his 
attachment and his services, by a speedy 
connexion with his family? — 4. That he 
married at the beginning of the first seven 
years is demonstrated by the birth of his 
third son, Levi, in his eighty-second year, 
as rightly stated by Abulfaragi, or in the 
fifth year of his service. 

Rachel was barren, but Leah had four 
sons by Jacob; Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and 
Judah. Rachel, seeing that she had no chil- 
dren, gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob her 
husband. Bilhah had Dan and Naphtali, 
whom Rachel considered as her own. Leah 
gave also her servant Zilpah to her husband, 
who brought Gad and Asher. After this, 
Leah had Issachar and Zebulon, and Dinah, 
521 



a daughter. At length, the Lord remem- 
bered Rachel, and gave her a son, whom 
she called Joseph. 

As Jacob's family was pretty numerous, 
and his term of service to Laban had ex- 
pired, he desired to return to his own 
country with his wives and children. But 
Laban, who had experienced the advan- 
tages of Jacob's services, requested him 
to continue. Jacob offered to serve Laban 
six years longer, provided he might re- 
ceive the increase of his flocks, that should 
be of different colours, or speckled, per- 
haps pye-balled, and the brown sheep 
also. By this means, Jacob reserved to 
himself the least part of the fleece. La- 
ban willingly accepted these conditions, 
and that very day separated the flocks, 
according to the plan proposed. The 
flocks of Laban and those of Jacob were 
placed at a distance of three days' journey 
from each other. Jacob took branches of 
green wood, with the bark in some parts 
peeled, and laid them in the watering 
places, where the flocks came to drink ; 
and the sheep, having their eyes struck 
with these variegated branches, brought 
young ones of different colours. Some 
think, that this thought was suggested to 
him miraculously; others, that it was the 
offspring of his own reflection. Perhaps, 
many thoughts may be suggested to us which 
we do not distinguish from our osvn reflec- 
tions. The application of these rods or 
branches is perfectly natural; and their 
influence on the sheep is analogous to some 
of the principles of our own breeders of 
animals. Several ancient commentators 
are of opinion, that Jacob laid these 
speckled rods before the flock in the spring 
of the year only, being desirous to have 
many young ones of the autumn falling. 
But as this is not certain, modern com- 
mentators think, that he placed the rods 
only before the young and strong sheep and 
goats ; by which means the best lambs and 
kids fell to him, and the worst to Laban. 

Jacob acquired so much property, that 
Laban and his sons became jealous of him ; 
and the Lord in a dream advised Jacob to 
return into his own country, and assured 
him of his protection. Jacob, therefore, re- 
solved to return to Canaan ; and having 
informed his wives, he found them disposed 
to accompany him. He took his wives, 
his children, and his cattle, and had accom- 
plished three days' journey before Laban had 
notice of his departure. Laban immediately 
pursued him, and overtook him on the se- 
venth day of his pursuit upon the mountains 
of Gilead. He complained in rough terms 
to Jacob of his thus fleeing away, without 
taking leave of him ; and he added, Why 
have you robbed me of my gods ? for Radiol 
had taken Laban's Teraphim, without Ja- 
cob's knowledge. See Teraphim. 

Jacob replied, I was afraid lest you 



JAC 



JAC 



should forcibly detain your daughters. 
With respect to the robbery, upon whom 
you find your gods, he shall be put to death. 
Rachel, by concealing the images, disap- 
pointed all the search of her father. Then 
Jacob, in his turn, complained to Laban of 
the treatment he had received from him 
during his abode in Mesopotamia, and of 
the strict search he had now made. How- 
ever, all ended in swearing an eternal al- 
liance between them and their families ; and 
they set up an heap of stones upon the 
mountains of Gilead, as a monument of 
their friendship. Jacob going on toward 
the land of Canaan, arrived at the brook 
Jabbok, east of Jordan. 

During Jacob's absence, his brother Esau 
had settled in the mountains of Seir, south 
of where Jacob now was. Jacob fearing 
lest his brother might retain his former 
resentment, thought it convenient to win 
him by presents and submission. He there- 
fore sent him notice of his arrival, and 
desired his favour. As soon as Esau was 
informed of his coming, he advanced with 
four hundred men to meet him. Jacob, 
fearing that he had some evil design, to 
appease him, sent forward to meet him, 
as presents, goats, sheep, camels, cows, 
she asses and their foals. After all his 
people had passed the brook Jabbok, 
Jacob remained alone on the other side, 
and behold an angel, in the form of a man, 
wrestled with him till the morning, when, 
seeing he could not prevail against Jacob, 
he touched the hollow of his thigh, which 
immediately withered, and Jacob became 
lame. The angel said, Let me go, for the 
day begins to dawn : but Jacob answered, 
I will not let thee go, unless thou givest 
me thy blessing. The angel asked him 
what was his name ? He replied, Jacob. 
The angel said, Hereafter thou shalt no 
more be called Jacob, but Israel. When 
Jacob also inquired of him his name, he 
said, Why dost thou ask my name ? And 
he blessed him there. Jacob, therefore, 
called this place Peniel, saying, I have 
seen God face to face, yet my life is pre- 
served. 

Jacob, perceiving Esau advancing towards 
him, went forward, and threw himself seven 
times on the earth before him. Leah and 
Rachel did the same with their children. 
The two brothers tenderly embraced each 
other ; and Jacob begged of Esau to ac- 
cept his presents, which Esau at length 
received, but with difficulty. Esau re- 
turned home ; and Jacob came to Succoth, 
beyond Jordan, where he dwelt some time. 
Afterwards, he passed the river Jordan, 
and came to Shalem, a city of the She- 
chemites, where he set up his tents, hav- 
ing purchased part of a field for the sum 
of an hundred pieces of money, of the 
children of Hamor, Shechem's father. 
While Jacob abode at Shalem, his 
522 



daughter Dinah was ravished by Shechem. 
Her brothers, Levi and Simeon, sons of 
Jacob, took a very severe revenge, by 
killing the Shechemites, and pillaging their 
city. Jacob, dreading the resentment of 
the neighbouring people, retired to Bethel, 
where God appointed him to stay and erect 
an altar. In preparing for the sacrifice 
which he was to offer there, he com- 
manded the people to purify themselves, 
to change their clothes, and to throw 
away all strange gods, which they might 
have brought out of Mesopotamia. Jacob 
took all their idols, and hid them under 
an oak near Shechem. He came happily 
to Bethel, sacrificed there, and the Lord, 
appearing to him, renewed his promises 
of protecting him, and of multiplying his 
family. 

After he had performed his devotions at 
Bethel, he took the way to Hebron, to visit 
his father Isaac, who dwelt hard by in the 
valley of Mamre. In the journey, Rachel 
died in labour of Benjamin, and was buried 
near Bethlehem. Jacob erected a monu- 
ment for her, (Gen. xxxv. 16 — 20.) and 
proceeding to Hebron, pitched his tents 
at the tower of Edar. He had the satis- 
faction to find his father Isaac living, and 
that good patriarch lived twenty-two years 
with Jacob. Jacob and Esau paid the 
last duties to him. (Gen. xxxv. 29.) About 
ten years before the death of Isaac, Jo- 
seph was sold by his brethren. Jacob, 
believing he had been devoured by wild 
beasts, was afflicted in proportion to his 
tenderness for him. He passed about 
twenty- two years mourning for him, till 
Joseph revealed himself to his brethren. 
(Gen. xliii. xliv. xlv.) Jacob being in- 
formed that his son Joseph, whom he 
had so long lamented, was living, awaked, 
as it were, out of a dream, and said, It is 
enough, Joseph my son is yet alive ; I will 
go and see him before I die. He and his 
family left, therefore, the valley of Mamre, 
and came to Beersheba, where was an altar 
consecrated to the Lord. Here he offered 
sacrifices. God appeared to him in the 
night, and permitted him to go down 
into Egypt, where Joseph would close his 
eyes. 

On his arrival in Egypt, he sent Judah 
to inform Joseph, and desire him to come 
to the land of Goshen, as had been agreed. 
Joseph hasted thither; and they embraced 
with tears. Joseph presented him to 
Pharaoh. Jacob having wished this prince 
all happiness, Pharaoh asked him his age. 
He answered, The time of my pilgrimage 
is an hundred and thirty years : few and 
evil have my years been in comparison 
of the age of my fathers. 

Jacob lived seventeen years in Egypt, 
from the year of the world 2298 to 2315. 
About that time, falling sick, Joseph, with 
his two sons Ephraim and Manasseh, vi- 



JAC 



JAC 



sited him. Jacob heaped blessings on him, 
adopted Ephraim and Manasseh to be his 
sons as much as Reuben and Simeon, and 
directed that they should divide with them 
the land of Canaan, which God had pro- 
mised him at Bethel. Calling the two sons 
of Joseph to his bed-side, he embraced 
and blessed them. Joseph placed them 
on each side of him, Ephraim on the 
left, and Manasseh on the right hand of 
Jacob. But Jacob directed by the spirit of 
prophecy, laid his right hand on Ephraim's 
head, and his left on Manasseh's, and 
thus crossed his hands to bless them. Jo- 
seph, thinking that he was mistaken, 
would have changed the disposition of 
his hands ; but Jacob answered, I know 
what I do, my son. Thus he gave Ephraim 
the preference to Manasseh. In fact, the 
tribe of Ephraim was always more power- 
ful than Manasseh ; and after Judah, it 
was the most considerable tribe in Israel. 
Afterwards, Jacob foretold to Joseph, that 
God would bring his posterity back into 
the land of Canaan, which was promised 
to their fathers ; and he added, I leave 
thee one portion above thy brethren, which 
I took out of the hand of the Amorites with 
my sword and my bow. 

Some time after this, Jacob called all his 
sons together to give them his last pro- 
phetic blessing. He requested his sons to 
bury him in the cave over against Mamre, 
where Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, and Rebekah, 
were buried. He then laid himself down, 
and died. Joseph embalmed him after the 
manner of the Egyptians ; and there was 
a general lamentation for him in Egypt 
seventy days. After that time, Joseph 
and his brethren, with the principal men of 
Egypt, carried him to the burying-place 
of his fathers, near Hebron, where his 
wife Leah had been interred. 

The author of Ecclesiasticus has given us 
in few words the encomium of Jacob. (Ec- 
clus. xliv. 23.) In Scripture, Jacob is 
frequently put for his posterity, that is, for 
the Israelitish nation. Hales's New Analysis 
of Chronology, vol, ii. book i. pp. 151 — 153. 
Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, p. 29. 

JACOB'S WELL, or Fountain, is situ- 
ated at a small distance from Sichem or 
Shechem, also called Sychar, and at present 
Napolose. Sichem was the residence of 
Jacob before his sons slew the Shechemites. 
1 The principal object of veneration, among 
the present inhabitants,' says Dr. E. D. 
Clarke, 'is Jacob's Well, over which a 
church was formerly erected. This is situ- 
ated at a small distance from the town, in 
the road to Jerusalem ; and has been visited 
by pilgrims of all ages ; but particularly 
since the Christian era, as the place where 
our Saviour revealed himself to the woman 
of Samaria. The spot is so distinctly 
marked by the evangelist, (John, chap, iv.) 
and so little liable to uncertainty, from the 
523 



circumstance of the well itself, and the fea- 
tures of the country, that, if no tradition 
existed for its identity, the site of it could 
hardly be mistaken.' Clarice's Travels, vol. 
iv. pp. 278, 279. 

JACOBITES, a denomination of East- 
ern Christians, who first made their ap- 
pearance in the fifth century, and were 
called Monophysites. Jacob Albardai, or 
Baradaeus, who flourished about A. D. 530, 
restored the sect, then almost expiring* to 
its former vigour, and modelled it anew, 
and hence from him they obtained the 
name of Jacobites. This denomination is 
commonly used in an extensive sense, as 
comprehending all the Monophysites, ex- 
cept the Armenians ; it, however, more 
strictly and properly belongs only to the 
Asiatic Monophysites, of whom Jacob 
Albardai was the restorer and chief, and 
to whom, therefore, this article shall be 
limited. 

The Monophysites had at first gained 
over to their doctrine a considerable part 
of the eastern provinces of the empire, 
and were warmly supported by the em- 
peror Anastasius. This emperor raised to 
the patriarchate of Antioch, Severus, a 
learned monk of Palestine, from whom they 
were for some time called Severians. On 
the death of the emperor, in 518, Severus 
was expelled from that see, and the sect 
was every where opposed and depressed 
by Justin and the following emperors, in 
such a manner that it seemed to be on 
the very brink of ruin, and almost all 
hopes of its recovery vanished. However, 
Jacob Syrus, or Zanzalus, for so he is 
also surnamed, an obscure monk, by his 
zeal and prudence revived the drooping 
spirits of the Monophysites, and produced 
an astonishing change in their affairs by 
the power of his eloquence, and by his 
incredible activity and diligence. He 
died bishop of Edessa, in 588, and left 
his sect in a most flourishing state in 
Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and other 
countries, where they have subsisted and 
flourished, more or less, to the present 
time. It is said, however, that they are 
not in all more than forty or forty-five 
thousand families. 

The head of the Jacobites is the Jaco- 
bite patriarch of Antioch, who, since the 
fifteenth century, has always assumed the 
name of Ignatius, to show that he is the 
lineal successor of St. Ignatius, who was 
bishop of Antioch in the first century, and, 
consequently, the lawful patriarch of An- 
tioch. He resides generally in the mo- 
nastery of St. Ananias, which is situ- 
ated near the city of Merdin, in Meso- 
potamia, and sometimes at Merdin, his 
episcopal seat, and also at Amida. other- 
wise called Caramit, Aleppo, and other Sy- 
rian towns. 

Before the death of Jacob, the govern- 



JAE 



JAI 



ment of this prelate was too extensive, 
and the churches over which he presided 
too numerous, to admit of his perform- 
ing himself all the duties of his high 
office. Jacob, therefore, gave a part of 
the administration of the pontificate to a 
colleague, who is called the Maphrian, or 
Primate of the East, and whose doctrine 
and discipline are said to be adopted by 
the Jacobite Christians beyond the Tigris. 
This primate formerly resided at Tauris, 
or Tagritis, on the borders of Armenia ; 
but his present habitation is the monas- 
tery of St. Matthew, which is in the 
neighbourhood of Mousul, a city of Meso- 
potamia. 

In the seventeenth century, a small body 
of the Jacobites abandoned, for some time, 
the doctrines and institutions of their an- 
cestors, and embraced the communion of 
the church of Rome. This was owing to 
the suggestions and intrigues of Andrew 
Achigian, who had been educated at Rome, 
where he imbibed the principles of popery ; 
and, having obtained the title and dignity 
of patriarch from the Roman pontiff, 
he assumed the appellation of Ignatius 
XXIV. After the death of this pretended 
patriarch, another usurper, whose name 
was Peter, aspired to the same dignity, and 
taking the title of Ignatius XXV. placed 
himself in the patriarchal chair. How- 
ever, the lawful patriarch of the sect had 
sufficient credit with the Turks to pro- 
cure the deposition and banishment of this 
pretender ; and thus the small congrega- 
tion which acknowledged his jurisdiction 
was dispersed. Since that time, the Jacob- 
ites have constantly persevered in their 
refusal to enter into the communion of the 
church of Rome, notwithstanding the earn- 
est entreaties and alluring offers of the 
pope's legates. We are also told that they 
propagate their doctrine in Asia with zeal 
and assiduity, and that, not long ago, they 
gained over to their communion a part of 
the Nestorians who inhabit the maritime 
parts of India. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. i. p. 469 ; iii. p. 490 ; Adam's Religious 
World, vol i. p. 387, &c. 

JA'EL, bjr, or Jahel, signifies he that 
ascends ; otherwise kid. Jael, the wife of 
Heber, the Kenite, killed Sisera, general 
of the Canaanitish army. Sisera having fled 
to her tent, and sleeping there, Jael seized 
her opportunity, and drove a large nail 
through his temples with a hammer, in the 
year of the world 2719, and before Jesus 
Christ 1285. (Judg. iv. 17. 21.) 

For what cause this woman violated 
the sacred rights of hospitality, by mur- 
dering her sleeping guest, does not appear. 
The Scripture hints at the relation of this 
family to Moses by Hobab ; and, without 
doubt, Hobab and this family had re- 
ceived many advantages by means of Is- 
rael, for so Moses promised, [ We will surely 
524 



do thee good.' Yet we must consider 
the secluded and sacred nature of the wo- 
men's tent, and that the victor would not 
have there intruded. We must also con- 
sider the implied pledge of security in the 
food she had given to Sisera, which, in 
the East, is a pledge of considerable solem- 
nity. The rights of hospitality are held so 
sacred among the Arabs, that a bread and 
salt traitor, who violates them, is the bit- 
terest reproach that can be applied to any 
person in their language. The action of 
Jael, therefore, seems to need an apology, 
or at least an explanation. By way of 
such apology, the Rabbins tell us, that the 
words, ' at her feet he bowed, he fell,' (v. 
27.) ; &c, imply that he attempted rude- 
ness to her, and that, to resist such violation, 
she had recourse to the workman's ham- 
mer. But this appears improbable ; and 
besides, it is clear that fatigue and sleep 
had overpowered Sisera. It seems likely, 1. 
that Jael had herself felt the severity of 
the late oppression of Israel by Sisera; 2. 
that she was actuated by motives of patriot- 
ism, and of gratitude towards Israel ; 3. 
the general character of Sisera might be 
so atrocious, that at any rate his death 
might be desirable. Some think that Jael 
acted by a divine impulse, and thus be- 
came the instrument of divine vengeance. 
We have an instance of a conduct nearly 
similar in its principles to that of Jael, 
in the case of Judith, whose anxiety for 
the deliverance of her people led to the 
employment of artifice to accomplish her 
purposes. Supplement. Addenda to Calmet's 
Dictionary ; Hales' s New Analysis of Chro- 
nology, vol. ii. book i. p. 304. 

JA'IR,*TN",'Iap}, signifies my light; other- 
wise, who diffuses light, or is enlightened. 
Jair, of Manasseh, possessed beyond Jordan 
the whole country of Argob to the borders 
of Geshur and Maachathi. (Judg. x. 3.) 
He succeeded Tola in the government of 
Israel, and was succeeded by Jephthah. 
His government continued twenty-two years, 
from the year of the world 2795 to 2817 ; 
or, according to Dr. Hales, whose system 
of chronology is founded on that of Jo- 
sephus, from 1293 to 1271 years before 
Christ. 

JA1RUS, 'laeipog, has the same signifi- 
cation as Jair. Jairus was a ruler or pre- 
siding officer of the synagogue, (dpx^vv- 
ayioyog) whose daughter Jesus Christ re- 
stored to life by a miracle. Prostrating 
himself at the feet of Jesus, in the midst of 
a great multitude of people, Jairus besought 
him to come to his house and heal his 
daughter, who was at the last extremity. 
Jesus listened to his request, and on his 
way was followed by the multitude. At 
that moment, a miracle of a different kind 
was performed, by the instantaneous cure 
of an inveterate disease, in a person who 
only secretly touched the hem of our 



JAM 



HAM 



Saviour's garment; a circumstance which 
rendered the miracle so much the more a 
subject of observation to the multitude, 
when the person who was healed was pub- 
licly questioned on what she had done. 

At the same instant, Jairus was informed 
by his servants that his daughter was dead, 
in order to prevent him from farther impor- 
tuning our Lord, whose visit to his house 
they then considered as completely un- 
necessary and useless. From the narrative 
of St. Matthew, we might be led to suppose, 
that his daughter was dead when Jairus 
first addressed our Lord ; but it is obvious, 
that Matthew, omitting several previous 
circumstances mentioned by the other evan- 
gelists, begins his relation at the time when 
the father knew that she was dead. Aware 
of the message which Jairus had received, 
our Lord encouraged him notwithstanding 
to rely on him, and went steadily on towards 
his house, with the multitude attending 
him. All the customary and noisy lamen- 
tations for the dead were already begun ; 
and our Lord found it necessary, for the 
quiet of the family, to remove the mourners, 
who went forth fully prepared to attest to 
the people without the certainty of the 
death, after having heard with scorn what 
they considered as a doubt on the subject, 
and what our Lord intended as an intima- 
tion of the maid's immediate restoration 
to life. Putting them forth among the mul- 
titude, he retained with him the father and 
mother of the dead young woman, and three 
of his disciples : a sufficient number to 
witness and relate the circumstances of her 
restoration. In their presence, ' her spirit 
came again,' at our Lord's command. The 
effect was instantly produced by his almighty 
word, and was verified to the conviction of 
every individual, who saw her immediately 
receiving food, as a person in the full posses- 
sion of life and health. The event was un- 
derstood by the whole multitude ; and ' the 
fame thereof went abroad throughout all 
the land.' (Matth. ix. 18—26. Mark v. 
22—43. Luke viii. 41—56.) Home's Intro- 
duction, vol. in. p. 259 ; Sir H. M. Wellwood's 
Discourses on the Jewish and Christian Reve- 
lations, pp. 416 — 418. 

JAMES, 'idiewCoc, of the same import as 
Jacob. James, surnamed the Greater, 
or the Elder, to distinguish him from 
James the Younger, was brother to John 
the Evangelist, and son to Zebedee and 
Salome. (Matth. iv. 21.) He was of Beth- 
saida, in Galilee, and left all to follow 
Christ. Salome requested our Saviour, that 
her two sons, James and John, might sit 
at his right hand, when he should be in 
possession of his kingdom. Our Saviour 
answered, that it belonged to his heavenly 
Father alone to dispose of these places of 
honour. (Matth. xx. 21.) Before their vo- 
cation, James and John followed the trade 
of fishermen with their father Zebedee ; 
525 



and they did not quit their profession till 
our Saviour called them. (Marki. 18, 19.) 
They were witnesses of our Lord's trans- 
figuration. (Matth. xvii. 2.) When certain 
Samaritans refused to admit Jesus Christ, 
James and John wished for fire from hea- 
ven to consume them, (Luke ix. 54.) ; and 
for this reason, it is thought, the name of 
Boanerges, or sons of thunder, was given 
them. 

Some days after the resurrection of our 
Saviour, James and John went to fish in 
the sea of Tiberias, where they saw Jesus. 
They were present at the ascension of our 
Lord. St. James is said to have preached 
to all the dispersed tribes of Israel ; 
but for this there is only report. His 
martyrdom is related Acts xii. 1, 2, about 
the year of our Lord 42 or 44, for the date 
is not well ascertained. Herod Agrippa, 
king of the Jews, and grandson of Herod 
the Great, caused him to be seized, and exe- 
cuted at Jerusalem. Clemens Alexandrinus 
informs us, that he who brought St. James 
before the judges, was so much affected 
with his constancy in confessing Jesus 
Christ, that he also declared himself a 
Christian, and was condemned, as well as 
the apostle, to be beheaded. 

James the Less, surnamed the brother 
of our Lord, (Gal. i. 19.) ; and bishop of 
Jerusalem, was the son of Cleophas, other- 
wise called Alpheus, and Mary, sister to 
the Blessed Virgin ; consequently, he was 
cousin-german to Jesus Christ. He was 
surnamed the Just, on account of the 
admirable holiness and purity of his life. 
He is said to have been a priest, and to 
have observed the laws of the Nazarites 
from his birth. 

Our Saviour appeared to James the Less 
eight days after his resurrection. (1 Cor. 
xv. 7-) He was appointed Bishop of Je- 
rusalem ; but he performed none of the 
duties of that station till the apostles, either 
by election, or from esteem for him, had 
conferred on him this office. We are 
assured by Eusebius and Epiphanius, that 
he wore a plate of gold upon his forehead, 
as a mark of episcopacy, with the name 
of God, in all probability, inscribed upon 
it, in imitation of the Jewish high-priests. 
St. James was at Jerusalem, and was 
considered as a pillar of the church, when 
St. Paul first came thither, after his con- 
version, (Gal. i. 19.) in the year of our 
Lord 37. In the council of Jerusalem, 
held in the year 51, St. James gave his 
vote last ; and the result of the council was 
principally formed from what St. James 
said, who, though he observed the cere- 
monies of the law, and was careful that 
others should observe them in his church, 
was of opinion, that such a yoke was not 
to be imposed on the faithful converted 
from among the Heathens. (Acts xv. 13, 
&c.) The progress which the Gospel made 



JAM 



JAN 



alarmed the chief persons among the Jews ; 
and Ananus, the son of Annas, the high- 
priest, mentioned in the New Testament, 
caused James to be put to death. By this 
act Ananus and his partisans injured their 
credit among the people. James was put 
to death in the year 62. 

The ancient heretics forged writings, 
which they ascribed to St. James, the bro- 
ther of our Lord ; but only his Epistle is 
acknowledged as authentic. This Epistle 
is alluded to by Clement of Rome, and 
Hermas, and it is quoted by Origen, Euse- 
bius, Athanasius, Jerome, Chrysostom, Au- 
gustine, and many other fathers. Though 
the antiquity of this Epistle has never 
been disputed, yet some few formerly 
doubted its right to be admitted into the 
canon. Eusebius says, that in his time 
it was generally, though not universally, 
received as canonical ; and that it was 
publicly read in most, but not in all, 
churches. Estius, a Dutch divine of great 
eminence, who died in the beginning of the 
last century, affirms, that after the fourth 
century, no church or ecclesiastical writer 
is found, who ever doubted its authenticity ; 
but that, on the contrary, it is included 
in all subsequent catalogues of canonical 
Scripture, whether published by councils, 
churches, or individuals. Indeed, it had 
been the uniform tradition of the church, 
that this Epistle was written by James the 
Just, bishop of Jerusalem ; but it was not 
universally admitted, till after the fourth 
century, that James the Just was the same 
person as James the Less, one of the twelve 
apostles. When that point was ascer- 
tained, the canonical authority of this 
Epistle was no longer disputed. It is 
evident that this Epistle could not have 
been written by James the Great, who was 
beheaded by Herod Agrippa about the 
year 42 or 44, as the errors and vices re- 
proved in this Epistle show that it is of a 
much later date ; and the destruction of 
Jerusalem is also here spoken of as being 
very near at hand. It has always been 
considered as a circumstance very much 
in favour of this Epistle, that it is found in 
the Syriac version, which was made as 
early as the first century, and for the par- 
ticular use of converted Jews, the very 
description of persons to whom it was 
originally addressed. Hence we infer that 
from the first it was acknowledged by 
those for whom it was written. ' I think,' 
says Dr. Doddridge, ' it can hardly be 
doubted but they were better judges of 
the question of its authenticity than the 
Gentiles, to whom it was not written ,- 
among whom, therefore, it was not propa- 
gated so early ; and who at first might be 
prejudiced against it, because it was in- 
scribed to the Jews.' Michaelis ascribes 
to this Epistle an early date, and thinks it 
probable, that it was written long before 
526 



the Epistle to the Romans, and even be- 
fore St. Peter had preached the Gospel to 
the Gentiles. It is, however, generally 
believed that it was written a short time 
before the death of James ; and Lardner 
places the date of this Epistle in 61, or in 
the beginning of 62. Many writers, among 
whom is Lardner, have thought that this 
Epistle was written to unbelieving as well 
as believing Jews, and have quoted the 
beginning of the fourth and fifth chapters, 
as applicable to unbelievers only. But 
this is not probable. Though the inscrip- 
tion, ' To the twelve tribes that are scat- 
tered abroad,' might comprehend both 
believing and unbelieving Jews, yet it 
would appear, that this Epistle was in- 
tended for believing Jews only. Neither 
St. James, nor any other apostle, ever 
thought of writing to any except Christian 
converts. Besides, the sense of the in- 
scription seems to be limited to the be- 
lieving Jews, by what follows almost 
immediately, ' The trial of your faith 
worketh patience.' (i. 3.) Again, ' My bre- 
thren, have not the faith of our Lord 
Jesus Christ the Lord of Glory, with respect 
of persons,' (ii. 1.) These passages could 
not be addressed to unbelievers. The design 
of this Epistle seems to have been to ani- 
mate the Jewish Christians to support, with 
fortitude and patience, any sufferings to 
which they might be exposed, and to enforce 
the genuine doctrine and practice of the 
Gospel, in opposition to the errors and vices 
which then prevailed among them. The 
principal source of these errors and vices 
was a misinterpretation of St. Paul's doc- 
trine of justification by faith without the 
works of the law, that is, as the Apostle 
meant it, without the observance of the rites 
and ceremonies of the Mosaic dispensation. 
Hence, some had most unwarrantably in- 
ferred, that moral duties were not essential 
to salvation, and had, therefore, abandoned 
themselves to every species of licentiousness 
and profligacy. This Epistle is written with 
great perspicuity and energy, and contains 
an excellent summary of those practical du- 
ties, and moral virtues, which are required 
of Christians. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christ. Theol. vol. i. p. 469, &c. ; Bishop 
Watson's Theolog. Tracts, vol. ii. p. 396, &c. 
Michaelis' 's Introduction to the New Testament, 
vol. vi. p. 307 ; Doddridge's Family Exposi- 
tor, vol. v. p. 208. 

JANNES and JAMBRES were two of 
the principal Egyptian magicians, who with- 
stood Moses and Aaron, by attempting to 
imitate the miracles which they actually 
performed. (Exod.vii. 11, 12. ; viii. 7- 18, 19.) 
As these names do not occur in the Old 
Testament, St. Paul probably derived them 
from the Rabbinical writings, (2 Tim. iii. 8.) 
in which they are often mentioned. Home's 
Introduction, vol. iii. p. 591 ; Bloomfield's Re- 
censto Synoptica, vol. viii. pp. 323, 324. 



JAN 



JAP 



JANSENISTS, a denomination of Roman 
Catholics in France, which was formed in 
1G40, and excited considerable attention. 
The founder of this sect was Cornelius Jan- 
sen, originally professor of divinity in 
the University of Louvain, and afterwards 
Bishop of Ypres, in Flanders. This emi- 
nent and learned person became early 
attached to the writings of St. Augustine, 
and had imbibed all that father's opinions 
concerning the nature of human liberty 
and divine grace. The chief labour of 
his life was exhausted in digesting these 
opinions into a regular treatise, which, in 
honour of his master, he intituled Augus- 
tinus. He left the work complete at his 
death, in 1C38, and submitted it, by his 
last will, to the holy see. The publication 
might, possibly, have passed with little no- 
tice, or, at most, like many other specula- 
tions, have enjoyed only a temporary 
celebrity, if the imprudence of the Jesuits, 
who were alarmed by an imaginary attack 
on their infallibility, had not selected it as 
an object on which they might display their 
unbounded influence. The famous Cardi- 
nal Richelieu was not favourably disposed 
to the memory of its author, who, in a 
former work, had condemned the politics of 
France; and, therefore, uniting with the 
Jesuits, he procured the condemnation of 
the work of Jansen, by successive bulls. 
Persecution generally produces opposition, 
and, perhaps, the unpopularity of the Jesuits 
might tend considerably to increase the dis- 
ciples of Jansen. His doctrines were em- 
braced by a considerable party, both in 
France and the Netherlands, and had the 
honour to rank among their defenders James 
Boonen, archbishop of Malines, Libertus 
Fromond, Anthony Arnauld, Blaise Pascal, 
Peter Nicholas, Pasquier du Quesnel, and 
many others of scarcely inferior reputation. 
The utmost vigilance of the church could 
not exclude the spirit of Jansenism from 
penetrating the convents themselves ; but 
none was so distinguished as the female con- 
vent of Port Royal, in the neighbourhood of 
Paris. These nuns observed the strict rules 
of the Cistertians ; the vale in which the 
convent was situated soon became the re- 
treat of the Jansenist penitents, and a num- 
ber of little huts were presently erected 
within its precincts. After various vicissi- 
tudes of persecution, in 1709, the nuns re- 
fusing to subscribe the declaration of Alex- 
ander VII., the weak and intolerant Louis 
XIV. ordered the whole building to be ut- 
terly demolished. 

The principal tenets of the Jansenists are 
as follow : 1. That there are divine precepts, 
which good men, notwithstanding their 
desire to observe them, are, nevertheless, 
absolutely unable to obey : nor has God 
given them that measure of grace which is 
essentially necessary to render them capa- 
ble of such obedience. 2. That no person, in 
527 



this corrupt state of nature, can resist the 
influence of divine grace, when it operates 
upon the mind. 3. That, in order to render 
human actions meritorious, it is not requi- 
site that they be exempt from necessity, 
but that they be free from constraint. 
4. That the Semi- Pelagians err greatly in 
maintaining that the human will is endowed 
with the power of either receiving or resist- 
ing the aids and influences of preventing 
grace. 5. That whoever affirms, that Jesus 
Christ made expiation, by his sufferings and 
death, for the sins of all mankind, is a Semi- 
Pelagian. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iv. 
pp. 373. 379 ; Gregory's Hist, of the Christ. 
Church, vol. ii. pp. 488, 489. 

JA'PHETH, ns\ signifies /*e that persuades, 
or extends ; otherwise, handsoine. Japheth, 
son of Noah, is commonly named the third 
in order of Noah's sons, but improperly, 
for he was born in the five hundredth year 
of Noah ; and Moses says expressly, that 
Japheth was the eldest of Noah's sons, 
according to the Septuagint and Sym- 
machus. Moses also says, that Ham was the 
youngest, (Gen. ix. 24.) ' When Noah 
knew what his younger son had done.' 
Lastly, Moses observes, (Gen. xi. 10.) 
that Shem, two years after the deluge, was 
only 100 years old, and, therefore, was not 
born till the 502d year of Noah. Hence it 
appears, that Japheth was the eldest. 

' Japheth,' says Dr. Hales, ' signifies 
enlargement ; and how wonderfully did Pro- 
vidence enlarge the boundaries of Japheth I 
His posterity diverged eastward and west- 
ward throughout the whole extent of Asia, 
north of the great range of Taurus, as far 
as the eastern ocean ; whence they pro- 
bably crossed over to America by Bearing's 
Straits, from Kamtschatka; and in the 
opposite direction throughout Europe, to 
the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic 
Ocean, from whence also they might have 
crossed over to America by Newfound- 
land, where traces of early settlements re- 
main in parts now desert. Thus did they 
gradually enlarge themselves till they li- 
terally encompassed the earth, within the 
precincts of the northern temperate zone ; 
to which their roving hunter's life contri- 
buted not a little. Their progress north- 
wards was checked by the much greater ex- 
tent of the Black Sea in ancient times, and 
the increasing rigour of the climates : but 
their hardy race, and enterprising warlike 
genius, made them frequently encroach 
southwards on the settlements of Shem, 
whose pastoral and agricultural occupations 
rendered them more inactive, peaceable, 
and unwarlike: and so they dwelt in the 
tents of Shem, when the Scythians invaded 
Media, and subdued western Asia south- 
wards, as far as Egypt, in the days of C\ - 
axares ; when the Greeks, and afterwards 
the Romans, overran and subdued the 
Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, in the 



JAS 



ICO 



east, and the Syrians and Jews in the 
south, as foretold by the Syrian prophet Ba- 
laam, (Numb, xxiv, 24:) 

' Ships shall come from Chittim, 
And shall afflict the Assyrians, and af- 
flict the Hebrews : 
But he [the invader] shall perish him- 
self at last.' 
And by Moses, (Deut. xxviii. 68.) : ' and 
the Lord shall bring thee [the Jews] into 
Egypt [or bondage] again with ships,' &c. 
And by Daniel, (xi. 30. 40.) : — ' For the ships 
of Chittim shall come against him,' namely, 
Antiochus, king of Syria. In these pas- 
sages, Chittim denotes the southern coasts of 
Europe, bounding the Mediterranean, 
called the Isles of the Gentiles or nations, 
(Gen. x. 5.) And the Isles of Chittim 
are mentioned by Jeremiah, (ii. 10.) And 
in aftertimes the Tartars, in the east, 
have repeatedly invaded and subdued the 
Hindoos and the Chinese ; while the warlike 
and enterprising genius of the greatest of the 
Isles of the Gentiles, Great Britain and 
Ireland, have spread their colonies, their 
arms, their language, their arts, and, in some 
measure, their religion, from the rising to 
the setting sun.' 

The sons of Japheth were Gomer, Magog, 
Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras. 
The Scripture says, that they peopled the 
Isles of the Gentiles, and settled in dif- 
ferent countries, each according to his lan- 
guage, family, and people. (Gen. x. 5.) It 
is supposed that Gomer peopled Galatia, 
and that from him the Cimmerians, or 
Cimbrians, and also the Phrygians, derived 
their origin ; that Magog was the father of 
the Scythians, and Tartars, or Tatars ; that 
Madai was the progenitor of the Medes, 
though some make him the founder of a 
people in Macedonia, called Maedi ; that 
from Javan sprung the Ionians and 
Greeks ; that Tubal was the father of the 
Iberians, and that at least a part of Spain 
was peopled by him and his descend- 
ants ; that Meshech was the founder of the 
Cappadocians, from whom proceeded the 
Moscovites, or Russians ; and that from 
Tiras the Thracians derived their origin. 

Japheth was known by profane authors 
under the name of Japetus. The poets 
make him father of heaven and earth. 
The Greeks believed that Japheth was the 
father of their race, and acknowledged 
nothing more ancient than him. Besides 
the seven sons above-mentioned, the Sep- 
tuagint, Eusebius, the Alexandrian Chroni- 
cle, and Austin, give him an eighth, called 
Eliza, who is not named either in the He- 
brew, or in the Chaldee. The eastern 
people affirm, that Japheth had eleven 
children. Calmet's Dictionary ; Hales' s New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 354, &c. 

JASH'ER, Book of. See Bible. 

JA'ZER, "lty*, signifies assistance, or he 
that helps, and was the name of a city beyond 
528 



the Jordan, given to the tribe of Gad: it af- 
terwards became one of the Levitical cities. 
(Josh. xxi. 36. ; xii. 25.) The Sea of Jazer 
(Jer. xlviii. 32.) is thought by Dr. Blayney 
to be the Dead Sea, Jazer being in the north 
border of Moab. Home's Introduction, vol. 
iii. p. 591. 

ICO'NIUM, 'Ikoviov, from iicw, signifies 
coming, and was a city ofLycaonia, the chief 
of the fourteen belonging to that tetrarchy. 
Here was a synagogue of Jews and proselytes, 
to whom Paul and Barnabas preaching and 
confirming their doctrine by miracles, con- 
verted many to the Christian faith ; (Acts xiv. 
I, 2, 3.) and here the unbelieving Jews and 
Gentiles made an assault upon them, ' to use 
them despitefully and to stone them.' (ver. 
5.) It is now called Konieh. Wells's Geo- 
graphy. 

ICONOCLASTS, or ^ Iconoclasts, 
breakers of images, from uku>v, an image, 
and kXcLio, to break. This name is given by 
the church of Rome to all who reject the use 
of images in religious matters. 

The opposition to images began in Greece, 
under the reign of Philippicus, who was 
created emperor of the Greeks soon after 
the commencement of the eighth century, 
when the worship of images had become 
common. The tumult occasioned by this 
opposition was quelled by a revolution, 
which, in 713, deprived Philippicus of 
the imperial throne. Under Leo the Isau- 
rian, the contests concerning image- 
worship, which had for some time lain 
dormant, were revived; measures against 
the prevalence of this pernicious supersti- 
tion were conceived, and executed with 
resolution and intrepidity; and sharp and 
continued tumults agitated the whole 
Christian world.. In 726, Leo published 
a severe edict against this species of ido- 
latry, in which he strictly prohibited that 
images should receive any kind of worship 
and adoration, and commanded them to be 
removed from all the churches. How- 
ever, the successful struggle of Leo, for 
the demolition of idolatry in the imperial 
city, did not influence the conduct of his 
subjects in the other parts of the empire, 
nor render his measures acceptable to 
the Roman see. The horrors of civil war 
raged in the Islands of the Archipelago, 
in Asia, and in Italy. Gregory II., the 
Roman pontiff, opposed, with great vehe- 
mence the attempts of the emperor respect- 
ing image-worship, and absolved the peo- 
ple of Rome from their allegiance to Leo. 
This measure was the signal of revolt : the 
Romans and other Italian provinces, sub- 
ject to the Grecian Empire, rose in arms, 
massacred or banished the imperial offi- 
cers, and, refusing to acknowledge the au- 
thority of the emperor, chose new magis- 
trates. Leo, however, opposed the wor- 
ship of images with reiterated fury, and 
enforced his prohibition by threatening 



ICO 



ICO 



the guilty opposer of his laws with se- 
vere and exemplary punishment. A fa- 
vourite image of Christ, which was de- 
stroyed, was the signal of another rebellion ; 
and the adorers of images, who were called 
Iconolatrae, and their opponents the Ico- 
noclastae, mutually resisted, detested, and 
persecuted each other. 

The death of Leo, and that of Gregory 
III., who died the same year, and whose 
attachment to image-worship had not been 
less decisive than that of his predecessor, 
did not restore tranquillity to the church 
and the empire. Leo was succeeded by 
his son Constantine Copronymus, who re- 
newed his father's edict, and, in 754, con- 
vened at Constantinople a council in which 
not only the worship, but the use, of 
images was unanimously condemned. The 
decrees of this assembly, which the Greeks 
regarded as the seventh general council, 
were received by great numbers, though not 
universally, even in the eastern churches, 
but were utterly rejected at Rome. Leo 
III., who succeeded Constantine in 775, 
was not more favourable to the cause of 
idolatry than his progenitors. He openly 
declared his abhorrence of image -worship, 
and punished with severity those who had 
presumed to pay any kind of adoration to 
the saints, to the Virgin Mary, or to 
their images. The infant son of Leo, who 
was only ten years of age, was the no- 
minal successor of his father ; but the 
reins of government were assumed by the 
ambitious empress, Irene, who transacted 
all the affairs of the empire. Under her 
administration, the Iconolatrae enjoyed not 
only a respite from their sufferings, but 
the utmost protection and favour. New 
images decorated the walls which had lately 
been deprived of their ornaments ; and she 
adopted the popular measure of annulling 
the edicts of former emperors against the 
worship of idols. In 786', in concert with 
Adrian, bishop of Rome, a council was con- 
vened at Nice, in Bithynia, where the im- 
piety of the image-breakers was severely 
condemned, the adoration of images and of 
the cross re-established, and severe punish- 
ments were denounced against the daring 
transgressors of the established rites. Char- 
lemagne ordered a judicious divine to com- 
pose Four Books concerning Images, which 
refuted the absurd decrees of the Nicene 
assembly with judgment and with spirit. 
These books were sent, in 790, to the Ro- 
man pontiff Adrian, who attempted to 
answer and refute the objections of Char- 
lemagne. The prince, however, in 794, as- 
sembled a council at Frankfort, in which 
the opinion supported in the Four Books, of 
the lawfulness and expediency of placing 
pictures in churches, either as ornaments to 
the building, or as useful in refreshing (he 
memory, was allowed ; but the worship of 
them was absolutely forbidden. According 
529 



to the testimony of Roger Hovedon and 
other English writers, the British churches 
assented to this decision. 

After the banishment of Irene, the con- 
troversy concerning images was renewed 
among the Greeks, and was carried on 
by the contending parties, during the half 
of the ninth century, with various and 
uncertain success. The emperor Nice- 
phorus seems, upon the whole, to have 
been an enemy to that idolatrous service. 
His successor, Michael Curopalates, sur- 
named Rhangabe, pursued very different 
measures, and persecuted the adversaries 
of image-worship with the greatest rancour 
and cruelty. The scene again changed on 
the accession of Leo, the Armenian, to the 
empire, who abolished the decrees of the 
Nicene council, relating to the use and 
worship of images, in a council assem- 
bled at Constantinople, in 814. His suc- 
cessor, Michael, surnamed Balbus, or the 
Stammerer, disapproved of the worship 
of images ; and Theophilus, the son of 
Michael, opposed the worshippers of images 
with much violence, and treated them with 
great severity. On the death of Theophi- 
lus, the regency was entrusted to the em- 
press Theodora, during her son's mino- 
rity. This superstitious princess assem- 
bled, in 842, a council at Constantinople, 
in which the decrees of the second Ni- 
cene council were reinstated in their lost 
authority, and the Greeks were indulged 
in their corrupt propensity to image-wor- 
ship by a decisive law. The council 
held at the same place under Photius, in 
879, and reckoned by the Greeks the 
eighth general council, added force and 
vigour to idolatry, by maintaining the sanc- 
tity of images, and approving, confirming, 
and renewing, the Nicene decrees. 

The Latins were generally of opinion, 
that images might be suffered as the means 
of aiding the memory of the faithful, and 
of calling to their remembrance the pious 
and virtuous actions of the persons they 
represented ; but they detested all thoughts 
of paying them the least degree of religi- 
ous homage or adoration. The council of 
Paris, assembled by Lewis the Meek, in 
824, allowed the images in churches, but 
severely prohibited to treat them with the 
smallest marks of religious worship. In 
time, however, the European Christians 
gradually departed from the observance of 
this injunction, and fell imperceptibly into 
a blind submission to the decisions of the 
Roman pontiff, whose influence and au- 
thority grew daily more formidable. To- 
wards the conclusion, therefore, of the 
ninth century, the Gallican clergy began 
to pay a certain degree of religious homage 
to the sacred images ; and their example 
was followed by the Germans ami other 
nations. Vet, the Iconoclasts were not 
destitute of adherents among the Latins. 
M m 



IDL 



IDL 



The most eminent of these was Claudius, 
bishop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all 
images, and even the cross itself, to be 
cast out of the churches and committed 
to the flames. He also composed a trea- 
tise, in which he declared against the 
use, as well as the worship, of images. 
He denied that the cross was to be ho- 
noured with any kind of worship ; treated 
relics with the utmost contempt, as abso- 
lutely destitute of the virtues attributed 
to them; and censured, with much free- 
dom and severity, the frequent pilgrim- 
ages to the Holy Land, and the offerings 
at the tombs of saints. 

In the eleventh century, the controversy 
concerning the sanctity of images was re- 
vived among the Greeks by Leo, bishop 
of Chalcedon. The emperor Alexius had 
ordered the figures of silver that adorned 
the portals of the churches to be converted 
into money, in order to supply the exigen- 
cies of the state. Leo obstinately main- 
tained, that Alexius had been guilty of 
sacrilege ; and he published a treatise, in 
which he affirmed, that in the images of 
Jesus Christ, and of the saints, there resided 
an inherent sanctity, and that the adora- 
tion of Christians ought not to be con- 
fined to the persons represented by these 
images, but extend to the images them- 
selves. The emperor assembled a council 
at Constantinople, which determined, that 
the images of Christ, and of the saints, 
were to be honoured only with a rela- 
tive worship ; and that invocation and wor- 
ship were to be addressed to the saints, only 
as the servants of Christ, and on account of 
their relation to him as their master. These 
absurd and superstitious decisions did not 
satisfy the idolatrous Leo, who obstinately 
maintained his opinions, and was, therefore, 
sent into banishment. 

In the western church, the worship of 
images was disapproved and opposed by 
several considerable parties, as the Petro- 
brussians, the Albigenses, Waldenses, &c. 
and at length this idolatrous practice was 
abolished in many parts of the Christian 
world by the Reformation. See Images. 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. ii. pp. 89, 90, 
91. 148, &c. ; Gregory's Hist, of the Christ. 
Church, vol. i. pp. 413, 414, &c 

IDLENESS, aversion from labour. The 
idle man is, in every view, both foolish 
and criminal. He lives not to God. Idle- 
ness was not made for man, nor man for 
idleness. A small measure of reflection 
might convince every one, that for some 
useful purpose he was sent into the 
world. Man is placed at the head of all 
things here below. He is furnished with 
a great preparation of faculties and powers. 
He is enlightened by reason with many 
important discoveries ; even taught by re- 
velation to consider himself as ransomed, 
by the death of Christ, from misery ; and 
530 



intended to rise to a still higher rank 
in the universe of God. In such a situa- 
tion, thus distinguished, thus favoured, and 
assisted by his Creator, does he answer the 
end of his being, if he aim at no improve- 
ment, if he pursue no useful design, if he 
live for no other purpose than to indulge 
in sloth, to consume the fruits of the earth, 
and spend his days in a dream of vanity ? 
Existence is a sacred trust; and he who 
thus misemploys and squanders it away, 
is treacherous to its author. Look around, 
and you will behold the whole universe full 
of active powers. Action is, to speak so, 
the genius of nature. By motion and 
exertion, the system of being is preserved 
in vigour. By its different parts always 
acting in subordination to each other, the 
perfection of the whole is carried on. The 
heavenly bodies perpetually revolve. Day 
and night incessantly repeat their appointed 
course. Continual operations are per- 
forming on the earth and in the waters. 
Nothing stands still. All is alive and 
stirring throughout the universe. In the 
midst of this animated and busy scene, 
is man alone to remain idle in his place ? 
Belongs it to him, to be the sole inactive 
and slothful being in the creation, when 
in so many ways he might improve his own 
nature, might advance the glory of the 
God who made him, and contribute his 
part to the general good ? 

The idle live not to the world and their 
fellow-creatures, any more than to God. 
If any man had a title to stand alone, and 
to be independent of his fellows, he might 
consider himself as at liberty to indulge in 
solitary ease and sloth, without being re- 
sponsible to others for the manner in which 
he chooses to live. But there is no such 
person in the world. We are connected 
with each other by various relations, which 
create a chain of mutual dependence, that 
reaches from the highest to the lowest sta- 
tion in society. Without a perpetual cir- 
culation of active duties and offices, which 
all are required to perform in their turn, 
the order and happiness of the world could 
not be maintained. Superiors are no more 
independent of their inferiors, than these 
inferiors of them. Each have demands 
and claims upon the other ; and he who, 
in any situation of life, refuses to act his 
part, and to contribute his share to the 
general stock of felicity, deserves to be 
proscribed from society as an unworthy 
member. ' If any man will not work,' 
says St. Paul, (2 Thess. iii. 10.) ' neither 
shall he eat.' If he will do nothing to 
advance the purposes of society, he has 
no right to enjoy its benefits. 

The idle man lives not to himself with 
any more advantage than he lives to the 
world. Though he imagines that he leaves 
to others the drudgery of life, and betakes 
himself to enjoyment and ease, yet he en- 






IDO 



IDO 



joys no true pleasure. He shuts the door 
against improvement of every kind, whe- 
ther of mind, body, or fortune. Sloth en- 
feebles equally the bodily and the mental 
powers. His character falls into contempt. 
His fortune is consumed. Disorder, con- 
fusion, and embarrassment, mark his whole 
situation. Idleness is the inlet to licen- 
tiousness, vice, and immorality. It destroys 
the principles of religion, and opens a 
door to sin and wickedness. Every man 
who recollects his conduct, must know that 
his hours of idleness always proved the 
hours most dangerous to virtue. It was 
then that criminal desires arose, guilty pas- 
sions were suggested, and designs were 
formed, which, in their issue, disquiet and 
embitter his whole life. Habitual idleness, 
by a silent and secret progress, under- 
mines every virtue in the soul. More 
violent passions run their course and ter- 
minate. They are like rapid torrents, 
which foam, and swell, and bear down 
every thing before them ; but, after having 
overflowed their banks, their impetuosity 
subsides, and they return, by degrees, into 
their natural channel. Sloth resembles 
the slowly flowing putrid stream, which 
stagnates in the marsh, produces veno- 
mous animals, and poisonous plants, and 
infects with pestilential vapours the whole 
surrounding country. Having once tainted 
the soul, it leaves no part of it sound ; 
and, at the same time, it gives not to con- 
science those alarms, which the eruptions 
of bolder and fiercer emotions often occa- 
sion. Nothing is so great an enemy to 
the lively and spirited enjoyment of life, 
as a relaxed and indolent habit of mind. 
He who knows not what it is to labour, 
knows not what it is to enjoy. The 
happiness of human life depends on the 
regular prosecution of some laudable pur- 
pose or object, which keeps awake and 
enlivens all our powers. Rest is agree- 
able ; but it is only from preceding labours 
that rest acquires its true relish. When 
the mind is suffered to remain in con- 
tinued inaction, all its powers decay : 
it soon languishes and sickens ; and the 
pleasures which it proposed to obtain 
from rest, terminate in tediousness and 
insipidity. Blair's Sermons, Serm. xxix. ; 
Warner's System of Divinity and Morality, 
vol. iii. p. 451. 

IDOLATRY, superstitious worship paid 
to idols and false gods. This word is 
taken in general for all impious, super- 
stitious, and sacrilegious worship. The 
Old Testament does not warrant us to 
say, that idolatry was one of those enor- 
mities which determined the Creator to 
involve, in one common ruin, almost the 
whole race of mankind. However, soon 
after the flood appeared a portentous idola- 
try, which gradually overspread the whole 
earth. Amidst the crowd of imaginary 
531 



deities, the real one soon became almost 
entirely forgotten. Irreligion and false 
religion divided the world between them. 
Even Abraham, before his call, was, most 
probably, an idolater. Such, at least, were 
some of his ancestors ; and his father is 
supposed to have been, by profession, a 
maker of idols. 

The first monument of idolatry seems 
to have been that stupendous tower, 
which the united labours of mankind 
erected in honour of Belus, or the Sun, 
on the plains of Shinar. Chaldaea was the 
original theatre of the most ancient spe- 
cies of idolatry, the worship of the hea- 
venly bodies. This delusion may be ac- 
counted for, in some measure, from the 
climate of the Chaldaeans, and the seren- 
ity of their sky, together with their occu- 
pation as shepherds, which kept them 
abroad in a wide extent of champaign 
country, by night as well as by day. It 
may be granted, with Maimonides and 
Diodorus, that it was not to the planets 
themselves, but to the spirit which was 
thought to reside in them, to be the soul 
of them, and to direct their course through 
the expanse of heaven, that the Chaldaeans, 
at first, addressed their prayers. It can- 
not, however, be asserted, with these 
authors, that the Sabaean idolaters had 
invariably the Supreme Being as the 
ultimate object of their addresses to the 
planetary angels. They gradually forgot 
the Deity, invisible and inaccessible, in 
the dazzling splendour of the orb itself, 
and in the imagined influences dispensed 
by the flaming heralds of the Divinity. 
In time, the Sun himself became the deity 
they adored, and the moon and stars his 
ministers and attributes. The worship of 
the heavenly bodies and of the elements 
was not only the most ancient, but, in the 
judgment of many, the least blamable 
species of idolatry : ' For they, perad- 
venture, erred seeking God, and desirous 
to find him.' (Wisdom xiii. 6.) 

But superstition degenerates from bad 
to worse. The farther we remove from 
the source of idolatry, the more impure it 
evidently becomes ; till in the accumulated 
corruptions of many ages, we behold, in 
respect to divine knowledge, the ultimate 
degradation of the human mind. Ele- 
mentary and planet worship was soon suc- 
ceeded, among the Egyptians, by the 
deification of their deceased kings, heroes, 
and others. Their superstition became so 
stupidly vile and depraved, as to lead 
them to worship birds and beasts, and 
plants, and not only the most noxious 
beings in nature, but monsters and chi- 
meras of the most wild and distempered 
imagination. This country, the inventresfi 
of statues, having carried image-worship, 
and its subsequent errors, to a greater 
excess than any other nation, and having 



IDU 



JEH 



corrupted all others with its barbarous rites, 
was, therefore, rendered the scene of those 
miracles, by which the God of Israel 
triumphed over idolatry in its strongest 
citadel. The still more unnatural, the san- 
guinary and inexorable superstition of the 
republic of Carthage, was formed on that 
of its parent state, the Phoenicians, ' who 
sacrificed their sons and their daughters to 
the idols of Canaan.' (2 Kings iii. 27- 
Psalm cvi. 38.) 

f The worship of the Pagans,' says Dr. 
Isaac Barrow, f was directed to very un- 
suitable and improper objects ; to the spirits 
of dead men, who, in their lifetime, were 
vilely enormous, guilty of thefts and ra- 
pines, murders, and parricides, of horrid 
lusts, adulteries, rapes, and incest ; per- 
sons that good and wise men would rather 
hate and despise. Nay, they worshipped 
the vilest of brute beasts, dogs, serpents, 
and crocodiles; also inanimate creatures, 
the stars and elements, rivers and trees; 
they dedicated temples, and offered sacri- 
fices, to the passions of our souls, the 
diseases of our bodies, and the accidents 
of our lives ; to adore and pay adoration 
to all which, must argue a very abject 
and weak mind. To such objects as these 
they paid their respects and devotion ; 
in them they reposed their confidence. 
And is it likely such a religion should pro- 
ceed from God, or that it can produce 
glory to Him, or benefit to man ? What 
piety towards God? What justice, truth, 
or goodness, towards men 1 What sobriety, 
purity, or morality, can we expect from 
such principles and practices V Warner's 
System of Divinity and Morality, vol. i. p. 
141 ; Adams's Religious World, vol. i. p. 
90, &c. 

IDUME'A, or Edom, ovtk, signifies 
red, human. Idumea, or Edom, is a pro- 
vince of Arabia, which derives its name 
from Edom, or Esau, who there settled in 
the mountains of Seir, in the land of the 
Horites, south-east of the Dead Sea. His 
descendants afterwards extended themselves 
throughout Arabia Petrsea, and south of 
Palestine, between the Dead Sea and the 
Mediterranean. During the Babylonish 
captivity, and when Judea was almost 
deserted, they seized the south of Judah, 
and advanced to Hebron. Hence that 
tract of Judea, which they inhabited, re- 
tained the name of Idumea in the time 
of our Saviour. (Mark iii. 8.) Under Moses 
and Joshua, and even under the kings of 
Judah, the Idumeans were onfined to the 
east and south of the Dead Sea, in the 
land of Seir, but afterwards they extended 
their territories more to the south of Ju- 
dah. The capital of East Edom was Boz- 
ra; and that of South Edom Petra, or 
Jectael. 

The Idumeans, or Edomites, the poste- 
rity of Esau, had kings long before the 
532 



Jews. They were first governed by dukes 
or princes, and afterwards by kings. (Gen. 
xxxvi. 31.) They continued independent 
till the time of David, who subdued them, 
in completion of Isaac's prophecy, that 
Jacob should rule Esau. (Gen. xxvii. 29, 
30.) The Idumeans bore this subjection 
with great impatience ; and at the end of 
Solomon's reign, Hadad, the Edomite, who 
had been carried into Egypt during his 
childhood, returned into his own country, 
where he procured himself to be acknow- 
ledged king. (1 Kings xi. 22.) It is proba- 
ble, however, that he reigned only in East 
Edom ; for Edom south of Judea continued 
subject to the kings of Judah, till the 
reign of Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat, 
against whom it rebelled. (2 Chron. xxi. 8.) 
Jehoram attacked Edom, but did not sub- 
due it. Amaziah, king of Judah, took 
Petra, killed 1000 men, and compelled 
10,000 more to leap from the rock, upon 
which stood the city of Petra. (2 Chron. 
xxv. 1 1.) But these conquests were not 
permanent. Uzziah took Elath on the Red 
Sea, (2 Kings xiv. 22.) ; but Rezin, king 
of Syria, retook it. Some think that Ezar- 
haddon, king of Syria, ravaged this coun- 
try. (Isaiah xxi. 11, 12, 13.; xxxiv. 6.) 
Holofernes subdued this, as well as other 
nations around Judea. (Judith ii. 23.) 
When Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusa- 
lem, the Idumeans joined him, and en- 
couraged him to rase the very foundations 
of that city. This cruelty did not long 
continue unpunished. Five years after 
the taking of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar 
humbled all the states around Judea, and 
in particular Idumea. John Hyrcanus en- 
tirely conquered the Idumeans, whom he 
obliged to receive circumcision and the 
law. They continued subject to the later 
kings of Judea till the destruction of Je- 
rusalem by the Romans. They even came 
to assist that city when besieged, and 
entered it in order to defend it. However, 
they did not continue there till it was 
taken, but returned into Idumea loaded 
with booty. 

With respect to the religion of the Idu- 
means, it is credible, that in early ages 
they adored the true God, whose worship 
Esau had learned in his father Isaac's house. 
The Scripture neither reproaches the Idu- 
means with idolatry, nor mentions their 
idols Calmefs Dictionary. 

JEHO'AHAZ, miOiT, signifies the prize, 
or possession of the Lord; or, the Lord that 
sees ; truo", he that takes, or possesses, or sees. 

Jehoahaz, son of Jehu, king of Israel, 
succeeded his father in the year of the 
world 3148, and reigned seventeen years, 
(2 Kings xiii.) He did evil in the sight 
of the Lord, like Jeroboam, the son of Ne- 
bat. Therefore the anger of the Lord 
delivered Israel during all his reign to 
Hazael, king of Syria, and Benhadad, the 



JEH 



JEH 



son of Hazael. Jehoahaz, overwhelmed 
with so many misfortunes, prostrated him- 
self before the Lord ; and the Lord heard 
him, and sent him a saviour in Joash, his 
son. who re-established the affairs of 
Israel, and secured his people from the 
kings of Syria. Of all his soldiers Jehoahaz 
had only fifty horsemen left, 10 chariots, and 
10,000 foot ; for the king of Syria had de- 
feated them, and made them like the dust of 
the threshing-floor. 

Jehoahaz, otherwise Shallum, son of 
Josiah, king of Judah, (Jerem. xxii. 11.) 
Josiah dying of his wounds at Megiddo, 
Jehoahaz succeeded him, (2 Kings xxiii. 30, 
31, 32.) though he was not Josiah's eldest 
son. He was twenty-three years old when 
he began to reign, and he reigned about 
three months, in the year of the world 
3395. Necho, king of Egypt, returning 
from his expedition against Carchemish, 
was provoked that the people of Judah 
had placed this prince on the throne with- 
out his participation. Necho sent for him 
to Riblah in Syria, divested him of the 
kingdom, loaded him with chains, and sent 
him into Egypt, where he died, (Jerem. 
xxii. 11, 12.) Jehoiakim, or Eliakim, his 
brother, was made king in his room. 

JEHOFACHIN, r3"irr, 'luaicsin, signi- 
fies preparation, or the strength of the Lord. 
Jehoiachin, Coniah, (Jerem. xxii. 24.) or 
Jeconiah, (1 Chr. iii. 17-) the son of Jeho- 
iakim, king of Judah, and grandson of 
Josiah, reigned only three months over 
Judah. (2 Kings xxiv. 8. 2 Chr. xxxvi. 9.) 
Some think that he was born about the 
time of the first Babylonish captivity, in 
3398, when Jehoiakim, or Eliakim, his 
father, was carried to Babylon. Jehoia- 
kim returned from Babylon, and reigned 
till the year 3405, when he was killed by 
the Chaldaeans, in the eleventh year of his 
reign. Jehoiachin succeeded him, and 
reigned alone three months and ten days; 
but he reigned ten years in conjunction 
with his father. By this distinction, 
2 Kings xxiv. 8. is reconciled with 2 Chro- 
nicles xxxvi. 9. In the second book of 
Kings, it is said that he was eighteen years 
of age when he began to reign ; and in 
Chronicles, that he was only eight: that 
is, he was only eight years old when he 
began to reign with his father, and eighteen 
when he began to reign alone. 

About three months after the death of 
Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar came in per- 
son to the siege of Jerusalem. Jehoia- 
chin being unable to defend the city, sur- 
rendered himself, with his mother and 
family, to Nebuchadnezzar, and was sent 
to Babylon, where he was kept in pri- 
son thirty-seven years. Nebuchadnezzar, 
having made himself master of Jerusalem, 
sent the remaining treasures of the temple, 
and of the king's house, with great numbers 
of captives, to Babylon. 
533 



Jeremiah (xxii. 24.) mentions Jehoiachin 
as a very bad prince, whose sins had in- 
curred the indignation of God. But it 
is believed that he repented, and that 
God treated him with mercy; for Evil- 
merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's successor, 
used him honourably, took him out of 
prison, spoke kindly to him, and placed 
his throne above the throne of other 
princes who were at his court. (2 Kings xxv. 
27, &c. Jerem. Iii. 31.) The words, ' Write 
this man childless,' cannot be taken literally, 
since we know that Jehoiachin was the 
father of Salathiel and other children, (1 
Chron. iii. 17, 18. Matt i. 12.) The Hebrew 
word, translated childless, is taken also for 
one who has lost his children, who has no 
succession, or heirs. In this sense, Jehoi- 
achin, son of a king, and himself a king, 
was as a man without issue, since no son 
succeeded him in his kingdom ; for nei- 
ther Salathiel, who was born and died 
in captivity, nor Zerubbabel, who re- 
turned from Babylon, nor any of Jehoiachin's 
descendants, sat on the throne of Judah. 
This is fairly implied in the words ' No 
man of his seed, that is, posterity, shall 
prosper.' Hence it appears that he was to 
have seed, but of whom no one should enjoy 
the regal dignity. The passage should be 
rendered, ' Write this man sticcessorless.' 
Additions to Calmefs Dictionary. 

JEHOI'ADA, by Josephus called Joa- 
dua, succeeded Azariah in the high-priest- 
hood, and was succeeded by Zechariah. In 

1 Chronicles vi. 9, 10. Johanan and Azariah 
seem to be confounded with Jehoiada and 
Zechariah. This high- priest, with his 
wife Jehosheba, preserved Joash, son of 
Joram, king of Judah, then but one year 
old, from the murderous violence of Atha- 
liah, and concealed that young prince in 
the temple. After seven years, he set him 
on the throne of David, (2 Kings xi. xii. 

2 Chron. xxiii. xxiv.) 

As long as Jehoiada lived, and Joash fol- 
lowed his advice, every thing happily suc- 
ceeded. The high-priest formed a design 
of repairing the temple, and collected 
considerable sums in the cities of Judah: 
but the Levites did not acquit themselves 
of this commission with necessary dili- 
gence till after the king was of age, and 
the prince and the high-priest had united 
their authority in promoting this design. 
(2 Kings xii. 2 Chron. xxiv. 5, 6, 8=fa.) 
Jehoiada died at the age of one hun- 
dred and thirty years, and was buried in the 
sepulchre of the kings of Jerusalem. His 
son Zechariah, who was high-priest after 
him, was put to death by Joash, with an in- 
gratitude which has loaded the memory o( 
Joash with eternal ignominy. See Jo \mi. 

JEHOI'AK IM, D^nrr, 'Iriattttk, signifies 
the resurrection, or confirmation of the Lord. 
Jehoiakim, or Eliakim, brother and suc- 
cessor of Jehoahaz, kin;r of Judah, was 



JEH 



JEH 



made king by Necho, king of Egypt, at his 
return from an expedition against Car- 
chemish, in the year of the world 3395. 
(2 Kings xxiii. 34, 35.) Necho changed 
his name from Eliakim to Jehoiakim, and 
set on him a ransom of a hundred talents of 
silver, and ten talents of gold. To raise 
this money Jehoiakim laid heavy taxes on 
his people, in proportion to their fortunes. 
Jehoiakim was twenty-five years old when 
he began to reign, and he reigned eleven 
years in Jerusalem. He did evil in the 
sight of the Lord ; and Jeremiah, (xxii. 
13. 14, &c.) reproaches him with building 
his house by unrighteousness, with oppress- 
ing unjustly his subjects, with keeping 
back the wages of those whom he had 
employed, with having his heart and his 
eyes turned to avarice and inhumanity, 
and with following his inclination to barba- 
rities and wicked actions. The same pro- 
phet informs us, that he sent men to 
bring the prophet Urijah out of Egypt, 
whither he had fled ; and that he put 
him to the sword, and left him without 
burial. (Jer. xxvi. 23.) Therefore, the Lord 
threatens him with an unhappy end. He 
shall die, says Jeremiah, (xxii. 18, 19,) 
and shall be neither mourned for, nor 
regretted. ' He shall be buried with the 
burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth be- 
yond the gates of Jerusalem.' 

About four years after Jehoiakim had 
been seated on the throne of Judah, Ne- 
buchadnezzar, king of the Chaldaeans, 
having recovered what Necho had taken 
on the Euphrates, came into Phoenicia 
and Judea, subdued the city of Jerusalem, 
and subjected it to the same burdens and 
conditions which it suffered under the 
king of Egypt. (2 Kings xxiv. 1,2.) Jehoia- 
kim was taken, and Nebuchadnezzar put 
him in fetters, intending to carry him to 
Babylon ; but he restored him to liberty, and 
left him in his own country, on condition of 
his paying a large tribute. 

In the fourth year of Jehoiakim, Jere- 
miah having dictated to Baruch the pro- 
phecies which he had pronounced till that 
time, Baruch read them the year following 
before all the people, in the temple. (Jer. 
xxxvi.) Jehoiakim, being informed of 
this publication of them, ordered the book 
to be brought to him, and burnt it in the 
fire. He then commanded to seize Jere- 
miah and Baruch ; but the Lord concealed 
them. The Lord ordered Jeremiah to 
have his prophecies again y written down ; 
and in them he pronounced terrible me- 
naces against Jehoiakim. Of these Jeho- 
iakim soon experienced the truth. Three 
years after he rebelled against Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who sent troops of Chaldseans, 
Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites, that 
ravaged all the country, and carried a 
great number of Jews to Babylon, in the 
year of the world 3401. Four years after, 
534 



Jehoiakim himself was taken, slain, and 
thrown into the common sewer, according 
to the prediction of Jeremiah. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Jehoiachin. 

JEHO'RAM, nnw, signifies exaltation 
of the Lord, or rejected of the Lord. Jeho- 
ram, son and successor of Jehoshaphat, 
king of Judah, was born in the year of the 
world 3080. (2 Kings iii. 2, 3, &c.) His 
father associated him in the kingdom, in 
31 12. He began to reign alone, after the 
death of Jehoshaphat, in 3110, and died, 
according to Usher, in 3119. He mar- 
ried Athaliah, daughter of Omri, who 
engaged him in idolatry and sins, which 
caused all the misfortunes that attended 
his reign. Jehoram, being settled in the 
kingdom, commenced his reign with the 
murder of all his brothers, whom Jehosha- 
phat had removed from public business, 
and placed in the fortified cities of Ju- 
dah, with good pensions. God, to punish 
Jehoram's impiety, permitted the Edomites, 
who, since the reign of David, had been 
subject to the kings of Judah, to revolt, in 
the year of the world 3115, (2 Kings viii. 
20, 21. 2 Chron. xxi. 8, 9.) Jehoram 
marched against them, and defeated their 
cavalry ; but the Edomites from that time 
continued free from the Hebrew yoke. 

About this time Libnah, a city of Judah, 
also rebelled. The Philistines and Ara- 
bians ravaged the territories of Judah, 
plundered the king's palace, carried away 
his wives and his children, and none re- 
mained except Jehoahaz, the youngest. 
God also smote Jehoram with an incu- 
rable disease in his bowels, which dropped 
out ; and he died after a sore sickness 
of two years. The people refused to pay 
him the same honours that they had paid 
his predecessors, by burning spices over 
their bodies. He was buried in Jerusalem, 
but not in the royal sepulchre. 

The disease of which Jehoram died, says 
Dr. Mead, was without doubt the dysentery, 
and though its continuance so long a time 
was very uncommon, it is by no means a 
thing unheard of. The intestines in time 
become ulcerated by the operation of this 
disease. Not only blood is discharged from 
them, but a sort of mucous excrements like- 
wise are thrown off, and sometimes small 
pieces of the flesh itself; so that apparently 
the intestines are emitted or fall out, which 
is sufficient to account for the expressions 
that are used in the statement of king Jeho- 
ram's disease. Home's Introduction, vol. iii. 
p. 515 ; Mead's Medica Sacra, p. 35 ; Jahn's 
Archceol. Bibl. § 187- 

JEHOS'HAPHAT, aanrv, signifies God 
judges, or the judgment of the Lord. Jeho- 
shaphat, king of Judah, son of Asa, king 
of Judah, and Azabah, daughter of Shilhi, 
ascended the throne at the age of thirty- 
five, and reigned twenty-five years. He 
had the advantage over Baasha, king of 



JEH 



JEH 



Israel ; and he placed good garrisons in 
the cities of Judah and of Ephraim, which 
and been conquered by his father. God 
was with him, because he was faithful. He 
demolished the high-places and groves. In 
the third year of his reign, he sent some 
of his officers, with priests and Levites, 
through all the parts of Judah, with 
the book of the law, to instruct the peo- 
ple. God blessed the zeal of this prince, 
who was feared by all his neighbours. 
The Philistines and Arabians were tribu- 
taries to him. He built several houses 
in Judah in the form of towers, and for- 
tified several cities. He generally kept 
an army of eleven hundred thousand men, 
without reckoning the troops in his strong 
holds. This number seems prodigious for 
so small a state as that of Judah ; but, pro- 
bably, these troops were only an enrolled 
militia. 

The Scripture reproaches Jehoshaphat 
for his alliance with Ahab, king of Israel. 
(1 Kings xxii. 2 Chron. xviii.) Some time 
after he went to visit Ahab in Samaria; 
and Ahab invited him to march with him 
against Ramoth-Gilead. Jehoshaphat con- 
sented, but first asked for an opinion from 
a prophet of the Lord. Afterwards, he 
went into the battle in his robe, and the 
enemy supposed him to be Ahab ; but he 
crying out, they discovered their mistake, 
and Jehoshaphat returned in peace to Je- 
rusalem. The prophet Jehu reproved him 
for assisting Ahab. (2 Chron. xix. 1, 2, 
3, &c.) Jehoshaphat repaired this fault 
by the good regulations, and the good 
order, which he established in his domi- 
nions, both as to civil and religious affairs, 
by appointing honest and able judges, by 
regulating the discipline of the priests and 
Levites, and by enjoining them to per- 
form their duty with punctuality. After 
this, in the year 3108, the Moabites, Am- 
monites, and other nations of Arabia 
Petraea, declared war against Jehoshaphat. 
(2 Chron. xx. 1, 2, 3, &c.) They advanced 
to Hazazon-Tamar, otherwise Engedi. Je- 
hoshaphat went with his people to the 
temple, and put up prayers to God. Ja- 
haziel, the son of Zechariah, by the Spirit 
of the Lord, encouraged the king, and 
promised that the next day he should 
obtain a victory without fighting. Ac- 
cordingly, these people being assembled 
the next day against Judah, quarrelled, 
and killed one another; and Jehosha- 
phat and his army had only to gather their 
spoils. 

Some time after this, Jehoshaphat agreed 
with Ahaziah, king of Israel, jointly to 
equip a fleet in the port of Ezion-geber, on 
the Red Sea, to sail to Ophir for gold. 
Eliezer, the son of Dodovah, of Mareshah, 
came to Jehoshaphat, and said to him, Be- 
cause thou hast made an alliance with Aha- 
ziah, God hath disappointed thy designs, 
535 



and thy ships are shattered. This prince 
continued to walk in the ways of the 
Lord. Yet, he did not destroy the high- 
places ; and the hearts of the people were 
not entirely directed to the God of their 
fathers. Jehoshaphat died after a reign 
of twenty- five years, and was buried in 
the royal sepulchre ; and his son Jeho- 
ram reigned in his stead, in the year 
of the world 3115. 

Jehoshaphat, Valley of. This valley, 
which is also called the valley of Kidron, 
because through it runs the brook Kidron, 
lies on the east of Jerusalem, between 
that city and the Mount of Olives. It 
appears to be an extravagant opinion, 
that all mankind shall be judged in this 
valley, merely because Joel (iii. 2.) hath 
said, * I will gather all nations, and will 
bring them into the valley of Jehosha- 
phat, and will plead with them for my 
people.' What is here called the valley 
of Jehoshaphat is not a proper, but an 
appellative name, and denotes no more 
than the judgment of God. 

1 The valley of Jehoshaphat,' says a re- 
cent traveller, ' exhibits a desolate ap- 
pearance : the west side is a high cliff", 
supporting the walls of the city, above 
which you perceive Jerusalem itself; while 
the east side is formed by the Mount of 
Olives, and the Mount of Offence, thus de- 
nominated from Solomon's idolatty. Three 
antique monuments, the tombs of Zacha- 
riah, Jehoshaphat, and Absalom, appear 
conspicuous amid this scene of desolation. 
From the dulness of Jerusalem, whence 
no smoke rises, no noise proceeds ; from 
the solitude of these hills, where no living 
creature is to be seen ; from the ruinous 
state of all these tombs, overthrown, 
broken, and half open, you would ima- 
gine that the last trump had already 
sounded, and that the valley of Jehosha- 
phat was about to render up its dead.' 
Chateaubriand' s Travels in Greece, Pales- 
tine, 8$c. vol. ii. p. 38 ; Stackhouse's Hist, of 
the Bible. 

JEHO'VAH, mrr, denotes self-subsist- 
i?ig, and is the ineffable and mysterious 
name of God. ' I appeared,' says God, 
' unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto 
Jacob, by the name of God Almighty, but 
by my name Jehovah was I not known to 
them.' (Exod. vi. 3.) This passage has 
been variously explained. It is certain 
that the name Jehovah was in use long 
before the days of Abraham. How, then, 
can it be said that by his name Jehovah, 
he was not known unto them ? Though, 
from the beginning, the name Jehovah 
was known as one of the names of the 
Supreme Being, yet what it really im- 
plied they did not know. Al-Sluuidai, God 
All-sufficient, they knew well, by the con- 
tinual provision he made for them, and 
the constant jirotccliou he afforded them: 



JEH 



JEH 



but the name Jehovah is particularly to 
be referred to the accomplishment of pro- 
mises already made ; to the giving them a 
being, and thus bringing them into existence, 
which could not have been done in the 
order of his providence sooner than here 
specified. This name, therefore, in its 
power and significancy, was not known 
unto them ; nor fully unto their descendants 
till the deliverance from Egypt, and the 
settlement in the promised land. It is pos- 
sible for a person to bear the name of a 
certain office or dignity before he fulfils 
any of its functions. God, who was known 
as Jehovah, the Being who makes and 
gives effect to promises, was known to 
the descendants of the twelve tribes to 
be that Jehovah, by giving effect and 
being to the promises which he had made 
to their fathers. 

After the captivity of Babylon, the Jews, 
from a superstitious respect for this holy 
name, left off the custom of pronouncing 
it, and forgot its true pronunciation. The 
Septuagint generally render it Kvpioc., the 
Lord. Origen, Jerome, and Eusebius, 
testify, that in their time the Jews left 
the name of Jehovah written in their 
copies with Samaritan characters, instead 
of writing it in the common Chaldee or 
Hebrew characters ; which shows their 
veneration for this holy name, and their 
fear lest strangers should discover and 
misapply it. However, these precautions 
did not prevent the heathens from fre- 
quently misapplying it. Origen informs 
us, that they used it in their exorcisms 
and charms against diseases. The Jews 
call this name of God the Tetragram- 
maton, or name with four letters. They 
believe that whoever knows the true pro- 
nunciation of Jehovah, cannot fail of be- 
ing heard by God ; that if they have not 
the happiness to be heard at this day, it is 
owing to their ignorance of the true pro- 
nunciation ; that Simon the Just, the high- 
priest, was the last that was acquainted 
with it ; that after his death the number of 
profane persons increasing, and abusing 
this divine name, others forbore to pro- 
nounce it, and substituted another com- 
posed of twelve letters, which the high- 
priest pronounced when blessing the peo- 
ple. The Jews, indeed, never mention 
the name Jehovah, but substitute Adonai, 
or Elohim. • 

It has long been a question, what is the 
meaning of the word mn- Jehovah, Yeho- 
vah, Yehue, Yehveh, or Yeve, Jeue, Jao, 
Jhueh, and Jove; for it has been as vari- 
ously pronounced, as it has been differ- 
ently interpreted. Some have maintained 
that it is utterly inexplicable. Some say, 
that it implies the essence of the divine 
nature. Some think that it expresses the 
doctrine of the Trinity connected with the 
incarnation : the letter * jod standing for 
536 



the Father, n he for the Son, and 1 van 
(the connecting particle) for the Holy 
Ghost ; and they add, that the n he be- 
ing repeated in the word, signifies the 
human nature united to the divine in the 
incarnation. Others are of opinion, that 
God himself interprets this name in Exod. 
xxxiv. 6, 7 : ' And the Lord passed by 
before him, and proclaimed mn\ Jeho- 
vah, the Lord God, merciful and graci- 
ous, long-suffering, and abundant in good- 
ness and truth, keeping mercy for thou- 
sands, forgiving iniquity, and transgression, 
and sin, and that will by no means clear 
the guilty.' These words, say they, con- 
tain the proper interpretation of the ve- 
nerable and glorious name Jehovah. Dr. 
Adam Clarke's Comment, on Exod. xxxiv. 
6. ; vi. 3. 

JE'HU, Kin s , signifies himself ; other- 
wise, who exists. Jehu, son of Jehosha- 
phat, and grandson of Nimshi, captain of 
the troops of Joram, king of Israel, was 
appointed by God to reign over Israel, 
and to punish the sins of the house of 
Ahab. The Lord had ordered Elisha to 
anoint Jehu; (I Kings xix. 16.) and this 
order was executed by one of the sons of 
the prophets. (2 Kings, ix. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 
The Lord declared his will to Elisha con- 
cerning Jehu, in the year of the world 
3097 ; but Jehu was not appointed till 
3120, twenty- three years after the order 
given to Elisha. Jehu was at Ramoth- 
Gilead, besieging the citadel of that place, 
with the army of Israel, when a young 
prophet entered, and took him aside from 
among the officers ; and when they were 
alone in a chamber, he poured oil on the 
head of Jehu, and said, \ Thus saith the 
Lord, I have anointed thee king over 
Israel, thou shalt extirpate the house of 
Ahab, and avenge the blood of the pro- 
phets shed by Jezebel.' The prophet in- 
stantly opened the door, and fled. Jehu 
returning to the officers, they inquired 
what the business might be ? He de- 
clared to them what had passed. Upon 
this, they immediately rose up, and each 
taking his cloak, they made a kind of 
throne for Jehu, and, sounding the trum- 
pets, cried, ' Jehu is king.' 

At this time, Joram, king of Israel, 
was at Jezreel, under cure of wounds re- 
ceived in besieging Ramoth-Gilead. Jehu 
ordered that no one should leave the army, 
which he quitted instantly, in order to 
surprise the king at Jezreel. Joram sent 
an officer to meet him, and afterwards a 
second ; at last Joram came himself, rid- 
ing in his chariot, with Ahaziah, king of 
Judah, who was also in his chariot. They 
met Jehu in the field of Naboth of Jez- 
reel. Joram asked him, ' Is it peace, 
Jehu V He answered, ' What peace, so 
long as the whoredoms of thy mother 
Jezebel, and her witchcrafts, are so many?' 



JEH 



JEP 



J oram immediately turned, and said to 
Ahaziah, 'There is treachery, O Aha- 
ziah!' Jehu drew his bow, smote Joram 
between his shoulders, and pierced his heart. 
He then commanded his body to be cast 
into the portion of Naboth, the Jezreelite, 
to fulfil the prediction of the prophet Elijah. 
See Ahaziah. 

Jehu afterwards went to Jezreel, where 
was Jezebel. As he entered the city, Je- 
zebel, who was at her window, said to him, 
' Had Zimri peace who slew his master ?' 
Jehu lifting up his head, and seeing her, 
commanded two or three eunuchs, who were 
above, to throw her out of a window. This 
they did ; and she was trampled to death un- 
der the horses' feet, and afterwards devoured 
by dogs. When, therefore, Jehu sent to 
have her buried, they found only her bones. 
After this, Jehu commanded the inhabitants 
of Jerusalem to slay all the late king's 
children, and to send him their heads. He 
then slew all Ahab's relations and friends, 
the great men of his court, and his priests, 
who were at Jezreel. (2 Kings x. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) 

Afterwards, going to Samaria, he met 
with the relations of Ahaziah, king of Ju- 
dah, in their way to Jezreel to salute the 
king and queen's children, of whose death 
they were ignorant Jehu ordered to mas- 
sacre them all, forty-two in number. A 
little farther, he found Jonadab. son of Re- 
chab ; and, taking him into his chariot, he 
said, i Come with me and see my zeal for 
the Lord.' At Samaria, he slew all that 
remained of Ahab's family, and spared not 
one. He then assembled the people of Sa- 
maria, and said, ' Ahab served Baal a little, 
but Jehu shall serve him much,' and or- 
dered them to collect all the ministers, 
priests, and prophets of Baal for a great 
festival. When they were all in Baal's 
temple, he commanded to give habits to 
them all, and to take particular care that 
there was no stranger among them. He 
then ordered his people to slay them every 
one. The statue of Baal was pulled down, 
broken, and burnt; and the temple itself 
was destroyed, and made a privy. 

The Lord promised Jehu that his chil- 
dren should sit on the throne of Israel to 
the fourth generation. The Scripture, how- 
ever, accuses him of following the sins of 
Jeroboam, son of Nebat ; and the prophet 
Hosea threatens him with the vengeance of 
God. (Hosea i. 4.) Jehu, indeed, had been 
the instrument of God's wrath on the house 
of Ahab ; but in what he had done, he had 
been impelled by the spirit of animosity 
and ambition : he had followed his own 
passion, rather than the will of God. He 
had not kept within due bounds. There- 
fore God rewards his obedience, but pu- 
nishes his injustice, ambition, idolatry, and 
the blood unjustly spilt by him. He reigned 
twenty-eight years over Israel, and was 
537 



succeeded by his son Jehoahaz. (2 Kings 
x. 35, 36.) The four descendants of his 
family who governed after him, were Jeho- 
ahaz, Joash, Jeroboam II., and Zechariah. 
The reign of Jehu was perplexed with the 
war against Hazael, king of Syria. 

JEPH'THAH, nna% signifies he that 
opens, or he will open. Jephthah, judge of 
Israel, and successor to Jair, in the govern- 
ment, was a son of Gilead, by one of his 
concubines. (Judg. xi. 1, 2.) Gilead hav- 
ing married a lawful wife, by whom he had 
children, these children drove Jephthah 
from his father's house. Jephthah retired 
into the land of Tob, where he became 
captain of a band of rovers. At that time, 
the Israelites beyond Jordan were pressed 
by the Ammonites, and desired assistance 
from Jephthah, to whom they offered the 
command over them. Jephthah reproached 
them with their injustice to him, when he 
was driven from his father's house ; but he 
said that he would assist them, provided 
that at the end of the war they would ac- 
knowledge him as their prince. This hap- 
pened in the year of the world 2817- 

Jephthah having been acknowledged 
prince of the Israelites, in an assembly of 
the people, sent to the king of the Ammon- 
ites, saying, Why art thou come to ravage 
my country ? The Ammonite answered, 
because when Israel came out of Egypt, 
they seized my territory, &c. Jephthah, 
filled with a divine spirit, began to assem- 
ble his troops, and went over all the land 
of Israel beyond Jordan. He also vowed 
to the Lord, that if he were successful 
against the Ammonites, he would offer up a 
burnt- offering, and whatever should first 
come out of his house to meet him. Jeph- 
thah vanquished the Ammonites, and ra- 
vaged their land ; but, as he returned to his 
house, his only daughter came out to meet 
him, with timbrels and dances, and by that 
means became the subject of his vow. 

The tribe of Ephraim, jealous of Jeph- 
thah, passed the Jordan in a tumultuous 
manner, complained that he had not invited 
them to share in this war, and threatened to 
fire his house. Jephthah answered, that he 
had sent to desire their assistance, but they 
did not come. The Ephraimites not being 
satisfied with these reasons, Jephthah as- 
sembled the people of Gilead, gave the 
Ephraimites battle, and defeated them. On 
that day forty-two thousand men of Ephraim 
were killed. 

Jephthah judged Israel six years, and was 
buried in a city of Gilead. (Judg. xii. 7-) 
St. Paul places him among the saints of the 
Old Testament, whose faith had distin- 
guished them. 

With respect to Jephthah's vow, some 
believe that his daughter was really pffered 
up by him for a burnt-sacrihVe ; whilst 
others are of opinion, that she was devoted 
to celibacy, or dedicated to the service of 



JER 

God. This matter depends on the accept- 
ation of a single particle, which is taken for 
either and or or ; for the same Hebrew 
particle n vau may signify either. The pas- 
sage may be thus rendered: 'Whatever 
comes to meet me, I will devote to the 
Lord — or — I will offer him up a burnt-sa- 
crifice.' Otherwise, 'Whatever comes to 
meet me, I will devote to the Lord ; and, 
that is also, I will offer up to him a burnt- 
sacrifice :' or, * and I will offer up to him 
that which comes out of my house.' It ought 
likewise to be observed, that Jephthah's 
rashness had time to cool, as his daughter 
went two months to bewail her virginity, that 
is, her consecration to God, which obliged 
her to remain single, without posterity, &c. 
It is said, that she went to bewail her vir- 
ginity, not her sacrifice. Besides, the Israel- 
ite women went yearly four times to mourn 
for — rather with — the daughter of Jeph- 
thah ; to lament her seclusion from the 
world, and the hardship of her situation, as 
cut off from domestic life and enjoyment. 
Now, if in the course of two months no per- 
son could have suggested to Jephthah a 
ransom for his daughter, yet, surely, she 
must have been ali«e, though dead to him 
and his family (as his only child), and to the 
world by her seclusion, if the Israelite wo- 
men went to condole with her. We may 
also observe, that it is not said afterwards, 
that he sacrificed her, but ' he did with her 
according to his vow.' It is added, she 
knew no man ; if she was sacrificed this re- 
mark is frivolous, but if she was consecrated 
to perpetual virginity, this idea coincides 
with the visits of the Israelitish women. 
On the whole, we may safely conclude, that 
Jephthah's daughter was not sacrificed, but 
devoted to a state of celibacy ; and if there 
were at that time women attendants at the 
tabernacle, she might, probably, join them. 
Additions to Calmet's Dictionary ; Hales 's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. part i. p. 
319. 

JEREMl'AH, WBfify 'Ispsfiiag, signifies 
exaltation, or grandeur of the Lord; or who 
exalts, or gives glory to the Lord : "OV, 'lepsfil, 
my height, my elevation ; otherwise, he that 
fears ; or that rejects the waters. 

Jeremiah, son of Hilkiah, of a priestly 
family, was a native of Anathoth, a village 
of Benjamin. (Jer. i. 1.) Before his birth 
he was appointed to the prophetic office. 
When God first sent him to speak to the 
kings and princes, the priests and people 
of Judah, he excused himself, and alleged 
his youth. This was in the fourteenth year 
of his age, the thirteenth year of Josiah's 
reign, and in the year of the world 3375. 
He prophesied till the destruction of Jeru- 
salem by the Chaldees, in the year of the 
world 3416. 

When God called Jeremiah to the pro- 
phetic ministry, he discovered to him that 
he should suffer much from the Jews ; but 
538 



JER 

at the same time he promised to make him 
as a wall of brass against the kings, princes, 
and people of Judah. He also showed him, 
under the figure of a branch of an almond 
tree, and that of a pot heated by fire blown 
up by a vehement north wind, that Judea 
was threatened by a very great and near 
calamity from the Chaldaeans. (Jer. i. 11, 
12, &c.) This appears to be the general 
subject of his prophecies, which turn on the 
sins of Judah, and their punishment by 
Nebuchadnezzar. The prophet begins with 
a sharp invective against the disorders of 
Judah, during the first year of Josiah's 
reign, in which these prophecies were pro- 
nounced, and before that prince had re- 
formed his dominions ; this Josiah did in 
the eighteenth year of his reign. (Jer. ii. 
iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii., &c.) During this 
time Jeremiah suffered great persecutions 
from the Jews. (2 Kings xxiii. 4, 5, Q, &c.) 
His very relations and fellow-citizens of the 
little town of Anathoth, threatened to kill 
him if he continued to prophesy; but he 
also threatens them, that they should perish 
by the sword, or by famine. (Jer. xii. xiii. 
xiv. xv. xvi.) At this time a famine was in 
the land, as one effect of the Divine wrath. 
About this time, God forbad the prophet to 
take a wife, and have children in Jerusa- 
lem, to enter any house of mirth or feast- 
ing, or any house of mourning, for the pur- 
pose of comforting those in sorrow. 

Some are of opinion, that under the 
reign of Shallum, the son of Josiah, Je- 
remiah received God's orders to go to a 
potter's house, (Jer. xvi. xvii. xviii.) where 
he observed a pot which broke in the pot- 
ter's hands, who immediately made an- 
other of the same clay. Jeremiah repre- 
sented this as an indication of Judah's re- 
probation, in whose place God would raise 
up another people. To render this pro- 
phecy more striking, he was commanded 
to take an earthen pitcher, and to break 
it before the priests and elders of the 
people in the valley of Hinnom ; whence 
he went up to the temple, where he 
confirmed all he had said. Pashur, cap- 
tain of the temple, seized and confined 
him in a prison of the temple till the 
next day. He then told Pashur, that 
he, his sons, and his friends, should be 
carried into captivity. 

Jehoiakim, king of Judah, having suc- 
ceeded Shallum, Jeremiah informed him, 
that if he would be stedfast in fidelity to 
God, there should still be kings of Judah 
in his palace, with all the lustre of their 
dignity ; but if he persevered in his irre- 
gularities, God would reduce that place 
to a wilderness. As Jehoiakim, instead of 
reforming, abandoned himself to cruelty 
and avarice, and to the raising of costly 
buildings, Jeremiah threatens him with a 
miserable death, deprived of the honours 
of burial. He also foretels against Coniah, 






JER 



JER 



the brother of Jehoiakim, that he should be 
delivered to the Chaldaeans, and never 
should any prince of his family sit on the 
throne of Judah. (Jer. xxii. xxiii.) 

About the same time, Jeremiah going 
up to the temple foretold its destruction. 
The priest, therefore, seized him, and de- 
clared that he deserved to die. The princes 
being come thither to judge him, Jere- 
miah undauntedly told them, that he had 
said nothing but by God's order: they 
dismissed him, and justified him by the 
example of the prophet Micah, who had 
foretold the same event under king Heze- 
kiah, without suffering for it. 

Before the fourth year of Jehoiakim, 
Jeremiah had prophesied against several 
people bordering on Judea ; the Egyp- 
tians, Philistines, Tyrians, Phoenicians, 
Edomites, Ammonites, Moabites, the in- 
habitants of Damascus, Kedar, Hazor, 
&c. (J^r. xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix.) In the 
fourth year of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah fore- 
told the captivity of the Jews, and its 
duration for seventy years, after which God 
would punish the Chaldaeans and Baby- 
lonians in their turn. In this year also, 
he dictated his prophecies to Baruch, who 
read them before the people. The king cut 
the volume with a pen-knife, and threw it 
into the fire. Jeremiah received orders to 
dictate a second time to Baruch what was 
thus burnt, and God added many new things. 

The countries of Moab, Ammon, Edom, 
Tyre, and Sidon, sent ambassadors to Ze- 
dekiah in the beginning of his reign. To 
each of these ambassadors Jeremiah gave 
a yoke to carry to their masters, with 
orders to tell them from God, that whoever 
should refuse to submit to Nebuchad- 
nezzar, should be compelled to submis- 
sion. The prophet said the same to Ze- 
dekiah. Calmet is of opinion, that in 
the reign of Zedekiah, Jeremiah received 
God's orders to go to some cavern near 
the Euphrates, and there hide a linen 
girdle. Some time after he returned to 
the same place, and found the girdle all 
rotten ; prefiguring God's desertion of 
Judah, which he had before valued as a 
girdle. In the fourth year of the same 
prince, Seraiah, Baruch's brother, being 
sent to Babylon, Jeremiah gave him pro- 
phecies against Babylon, with directions to 
read them to the captive Jews, and after- 
wards fasten them to a stone, and throw 
them into the river Euphrates. (Jer. 1. li.) 
Jeremiah wrote again to the same captives, 
by Gemariah, whom the king sent to Baby- 
lon, and advised them to settle in that 
country, to build houses, and marry there, 
because their captivity was to continue 
seventy years. Shemaiah, at Babylon, 
wrote to Zephaniah, one of the chief 
priests, and reproved him for permitting 
Jeremiah to write these things. Zepha- 
niah road the letter to Jeremiah, who 
531) 



wrote again to the captives of Babylon, 
and foretold to Shemaiah, that he should 
die in captivity, and that neither he, nor 
any of his posterity, should see the de- 
liverance of Judah. 

Whilst Nebuchadnezzar was besieging 
Jerusalem, in the tenth year of Zedekiah, 
Jeremiah, who was continually prophesying 
calamities, was imprisoned in the court 
of the palace. Hanameel, son of Jere- 
miah's uncle, visited the prophet, and told 
him, that the right of redeeming such a 
field at Anathoth was his. Jeremiah bought 
the field, sealed the writings, and delivered 
the money for it. He committed the writ- 
ings to Baruch, to keep them, because, 
added he, the time will come, when this 
land will be again cultivated and inha- 
bited. After the siege was suspended, 
liberty was given to Jeremiah, to whom 
Zedekiah sent, and recommended himself 
to his prayers. The prophet informed the 
king, that Nebuchadnezzar would return 
against the city, which he would take and 
reduce to ashes. When Jeremiah was 
retiring to Anathoth, the place of his na- 
tivity, the guards seized him as a deserter, 
and the princes threw him into a dungeon, 
where his life was in great danger. Some 
time after, Zedekiah released him from 
this place, and ordered bread for him every 
day so long as there should be any in the 
city. 

Nebuchadnezzar returning to the siege 
of Jerusalem, and this prophet continuing 
to foretell calamities, the great men of Jeru- 
salem complained to Zedekiah, who per- 
mitted them to do what they pleased with 
Jeremiah. They let him down into a 
muddy well, where the prophet must 
soon have perished, if Ebedmelech had 
not informed the king, who commanded 
him to be drawn out: but he was kept 
in the court of the prison till the city was 
taken. Jeremiah, with other captives, was 
carried to Ramath ; but as Nebuchadnezzar 
had charged Nebuzaractan, his general, to 
give Jeremiah his liberty, Nebuzaradan al- 
lowed the prophet his choice of going to 
Babylon, or staying in Judea. Jeremiah 
chose the latter, and went to Gedaliah at 
Mizpah. Here they lived in security, when 
Ishmael, son of Nethaniah, with ten men, 
murdered Gedaliah. Johanan having col- 
lected as many Jews as he could at Beth- 
lehem, they consulted Jeremiah, whether 
they should stay in Judea, or retire into 
Egypt. (Jer. xlii.) The prophet advised 
them to continue in Judea ; but the princi- 
pal of the people resolving to go into Egypt, 
compelled Jeremiah and Baruch to accom- 
pany them. Here this prophet uttered 
several predictions against the Jews and 
Egyptians ; and he threatened the king of 
Egypt, that God would give him into the 
hands of the Chaldeans, as he had given 
Zedekiah. Some accounts state, that Je- 



JER 



JER 



remiah returned into his own country, 
where he died ; hut Jerome says, which 
seems more probable, that he was stoned 
to death at Talpesha, a royal city of Egypt, 
about 586 years before Christ. 

The greater part of Jeremiah's predic- 
tions related to his countrymen, the Jews, 
many of whom lived to behold their literal 
fulfilment, and tbus attested the truth of his 
prophetic mission, while several of his pre- 
dictions concerned other nations. Yet, two 
or three of his prophecies clearly announce 
the Messiah. In chap, xxiii. 5, 6, the pro- 
phet foretells the future reign of Christ, the 
Son of David, who is called the Lord our 
righteousness. " The ancient rabbinical 
book of Ifckarim," says Dr. Hales, "well 
expresses the reason of the appellation :" 
' the Scripture calls the name of the Messiah 
JAHOH, our righteousness, to intimate 
that he will be a mediatorial God, by 
whose hand we shall obtain justification 
from the name : wherefore it calls him by 
the name, that is, the ineffable name JA- 
HOH, here put for God himself. See 
Buxtorf 's Lexicon, voce mn*. Hence, pro- 
bably, Paul declares that ' Jesus Christ was 
born unto us wisdom from God, and 
righteousness, and sanctification, and 
redemption ;' (1 Cor. i. 30.) and that 
' God transcendently exalted him, and be- 
stowed on him the name above every 
name, that at the name of Jesus, every 
knee should bow, of celestial, terrestrial, 
and infernal beings, and every tongue 
should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, 
to the glory of God the Father.' (Phil. 
ii. 9—11.) 

In chap. xxxi. 22. we have a distinct 
prediction of the miraculous conception of 
Jesus Christ. Professor Dahler, however, 
considers this simply as a proverbial ex- 
pression ; and the modern Jews, and a few 
Christian interpreters, particularly the late 
Dr. Blayney in his translation of Jeremiah, 
have denied the application of this prophecy 
to the Messiah ; but the following remarks 
will show that this denial is not authorized. 
According to the first evangelical promise 
concerning the seed of the woman, followed 
this prediction of the'prophet : — ' The Lord 
hath created a new thing in the earth, a 
woman shall compass a man.' (Jer. xxxi. 22.) 
The new creation of a man is therefore new, 
and therefore a creation, because wrought in 
a woman only, without a man, compassing a 
man. This interpretation is ancient, literal, 
and clear. The words import a miraculous 
conception : the ancient Jews acknowledged 
this sense, and applied it determinately to 
the Messiah. This prophecy is illustrated 
by that of Isaiah, vii. 14. 

In chap. xxxi. 31 — 36. and xxxiii. 8. 
the efficacy of Christ's atonement, the spi- 
ritual character of the new covenant, and 
the inward efficacy of the Gospel, are most 
clearly and emphatically described. Com- 
540 



pare St. Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, 
ch. viii. 8—12. and x. 16, et seq. 

The fifty-first chapter of Jeremiah con- 
cludes in this manner : t Thus far are the 
words of Jeremiah ;' and hence it appears 
that the fifty-second, being the last chapter, 
was not written by that prophet. This 
chapter is supposed to have been com- 
piled by Ezra, principally from the latter 
part of the second book of Kings, and from 
the thirty-ninth and fortieth chapters of 
the prophecies, as a proper introduction 
to the Lamentations. It is certain that 
the Lamentations of Jeremiah were for- 
merly annexed to his prophecies, though 
they now form a separate book. Jose- 
phus and several others have referred them 
to the death of Josiah ; but the more gene- 
ral opinion is, that they are applicable only 
to some period subsequent to the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 

The style of Jeremiah, though deficient 
neither in sublimity nor elegance, is con- 
sidered as inferior in both respects to that 
of Isaiah. Jerome objects to him a cer- 
tain rusticity of language, 'cujus equi- 
dem/ says Bishop Lowth, ! fateor nulla 
me deprehendisse vestigia.' The writings 
of Jeremiah are principally characterised 
by precision in his descriptions, and by a 
pathos calculated to awaken and interest 
the milder affections, but not admitting of 
that loftiness of sentiment, and dignity of 
expression, which we meet with in several 
of the prophets. At the same time, many 
of his invectives against the ingratitude 
and wickedness of his countrymen are de- 
livered in an energetic strain of eloquence, 
and in his predictions he frequently rises 
to a very high degree of sublimity. His 
historical relations are written with great 
simplicity, and the events of which he was 
himself witness, are described with ani- 
mation and force.' Bishop Tomline's Elem. 
of Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 110, &c. ; 
Hales' s Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. book i. 
pp. 481, 482; Home's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 
210 ; Pearson on the Creed, p. 171, edit. 1715. 

JER'ICHO, iriT, signifies the moon, or 
a month ; otherwise, his smell ; perhaps, 
prolonged odour, ' scented town.' Jericho 
was a city of Benjamin, about seven leagues 
from Jerusalem, and two from the Jordan. 
(Josh, xviii. 21.) Moses calls it the city 
of palm-trees, (Deut. xxxi v. 3.) because 
of palm-trees growing in the plain of 
Jericho. Josephus says, that in the ter- 
ritory of this city were not only many 
palm-trees, but also the balsam-tree. The 
valley of Jericho was watered by a rivu- 
let which had been formerly salt and 
bitter, but was sweetened by the prophet 
Elisha. (2 Kings ii. 19.) Jericho was the 
first city in Canaan taken by Joshua. 
(Josh. ii. 1, 2, &c.) He sent thither spies, 
who were received by Rahab, lodged in 
her house, and preserved from the king of 



JER 



JER 



Jericho. Joshua received God's orders to 
besiege Jericho, soon after his passage 
over Jordan. (Josh. vi. 1, 2, 3, &c.) God 
commanded the Hebrews to march round 
the city once a day for seven days together. 
The soldiers marched first, (probably out 
of the reach of the enemies' arrows,) 
and after them the priests, the ark, &c. 
On the seventh day, they marched seven 
times round the city ; and at the seventh, 
while the trumpets were sounding, and all 
the people shouting, the walls fell down. 
The Rabbins say, that the first day was 
our Sunday, and the seventh the sabbath- 
day. During the first six days, the peo- 
ple continued in profound silence ; but on 
the seventh, Joshua commanded them to 
shout. Accordingly, they all exerted their 
voices, and the walls being overthrown, 
they entered the city, every man in the 
place opposite to him. Jericho being de- 
voted by God, they set fire to the city, 
and consecrated all the gold, silver, and 
brass. Then Joshua said, Cursed be the 
man before the Lord, who shall rebuild 
Jericho. About 530 years after this, 
Hiel, of Bethel, undertook to rebuild it; 
but he lost his eldest son Abiram, at 
laying the foundations, and his youngest 
son Segub, when he hung up the gates. 

However, we are not to imagine, that 
there was no city of Jericho till the 
time of Hiel. There was a city of palm- 
trees, probably the same as Jericho, un- 
der the Judges. (Judg. iii. 13.) David's 
ambassadors, who had been insulted by 
the Ammonites, resided at Jericho till 
their beards were grown. (2 Sam. x. 5.) 
There was, therefore, a city of Jericho, 
which stood in the neighbourhood of the 
original Jericho. These two places are 
distinguished by Josephus. After Hiel of 
Bethel had rebuilt old Jericho, no one 
scrupled to dwell there. Our Saviour 
wrought miracles at Jericho. 

In the time of our Saviour, Jericho 
yielded only to Jerusalem in size and the 
magnificence of its buildings. It was 
situated in a bottom, in that vast plain which 
was named the great plain ; and this marks 
the propriety of the expression of going 
down from Jerusalem. (Luke x. 30.) It is 
150 furlongs, or about nineteen miles from 
the capital of Judaea. The country around 
Jericho was the most fertile part of Pales- 
tine, abounding in roses and palm-trees, 
whence it is called ' the city of palm-trees,' 
(Deut. xxxiv. 3.) ; and yielding also great 
quantities of the opobalsamum or balm of 
Gilead, so highly esteemed in oriental 
courts even to the present day ; and which 
being an article of commerce, accounts for 
the mention of publicans and of a chief 
publican in that region. (Luke xix. 2.) 
Jericho was one of the cities appropriated 
for the residence of the priests and Levites, 
12,000 of whom dwelt there ; and as the 
541 



way thither from Jerusalem was rocky, and 
desert, it was, as it still is, infested with 
thieves. A country more favourable for the 
attacks of banditti, and caves better adapted 
for concealment than those presented on 
this road, can scarcely be imagined. This 
circumstance marks the admirable propriety 
with which our Lord made it the scene of 
his beautiful parable of the good Samaritan. 
(Luke x. 30—370 

' The whole of this road,' says Mr. Buck- 
ingham, 'from Jerusalem to the Jordan, is 
held to be the most dangerous about Pales- 
tine ; and, indeed, in this portion of it, the 
very aspect of the scenery is sufficient, on 
the one hand, to tempt to robbery and mur- 
der, and, on the other, to occasion a dread 
of it in those who pass that way. It was 
partly to prevent any accident happening 
to us in this early stage of our journey ; 
and partly, perhaps, to calm our fears on 
that score, that a messenger had been dis- 
patched by our guides to an encampment 
of their tribe near, desiring them to send 
an escort to meet us at this place. We 
were met here, accordingly, by a band of 
about twenty persons on foot, all armed 
with matchlocks, and presenting the most 
ferocious and robber-like appearance that 
could be imagined. The effect of this was 
heightened by the shouts which they sent 
forth from hill to hill, and which were 
re-echoed through all the valleys, while the 
bold, projecting crags of rock, the dark 
shadows in which every thing lay buried 
below, the towering height of the cliffs 
above, and the forbidding desolation which 
every where reigned around, presented a 
picture that was quite in harmony through 
all its parts. It made us feel most forcibly 
the propriety of its being chosen as the 
scene of the delightful tale of compas- 
sion which we had before so often admired 
for its doctrine, independently of its local 
beauty. (Luke x. 30—34.) One must be 
amid these wild and gloomy solitudes, sur- 
rounded by an armed band, and feel the 
impatience of the traveller who rushes on 
to catch a new view at every pass and turn ; 
one must be alarmed at the very tramp of 
the horses' hoofs rebounding through the 
caverned rocks, and at the savage shouts of 
the footmen, scarcely less loud than the 
echoing thunder produced by the discharge 
of their pieces in the valleys ; one must 
witness all this upon the spot, before the 
full force and beauty of the admirable story 
of the good Samaritan can be perceived. 
Here, pillage, wounds, and death, would be 
accompanied with double terror, from the 
frightful aspect of every thing around. 
Here, the unfeeling act of passing by a 
fellow-creature in distress, as the Priest 
and Levite are said to have done, strikes 
one with horror, as an act almost more than 
inhuman. Ami here, too, the compassion 
of the good Samaritan is doubly virtuous, 



JER 



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from the purity of the motive which must 
have led to it, in a spot where no eyes were 
fixed on him to draw forth the performance 
of any duty, and from the bravery which 
was necessary to admit of a man's exposing 
himself by such delay, to the risk of a similar 
fate to that from which he was endeavour- 
ing to rescue his fellow-creature.' 

D'Arvieux thus describes the state of 
Jericho in his time, A.D. 1659. ' After 
having travelled a quarter of a league in 
the plain, we encamped near to the gardens 
of Jericho, by the side of a small brook ; 
and, while our supper was preparing, we 
walked in the gardens, and among the 
ruins of Jericho. This very ancient city 
is now desolate, and consists of only about 
fifty poor houses, in bad condition, wherein 
the labourers who cultivate the gardens 
shelter themselves. The plain around is 
extremely fertile ; the soil is middling fat ; 
but it is watered by several rivulets, 
which flow into the Jordan. Notwith- 
standing these advantages, only the gar- 
dens adjacent to the town are cultivated. 
We saw here abundance of those trees 
which are called in Arabic Zacoum ; they 
are furnished with thorns like Acacias, and 
resemble bushes. They bear fruits the 
size of large plums, the stone of which re- 
sembles a rough-sided melon. These are 
pounded, and the kernel yields an oil, 
which is a kind of balsam, perfectly good 
against bruises, cold humours, nervous 
contractions, and rheumatisms. We visited 
the fountain of the prophet Elisha, which 
for many ages has furnished water for the 
gardens ; it was formerly bitter, but was 
healed by that prophet. The head of this 
water is enclosed in a basin of a triangular 
shape, of which each side is about three 
fathoms in length. It is lined with wrought 
stone, and is even paved in parts. There 
are two niches in one of its sides, which is 
higher than the others, and an orifice by 
which the water issues in a stream suffi- 
cient to turn a mill. It is said, that several 
sources discharge themselves into the same 
basin ; but their depth prevents them from 
being explored.' 

' The brook of Elisha,' says Dr. Shaw, 
* which flows from the mountains of Quaran- 
tania, and waters the gardens of Jericho, 
together with its plantations of plum-trees 
(the Zaccoun), and date-trees, hath its banks 
adorned with several species of brook lime, 
lysimachia, water-cresses, betony, and other 
aquatic plants : all of them very like those 
that are the produce of England. And, in- 
deed, the whole scene of vegetables, and 
of the soil which supports them, hath not 
those particular differences and varieties, 
that we might expect in two such distant 
climates.' 

At present Jericho is a wretched village, 
consisting of about thirty miserable cottages. 
The once celebrated ' City of Palms' cannot 
542 



now boast of one of those beautiful trees in 
its vicinity. The plain that surrounds it 
(through which the Jordan flows) is watered 
by a beautiful fountain : it has ever been vene- 
rated as the same which the prophet Elisha 
healed; (2 Kings ii. 19— 22.) the water of 
which was ' naught (or bitter) and the 
ground barren.' Game's Letters, pp. 322, 
323 ; Home's Introduction, vol. iii. pp. 592, 
593 ; Shaw's Travel's p. 369, fol. edit. ; Sa- 
cred Geography ; Buckingham' s Travels in 
Palestine, vol. ii. pp. 55 — 57, octavo edition 
of 1822. 

JEROBO'AM, omr, signifies he that 
rejects or opposes the people ; or cause, or 
dispute of the people; otherwise, that mul- 
tiplies the people. 

Jeroboam, son of Nebat, who made 
Israel to sin, is often characterized in 
Scripture as the author of the schism and 
idolatry of the ten tribes. He was the son 
of Nebat, and of a widow named Zeruah, 
and was born at Zereda in Ephraim. 
Jeroboam was bold and enterprising ; and 
Solomon gave him a commission to levy 
the taxes of Ephraim and Manasseh. As 
Jeroboam was going alone one day out of 
Jerusalem into the country, he was met by 
the prophet Ahijah wearing a new cloak. 
(1 Kings xi. 29.) Only these two were in 
the field. Ahijah rent his cloak in twelve 
pieces, and said to Jeroboam, Take ten to 
thyself; for the Lord will rend the king- 
dom of Solomon, and give ten tribes to 
thee. Jeroboam, who was already disaf- 
fected, began to excite the people to re- 
volt ; but Solomon being informed of his 
designs, Jeroboam fled into Egypt, where 
he continued till the death of Solomon. 
Rehoboam, who succeeded, behaved in a 
haughty and menacing manner, and ten of 
the tribes separated from the house of 
David. Jeroboam returning from Egypt, 
these ten tribes invited him among them 
to a general assembly, in which they ap- 
pointed him king over Israel. He fixed 
his residence at Shechem. 

Jeroboam, forgetting the fidelity due to 
God, who had given him the kingdom, 
resolved to make two golden calves, in 
imitation, probably, of the god Apis, and 
to place one at Dan, and the other at 
Bethel. Henceforth, said he to the people, 
go no more to Jerusalem. He appointed 
a solemn feast on the fifteenth day of the 
eighth month, to dedicate his new altar, 
and consecrate his golden calves ; and 
he himself went up to the altar to offer 
incense and sacrifices. (1 Kings xiii.) At 
that time, a man of God (generally be- 
lieved to be the prophet Iddo) came from 
Judah to Bethel by divine direction ; and 
seeing Jeroboam at the altar, he cried, ' O 
altar, altar, thus saith the Lord, a child 
shall be born unto the house of David, 
by name Josiah, and upon thee shall he 
sacrifice the priests of the high-places, who 




jVTeele sculp* 352 Strand. 



JER 



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now burn incense upon thee : he shall 
burn men's bones upon thee.' The king, 
who was standing by the altar, stretched 
out his hand, and commanded the prophet 
to be seized; but the hand which he 
stretched out became withered, and he 
could not draw it back. Immediately, the 
altar was broken ; and the fire, with the 
ashes which were upon it, fell on the 
ground. Then the king said to him, Offer 
up thy prayers to God, that he may restore 
to me the use of my hand. The man of 
God besought the Lord, and the king's 
hand was restored. An event so extra- 
ordinary did not recover Jeroboam from 
his impiety. This was the sin of Jero- 
boam's family, and the cause of its extir- 
pation. He died after a reign of twenty- 
two years, and was succeeded by his son, 
Nadab. 

It is evident that the worship of the 
golden calves was not considered by the 
sacred writers and by the prophets as an 
absolute pagan idolatry. The worship of- 
fered before these images is supposed to 
have been in imitation of the ceremonies 
of the Mosaic law. See Calves, Golden. 

On the subject of the withered hand of 
Jeroboam, ' it seems that we ought not to 
understand this drying up, of an actual desic- 
cation of the arm, as if all its vital fluids 
had ceased to circulate in it ; as if it re- 
tained no vital powers ; but rather a rheu- 
matic or paralytic affection, which suspended 
the powers of motion for a time. The 
palsy requires a long perseverance in reme- 
dies nervous, cephalic, and discussive; 
unctions, lotions, frictions, fomentations, 
and bathings.' The instantaneous cure, 
therefore, of this rash king is no less 
wonderful than his instantaneous affliction. 
Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, p. 109; 
Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 345. 

Jeroboam the Second, king of Israel, 
was son of Jehoash, and succeeded his 
father in the year of the world 3179. He 
reigned forty-one years. He walked in 
the evil ways of Jeroboam, the son of 
Nebat. (2 Kings xiv. 23.) Yet, he restored 
the kingdom of Israel to its splendour, 
from which it had fallen under his prede- 
cessors ; he reconquered those provinces 
and cities which the kings of Syria had 
usurped; and he extended his authority 
over all the countries on the other side 
Jordan, to the Dead Sea. 

Under Jeroboam II. the prophets Hosea, 
Amos, and Jonah, prophesied. It is evi- 
dent from their writings, that in his reign, 
idleness, effeminacy, magnificence, and in- 
justice, polluted Israel ; that the licen- 
tiousness of the people with regard to 
religion was extreme ; that they frequented 
not only Dan and Bethel, the golden 
calves, but Mizpah in Gilead, Beersheba, 
Tabor, Carmel, Gilgal, and almost all the 
high-places in Israel, and wherever God 
543 



had, at any time, appeared to the patri- 
archs. They did not always worship the 
idols there ; but they exposed themselves 
to disorders, by frequenting assemblies of 
so much hilarity, gaiety, and pleasure. 

JERU'SALEM, abwrv, 'Upoo-oXvfia, sig- 
nifies the vision of peace, or perfect, or con- 
summate vision ; otherwise, perfect or con- 
summate fear. Jerusalem, anciently denomi- 
nated Jebus, or Salem, is by some called 
Solyma, or Hierosolyma, and by the He- 
brews Jeruschalaim, or Jeruschelem, the 
vision of peace, or the possession, or inheri- 
tance of peace. Joshua gave it to the tribe 
of Benjamin. (Josh, xviii. 28.) He took 
and slew the king of Jerusalem in the 
famous battle of Gibeon : yet it appears 
from other passages, that the Jebusites 
continued to hold it till the time of 
David ; (2 Sam. v.) and it is expressly 
said, that the children of Benjamin did 
not drive the Jebusites out of Jerusalem. 
(Judg. i. 21.) 

As Jerusalem was situated on the fron- 
tiers of the two tribes of Benjamin and 
Judah, it sometimes formed a part of one, 
and sometimes of the other. By Joshua's 
division, Benjamin had most right to it ; 
and Judah, who had twice subdued it, 
first under the Judges, and afterwards 
under David, might claim it by right of 
conquest. After the Lord had declared 
his choice of Jerusalem for the place of 
his habitation and temple, it was con- 
sidered as the metropolis of the Jewish 
nation, as belonging to all Israel in com- 
mon, and not properly either to Benjamin 
or Judah. 

The city of Jerusalem was built upon 
hills, and was encompassed with moun- 
tains. (Psalm cxxv. 2.) It was situated in 
a stony and barren soil, and, according to 
Strabo, was sixty furlongs in length. Ad- 
jacent to Jerusalem were the fountains 
of Gihon and Siloam, and the brook 
Kidron ; and also the waters of Ethan, 
which Pilate conveyed through aqueducts 
into the city. The ancient city Jebus, 
which David took from the Jebusites, was 
not large. It was situated upon a moun- 
tain, south of the place where the temple 
afterwards stood. The opposite moun- 
tain, on the north, is Sion, where David 
built a new city, which he called the city 
of David, and in which was the royal 
palace. Between these mountains lay the 
valley of Millo, which sepax - ated the an- 
cient Jebus from the city of David, but 
which David and Solomon filled up to join 
the cities. (1 Kings ix. 15. 24.; xi. 27-) 
After the reign of Manasseh, a new city 
is mentioned, called the Second, and en- 
closed with walls by that prince (2 Chron. 
xxiv. 22. : xxxiii. 14.; 2 Kings xxii. 24.) 
The Maccabees considerably enlarged Je- 
rusalem on the north, by enclosing a third 
hill, as part of the city. Josephus speaks 




'ood. &Ubert£_Fiper.Lv> 



JER 



JER 



of a fourth hill called Bezetha, which 
Agrippa joined to Jerusalem. This new 
city lay north of the temple, along the 
brook Kidron. Hence it appears, that 
Jerusalem had never been so large as when 
attacked by the Romans. It was then 
thirty-three furlongs in circumference, or 
nearly four miles and a half. Josephus 
says, that the wall of circumvallation, which 
Titus made, was thirty-nine furlongs, or four 
miles and eight hundred and seventy-five 
paces. Others admit a much larger extent. 

' This city,' says D'Arvieux, ' is situated 
on the summit of one of the highest moun- 
tains of Judea. In truth, every way to it 
is a perpetual ascent, and from it a per- 
petual descent. The lands around it are all 
bare, and are merely dry, arid rocks, white 
as chalk, except on the side next to Beth- 
lehem, which is more agreeable and fer- 
tile. The present walls are tolerably good, 
they were built by Soliman : they are 
about six feet thick, and about 4,500 
paces in circumference, with a dry ditch, 
from the gate of Damascus to that of Beth- 
lehem, where the castle stands. The city 
has seven gates, without drawbridges. The 
castle was built by the Pisans. It serves 
as a citadel to the city ; its walls and 
towers are good and well terraced, with 
large and deep ditches. On mount Sion 
was formerly the palace of David, of which 
some vestiges still remain. A magnificent 
church was built on this site, with a con- 
vent; but these have been seized by the 
Turks. On the mountain of offence, where 
Solomon is supposed to have sacrificed to 
idols, is now a poor paltry village, inhabited 
by Jews, called Gehennam, that is to say, 
hell. The houses are mostly hollowed in 
the rock, which is soft like a tufa. The 
Bethlehem gate leads to Emmaus. On 
this, the northern side of the city, are hills 
of ruins on all sides ; and not far off is the 
fountain Gihon, where Solomon was pro- 
claimed king.' 

Dr, Wittman observes, that at the dis- 
tance of about twenty-five miles from Jeru- 
salem, towards Rama, the territory becomes 
rocky and mountainous, and the road 
almost impenetrable. To the gates of 
Jerusalem the land exhibited the same 
rocky and barren appearance. The city 
itself stands on an elevated rocky ground, 
capable of yielding but little produce ; in 
the vicinity, however, we saw several 
spots, which the inhabitants had with 
great industry fertilized, by clearing away 
the stones with which they had banked up 
the soil, to prevent it from being washed 
away, and by resorting to every other 
expedient which could suggest itself. 
The soil, which is a reddish clay, wherever 
it is of any depth, is essentially of a good 
quality; consequently, their labours had 
been rewarded, in these partial and chosen 
spots, by an abundant produce of fruits, 
544 



corn, and vegetables. The grapes were 
uncommonly fine and large. At the 
season of vintage the vineyards must have 
had a pleasing aspect in this land of rocks 
and mountains. 

The circumference of Jerusalem does 
not now exceed four miles. The walls and 
habitations are in good repair. The walls 
have several small square towers. Near the 
entrance gate is a castle, denominated Da- 
vid's tower, of which the stones in the lower 
part are massive, and apparently of great 
antiquity. 

It is a general opinion, that Melchizedek 
was king of Jerusalem. Some, however, 
think that the Salem of Melchizedek was a 
village near Scythopolis, where Jerome 
says the ruins of that prince's palace were 
visible in his time. (Gen. xiv. 18.) In the 
reign of Rehoboam, Jerusalem was taken 
and pillaged by Shishak, king of Egypt, 
(1 Kings xiv. 26, 27.) Some time after, 
Amaziah, king of Israel, took Jerusalem, 
carried away all the treasures of the 
temple and the royal palace, and demo- 
lished 400 cubits of the city walls, (2 Kings 
xiv. 13. 2 Chron. xxv. 23.) Necho, king 
of Egypt, returning from his expedition 
against Carchemish on the Euphrates, en- 
tered Jerusalem ; but we do not read, that 
he pillaged either the city or the temple. 
Nebuchadnezzar, in the fourth year of 
Jehoiakim, kingofJudah, besieged Jeru- 
salem, and subjected it to the Chaldeans. 
(2 Kings xxiv. &c.) The same prince 
again besieged and took it twice in the 
reign of Jehoiakim; and, lastly, he cap- 
tured the city a fourth time, in the eleventh 
year of Zedekiah. After the captivity of 
Babylon, Jerusalem was rebuilt and re- 
peopled. Alexander the Great, after he 
had taken Tyre, entered it ; and after the 
death of that prince, Jerusalem remained 
under the kings of Egypt. According to 
Josephus, Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, took 
it by stratagem. Antiochus Epiphanes 
besieged the city, pillaged it and the 
temple, and killed 80,000 men, (1 Mace i. 
21. 2 Mace, v.) Two years after, Antio- 
chus sent to Jerusalem Apollonius, who 
fell suddenly on the city, made a great 
slaughter, got a rich booty, and burnt 
most of the houses. Jerusalem was thus 
forsaken by its own inhabitants, and left 
to the Gentiles. This city was next be- 
sieged and taken by Pompey, who on this 
occasion acted with great moderation. It 
was afterwards captured by Sosius. Titus 
besieged Jerusalem, burned it, and re- 
duced it to a wilderness, in the year of 
Christ 70. 

From the destruction of Jerusalem by the 
Romans to the present time, that city has 
remained, for the most part, in a state of 
ruin and desolation; 'and it has never been 
under the government of the Jews them- 
selves, but oppressed and broken down by a 



JER 



JER 



succession of foreign masters — the Romans, 
the Saracens, the Franks, the Mamelukes, 
and last by the Turks, to whom it is still 
subject. It is not, therefore, only in the 
history of Josephus, and in other ancient 
writers, that we are to look for the accom- 
plishment of our Lord's predictions: we 
see them verified at this moment before our 
eyes, in the desolate state of the once cele- 
brated city and temple of Jerusalem, and in 
the present condition of the Jewish people, 
not collected together into any one country, 
into one political society, under one form of 
government, but dispersed into every re- 
gion of the globe, and every where treated 
with contumely and scorn.' 

The following is the description given by 
our celebrated countryman, the late Dr. E. 
D. Clarke, of the city of Jerusalem :— On 
first obtaining a view of the Holy City, he 
observes, ' we had not been prepared for the 
grandeur of the spectacle which the city 
alone exhibited. Instead of a wretched and 
ruined town, by some described as the deso- 
lated remnant of Jerusalem, we beheld, as it 
were, a flourishing and stately metropolis ; 
presenting a magnificent assemblage of 
domes, towers, palaces, churches, and mo- 
nasteries ; all of which, glittering in the sun's 
rays, shone with inconceivable splendour. As 
we drew nearer, our whole attention was en- 
grossed by its noble and interesting appear- 
ance. The lofty hills surrounding it gave 
to the city itself an appearance of elevation 
less than it really has. 

• If Mount Calvary have sunk beneath the 
overwhelming influence of superstition, stu- 
diously endeavouring, during so many ages, 
to modify and to disfigure it; if the situation 
of Mount Sion yet remain to be ascertained; 
the Mount of Olives, undisguised by fanati- 
cal labours, exhibits the appearance it pre- 
sented in all the periods of its history. From 
its elevated summit all the principal features 
of the city may be discerned ; and the changes 
that eighteen centuries have wrought in its 
topography may, perhaps, be ascertained. 
The features of Nature continue the same, 
although works of art have been done away : 
the beautiful gate of the Temple is no more; 
but Siloa's fountain haply flows, and Kidron 
sometimes murmurs in the Valley of Jeho- 
shaphat. 

• Leaving the mountain, where all the se- 
pulchres of the kings of Judah are hewn, 
and regaining the road which conducts to- 
wards the east, into the Valley of Jehosha- 
phat, we passed the fountain of Siloa ; from 
hence we ascended to the summit of the 
Mount of Olives ; passing in our way a num- 
ber of Hebrew tombs. Here indeed we 
stood upon holy ground ; and it is a question, 
which might reasonably be proposed to Jew, 
to Christian, or Mahometan, whether, in re- 
ference to the history of their respective na- 
tions, it be possible to attain a more inte- 
resting place of observation. So command- 

545 



ing is the view of Jerusalem afforded in this 
situation, that the eye roams over all the 
streets, and around the walls, as if in the 
survey of a plan, or model of the city. The 
most conspicuous object is the Mosque, 
erected upon the site and foundations of the 
Temple of Solomon : this edifice may per- 
haps be regarded as the first specimen of the 
architecture among the Saracens which 
exists in the world. A spectator, standing 
upon the Mount of Olives, and looking down 
upon the space enclosed by the walls of Je- 
rusalem, in the present state, as they have 
remained since their restoration in the six- 
teenth century — must be convinced that in- 
stead of covering two conspicuous hills, Je- 
rusalem now only occupies one eminence, 
namely that of Mount Moriah, where, of old, 
the temple stood, and where, like a Phoenix, 
that hath arisen from the ashes of its parent, 
the famous mosque of Omar is now situated. 
It is probable that the whole of Mount Sion 
has been excluded, and that the mountain 
covered by ruined edifices, whose base is 
perforated by ancient sepulchres, and sepa- 
rated from Mount Moriah by a deep trench, 
which Josephus calls Tyropaeon, extending 
as far as the fountain Siloa towards the 
eastern valley, is, in fact, that eminence 
which was once surrounded by the ' bulwarks, 
towers, and regal buildings of the house of 
David.' There seems to be no other way 
of reconciling the accounts which ancient 
authors give of the space occupied by the 
former city. — That the summit of this moun- 
tain was formerly included within the walls 
of the ancient city, seems forcibly demon- 
strated by the remains, which to this hour 
are upon it, both of walls and sumptuous 
edifices. In this view of the subject, the to- 
pography of the city seems more reconcila- 
ble with ancient documents. The present 
church of the holy sepulchre, and all the 
trumpery attached to it, will, it is true, be 
thrown into the back ground ; but the sepul- 
chres of the kings of Judah, so long an ob- 
ject of research, do then become a prominent 
object in the place ; the possible site of our 
Saviour's tomb may be denoted, and 

Siloa's brook, that flowed 

Fast by the oracle of God, 
will continue in the situation assigned for it, 
by Christian writers of every sect and deno- 
mination, since the age of the Apostles, and 
earliest fathers of the Church. 

' As we descended from the mountain, we 
visited an olive ground, always mentioned 
as the Hortus Oliveti, or garden of Gethse- 
mane. This place is not, without reason, 
shewn as the scene of our Saviour's agony, 
the night before his crucifixion, both from 
the circumstance of the name it still retains, 
and its situation with regard to the city. — 
We found a grove of aged olive trees, of 
most immense size, covered with fruit, al- 
most ripe. It is a curious ami interesting 
fact, that during a period of little more than 
N n 



JER 



JEK 



two thousand years, Hebrews, Assyrians, 
Romans, Mahometans, and Christians, have 
been successively in possession of the rocky 
mountain of Palestine ; yet the olive still 
vindicates its paternal soil, and is found at 
this day upon the same spot, which was 
called by the Hebrew writers, Mount Oli- 
vet, and the Mount of Olives, eleven hun- 
dred years before the Christian era. 

' Proceeding toward the south, along the 
eastern side of the valley, between the 
Mount of Olives and Mount Moriah, to- 
wards the bridge over the Kidron, across 
which Christ is said to have passed in his 
visits to the garden of Gethsemane, we came 
to " the sepulchres of the Patriarchs," facing 
that part of Jerusalem where Solomon's 
temple formerly stood. The antiquities 
which particularly bear this name are four 
in number. According to the order in 
which they occur from north to south, they 
are severally called, the sepulchres of Jeho- 
shaphat, of Absalom, the cave of St. James, 
and the sepulchre of Zechariah. From the 
difficulty of conveying any able artist to Je- 
rusalem, and the utter impossibility of find- 
ing any of the profession there, these monu- 
ments have never been faithfully delineated. 
The wretched representations given of them 
in books of travels convey no adequate idea 
of the appearance they exhibit. There is a 
certain air of sublimity, expressed by their 
massy structure, by the boldness of their de- 
sign, and by the sombre hue prevailing, not 
only over the monuments themselves, but 
over all the surrounding rocks, whence they 
are hewn, which is lost in the minuteness of 
the engraved representations. To form the 
sepulchres of Absalom, and Zechariah, the 
solid substance of the mountain has been cut 
away ; sufficient areas being thereby exca- 
vated, two monuments of a prodigious size 
appear in the midst, each seeming to consist 
of a single stone, although standing as if 
erected by an architect, and adorned with 
columns which appear to support the edi- 
fice, but of which they, in fact, form an inte- 
gral part — the whole of each mausoleum be- 
ing of one entire block of stone. — It has 
never yet been determined, when these se- 
pulchres were hewn, nor by what people. 
They are a continuation of one vast ceme- 
tery extending along the base of all the 
mountainous elevations which surround Je- 
rusalem upon its southern and eastern sides ; 
and their appearance alone, independently 
of every other consideration, denotes the 
former existence of a numerous, flourishing, 
and powerful people. ' The sepulchre of 
Jehoshaphat,' and the ' cave of St. James,' 
are smaller works of the same nature with the 
monuments ascribed to Absalom and Ze- 
chariah. They all contain apartments and 
receptacles for the dead, hewn after the same 
surprising manner. A very extraordinary 
circumstance concerning the two principal 
sepulchres is, that, at present, there is no 
546 



perceptible entrance to the interior. The 
only way of gaining admittance to that of 
Absalom, is through a hole recently broken 
for that purpose ; and to that of Zechariah, 
although the Jews pretend to a secret know- 
ledge of some such opening, there is no en- 
trance of any kind. After viewing these 
monuments, having now examined all the 
antiquities to the south and east of Jerusa- 
lem, we crossed the bed of the brook Kidron, 
by the bridge before mentioned: then as- 
cending to the city by a very steep hill, on 
which tradition relates that Stephen, the 
martyr, was stoned, we made the circuit of 
the walls upon the northern and western 
sides, but, finding nothing remarkable, we 
entered by the gate of Jaffa. 

' On the following morning, July 11, we 
left Jerusalem by the gate of Damascus, on 
the north-west side, to view the extraordi- 
nary burial-place, erroneously called, " the 
sepulchres of the kings of Judah," about a 
mile distant from the walls. This place does 
not exhibit a single sepulchral chamber, as 
in the instances so lately described, but a 
series of subterraneous chambers, extending 
in different directions, so as to form a kind 
of labyrinth, somewhat resembling that in 
Egypt, known by the name of the " sepul- 
chres of the Ptolemies." Each chamber 
contains a certain number of receptacles for 
dead bodies, not being much larger than our 
coffins. The taste manifested in the interior 
of these chambers seems also to denote a 
later period in the history of the arts ; the 
skill and neatness visible in the carving is 
admirable, and there is much of ornament 
displayed in several parts of the work. We 
also observed slabs of marble, exquisitely 
sculptured, such as we had not seen in the 
burial places before mentioned. The en- 
trance is by an open court excavated like a 
quarry, and forming a square of thirty yards. 
We lighted some wax tapers, and descended 
into the first chamber ; in the sides of which 
were some square openings, like door frames, 
offering passages to yet interior chambers. 
In one of these we found the appearance of 
a white marble coffin, entirely covered with 
the richest and most beautiful sculpture ; but, 
like all the other sculptured work about the 
place, it represented nothing of the human 
figure, nor of any animal, but consisted en- 
tirely of foliage and flowers, chiefly of the 
leaves and branches of the vine. 

* As to the history of this most princely 
place of burial, we shall find it difficult to 
obtain much information. That it was not 
what its name implies, is very evident ; be- 
cause the sepulchres of the kings of Judah 
were in Mount Sion. The most probable 
opinion is maintained by Pococke,who consi- 
dered it as the sepulchre of Helen, queen of 
Adiabene. Chateaubriand has since adopted 
Pococke's opinion.' Clarke's Travels, vol. 
iv. pp. 289 — 379 ; Dr. Wittman's Travels, p. 
] 56 ; Sacred Geography. 



JES 



JES 



JESUITS, a famous religious order of 
the Romish church, founded in 1540, under 
the name of the Society of Jesus, hy Igna- 
tius Loyola, a Spanish gentleman of illus- 
trious rank. The plan, which this fanatic 
formed of its constitution and laws was sug- 
gested, as he gave out, by the immediate 
inspiration of Heaven. But, notwithstand- 
ing this high pretension, his design met at 
first with violent opposition. The Pope, 
to whom Loyola had applied for the sanc- 
tion of his authority to confirm the institu- 
tion, referred his petition to a committee of 
cardinals. They represented the estab- 
lishment to be unnecessary as well as dan- 
gerous, and Paul refused to grant his ap- 
probation. At last, Loyola removed all his 
scruples, by an offer which it was impossi- 
ble for any pope to resist. He proposed, 
that besides the three vows of poverty, of 
chastity, and of monastic obedience, which 
are common to all the orders of regulars, 
the members of his society should take a 
fourth vow of obedience to the Pope, bind- 
ing themselves to go whithersoever he 
should command, for the service of religion, 
and without requiring any thing from the 
Holy See for their support. At a time when 
the papal authority had received such a 
shock by the revolt of so many nations from 
the Romish Church ; at a time when every 
part of the popish system was attacked with 
so much violence and success ; the acquisi- 
tion of a body of men, thus peculiarly de- 
voted to the see of Rome, and whom it 
might set in opposition to all its enemies, 
was an object of the highest consequence. 
Paul instantly perceiving this, confirmed 
the institution of the Jesuits by his bull ; 
granted the most ample privileges to the 
members of the society ; and appointed 
Loyola to be the first general of the order. 

The primary object of almost all the mo- 
nastic orders is to separate men from the 
world, and from any concern in its affairs. 
In the solitude and silence of the cloister, 
the monk is called to work out his own sal- 
vation by extraordinary acts of mortifica- 
tion and piety. He is dead to the world, 
and ought not to mingle in its transactions. 
He can be of no benefit to mankind, but by 
his example and prayers. On the con- 
trary, the Jesuits were taught to consider 
themselves as formed for action. They were 
chosen soldiers, bound to exert themselves 
continually in the service of God, and of 
the pope, his vicar upon earth. That they 
might have full leisure for this active ser- 
vice, they were totally exempted from those 
functions, the performance of which is the 
chief business of other monks. They ap- 
peared in no processions ; they practised no 
rigorous austerities ; they did not consume 
one half of their time in the repetition of 
tedious offices. But they were required to 
attend to all the transactions of the world, 
on account of the influence which these 
547 



may have upon religion ; they were directed 
to study the dispositions of persons in high 
rank, and to cultivate their friendship ; and 
by the very constitution, as well as genius 
of the order, a spirit of action and intrigue 
was infused into all its members. 

Other orders are to be considered as vo- 
luntary associations, in which whatever 
affects the whole body is regulated by the 
common suffrage of all its members. In 
this, a general, chosen for life by deputies 
from the several provinces, possessed power 
that was supreme and independent, extend- 
ing to every person and to every case. He, 
by his sole authority, nominated provin- 
cials, rectors, and every other officer em- 
ployed in the government of the society, and 
could remove them at pleasure. In him 
was vested the sovereign administration of 
the revenues and funds of the order. Every 
member belonging to it was at his disposal ; 
and by his uncontrollable mandate he could 
impose on them any task, or employ them 
in any service. To his commands they were 
required not only to yield outward obedi- 
ence, but to resign to him the inclinations 
of their wills, and the sentiments of their 
minds. There is not in the annals of man- 
kind any example of such absolute despo- 
tism, exercised not over monks confined 
in the cells of a convent, but over men dis- 
persed among all the nations of the earth. 
As the constitutions of the order vested in 
the general such absolute dominion over all 
its members, they carefully provided for his 
being perfectly informed with respect to the 
character and abilities of his subjects. 
Every novice, who offered himself as a 
candidate for entering into the order, was 
obliged to manifest his conscience to the 
superior, or to a person appointed by him ; 
and in doing this he was required to confess 
not only his sins and defects, but to discover 
the inclinations, the passions, and the bent 
of his soul. This manifestation was to be 
renewed every six months. The society, 
not satisfied with penetrating in this man- 
ner into the innermost recesses of the heart, 
directed each member to observe the words 
and actions of the novices ; and he was 
bound to disclose every thing of importance 
concerning them to the superior. In order 
that this scrutiny into their character might 
be as complete as possible, a long noviciate 
was to expire, during which they passed 
through the several gradations of ranks in 
the society, and they must have attained the 
full age of thirty- three years, before they 
could be admitted to take the final vows, by 
which they became professed members. In 
order th.it the general, who was the soul 
that animated and moved the whole society, 
might have under his eye e\ ery thing 
sary to inform or direct him, the provin- 
cials and heads of the several houses were 
obliged to transmit to him regular and fre- 
quent reports concerning the members 
N n 2 



JES 



JES 



under their inspection. In these they de- 
scended into minute details with respect to 
the character of each person, his abilities 
natural or acquired, his temper, his expe- 
rience in affairs, and the particular depart- 
ment for which he was best fitted. These 
reports, when digested and arranged, were 
entered into registers kept on purpose, that 
the general might, at one comprehensive 
view, survey the state of the society in every 
corner of the earth ; observe the qualifica- 
tions and talents of its members ; and thus 
choose, with perfect information, the instru- 
ments which his absolute power could em- 
ploy in any service for which he thought 
proper to destine them. 

Unhappily for mankind, the vast influ- 
ence which the order of Jesuits acquired, 
was often exerted with the most pernicious 
effect. Such was the tendency of that dis- 
cipline observed by the society in forming 
its members, and such the fundamental 
maxims in its constitution, that every Jesuit 
was taught to regard the interest of the so- 
ciety as the capital object, to which every 
consideration was to be sacrificed. This 
spirit of attachment to their order, the most 
ardent, perhaps, that ever influenced any 
body of men, is the characteristic principle 
of the Jesuits, and serves as a key to the 
genius of their policy, as well as to the pe- 
culiarities in their sentiments and conduct. 
The active genius of this order which pe- 
netrated the remotest countries of Asia, at 
a very early period of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, directed their attention to the exten- 
sive continent of America, as a proper ob- 
ject of their missions. Conducted by their 
leader, St. Francis Xavier, they formed a 
considerable settlement in the province of 
Paraguay, and made a rapid progress in 
instructing the Indians in arts, religion, and 
the more simple manufactures, and accus- 
toming them to the blessings of security and 
order. A few Jesuits presided over many 
thousand Indians : they soon, however, al- 
tered their views, and directed them alto- 
gether to the increase of the opulence and 
power of their order. Immense quantities 
of gold were annually transmitted to Eu- 
rope; and in the design of securing to them- 
selves an independent empire in these re- 
gions, they industriously cut off all commu- 
nication with both the Spaniards and Portu- 
guese in the adjacent provinces, and inspired 
the Indians with the most determined detes- 
tation to those nations. Such was the state 
of affairs when, in the year 1750, a treaty 
was concluded between the courts of Lisbon 
and Madrid, which ascertained the limits of 
their respective dominions, in South Ame- 
rica. Such a treaty was death to the pro- 
jects of the Jesuits, and the consequence 
was a violent contest between the united 
forces of the two European powers, and the 
Indians of Paraguay incited by the Jesuits. 
The crafty and vindictive marquis of Pom- 
548 



bal, who had raised himself from performing 
the duties of a common soldier, in the cha- 
racter of a cadet, to be absolute minister of 
the kingdom of Portugal, could not easily 
forgive this refractory conduct; and, per- 
haps, he might apprehend the downfall of 
his own authority, unless some decisive 
check were given to the growing influence 
of this dangerous society. In the beginning 
of the year 1759, therefore, the Jesuits of 
all descriptions were banished the kingdom 
of Portugal, on the plea that certain of their 
order were concerned in the attempt upon 
the life of the king in September 1758, and 
their effects were confiscated. 

The disgrace of the Jesuits in France 
proceeded from different and more remote 
causes. By their influence the bull Unige- 
nitus, which condemned so strongly the 
principles of the Jansenists, was generally 
supposed to have been obtained. The Je- 
suits, who omitted no opportunity of en- 
riching their treasury, engaged largely in 
trade, particularly with the island of Mar- 
tinico. But certain losses falling heavily 
upon them, the Jesuit, who was the osten- 
sible person in the transactions, affected to 
become a bankrupt, and to shift the pay- 
ment of the debts he had incurred from the 
collective body. As a monk, it was evident 
he could possess no distinct property ; and 
he had been always considered as an agent 
for the society. The affair was, therefore, 
litigated before the parliament of Paris, who 
were not too favourably disposed to the holy 
fathers. In the course of the proceedings, 
it was necessary to produce the institute or 
rules of their order, which were found to 
contain maxims subversive equally of mo- 
rals and of government ; and other political 
motives concurring at the same time, the 
order was abolished in France by a royal 
edict, in the year 1762, and their colleges 
and possessions were alienated and sold. 
Pope Ganganelli, on the 2lst of July, 1773, 
signed a brief for the final suppression of 
the Jesuits. 

Of late years, however, the Jesuits have 
made great exertions to re-possess them- 
selves of their former power, and have again 
established their order in several nations 
of Europe. The supreme authority in the 
church of Rome, during the pontificate of 
the late pope Pius VII., and about the year 
1819, re-established this order, and, in the 
bull of re-establishment, bestowed upon it 
the highest commendations. In that bull, 
the Jesuits are termed by the pope, ' the 
vigorous rowers, who were necessary to the 
labouring ship of the church ;' and to them, 
it appears, that the direction of the vessel is 
at present principally entrusted by the 
church of Rome. 

In this country, by a late act of parlia- 
ment, every Jesuit, and every member of 
every other religious order, community, or 
society, of the church of Rome, is required 



JES 



JES 



to deliver a notice or statement of his name, 
age, place of birth, denomination of the 
order to which he belongs, &c. to the clerk 
of the peace of the county or place where 
the party resides ; and if any Jesuit or mem- 
ber of such religious order shall come into 
this realm (unless licensed so to do by one 
of the principal secretaries of state,) he is 
liable to be banished for the term of his 
natural life. Gregory's Hist, of the Christ- 
ian Church, vol. ii. pp. 280. 519. 

JE'SUS, jWirv, 'Irjaovc;, signifies saviour. 
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Mes- 
siah, and Saviour of the world, the first 
and principal object of the prophecies, 
who was prefigured and promised in the 
Old Testament, was expected and desired 
by the patriarchs ; the hope and salvation 
of the Gentiles ; the glory, happiness, and 
consolation of Christians. The name Jesus, 
or as the Hebrews pronounce it, jwirv 
Jehoshua, or Joshua, 'Itjo-ovq, signifies he 
who shall save. No one ever bore this name 
with so much justice, nor so perfectly 
fulfilled its signification as Jesus Christ, 
who saves from sin and hell, and hath 
merited heaven for us by the price of his 
blood. 

The angel Gabriel had six months be- 
fore declared to Zacharias the future birth 
of his son, John the Baptist, the forerunner 
of the Messiah, when God sent the same 
angel to Nazareth, a city of Galilee, to 
the Virgin Mary, who was espoused to 
Joseph, of the tribe of Judah, and family 
of David. (Lukei. 28.) Gabriel announced 
to her the operations of the Holy Spirit 
within her; and gave her, as a sign of 
his veracity, information of the concep- 
tion of her ancient cousin Elizabeth, whom 
Mary went immediately to visit. 

About nine months after this, an edict 
of the emperor Augustus enjoined all per- 
sons in Judea to be registered in the place 
of their birth, or whence they derived 
their descent. (Luke ii. 1, &c.) Joseph, 
who was of the tribe of Judah, and family 
of David, went with Mary, his espoused 
wife, to Bethlehem. Whilst they were 
there, Mary was delivered of a son, whom 
she had placed in a manger belonging to 
the stable where they were obliged to 
lodge, there being no room in the inn or 
caravansera of the town. The night of 
his birth, our Saviour was visited by shep- 
herds, who were informed of that circum- 
stance by an angelic host. 

On the eighth day, at his circumcision, 
he was called Jesus. Some time after, 
certain wise men came from the east to 
Jerusalem, seeking the new-born king of 
the Jews, and saying that his birth had 
been signified to them by a star. At this 
inquiry the whole city was moved ; and 
Herod, who was then at Jericho under 
cure for the disease of which he died, 
being informed of this inquiry, sent for 
549 



the priests, and asked them where Christ 
should be born ? They answered, at Beth- 
lehem. Then inquiring diligently at what 
time the star appeared to the wise men, 
he bid them go and find out the new 
king, and as soon as they had seen him, 
come and inform him, that he also might 
worship him. The star conducted them 
to Bethlehem, and here it stayed over the 
place where the child was. They worship- 
ped Jesus, and, according to eastern 
custom, presented him with gifts of gold, 
frankincense, and myrrh. Being divinely 
warned in a dream of Herod's evil dispo- 
sition, they returned by another way into 
their own country. 

Forty days after the birth of Jesus, the 
time of Mary's purification being come, 
she went to the temple of Jerusalem, to 
present her first-born son, and to offer 
those sacrifices which the law prescribed 
after lying-in. (Luke ii. 22, &c.) On this 
occasion, Simeon and Anna, two devout 
and aged inhabitants of Jerusalem, were 
supernaturally directed to go into the tem- 
ple ; and seeing the child Jesus, they de- 
clared, in the spirit of prophecy, that he 
was the promised Messiah. After this, 
Joseph and Mary prepared to return to 
Nazareth; but an angel warned Joseph 
in a dream to flee into Egypt. Herod 
understanding that the wise men were re- 
turned, and fearing this new-born king 
might deprive him of his crown, sent or- 
ders to slay all the male children under 
two years old in Bethlehem and its con- 
fines. Herod died soon after, and was 
succeeded by his son, Archelaus. Joseph 
returned into Judea ; but when he under- 
stood that Archelaus reigned there, he 
chose rather to go to Nazareth in Galilee, 
out of the dominion of Archelaus. Here 
Jesus Christ dwelt, subject to Joseph and 
Mary, and working at the trade of his 
father, who was, as is generally believed, 
a carpenter, till the thirtieth year of the 
vulgar aera, which was the thirty-third 
year of his age. 

At the age of twelve years, Jesus ac- 
companied his parents to Jerusalem, to 
celebrate the passover. (Luke ii. 42 — 52.) 
Joseph and Mary returning to Nazareth, 
and believing Jesus to be in the company, 
went a day's journey without suspecting 
his absence. In the evening, however, 
they sought him in vain. They went back 
the next day to Jerusalem, where they 
found him in the temple, sitting among 
the doctors, asking them questions, and 
hearing them. 

After a long interval, of which we have 
no authentic account, John the Baptist. BOB 
of Zacharias, having lived to the age of 
thirty-two in the wilderness, came into 
the country about Jordan, preaching re- 
pentance, and proclaiming that the so 
long expected Messiah was then present 



JES 



JES 



among the Israelites. (Matt. iii. 13, &c. ; 
Luke iii. 1 — 22.) As multitudes resorted 
to John to be baptized, Jesus also went to 
him. John, urging his own inferiority, at 
first refused ; but when Jesus represented 
the necessity of his being baptized by him, 
he complied. Immediately after the bap- 
tism of Jesus, ' the heaven was opened, 
and the Holy Ghost descended in a bodily 
shape like a dove upon him, and a voice 
came from heaven, which said, This is my 
beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased : 
and Jesus himself began to be about thirty 
years of age.' (Matt. iii. 16, 17- Luke iii. 
21, &c.) After this, Jesus was led by the 
Spirit into the wilderness, to be tempted 
of the devil, all whose temptations he 
piously withstood. (Matt. iv. Luke iv.) 

Some time after, when John was bap- 
tizing at Bethabara beyond Jordan, Jesus 
passed that way in his return from Gali- 
lee. John, seeing him, said to two of 
his disciples, ' Behold the Lamb of God, 
which taketh away the sins of the world !' 
These two disciples went with Jesus to 
the place where he abode, and continued 
with him all that day. Towards evening, 
Andrew having found his brother Simon, 
brought him to Jesus, who said, Thou art 
Simon, son of Jona, thou shalt be called 
Cephas, that is, a stone or rock — Peter. 
The next day, Jesus departed for Naza- 
reth, accompanied by Andrew, Peter, and 
that other disciple, who first went with 
Andrew to visit Jesus, and whom some 
think to be Bartholomew, or James, son of 
Zebedee, but others, with greater proba- 
bility, John the Evangelist. On the way, 
Jesus met Philip, who followed him. Philip, 
meeting with Nathanael, told him, that 
they had found the Messiah in Jesus of 
Nazareth. Nathanael answered, ' Can any 
good thing come out of Nazareth V Philip 
replied, ' Come and see.' Jesus saw Na- 
thanael coming to him, and said, Behold 
an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile ! 
Nathanael answered him, Whence knowest 
thou me? Jesus replied, Before Philip 
called thee, I saw thee under the fig-tree. 
Then Nathanael answered him, 'Rabbi, 
thou art the Son of God, thou art the king 
of Israel,' thus evincing his firm belief that 
Jesus was the Messiah. 

Jesus returned from Bethabara to Gali- 
lee, and on the third day after, he wrought 
his first public miracle at Cana, on the 
confines of Tyre, where, at a wedding, 
to which he and his disciples were invited, 
he changed water into wine. ( John ii. 1 — 
12.) Thence he went to Capernaum, 
where he continued some days with his 
mother and his disciples, because he pro- 
posed to celebrate the passover at Jerusalem. 

Being come into the temple, (John ii. 

13 — 21.) he drove out the money-changers, 

and the sellers of beasts and birds for 

sacrifice ; and when questioned as to his 

550 



authority, he answered, Destroy this temple, 
and in three days I will raise it up again. 
This was the first passover celebrated 
by our Saviour after he entered on 
his public ministry. Whilst at Jerusa- 
lem, Nicodemus came by night to visit 
him. Jesus discoursed to him of baptism 
and regeneration ; he also declared to 
him, that he was the light of the world, 
and the Son of God from heaven. Nico- 
demus did not very readily understand 
these mysteries ; but the sequel shows, that 
his faith and conversion were solid and 
real. (John iii. 1, &c.) 

After Jesus had attended this first pass- 
over, he went and resided in Judea, and 
in the country about Jordan, where his 
disciples baptized in his name with water 
unto repentance, following up John's bap- 
tism; but Jesus himself baptized not, be- 
cause his was properly the baptism of the 
Spirit unto regeneration, which was not 
to take place till he was glorified, after 
his resurrection. A crowd of people at- 
tended his baptism, or rather that of his 
disciples. The number of those who re- 
sorted to him was so great, that the dis- 
ciples of John the Baptist became jealous, 
and hinted their uneasiness to their master. 
But John answered, He is the bridegroom, 
and I am only the friend of the bridegroom. 
(John iii. 29.) 

John the Baptist being imprisoned by 
Herod the Tetrarch, Jesus was afraid that 
the Pharisees would prevail with Pilate 
to seize him also, on pretence that he was 
too much followed by the people. Jesus, 
therefore, retired to Galilee, which was 
part of Philip's Tetrarchy, where Pilate 
had no power. In the way he stopped 
near a small village called Sychar, in- 
habited by Samaritans. He sat down greatly 
fatigued near Jacob's well, and sent his 
disciples into the town to buy provisions. 
During their absence, a woinan of the 
place came to draw water. Jesus desired 
her to let him drink ; and a very inter- 
esting conversation followed. The woman, 
returning to the town, expressed her opin- 
ion of Jesus ; and the inhabitants came 
and invited him to enter into their city. 
There he continued two days, and many 
believed on him. (John iv. 41.) 

On his arrival in Galilee, he preached in 
the synagogues. At Nazareth, where he had 
been brought up, he applied to himself the 
passage of Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2.) which describes 
the Messiah. The people of Nazareth 
admired his doctrine, but were offended at 
the meanness of his condition. He told 
them that no prophet is honoured in his 
own country ; that God is sovereign in 
dispensing his favours, and, indeed, that 
he had formerly preferred the heathens to 
native Israelites, and might do the same 
again. This discourse so incensed the 
Nazarenes, that they led him to the top 



JES 



JES 



of a mountain upon which their city was 
built, with the design of throwing him 
down headlong ; but Jesus, passing through 
the midst of them, went to Capernaum. 
He went a second time to Cana, where a 
certain nobleman, or one of Herod's cour- 
tiers, came and requested him to cure his 
son, who was sick at Capernaum. Jesus 
told him he might return, as his son was 
healed. The nobleman's servants met him 
on his way home, and informed him of his 
son's recovery, from the very moment that 
our Saviour told him his son was cured. 
(John iv. 46.) Some days after, on the sea 
of Tiberias, Jesus called Peter and An- 
drew his brother a second time, who were 
then employed in fishing. A little farther, 
he called the two brothers James and John, 
the two sons of Zebedee, who were also 
in their vessel. (Matt. iv. 18, 19, 20, &c.) 

On a sabbath-day, in the synagogue of 
Capernaum, he healed one possessed with a 
devil ; and, entering Simon's house, he 
cured his mother-in-law of a violent fever. 
(Mark i. 21—31.) Towards evening, all 
who had any sick persons, brought them 
to the door of the house where Jesus was, 
and he healed them. The next day, early 
in the morning, he retired alone into a de- 
sert to pray. Peter and the other disciples 
went to find him, and told him that the 
multitude sought him. But he carried 
them through the cities and villages of 
Galilee, where he preached the kingdom of 
God. His reputation spread throughout 
Syria, and the sick were sent to him from 
all parts. (Matt. iv. 23, &c.) Jesus, seeing 
the great multitude that followed him in 
his circuit through Galilee, went up into 
a mountain, and instructed them by an 
admirable sermon. After this discourse, 
a leper was presented to him, whom he 
healed, and enjoined to show himself to the 
priests. 

Jesus returned to Capernaum, where a 
centurion, a Gentile, prevailed on the 
principal Jews of the city to intreat Jesus 
to restore one of his principal servants to 
health. The centurion, observing that Jesus 
was hastening towards his house, went him- 
self, or sent some friends, to say, that he 
did not esteem himself worthy to receive 
him under his roof, but if he would only 
speak the word, his servant would be 
healed. Jesus admired his faith, and cured 
his servant. (Matt. viii. 5 — 13.) Jesus 
went from Capernaum to Nain, where 
he raised from the dead a widow's son, 
whom the people were carrying to his 
grave. (Luke vii. 11—50.) When come 
into the city, a Pharisee, named Simon, in- 
vited him to dine with him, and, whilst at 
table, a woman of the place, of loose con- 
duct, came and washed his feet with her 
tears, and wiped them with her hair. 
Simon was offended at this; but .Jesus con- 
vinced him of her repentance and love. 
551 



Jesus entered into a ship to pass over the 
sea of Tiberias ; but in the night he fell 
asleep, and, a storm rising, the vessel was 
in danger. The disciples, therefore, awoke 
Jesus, who commanded the winds, and im- 
mediately the sea was calm. (Matt. viii. 23. 
Luke viii. 23.) He landed in the country 
of the Gergesenes, east of the sea which 
he had crossed. Here were two famous 
demoniacs, one of whom was possessed by 
a legion of devils. He met Jesus, and the 
devils complained by him, that Jesus came 
to torment them before their time. They 
besought him not to send them into the 
abyss, but rather into a herd of swine, 
feeding near the place. Jesus suffered 
them, and immediately the swine, about 
two thousand in number, ran violently 
down a steep precipice into the sea of 
Tiberias. The Gergesenes, being fright- 
ened, intreated Jesus to quit their country. 
He, therefore, recrossed the sea, and was 
scarcely come ashore, when Jairus, a ruler 
of the synagogue at Capernaum, requested 
him to cure his only daughter of twelve years 
old. As he was going to Jairus's house, 
a woman who had an issue of blood was 
cured by touching secretly the hem of his 
garment. Soon after Jairus was informed 
that his daughter was dead. But Jesus 
encouraged him, and raised the young 
woman from the dead. (Matt. ix. 18 — 
26. Luke viii. 49—56.) As he left the 
ruler's house, two blind men earnestly 
begged to be restored to sight. They fol- 
lowed him into a house whither he was 
going; and he restored to them their sight. 
He also cured one possessed with a devil, 
that was dumb. (Matt. ix. 27—33.) 

Jesus went to Jerusalem to celebrate 
the passover. This appears to be the 
second passover, though some are of 
opinion, that it was another feast of the 
Jews. Indeed, the chronology of this pass- 
over has been embarrassed by the indefi- 
nite description of St John, kopn) riov 
'lovdaiojv, ' a feast of the Jews,' which will 
equally apply to that of Pentecost, or of 
Tabernacles. But the more correct read- 
ing appears to be i) kopr?), ' the feast,' by 
way of eminence, as the passover was 
styled, (Luke ii. 42. John iv. 45. ; xi. 56. ; 
xii. 12.) and this reading is supported by 
the two Syriac versions, by the Coptic, by 
twenty-five MSS. including three of the 
oldest, by the Fragment, edit. Aldin., and 
by the fathers, Irenaeus, Eusebius, Cyril, and 
Theophylact. 

Whilst Jesus was at Jerusalem, he cured 
one sick of the palsy, who had been thirty- 
eight years waiting at the pool of Bethesda. 
This person carried his bed on the sabbath- 
day, and by that means offended the Jews, 
who, being informed that .lesus had com 
manded it. resolved on his death, as a blas- 
phemer, and destroyer of the law. because 
he had declared that God was his Father. 



JES 



JES 



(John v. 1 — 47.) Departing from Jerusa- 
lem, he passed through corn-fields on a 
sabbath-day, and his disciples rubbed the 
almost ripe ears of corn in their hands, with 
intent to eat them. The Pharisees com- 
plained to Jesus, that this was a violation of 
the sabbath. Jesus justified the conduct of 
his disciples by the example of David, 
who in his necessity ate the shew-bread 
taken from before the Lord, (1 Sam. xxi. 4, 
5, 6.) and by that of the priests, who 
worked in the temple on the sabbath-day, 
&c. On another sabbath-day he entered 
into one of* the synagogues of Galilee, where 
he cured a man whose hand was withered. 
The Pharisees, being exasperated, confeder- 
ated with the Herodians to procure his 
death ; but Jesus knew it, and withdrew 
himself from thence. (Matt. xii. 9—15. 
Mark iii. 1 — 7- Luke vi. 6—11.) 

Before the choice of his apostles, our 
Lord retired to the mountain district to 
pray, and spent the whole night in prayer 
to God. (Luke vi. 12.) In addition to his 
six early disciples, chosen before the first 
passover, and Levi, the publican, or Mat- 
thew, chosen before the second, (Matt. ix. 9.) 
he made choice of five more, to complete 
the number of twelve apostles, in reference, 
probably, to the twelve tribes of Israel. 
(Matt. x. 2. Mark vi. 7- Luke vi. 13.) 
After Jesus had sufficiently taught his dis- 
ciples by his public discourses and parables, 
and by his fuller explanations and interpre- 
tations to them in private, he expressed his 
tender compassion for the multitude, as 
sheep without a shepherd. He, therefore, 
sent his disciples through the land, to pro- 
claim the approach of the kingdom of God. 
He sent them two by two, with power to 
perform miracles ; and he forbade them to 
carry provisions, arms, or change of rai- 
ment. He directed them to visit the houses 
of persons in repute for virtue, to abide 
there without changing lightly their habi- 
tation, and to receive such entertainment 
as was given them. 

One day he crossed the lake Gennesa- 
reth, or sea of Tiberias, and retreated to a 
mountain ; but the crowd followed him by 
land, and came to the foot of the mountain, 
in the desert of Bethsaida. Jesus graciously 
received them, cured their sick, and taught 
them. The apostles represented to him, 
that it was time to dismiss the people into 
the villages to buy provisions. Jesus an- 
swered, Give them food. They excused 
themselves by the impossibility of it. Jesus 
being informed that they had five loaves 
and two fishes, caused the people to sit 
down on the grass, and supplied them 
plentifully with food. The fragments which 
were gathered up filled twelve baskets. 
The number of those who had eaten was 
about five thousand men. (Mark vi. 37 — 
44.) In the evening, he sent away his dis- 
ciples to repass the sea in a ship, while he 
552 



continued upon the mountain in prayer. 
The apostles having a contrary wind all 
night, instead of proceeding to Bethsaida, 
as they proposed, were driven for the coast 
of Tiberias or Capernaum. The next morn- 
ing at day- break, they discovered them- 
selves to be five-and-twenty or thirty fur- 
longs from the shore. They then saw a 
man walking on the sea near them ; and 
thinking it to be an apparition, they were 
afraid. Jesus, however, removed their 
fears, by telling them it was he. Peter 
desired to walk on the water ; but being 
alarmed, and beginning to sink, he cried, 
saying, ' Lord, save me.' Jesus supported 
him by the hand, and the disciples took 
Jesus into their ship. (Matt. xiv. 13 — 34. 
John vi. 16—21. Mark vi. 47—53. 

The multitude came on this side of the 
sea to find Jesus, who in the mean time 
was gone to Capernaum. He exhorted 
them to labour for the meat which perisheth 
not ; told them he was the true bread from 
heaven, that his flesh was meat indeed, and 
his blood drink indeed. As this discourse 
was figurative, many disciples deserted him : 
but Peter testified that he was the true 
Christ, and protested the constancy of the 
apostles. (John vi. 22—63.) 

Jesus did not attend the third pass- 
over at Jerusalem, because the Jewish 
rulers sought to kill him, but remained in 
Galilee. Having retired into the regions 
between Tyre and Sidon, a Syrophenician 
woman desired him to cure her daughter. 
As she continued her urgency, his disciples 
requested him to send her away. He re- 
plied, I am not sent but to the lost sheep of 
Israel : meaning that his favours were not 
intended for the Gentiles. When, however, 
he was returned to the house, the woman, 
not discouraged, threw herself at his feet, 
and besought him on account of her daugh- 
ter. Jesus answered, It is not just to give 
the children's bread to dogs. True, said 
she, yet the dogs eat the crumbs under their 
masters' table. Jesus admired her faith 
and ingenious answer, and complied with 
her request. (Matt. xv. 22—28.) : 

Departing thence he visited the region 
of Decapolis, on the eastern side of the 
lake of Galilee. Here he wrought several 
signal miracles. He also fed four thousand 
men, besides women and children, with 
seven loaves of bread, and a few small 
fishes, which multiplied, as before ; and 
the fragments that remained, after all were 
satisfied, filled seven baskets. Immedi- 
ately after this, he went by sea to Magdala, 
in Dalmanutha. Whilst he was there, cer- 
tain Pharisees and Sadducees came and 
asked of him the sign from heaven of the 
prophet Daniel, to prove his being the 
Messiah. He referred them, as he had 
referred others, to the sign of the prophet 
Jonah. He then crossed the lake, and 
went to Caesarea Philippi, near the springs 



JES 



JES 



of the Jordan. Here he foretold to his dis- 
ciples his sufferings at Jerusalem, and in- 
formed them ofjhe necessity of self-denial, 
and of taking up their cross as his followers 
in this world. 

Eight days after, according to Luke, or 
six entire days, excluding the extremes, 
according to Matthew and Mark, Jesus 
took three of his apostles, Peter, James, 
and John, into a high mountain apart, 
where, while at prayer in the night-time, 
he suddenly appeared surrounded by great 
glory and splendour. The apostles, who 
were asleep, awakened by the brightness 
of this light, were witnesses of their Mas- 
ter's transfiguration. They saw Moses and 
Elijah with him, who spoke of his intended 
sufferings at Jerusalem. Peter said to 
Jesus, Lord, let us make three tabernacles, 
one for thee, and one for Moses, and one 
for Elias : for Peter was so transported as 
not to know what he said. Moses and Eli- 
jah soon disappeared, and the apostles 
heard a voice, saying, This is my beloved 
Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear ye 
him. They fell prostrate to the ground, 
but Jesus raised them up. As they de- 
scended from the mountain, Jesus charged 
them not to discover what they had seen, 
till after his resurrection. (Matt. xvii. 1 — 
9. Mark ix. 1—9. Luke ix. 28—36.) Mount 
Tabor, in Galilee, is commonly supposed to 
have been the scene of this wonderful trans- 
action ; but this may reasonably be doubted. 
It seems rather to have been some moun- 
tain near Caesarea Philippi ; and Lightfoot 
conjectures, that it was the highest moun- 
tain of that country, which, according to 
Josephus, hangs over the springs of Jordan, 
and at the foot of winch Caesarea Philippi 
was built. 

When they were come down from the 
mountain, they found the other disciples in 
dispute with the scribes, on their inability 
to cure a young man, who was dumb, luna- 
tic, epileptic, and possessed with a devil. 
As soon as Jesus appeared, the whole 
company respectfully met him, and the 
young man's father importuned him to 
cure his son, which Jesus did. (Matt. xvii. 
14—21. Markix. 18, 19.) 

Jesus left Caesarea Philippi, and returned 
privately to Galilee, where he seems to 
have remained till the ensuing feast of 
tabernacles. On the way, he informed his 
disciples of his approaching sufferings, death, 
and resurrection ; but they understood not 
the meaning of his rising again. When 
they were come to Capernaum, the tax- 
gatherers enquired of the disciples, whether 
their master paid the capitation tax of two 
drachmas, about fifteen pence, a tribute 
which was now claimed by the Romans, 
but had formerly been raised for the ser- 
vice of the temple; Peter answered, Yes. 
Jesus prevented Peter, before he could 
mention it to him, and showed, that as 
553 



the Son of God he was not obliged to 
pay this tribute. Yet, he directed him to 
go to the sea, and throw in his line, and 
the first fish which he should take would 
furnish what was sufficient to pay for 
them both. Accordingly, Peter went, and 
the first fish he took had in his mouth a 
stater, an Attic silver coin, equal in value 
to the sacred shekel, or four drachmas. 
(Matt. xvii. 24 — 27.) The disciples hav- 
ing disputed among themselves, they asked 
Jesus which of them should be greatest 
in the kingdom of heaven. Our Saviour, 
who knew what had passed among them, 
told them, that to become first they should 
endeavour to place themselves last; and 
taking a little child, he said, that whosoever 
should humble himself as that little child, 
should be greatest in the kingdom of hea- 
ven. (Matt xviii. 1 — 5.) He afterwards 
delivered rules how to treat our brethren 
when they offend us. Peter asking him 
how oft he was to forgive his brother ? 
whether seven times ? Jesus replied, not 
seven only, but seventy times seven. He 
added the parable of the servant, to 
whom his master had forgiven the sum 
of ten thousand talents, but who refused 
to have compassion on one of his fellow- 
servants that owed him only one hundred 
pence. (Matt, xviii. 10. 15 — 35.) 

Nat yet believing the spiritual nature of 
his kingdom, his brethren, or kinsmen, who 
had at length become his disciples, and 
expected promotion, not less than the rest, 
advised him to exhibit his miracles in Ju- 
dea, as a more public theatre than the de- 
spised Galilee. Jesus rebuked them for 
their worldly-mindedness and ostentation, 
and refused to accompany them to the feast 
of tabernacles ; but he afterwards followed 
them privately, and came to Jerusalem 
in the middle of the festival week, and 
taught openly in the temple. (John vii. 
1 — 14.) The Jews admired his doctrine, 
which he declared was not restrictively his 
own, but his heavenly Father's also. There 
was much talk concerning him. Some 
affirmed that he was the Messiah : others 
held a different opinion. On the last 
day of the feast, Jesus cried in the tem- 
ple, ' If any man thirst, let him come 
unto me, and drink. He that believeth 
in me, out of his belly shall flow rivers 
of living water.' These discourses in- 
creased the contradictions of opinion con- 
cerning him. The priests maintained that 
he could not be a prophet, because he was 
of Galilee. The people were so struck 
with his miracles, that they were ready not 
only to admit that he was a prophet, but 
that he was the Messiah. 

Jesus retired that evening to Bethany, 
where he lodged ; and the next morning 
early, he returned to the temple, ami taught 
the people, who assembled to hear him. 
The Pharisees brought to him a woman 



JES 



JES 



who had been taken in adultery, and asked 
what they should do with her ? Jesus 
wrote on the ground, as if too busy to 
attend to them ; but, raising himself up, 
he said, He that is without sin among you, 
let him cast the first stone. He then re- 
sumed his writing, and did not appear to 
notice their conduct. Being convicted in 
their own consciences, they withdrew one 
by one, till Jesus was left alone, and the 
woman standing in the midst. Jesus said 
to her, Hath no man condemned thee to 
execution ? Neither do I, go and sin no 
more. The next day, Jesus saw a man 
who had been blind from his birth. His 
disciples asked him, whether this affliction 
was a punishment of his own, or of his 
parents' sins. Jesus told them, for neither 
of these ; but that the works of God should 
be manifested in him. Then, spitting on 
the ground, he made a kind of clay, with 
which he rubbed the blind man's eyes, 
and bid him go and wash them in the pool 
of Siloam. The blind man went thither, 
and returned perfectly cured. As the 
blind man was well known, this miracle 
made a great noise ; and he was brought 
to the Pharisees, and examined how he had 
been cured. He told them. As the cure 
was wrought on the sabbath- day, the Pha- 
risees maintained that Jesus could not be 
a true prophet, because he violated the 
sabbath. The blind man resolutely as- 
serted that Jesus was a good man, and 
a prophet : they, therefore, drove him out 
of the temple, and, as some think, even 
excommunicated him, Jesus hearing of 
this, found the man, and said, ' Dost thou 
believe in the Son of God V The blind 
man answered, * Who is he V Jesus said, 
' Thou hast both seen him, and it is he 
that talketh with thee.' Immediately he 
threw himself at the feet of Jesus, and 
worshipped him. (John ix. I, &c.) 

After this, Jesus returned into Galilee ; 
but he determined to be present at the 
feast of dedication. He, therefore, jour- 
neyed through the midst of Galilee and 
Samaria ; and he sent messengers before 
his face to a Samaritan village to make 
preparations for him. But as the Sama- 
ritans understood that he was on his way 
to Jerusalem, they refused to receive them. 
Provoked at this inhospitality, James and 
John, the sons of Zebedee, asked him, 
whether they should call for fire from 
heaven upon that village 1 Jesus, how- 
ever, told them, that he came not to de- 
stroy, but to save men's lives. (Luke ix. 51 
— 56.) During our Lord's stay in Samaria, 
he sent forth seventy disciples, in succes- 
sion, to the apostles, to proclaim, in pairs, 
his approach to the several cities and places 
which he intended to visit in his way to 
Jerusalem ; and he gave them instructions 
very similar to those he had before given to 
the twelve apostles. 
554 



In his progress through Judea, our Lord 
was entertained at the village of Bethany, 
near Jerusalem, by the sisters of Laza- 
rus. Martha, the elder, as mistress of 
the house, was very diligent in preparing 
entertainment for him and his retinue, 
while Mary, the younger, sat at the feet 
of Jesus, and listened to his heavenly con- 
versation. Martha complained of this to 
Jesus ; he answered her, ' Martha, Mar- 
tha, thou art careful and troubled about 
many things : but one thing is needful: and 
Mary hath chosen that good part, which 
shall not be taken away from her.' (Luke x. 
38—42.) 

At the feast of dedication, as Jesus walked 
in Solomon's porch, the Jews said, How long 
wilt thou keep us in suspense ? If thou be 
the Christ, tell us plainly. Jesus answered, 
I have already told you, and ye believe me 
not : the works that I do sufficiently prove 
my mission. If ye were my sheep, and of 
my flock, ye would believe me : my Father 
and I are one. Then the Jews took up 
stones to stone him, because he made him- 
self God. They afterwards sought to seize 
him ; but he escaped out of their hands, 
probably, by rendering himself invisible, and 
departed again from Judea to Bethabara, 
beyond Jordan, where John at first baptized, 
and where he remained about two months. 
Many of the Jews came to him, and believed 
on him, saying, John the Baptist did not 
perform one miracle ; but Jesus has wrought 
a great number. (John x. 22—42.) 

Whilst he was beyond Jordan, Lazarus, 
brother to Martha and Mary, fell sick; 
and a messenger informed Jesus of it. He 
said this sickness would not issue in death, 
but in the manifestation of God's power ; 
he, therefore, continued two days longer 
in the same place. In the mean time, 
Lazarus died. He then told his disciples 
that Lazarus was dead, and set forwards 
for Judea, though dissuaded from it by his 
disciples. When arrived at Bethany, he 
found that Lazarus had been buried four 
days. Martha met him, and said, ' Lord, 
if thou hadst been here, my brother had 
not died.' Jesus assured her, that her 
brother should rise again. Mary also 
coming soon after, Jesus sympathized 
with their tears, desired to be conducted to 
the grave, ordered it to be opened, called 
Lazarus with a loud voice, and raised him 
from the dead. This miracle made a great 
noise in Jerusalem, and the priests con- 
cluded that it was necessary to put Jesus to 
death. Our Saviour, therefore, retired to 
Ephraim, in the mountainous country near 
the wilderness of Judea, where he abode 
with his disciples. (John xi. 45.) 

His stay at Ephraim was short. The 
fourth passover approached; and he 
set out for Jerusalem. He forewarned his 
disciples of what was to befall him ; but 
it was a mystery which they did not com- 



JES 



JES 



prehend. As he came near to Jericho, a 
blind man, who knew of his arrival, solicited 
from him the gift of sight, and obtained it. 
Near the city he saw a publican, called Zac- 
cheus, who had climbed up into asycomore 
tree, that he might have a better view of our 
Saviour. Jesus invited himself to lodge 
with him ; and Zaccheus, transported with 
this honour, was converted, and made full 
restitution of his exactions. (Luke xviii. 
xix.) The next day, Jesus quitting the city 
restored to their sight two blind men, one 
of whom was Bartimeus. (Matt, x v. 29 — 44. 
Mark x. 46-52.) 

Six days before the passover, our Lord 
reached Bethany. The day of his arrival 
at Bethany is generally supposed to have 
been the Saturday before his crucifixion; 
but it seems rather to have been Sunday, 
the first day of the Passion, or suffering 
week. Whilst he was at supper, the 
pious, virtuous, and grateful Mary, the 
sister of Lazarus, poured a box of very 
precious spikenard on his feet, and wiped 
them with her hair. Judas Iscariot cen- 
sured this act of Mary, and said, ' Why 
was not this ointment sold for three hun- 
dred pence, and given to the poor V Jesus 
defended Mary, and rebuked Judas and 
others of the disciples, who approved his 
conduct. He observed, that what she had 
done was a prelude to the embalming of his 
body, which he foresaw would not, indeed, be 
anointed for that purpose ; though it might 
be covered with spices, and though oint- 
ments might be prepared for it. 

When the multitudes, who came from all 
parts to celebrate the passover, found that 
Jesus was at Bethany, they went thither 
on Monday morning, both to see Lazarus, 
and to attend Jesus in public procession to 
Jerusalem, and proclaim him as their 
undoubted Messiah, or Christ the king of 
Israel. Jesus did not any longer decline 
their proffered homage ; and as soon as he 
had reached Bethphage, he sent two of his 
disciples, whom he directed to bring him 
an ass, that he might fulfil an ancient pro- 
phecy. (Zech. ix. 9.) He entered the city, 
therefore, in triumph ; and the multitude 
before and behind shouted, ' Hosannah 
to the son of David ; blessed is he that 
cometh in the name of the Lord.' Some 
of the Pharisees among the crowd, taking 
exception at the acclamations made in 
his honour, bid him rebuke his disciples ; 
but Jesus answered, that if the people 
were silent, the stones in the street would 
cry aloud. He went to the temple, where 
he wrought his signal and appropriate mira- 
cles of curing the blind and the lame ; which 
excited the admiration even of the children, 
who joined in the general acclamation of 
Hosannah to the son of David, and thus 
hailed him as the Messiah. (Matt. xxi. 
Mark xi. Luke xix. John xii.) 

In the evening he retired to Bethany. 
555 



The next day, Tuesday, going in the 
morning early to Jerusalem, he was hungry, 
and advanced toward a fig-tree to look for 
fruit; but finding nothing but leaves, he 
cursed it, and the tree began to wither. In 
the temple, he again drove out the mer- 
chants. The priests and elders sought to 
seize him ; but they feared the people, who 
admired his discourses, lr^the evening, he 
again retired out of the city. 

The next day, Wednesday, returning 
with his disciples to Jerusalem, they no- 
ticed the withered fig-tree, and remarked 
it to Jesus. This day, whilst he was in the 
temple, the chief priests and elders asked 
him, by what authority he set up for such 
a reformer 1 He in his turn asked them, 
whether the baptism of John was human 
or divine ? Unwilling to own its divinity, 
yet fearing to call it an imposture, they 
answered, ' they could not tell.' And I, 
said Jesus, do not tell you what is my 
authority. Afterwards, addressing the 
priests, doctors, and Pharisees, he pro- 
posed to them some parables, and sug- 
gested that God was about to reject them, 
because of their infidelity, and to call the 
Gentiles into his church. Such is the 
parable of the two sons, sent into the 
vineyard by their father ; of the hus- 
bandman, who maltreated the servants, 
and killed the son of the owner of the 
vineyard; and of the feast, to which the 
persons invited would not come, but 
strangers were collected to partake of it. 
After this, the Herodians, Sadducees, and 
Pharisees, came one after another, and 
proposed to him captious questions. The 
Herodians asked him, if it was lawful to 
pay tribute to Caesar 1 Jesus proved, by a 
piece of money stamped with the impres- 
sion of Caesar, that they ought to give to 
Caesar the dues of Caesar, and to God the 
dues of God. The Sadducees asked, 
whose wife a certain woman would be 
after the resurrection, as she had been 
married successively to seven brothers? 
Jesus told them, that at the resurrection 
there would be no need of marriage ; and, 
consequently, no special property of wives 
and husbands. The Pharisees demanded, 
which was the greatest commandment of the 
law ? He answered, that the first and princi- 
pal was the love of God ; and the second, the 
love of our neighbour. After this, he in- 
veighed severely against the Pharisees, ex- 
posing their hypocrisy, and the abuses tin y 
patronized. He boldly and authoritatively 
denounced repeated ' woes' against the 
Scribes and Pharisees for their compli- 
cated \ ices, their hypocrisy, ostentation, pride, 
arrogance, extortion, rapacity, and long con- 
tinued persecution of the prophets, from 
the earliest times to the sacrilegious 
murder of the last and greatest, Zecha- 
riah ; and he concluded with predicting 
the desolation of their temple, and the 



JES 



JES 



withdrawing of his presence till their final 
conversion. 

Towards evening, as Jesus went out of the 
temple, his disciples observed to him the 
beauties of this edifice, and the rich presents 
belonging to it. Jesus told them that the 
time would come, when the temple should 
be so entirely destroyed, that one stone 
should not remain upon another. When he 
was withdrawn from the city to the Mount 
of Olives, he communicated to his confiden- 
tial disciples, Peter, James, John, and An- 
drew, the signs or prognostics of, first, the 
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans ; 
secondly, his next personal appearance in 
glory ; and thirdly, his last, at the end of the 
world. After this, he told his disciples that 
the passover was to be celebrated in two 
days, and that the Son of Man should be de- 
livered into the hands of his enemies, and 
be crucified. (Matt. xxvi. 1,2.) It appears, 
that at this very time the chief priests, and 
Scribes, and elders of the people, were as- 
sembled to plot his destruction. From the 
Mount of Olives our Lord proceeded to Be- 
thany, that evening, to the house of Simon 
the leper, whom he, probably, had cured. 
Whilst he was at supper with his disciples, 
he received his last unction ; when another 
woman, whose name is not mentioned, but 
whom some think to be Mary Magdalene, 
poured costly and fragrant spikenard on 
his head, completing that of Mary, the sister 
of Lazarus, on the preceding Sunday. 
This additional costly tribute of veneration 
excited the indignation of the disciples in 
general, as before chiefly of Judas. Our 
Lord's repeated rebuke, involving Judas 
among the rest, completed the resentment 
of the traitor, who immediately retired from 
the company, and bargained with the chief 
priests (whom he probably found still sitting 
in council,) to deliver Jesus to them for 
thirty shekels of silver, about 3/. 15s. or at 
most Al. 10s. sterling. 

The next morning (Thursday,) Jesus sent 
his two favourite disciples, Peter and John, 
to Jerusalem, to prepare a room and ac- 
commodations for celebrating the passover. 
In the evening he came into the city, and 
went to the house, where Peter and John 
had provided, and, sitting down to table, 
declared that he had earnestly desired to eat 
this passover with them. 

To cure his disciples of their passionate 
inclination for pre-eminence and distinc- 
tion, he arose from table and washed their 
feet, exhorting them to imitate him, and 
to consider as their true dignity the show- 
ing of all manner of respect and deference 
to each other. To correct the too great 
confidence of Peter, he foretold that he 
would deny him thrice that very night be- 
fore the cock crew twice. When they had 
placed themselves again at table, to eat the 
second course of the entertainment, Jesus 
declared, that one of them should betray 
556 



him. Judas having received a sop, by 
which he was detected, rose from table, 
transported by the evil spirit. Jesus said 
to him, ' What thou doest, do quickly.' 
This was interpreted by the apostles very 
differently from its real meaning. When 
Judas had departed, our Lord instituted 
the sacrament of his body and blood, or as 
St. Paul calls it, his supper. After this, he 
discoursed to them of union and charity 
which they ought to maintain among them- 
selves, and the confidence which they 
should place in Providence, and in his own 
kindness for them. He also promised them 
another Comforter. 

After some other discourse, he rose from 
table, and, having repeated an hymn of 
thanksgiving, went out of the city with 
them. He retired to the Mount of Olives, 
where he resumed his discourse, in which 
he enlarged on their union with him ; on his 
approaching sufferings, death, and resur- 
rection; on the scandal which his death 
would occasion ; on their flight ; on Peter's 
denial ; and on the descent of the Holy 
Ghost. This discourse proved that he knew 
all things, and that he suffered death in 
perfect coincidence with his own will. 

Having passed the brook Cedron, he 
came to Gethsemane, where was a garden, 
into which he went with his disciples. As 
he had frequently been here, Judas per- 
fectly knew the place. He took with him 
his confidential disciples, Peter, James, 
and John, apart from the rest, further into 
the garden. Here he became extremely 
sad: his soul was sorrowful even unto death. 
Stay ye here, said he, and watch with me. 
Then going a little farther, he fell on his 
knees, and prostrating himself on the 
earth, he said, Father, all things are pos- 
sible unto thee : if it be possible, take away 
this cup from me : nevertheless, not what 
I will, but what thou wilt ; not my will, 
but thine, be done. An angel from heaven 
comforted him ; and being in this agony, 
he continued his prayer, and his sweat was, 
as it were, drops of blood falling to the 
ground. He rose three times from prayer, 
and as often found his three disciples asleep. 
The third time he informed them that his 
betrayer was near, and that it was necessary 
to meet him. 

Judas now entered the garden with a 
company of soldiers, to whom he had given 
this signal, Seize him whom I shall kiss, 
and convey him away safely. Jesus, ad- 
vancing towards the soldiers, said, * Whom 
seek ye?' They answered, ' Jesus of 
Nazareth.' Jesus said, ' I am he.' At 
these words they fell to the ground. He 
proposed to them the same question a se- 
cond time, and they answerd in the same 
manner. Jesus said to them, ' If, there- 
fore, ye seek me, let these go their way.' 
Judas seeing the irresolution of the waver- 
ing band, in order to urge them to execute 



JES 



JES 



their commission, went up to Jesus, ana 
said, ' Hail Master!' and kissed him. 
Jesus gently reproved him with this rebuke, 
' Judas, betrayest thou the Son of Man with a 
kiss V Then they laid hands on Jesus, and 
apprehended him. Peter drew his sword, 
and struck one of the high priest's servants ; 
he aimed at his head, but he only cut off his 
ear. Jesus touched his ear, and cured him, 
saying to Peter, ' Put up thy sword, for all 
who take the sword shall perish by the 
sword.' 

Jesus was carried first to Annas, the 
father-in-law of Caiaphas. Annas had 
been high-priest ; and Caiaphas was high- 
priest that year. Annas sent him bound 
to Caiaphas, to be examined by him, and 
tried before the whole council, as soon as 
they could be assembled at the judgment- 
hall, in his palace. Jesus stood before 
Caiaphas, who questioned him concerning 
his doctrine and disciples. Jesus told him 
he had taught nothing in secret, and that 
all the Jews were witnesses of his doc- 
trine. One of the high-priest's servants 
smote him on the face, saying, ' Answerest 
thou the high-priest so V Jesus said to 
him, ' If I have spoken evil, bear wit- 
ness of the evil; but if well, why smitest 
thou me?' After the Sanhedrim were as- 
sembled, the chief-priests, the elders, and 
the whole council, sought evidence against 
him, that they might convict him of a ca- 
pital crime : but they could find none suffi- 
ciently strong. At last came two false 
witnesses, of whom one declared, ' This 
fellow said, I am able to destroy the temple 
of God, and to build it in three days ;' 
the other, ' We heard him say, I will de- 
stroy this temple that is made with hands, 
and within three days I will build another 
made without hands.' But their testi- 
mony did not exactly agree, nor was it 
sufficient to ■ convict him. All this time 
Jesus continued silent. Caiaphas, therefore, 
adjured him in the name of the living God, 
to declare whether he was the Christ. 
Jesus confessed it, and added, that he 
would come one day in the clouds at the 
right hand of his Father, to judge mankind. 
At these words, the high-priest rent his 
clothes, and exclaimed, ' What further 
need have we of witnesses ? Behold, 
now ye have heard his blasphemy. What 
think ye ?' They answered, ' He deserves 
to die.' His unjust condemnation was now 
aggravated by every insult and injury, 
which diabolical rage and malice could 
devise. 

In the morning, the whole council led 
him away bound to Pilate, the governor, 
for the purpose of getting him to confirm 
their act, and sentence Jesus to be exe- 
cuted. The Romans had deprived the 
Jews of the power of life and death ; and 
though the Jews might pronounce a man 
guilty, yet they could not condemn in 
557 



im, nor order his execution. When the 
whole council came to the praetorium, or 
Roman court of justice, they delivered 
Jesus to Pilate, to whom they insisted, 
first, that Jesus stirred up insurrection 
against the Romans ; secondly, that he 
taught it was unlawful to pay tribute to 
the emperor ; and thirdly, that he called 
himself Christ, the king, and the Son of 
God. Pilate examined him, and asked 
him, if he was the Messiah, or king of 
the Jews? Jesus answered by admitting, 
but explaining, the alleged fact: ' My 
kingdom is not of this world,' and can 
therefore create no alarm to the Romans. 
The Jews, the accusers of Jesus, did not 
enter the praetorium, lest they should be 
polluted, because they intended that even- 
ing to eat the passover. Pilate, therefore, 
after having examined Jesus, went out to 
them, and declared that he found nothing 
in him which deserved condemnation. 
Notwithstanding this declaration, they 
clamoured against Jesus with great noise : 
but our Lord, who was brought out 
to them, answered nothing. Pilate being 
informed that Jesus was a Galilean, sent 
him to Herod, tetrarch of Galilee, who 
was then at Jerusalem. Herod had long 
desired to see Jesus, and proposed to him 
several questions, to which he returned no 
answer. This so surprised and provoked 
Herod and his court, that in derision they 
covered him with a scarlet robe, for the pur- 
pose of insulting him, and sent him back to 
Pilate. 

Pilate then summoned the chief priests, 
and rulers, and the people, again to the 
praetorium, and declared to them, that, 
as neither he nor Herod had found him 
guilty of any thing which deserved death, 
he should order him only to be corrected, 
and so dismiss him. As, however, they 
continued to insist on the condemnation of 
Jesus, Pilate gave them their choice of 
Jesus or Barabbas, (a most notorious villain 
and murderer, under sentence of death,) it 
being customary to grant them the life 
of some criminal at the passover. The Jews 
chose Barabbas, and cried out, Crucify 
Jesus. Still Pilate would not consent, but 
inflicted on him the milder punishment 
which he had proposed. He first scourged 
Jesus, and then left him to the derision 
and mockery of the Roman soldiers, 
who placed on his head a crown of thorns, 
dressed him in a purple robe, and put a 
reed in his right hand, as a substitute for 
a sceptre. They then mimicked a salu- 
tation and homage to him as king, spat 
in his face, and smote him. Pilate ex- 
pected that the Jews would be satisfied 
with this punishment; but the chief priests 
and their attendants still demanded that 
Jesus should be crucified. Pilate having 
made two other attempts to deliver the 
innocent, was overpowered with their 



JES 



JES 



cries and threats ; and, fearing some sedi- 
tion, he ordered water to be brought, in 
which he washed his hands, told them that 
he cleared himself of the guilt of his death, 
and gave him up to them. It was about 
the third hour, or nine o'clock in the morn- 
ing, when the governor thus determined. 

Jesus, in order to be executed, was put 
into the hands of the Roman soldiers, who 
took off the purple robe, put on him his 
own raiment, and led him away to crucify 
him. They laid a part of his cross on him, 
and conducted him to Calvary, a little 
hill north-west of the city. As Jesus was 
extremely faint, and the cross was heavy, 
the Roman soldiers meeting one Simon, a 
Cyrenian, pressed him to assist Jesus in 
carrying it. When he came to Calvary, 
they offered him wine mingled with myrrh, 
or gall, to drink ; but, having tasted it, he 
would not drink. They nailed him to the 
cross between two thieves, one on the right 
hand, the other on the left. He prayed 
for those who crucified him. His crucifix- 
ion took place about eleven or twelve o'clock, 
that is, at noon. (Luke xxiii. 44.) 

Pilate commanded his sentence of con- 
demnation to be fixed upon his cross in 
these terms, 'Jesus of Nazareth, the 
King of the Jews.' The Jews would 
have persuaded Pilate to alter this ; but 
he refused. The soldiers divided our 
Saviour's garments among them ; but, as 
his coat was without seam, they agreed to 
cast lots for it by itself. The magistrates, 
priests, people, and also one of the thieves 
who were crucified close to him, insulted 
him. Yet, the other thief rebuked his com- 
panion, confessed his guilt, acknowledged 
the innocence of Jesus, and desired to be 
remembered by him when he came into his 
kingdom. Jesus promised him, that he 
should be that day with him in Paradise, 
Mary, the mother of Jesus, Mary, the wife 
of Cleophas, and Mary Magdalene, with 
John the Evangelist, were then standing 
near his cross. Jesus said to his mother, 
showing her St. John, ' Woman, behold 
thy son ;' and to John, ' Behold thy mo- 
ther.' From that time John kept her as 
his mother. 

About noon, the sun was covered with 
darkness, which continued till the ninth 
hour, or three o'clock in the afternoon. 
About, or at the ninth hour, Jesus cried 
with a loud voice, ' My God, my God, 
why hast thou forsaken me V Then they 
gave him vinegar in a sponge to drink ; 
and when he had tasted it, he said, ' It is 
finished.' Then he bowed his head, and 
dismissed his spirit. That instant the earth 
trembled, the adjacent rocks were rent, 
graves were opened, many who were dead 
arose ; and the substantial veil of the tem- 
ple was rent from the top to the bottom. 
The Jews, being unwilling that the bodies 
should remain on the cross the next day, 
558 



which was the great day of the sabbath, 
or passover, desired Pilate that their legs 
might be broken to hasten their death, 
and they might be taken down. How- 
ever, as Jesus was already dead, they 
brake not his legs ; but one of the soldiers 
with a spear pierced his side, and forth- 
with there issued blood and water. 

Towards the evening, Joseph of Ari- 
mathea, a disciple of Jesus, and a senator 
of distinction, requested from Pilate per- 
mission to receive the body of Jesus, and 
to bury it before sun-set ; for it was the 
evening before the sabbath, the rest of 
which began at sun-set. Pilate, being in- 
formed that Jesus was really dead, con- 
sented ; and Joseph placed the body in 
a new tomb, designed for himself, which 
was hewn out of the rock in his garden, 
and the entrance of which was closed with 
a great stone. The priests, fearing that the 
disciples of Jesus would steal his body, 
placed guards, and sealed up the sepulchre. 
The next day, which was the great sabbath- 
day, every one rested according to the 
law ; but after sun-set, when it was allow- 
able to engage in business, and buy any 
thing, the holy women who had seen that our 
Saviour's body was put hastily into the tomb, 
and who intended to embalm it with more 
ointments, bought drugs and spices for that 
purpose. The day following, early in the 
morning, before it was light, they went to- 
wards Calvary. But Jesus, who had sub- 
mitted to the bonds of death for so long a 
time as he thought proper, had now awaked 
from his confinement, and was risen ; and 
the soldiers, who witnessed his resurrec- 
tion, were convulsed with fear, and fell 
into a trance. 

These women coming near the sepul- 
chre, and seeing the entrance open, con- 
cluded the body was removed. Alarmed 
at this, Mary Magdalene left her com- 
panions, ran to Jerusalem, and told Peter 
and John that their Master's body was car- 
ried off. The other women went towards 
the grave ; and when they came to the 
porch, they saw an angel sitting on the 
stone, and the guards lying in a trance. 
The angel told them not to be afraid. 
Entering into the sepulchre, they saw an- 
other angel, who said, ' Ye seek Jesus of 
Nazareth which was crucified : he is 
risen ; he is not here : behold the place 
where they laid him.' The women left 
the sepulchre with fear and great joy to 
tell his disciples. Their departure was 
followed by that of the guards, who, re- 
covering from their trance, and no longer 
seeing the tremendous apparition in the 
porch, went into the city and related to 
the chief priests all that had happened. 
Soon after came Peter and John running 
to the sepulchre ; John arrived first, but 
did not enter the sepulchre. Peter enter- 
ing it, saw the linen clothes in which the 



JES 



JES 



body of our Saviour had been wrapped 
up, and the napkin which had covered 
his head. John likewise saw them, be- 
lieved that Jesus was risen, and returned 
to Jerusalem. When they were gone, 
Mary Magdalene came again to the sepul- 
chre. Stooping down to look within 
the tomb, she saw two angels sitting, one 
at the head, the other at the feet, where 
the body of Jesus had laid. They said to 
her, 'Why weepest thou?' She answered, 
' They have taken away my Lord, and I 
know not where they have laid him.' Then 
1 urning herself backward, she saw Jesus, 
and said to him, ' If thou have borne him 
hence, tell me where thou hast laid him, 
and I will take him away.' Jesus said to 
her, ' Mary !' Immediately she knew his 
voice, and threw herself at his feet to kiss 
them. Mary returned to Jerusalem, and 
related what she had seen to the disci- 
ples. Jesus also appeared to the other 
women, her companions, as they returned 
from the sepulchre ; and they adored him. 
However, the apostles treated them as 
fanciful persons, and did not believe what 
they related. 

The same day, being the first day of 
the week, two of Jesus's disciples going to 
Emmaus, a village about seven miles 
from Jerusalem, Jesus joined them in the 
way, appeared as a traveller, and enquired 
the subject of their earnest discourse. 
They spoke to him of his death and pas- 
sion, which were the subject of universal 
conversation at Jerusalem. We had hopes, 
said they, this Jesus should redeem Israel ; 
but it is now the third day since these 
things happened. Then Jesus reproved 
their want of faith, demonstrated to them 
from the Scriptures that the Messiah was 
first to suffer, and afterwards to enter into 
glory. Being come to Emmaus, about the 
third hour, afternoon, or the first evening, 
when the sun had declined, they invited 
Jesus to stay with them. This he at first 
refused; but they constrained him to 
take some refreshment. At table, he as- 
sumed the character of master of the fa- 
mily, blessed the bread, and gave it them. 
Then their eyes were opened, and they 
knew him ; but they soon lost sight of him. 
Returning immediately to Jerusalem, they 
found the apostles, and understood that 
Jesus had appeared also to Peter. 

Whilst they were together, Jesus en- 
tered the room and presented himself 
among them. This sight alarmed them ; 
but he removed their apprehensions with 
' Peace be unto you ! Behold my hands 
and my feet, that it is I myself: handle me, 
and see : for a spirit hath not flesh and 
bones, as you see me have.' He also took 
broiled fish, and part of a honey-comb, 
and did eat before them. Afterwards, he 
breathed on them, and said, ' Receive ye 
the Holy Ghost : whosesoever sins ye remit, 
559 



they are remitted unto them ; and whose- 
soever sins ye retain, they are retained.' 
As Thomas, one of the twelve, was absent 
at this time, he remained incredulous, and 
said, ' Except I shall see in his hands the 
print of the nails, and put my finger into 
the print of the nails, and thrust my hand 
into his side, I will not believe.' Eight 
days after, the apostles being all together, 
Jesus again appeared among them, and 
said, 'Peace be unto you.' Then ad- 
dressing Thomas, he said, ' Reach hither 
thy finger, and behold my hands ; and 
reach hither thy hand, and thrust it into 
my side: and be not faithless, but be- 
lieving.' Thomas answered, ' My Lord, 
and my God !' 

The disciples of our Saviour being as- 
sembled upon a mountain in Galilee, Je- 
sus showed himself to them. When they 
saw him, they worshipped him. Some, 
however, doubted whether his body was 
a real body ; for as to his resurrection and 
his presence, it does not appear, that of 
these they could doubt. This assembly 
was numerous, according to St. Paul ; and 
it consisted of more than five hundred 
brethren, or disciples, of whom the ma- 
jority were still alive when that apostle 
wrote his first Epistle to the Corinthians, 
about A.D. 57. 

Jesus showed himself to several of the 
apostles at the sea of Tiberias. Peter, 
Thomas, Nathanael, James, John, and 
two other disciples, were fishing on this 
sea, when Jesus appeared in the morning 
on the shore, and directed them to a very 
large capture of fishes. Some of these 
they broiled, and ate with him : but no 
one asked who he was, for they knew 
very well that he was Jesus. After the 
meal, Jesus asked Peter three times suc- 
cessively, Peter, lovest thou me more than 
these ? Peter also answered three times, 
that he loved him with all his heart ; and 
Jesus as often directed him to show his 
affection by feeding his flock. He also fore- 
told that Peter should suffer crucifixion 
for his sake ; but that John should live to 
see Jerusalem severely punished for its 
rejection of him 

After this manifestation at the lake of 
Galilee, the apostles, probably, returned 
immediately to Jerusalem, where Jesus 
appeared again to all the apostles. At this 
important general meeting of the apostles, 
our Lord renewed to them, in their col- 
lective capacity, the commissions given to 
their leaders before, and stated his own 
authority, and their apostolic functions 
and powers, more fully and explicitly. 
'All power,' said he, 'is given unto me 
in heaven and in earth. Go ye. there- 
fore, and teach all nations, baptizing them 
in the name of the Father, and of the Son. 
and of the Holy Ghost : teaching them 
to observe all things whatsoever 1 have 



JES 



JEW 



commanded you : and lo, I am with you 
always, even unto the end of the world.' 
He opened their understandings, explained 
to them the Scriptures, and empowered 
them to perform miracles. 

He now appointed the last meeting for 
the following Thursday, the fortieth day 
from the resurrection, at Jerusalem ; where, 
being associated with him, he renewed 
to them the promise of the Holy Ghost, 
and directed them to remain at Jerusa- 
lem till they were endued with power 
from on high. After this, he conducted 
them from Jerusalem to Bethany, and, 
on the Mount of Olives, lifting up his 
hands he blessed them, and, rising in the 
air, he was gradually taken up by a cloud, 
beyond their view. Whilst they looked 
after him, two angels appeared to them, 
and said, ' Ye men of Galilee, why stand 
ye gazing up into heaven ? this same 
Jesus, which is taken up from you into 
heaven, shall so come in like manner as 
ye have seen him go into heaven.' Then 
they went back to Jerusalem, where they 
continued with Mary, the mother of Jesus, 
and such of his relations as believed on him, 
till the day of Pentecost, when the Holy 
Ghost descended on them. 

If we recapitulate the evangelical evi- 
dences of the character of Jesus, they may 
be reduced to the following heads : 1. The 
stupendous miracles which he wrought, 
exceeding in number, variety, and magni- 
tude, those of all his predecessors the pro- 
phets. ' The works which I do bear wit- 
ness of me that the Father hath sent me.' 
2. The wonderful chain of prophecies, of 
which he was the subject, both in his divine 
and human nature, as the Son of God and 
the Son of man conjointly ; his mission, his 
sufferings, and his glories, which were alto- 
gether fulfilled in him, and altogether in no 
other person. ' Search the Scriptures, for 
they testify of me.' 3. His exact and mi- 
nute knowledge of future events, respect- 
ing himself and his disciples ; and his his- 
torical prophecies, which reach to the end 
of the world, and even into eternity, and 
which were delivered personally by himself, 
and afterwards by his apostles. ' Now I tell 
you before it come to pass, that when it is 
come to pass ye may believe that I am [the 
Christ].' 4. The testimony of John the 
Baptist, whom the multitude revered as a 
prophet, and the Scribes and Pharisees 
durst not deny or dispute his claim. 5. 
The legislative capacity, in which he came 
'not to destroy the law and the prophets,' 
but 'to fulfil' or complete them by more 
refined and spiritual precepts and ordi- 
nances, and to sanction them, not by tem- 
poral, but by eternal rewards and punish- 
ments. 6. His conscious dignity and com- 
manding authority, delivering his divine 
precepts and ordinances in his own name, 
and not like Moses and the prophets, sub- 
560 



ordinately in the name of God. 7- The 
pure sanctity of his life, and uniform pro- 
priety of his conduct, which afford the 
finest illustration of his doctrines, and a 
consummate example of perfect and un- 
erring obedience, and are the most decisive 
and unequivocal proof of genuine Divine 
Nature. ' Which of you,' said he, ' con- 
victeth me of sin? He was, indeed, pre- 
eminently, ' The Holy One,' ' The Just,' 
' The Righteous,' ' The Saint of 
Saints,' to whose spotless innocence, and 
transcendent virtue, even his inveterate 
foes, his treacherous disciple, and his pu- 
sillanimous judge, bore witness. 

Dr. Priestley, in his parallel of Mahomet 
and Jesus, has skilfully drawn the leading 
features of both. ' If we consider,' says he, 
' the characters of the two men, the great 
superiority of that of Jesus is manifest. Ma- 
homet, though not without religion, had 
nothing of that rational and humble piety, 
which eminently distinguished Jesus ; nor 
did he discover any marks of that ardent 
and disinterested love of mankind in gene- 
ral, or of his own disciples in particular, 
which led Jesus to suffer and to die for them. 
Mahomet's passions of lust and revenge, the 
suspicion of which never fell on Jesus, 
render him a very improper object of imita- 
tion ; whereas Jesus exhibited in his life a 
perfect pattern of every human virtue. 
Whence, then, could arise this great differ- 
ence in the character and conduct of these 
two men, equally the founders of new sys- 
tems of religion 1 The only hypothesis that 
can account for the facts is, that the con- 
sciousness which Jesus had of his peculiar 
and near relation to God, gave him that 
spirit of habitual devotion, which is the ge- 
nuine parent of every other virtue ; and the 
sure prospect of a great future reward, 
(Heb. xii. 2.) gave him a great superiority 
over all lower gratifications and pursuits. 
On the contrary, Mahomet, conscious that 
he was an imposter, could have no other 
object than worldly power and sensual in- 
dulgence ; and whatever might have been 
his devotion at his outset, he afterwards 
retained no more of it than was subservient 
to his schemes; and at length, (as was pro- 
bably the case with Oliver Cromwell,) his 
religion was certainly swallowed up in his 
ambition.' See Messiah. Hales 1 s New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. p. 943, &c. 
Priestley's Discourses relating to the Evi- 
dences of Revealed Religion, vol. ii. 

JEWS, the appropriate denomination of 
the descendants of Judah, which soon in- 
cluded under it the Benjamites, who joined 
themselves to the tribe of Judah, on the 
revolt of the other ten tribes from the house 
of David. After the Babylonish captivity, 
when many individuals of these ten tribes 
returned with the men of Judah and Ben- 
jamin to rebuild Jerusalem, the term Jews 
included them also, or rather was then 



JEW 



JEW 



extended to all the descendants of Israel 
who retained the Jewish religion, whether 
they belonged to the two or to the ten 
tribes, whether they returned into Judea 
or not. Hence, not only all the Israelites 
of future times have been called Jews, but 
all the descendants of Jacob are frequently 
so called by us at present, and we speak 
even of their original dispensation as the 
Jewish dispensation. 

The most remarkable periods in th<» 
history of the Jews are the call of Abra- 
ham ; the giving of the law by Moses ; their 
establishment in Canaan under Joshua, 
the successor of Moses ; the building of 
the temple by Solomon ; the division of the 
nation into the two kingdoms of Judah 
and Israel, in the reign of Rehoboam ; 
their seventy years' captivity in Babylon ; 
their return under Zerubbabel ; their per- 
secution and murder of Jesus Christ, whom 
Christians believe to be the Messiah, the 
Lord of Glory, and, in consequence of this, 
the destruction of their city and temple by 
the emperor Titus, A. D. 70. From that 
time to the present day, they have been 
without a common country, without a tem- 
ple, without a sacrifice, without a prophet, 
without a common leader, or protector; 
and, as was predicted respecting them, 
they have been ' an astonishment, a pro- 
verb, and a by- word,' among all nations 
whither the Lord hath scattered them. 
The history of this people certainly forms 
a striking evidence of the truth of divine 
revelation. They are a living and perpe- 
tual miracle ; continuing to subsist as a 
distinct and peculiar race, for upwards of 
three thousand years, and even in the 
midst of other nations ; flowing forward in 
a full and constant stream, like the waters 
of the Rhone, without mixing with the 
waves of the expansive lake through which 
the passage lies, to the ocean of eternity. 

The expectation of the promised Messiah 
is the leading tenet of the religion of the 
modern Jews ; and in this they differ widely 
from Christians, who believe that the Mes- 
siah has already come, and that in Christ 
Jesus all the Jewish prophecies respect- 
ing him were accomplished. Infatuated 
with the idea of a temporal Messiah and 
deliverer, who is to subdue the world, 
and re-instate them in their own land, 
the Jews still wait for his appearance ; 
but they have not fixed either the place 
whence, or the time when, he is to 
come. Finding it difficult to evade the 
force of certain texts in Isaiah, &c. which 
speak of a suffering Messiah, some have had 
recourse to the idea of two Messiahs, who 
are to succeed each other ; Ben Joseph, of 
the tribe of Ephraim, in a state of humi- 
liation and suffering, and Ben David, of 
the tribe of Judah, in a state of glory, 
magnificence, and power. As to tin- cha- 
racter and mission of their Messiah, he is 
561 



to be of the tribe of Judah, the lineal de- 
scendant of David, and called by his name, 
and to be endued with the spirit of pro- 
phecy ; and his especial mission is, to re- 
store the dispersed sheep of Israel, plant 
them safely in their own land, subdue their 
enemies, and by that means bring the whole 
world to the knowledge of the one true God. 
The Jews say that his coming and their re- 
storation have not yet taken place, because 
they are still unworthy to be redeemed, and 
have not repented, or have not yet received 
the full measure of their punishment. Yet, 
they insist that their redemption is not con- 
ditional, but will take place at the appointed 
time, though they should not repent ; that 
God will not redeem and restore them for 
any merit of their own, but for his name's 
sake, for the sake of the few righteous, and 
also in consideration of what they will be 
after their redemption, when they will all 
be good and righteous. They believe, that 
Judea will be the seat of those wars which 
will precede their redemption ; and that, 
after due vengeance taken on the nations 
for the cruelties exercised on the people of 
God, during this long and deplorable cap- 
tivity, they will terminate in the complete 
subjection of all nations to the power of 
the Messiah, and in the introduction of 
universal peace and happiness that shall 
never more be interrupted. Though they 
profess to know nothing of the abode, or 
present state, of the ten tribes, yet they 
believe that they are lost only in name, and 
shall be restored together with Judah and 
Benjamin ; that all those Jews who have 
embraced Christianity or Mahometanism, 
shall then return to the religion of their 
fathers ; and that their nation, thus restored 
and united, shall never again go into capti- 
vity, nor ever be in subjection to any power, 
but that all the nations of the world shall 
thenceforward be subject to them. Judea 
will then again become fruitful ; Jerusalem 
' will be built on its ancient ground plot;' 
and the real descendants of the Priests and 
Levites will be reinstated in their respec- 
tive offices, though they may have been 
forced to apostatize. Then also will be 
restored the spirit of prophecy, the ark and 
cherubim, fire from heaven, &c. as formerly 
in the tabernacle, in the wilderness, and in 
Solomon's temple. In fine, then will idola- 
try wholly cease in the earth, and all men 
will acknowledge the unity of God, and 
his kingdom. (Zech. xiv. 9.) Such are the 
expectations of the modern Jews, with re- 
spect to the Messiah and his kingdom, which 
they still avow to be not of a spiritual, but 
of a temporal nature. 

It is, however, complained by Mr. David 
Levi, that there are two different parties 
among the Jews, who Blight the propheciea 

which speak of the restoration, ami laugfl 
at the idea of a Messiah coming to re- 
deem them. The one consists of such a; 
() o 



JEZ 



JEZ 



call themselves philosophers, enlightened 
men, who, he says, ' are perfect Deists, 
not believing a syllable of revelation, and 
not ascribing our sufferings to the im- 
mediate providence of God, but to a con- 
catenation of causes, in a political light' 
The other party are such, ' as either through 
the length of the captivity, or the easy 
circumstances that they are in, and the splen- 
did and voluptuous manner in which they 
are able to live, neither look for, nor de- 
sire, a restoration.' 

The Jewish economy, as contained in 
the Pentateuch, is so much directed to 
temporal rewards and punishments, that it 
has been questioned whether the Jews had 
any knowledge of a future state. Bishop 
Warburton, in his ' Divine Legation of 
Moses,' and Dr. Russell, in his ' Ancient 
Europe,' have defended this opinion ; but 
it has been controverted by Bishop Sher- 
lock, Drs. Sykes, Jortin, Priestley, and other 
distinguished authors. The modern Jews 
are also decidedly against it ; and Mr. 
Levi believes not only that ' Moses incul- 
cated the doctrine of a future state in his 
dispensation,' but also that the ' Jews were 
certainly well acquainted with the doctrine 
of the resurrection in the days of Isaiah, 
who lived almost eight hundred years before 
the incarnation.' See Judaism. Letters to 
Dr. Priestley, p. 89 ; Dissertations on the Pro- 
phecies, vol. i. p. 184; vol. ii. p. 237; 
Adam's Religious World, vol. i. p. 1 — 27. 

JEZ'EBEL, fciPK, signifies island of 
the habitants ; otherwise, woe to the habi- 
tation ; or, according to the Hebrew and 
Syriac, isle of the dunghill, or woe to the 
dunghill. Jezebel was daughter of Eth- 
baal, king of the Zidonians, and wife 
to Ahab, king of Israel. (1 Kings xvi. 31.) 
This princess introduced into the kingdom 
of Samaria the public worship of Baal, 
Astarte, and other Phoenician deities, 
which God had expressly forbidden ; and 
with this impious worship a general pre- 
valency of all those abominations which 
had formerly incensed the Lord against 
the Canaanites, and procured their utter 
extirpation. Jezebel was so zealous for 
the honour of this false religion, that she 
fed at her own table four hundred prophets 
belonging to the goddess Astarte; and 
her husband Ahab, in like manner, kept 
four hundred of Baal's prophets, as mi- 
nisters of his false gods. (1 Kings xviii. 1. 
&c.) Jezebel seems to have undertaken 
the utter abolition of the worship of the 
Lord in Israel, by persecuting his prophets ; 
and she would have destroyed them all, 
had not a part been saved by some good 
men. Elijah, who lived at this time, having 
brought fire from heaven on his burnt- 
offering in sight of Ahab and all Israel, 
assembled at Mount Carmel, and the peo- 
ple having killed four hundred and fifty 
of Baal's prophets, Jezebel sent to Elijah, 
562 



and declared that the next day he should 
be dispatched. On hearing this he fled. 
(1 Kings xix. 1, &c.) 

Some time after, Ahab was desirous oS 
buying Naboth's vineyard, but met with 
a refusal from Naboth. Jezebel, therefore, 
wrote in the king's name to the prin- 
cipal men of Jezreel, and required them 
to accuse Naboth of blaspheming God and 
the king, and to punish him capitally. 
These orders were too punctually executed. 
Ahab, returning from Jezreel, was met by 
Elijah, who threatened his destruction in 
the name of God ; and that Jezebel, who had 
been the cause of this evil, should be eaten 
by dogs in the portion of Jezreel, or, accord- 
ing to the Hebrew, by the outward wall of 
Jezreel. These predictions were verified, 
when Jehu son of Nimshi rebelled against 
Ahab. Jehu coming to Jezreel, Jezebel 
painted her eyes with antimony, to make 
them appear larger and blacker, decked her 
head with all her ornaments, and looking 
out of a window, which was in the apartment 
over the city-gate, and seeing Jehu as he 
entered riding in his chariot, she cried out, 
' Had Zimri peace who slew his master?' 
Jehu, lifting up his head, asked who was 
there 1 Immediately, two or three eunuchs 
appeared, and Jehu bid them throw her 
down. They threw her out of the win- 
dow, and she fell into the inclosure of the 
outward wall, where she was eaten by 
dogs. Jehu afterwards said, Go, see what 
is become of this unhappy woman, and 
bury her: for she is a king's daughter. 
They went, and found only her skull, her 
feet, and the palms of her hands. 

JEZ'REEL, baini", signifies seed of God, 
or distilling of contrition, or distilling of 
the friendship of God, or sprinkling of the 
pastor of God. Jezreel was a celebrated 
city in the half-tribe of Manasseh, on the 
west of Jordan, in the confines of that 
tribe and of Issachar. (Josh. xix. 18.) Ahab 
had a palace at this place; and this city 
is remarkable for the vengeance which 
God executed here on Jezebel. Eusebius 
and Jerome say, that it was a considerable 
town in their time. Wells's Geography, 
vol. i. p. 338. 

Jezreel was also the name of a city 
in the tribe of Judah. (Josh. xv. 56.) Sa- 
cred Geography. 

Jezreel, Plain of or, of Esdraelon, 
also called the Great Plain, and in Scrip- 
ture, and elsewhere, ' the Great Plain, or 
Field of Esdraelon,' the ' Field of Megiddo' 
the ' Galilcean Plain,' and afterwards the 
' Plain of Saba.' This plain is the Arma- 
geddon of the Apocalypse. It extends from 
Mount Carmel and the Mediterranean, to 
the place where the Jordan issues from the 
Sea of Tiberias, through the middle of the 
Holy Land. ' Here,' says Dr. E. D. Clarke, 
' on this plain, the most fertile part of all 
the land of Canaan, (which, though a soli- 



JEZ 



IMA 



tude, we found like one vast meadow, cov- 
ered with the richest pasture,) the tribe of 
[ssachar 'rejoiced in their tents.' (Deut. 
xxxiii. 18.) 

' In the first ages of Jewish history, as 
well as during the Roman empire, the cru- 
sades, and even in later times, this plain 
has been the scene of many a memorable 
contest. Here it was that Barak, descend- 
ing with his ten thousand men from Mount 
Tabor, discomfited ' Sisera, and all his cha- 
riots, even nine hundred chariots of iron, 
and all the people that were with him,' 
gathered ' from Harosheth of the Gentiles, 
unto the river of Kishon ;' when ' all the 
host of Sisera fell upon the edge of the 
sword, and there was not a man left,' when 
' the kings came and fought, the kings of 
Canaan in Taanach, by the waters of Me- 
giddo.' (Judg. iv. 13. 15, 16. ; v. 19.) 
Here also it was that Josiah, king of Judah, 
fought in disguise against Necho, king of 
Egypt, and fell by the arrows of his antago- 
nist. (2 Kings xxiii. 29.) So great were the 
lamentations for his death, that the mourn- 
ing for Josiah became ' an ordinance in 
Israel' (2 Chron. xxxv. 24, 25.) The 
' great mom*ning in Jerusalem,' foretold 
by Zechariah, (xii. 11.) is said to be as 
the lamentations in the Plain of Esdraelon, 
or, according to the language of the pro- 
phet, ' as the mourning of Hadadrimmon 
in the valley of Megiddon.' Josephus often 
mentions this very remarkable part of the 
Holy Land, and always under the appel- 
lation of ' The Great Plain.' Under the 
same name it is also mentioned by Euse- 
bius, and by St. Jerome. It has been a 
chosen place for encampment in every 
contest carried on in this country, from 
the days of Nebuchodonosor, king of the 
Assyrians, in the history of whose war 
with Arphaxad, it is mentioned as ' the 
great Plain of Esdrolom,' (Judith i. 8.) un- 
til the disastrous march of the late Napo- 
leon Buonaparte from Egypt into Syria, 
Jews, Gentiles, Saracens, Christian crusa- 
ders, and anti-christian Frenchmen, Egyp- 
tians, Persians, Druses, Turks, and Arabs, 
warriors out of ' every nation which is 
under heaven,' have pitched their tents in 
the Plain of Esdraelon, and have beheld 
the various banners of their nations wet 
with the dews of Tabor and of Hermon.' 

This plain is enclosed on all sides by 
mountains : the hills of Nazareth to the 
north, — those of Samaria to the south, — the 
mountains of Tabor and Hermon to the 
east, — and Carmel to the south-west. 

In November 1823, the Rev. Mr. Jowett, 
counted in his road across this plain only five 
very small villages, consisting of wretched 
mud hovels, chiefly in ruins. The soil is 
stated to be extremely rich ; and in every 
direction are the most picturesque views. 
The plain of Esdraelon now bears the name 
of Fooli, and has been celebrated in modern 
563 



times by the victory which Murat gained 
over the Mamelukes and Arabs, in their 
attempt to relieve Acri or Acre, in April 
1799. Mr. Jowett computes this plain to 
be at least fifteen miles square, making 
allowances for some apparent irregulari- 
ties. Though it bears the title of ' Plain, 
yet it abounds with hills, which in the view 
of it from the adjacent mountains, shrink 
into nothing. Home's Introduction, vol. iii. 
p. 57. Jowett's Christian Researches in 
Syria, pp. 191, 192. 301, 302. Clarke's 
Travels, vol. iv. pp. 255—258. 

ILLYR'ICUM, 'iWvpiKbv, signifies ex- 
hilaration, or making joyful. Illyricum was 
a province lying to the north and north- 
west of Macedonia, along the eastern 
coast of the Adriatic Gulf, or Gulf of 
Venice. It was distinguished into two 
parts ; Liburnia to the north, where is now 
Croatia : and Dalmatia to the south, which 
still retains the same name, and to which, 
as St. Paul informs Timothy, Titus went. 
(2 Tim. iv. 10.) St. Paul (Rom. xv. 19.) 
says, that he preached the Gospel from 
Jerusalem round about to Illyricum. Wells's 
Geog. vol. ii. p. 279. 

IMAGE, in a religious sense, is an ar- 
tificial representation of some person or 
thing, used as an object of adoration, and 
is synonymous with idol. Nothing can 
be more clear, full, and distinct, than the 
expressions of Scripture prohibiting the 
making and worship of images. (Exod. 
xx. 4, 5. Deut. xvi. 22.) No sin is so 
strongly and repeatedly condemned in 
the Old Testament as that of idolatry, to 
which the Jews, in the early part of their 
history, were much addicted, and for 
which they were constantly punished. St. 
Paul was greatly affected when he saw 
that the city of Athens was ' wholly given 
to idolatry;' (Acts xvii. 16.) and he told 
the Athenians, that they ought not ' to 
think that the Godhead is like unto gold, 
or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's 
device.' (Acts xvii. 29.) He condemns 
those who ' changed the glory of the in- 
corruptible God into an image made like 
to corruptible man, and to birds, and 
four-footed beasts, and creeping things.' 
(Rom. i. 23.) 

That the first Christians had no images 
is evident from this circumstance, that 
they were reproached by the heathens, be- 
cause they did not use them ; and we 
find almost every ecclesiastical writer of 
the first four centuries arguing against the 
Gentile practice of image-worship, from 
the plain declaration of Scripture, and 
from the pure ami spiritual nature of God. 
The introduction of images into places ot' 
Christian worship dates its origin Boon 
alter the times of Constantine the Creat : 
but the earlier Christians reprobated every 

species of image-worship in the strongest 
language. When the empress Constantia 

o o 2 



IMA 



INC 



desired Eusebius to send her the image of 
Jesus Christ, he expostulated with her on 
the impropriety and absurdity of her re- 
quisition : ' What kind of image of Christ,' 
says he, ' does your imperial majesty wish 
to have conveyed to you? Is it the 
image of his real and immutable nature; 
or is it that which he assumed for our 
sakes, when he was veiled in the form of 
a servant? With respect to the former, 
I presume you are not to learn, that " no 
man hath known the S'Jn but the Father, 
neither hath any man known the Father, 
but the Son, and he to whomsoever the 
Son will reveal him." But you ask for 
the image of Christ, when he appeared in 
human form, clothed in a body similar to 
our own. Let me inform you that the 
body is now blended with the glory of 
the Deity, and all that was mortal in it 
is absorbed in life.' 

Paulinus, who died bishop of Nola, in 
431, caused the walls of a place of worship 
to be painted with stories taken out of the 
Old Testament, that the people might 
thence receive instruction. It is probable, 
that the introduction of images into churches 
was first done to preserve the remembrance, 
and do honour to the memory of de- 
parted saints ; but it was impossible to look 
at these interesting representations, stand- 
ing in places consecrated to the worship of 
God, without feeling some degree of re- 
spect, which was gradually heightened into 
reverence, and at last ended in absolute 
worship. In the eighth century began the 
famous controversy respecting the break- 
ing of images, which was carried on for 
more than a hundred years with the 
greatest eagerness and animosity, both in 
the east and in the west. Different popes, 
and different councils, espoused different 
sides of the question ; but at length, after 
much uncertainty, and fluctuation of oppo- 
site interests, those who contended for 
the lawfulness of worshipping images pre- 
vailed ; and from that time image-worship has 
been an established doctrine of the church 
of Rome. By what is called the seventh 
general council, held at Nice, about the 
close of the eighth century, it was decreed, 
' that holy images of the cross should be 
consecrated, and put on the sacred vessels 
and vestments, and upon walls and boards, 
in private houses and in public ways. 
And especially that there should be erected 
images of the Lord God, our Saviour Jesus 
Christ, of our blessed Lady the mother 
of God, of the venerable angels, and of all 
the saints. And that whosoever should pre- 
sume to think or teach otherwise, or to 
throw away any painted books, or the figure 
of the cross, or any image or picture, or 
any genuine relics of the martyrs, they 
should, if bishops or clergymen, be deposed; 
and, if monks or laymen, be excommuni- 
cated.' It was also decreed by the council 
564 



of Trent, the last general council, that ' due 
worship should be given to images.' 

It is sometimes pretended by the papists, 
that they do not worship the images, but 
God through the medium of images ; or 
that the worship which they pay to images 
is inferior to that which they pay to the 
Deity himself. These distinctions would 
be scarcely understood by the common 
people, and formerly an enlightened hea- 
then or Jew would probably have urged 
the same thing. But idolatry, in general, 
is condemned in Scripture ; and all use of 
images in the worship of God, making or 
bowing to any likeness, is absolutely for- 
bidden. See Iconoclasts. Bishop Tom- 
line's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. ii. p. 
354 ; White' s Bampton Lectures, Notes, p. 
8 ; Jones's Hist, of the Waldenses, p. 252. 

IMMORTALITY. God is absolutely 
immortal, he cannot die. Angels are im- 
mortal; but God, who made them, can 
terminate their being. Man is immortal 
in part, that is in his spirit ; but his body 
dies. Inferior creatures are not immortal ; 
they die wholly. Thus the principle of 
immortality is differently communicated, 
according to the will of him who can render 
any creature immortal, by prolonging its 
life ; who can confer immortality on the body 
of man, together with his soul ; and who 
maintains angels in immortality, by main- 
taining them in holiness. Holiness is the 
root of immortality ; but only God is abso- 
lutely holy, as only God is absolutely immor- 
tal. AH imperfection is a deduction on the 
principle of immortality. Only God is ab- 
solutely perfect, and, therefore, absolutely 
immortal. See Future State. Supple- 
men. Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 

INCEST, the crime of unnatural com- 
merce with a person within the degrees 
forbidden. In the beginning of the world, 
and again long after the deluge, marriages 
between near relations were allowed. In 
the time of Abraham and Isaac, these 
marriages were permitted. Some authors 
believe, that such marriages were allowed, or 
at least tolerated, till the time of Moses, 
who first prohibited them among the He- 
brews : and that among other people they 
were allowed even after him. 

1 In order to preserve chastity in fa- 
milies, and between persons of different 
sexes, brought up and living together in a 
state of unreserved intimacy, it is neces- 
sary, by every method possible, to inculcate 
an abhorrence of incestuous conjunctions ; 
which abhorrence can only be upholden 
by the absolute reprobation of all com- 
merce of the sexes between near rela- 
tions. Upon this principle, the marriage, 
as well as other cohabitations of brothers 
and sisters, of lineal kindred, and of all 
who usually live in the same family, may 
be said to be forbidden by the law of na- 
ture. Restrictions which extend to re- 



IND 



IND 



moter degrees of kindred than what this 
reason makes it necessary to prohibit from 
intermarriage, are founded in the autho- 
rity of the positive law which ordains 
them, and can only be justified by their 
tendency to diffuse wealth, to connect 
families, or to promote some political 
advantage. The Levitical law, which is 
received in this country, and from which 
the rule of the Roman law differs very- 
little, prohibits marriages between relations, 
within three degrees of kindred ; computing 
the generations, not from, but through the 
common ancestor, and accounting affinity 
the same as consanguinity. The issue, how- 
ever, of such marriages are not bastardized, 
unless the parents be divorced during their 
life-time.' Pa/ey's Moral and Polit. Philoso- 
phy, vol. i. pp. 311,312. 

INDEPENDENTS were formerly a 
distinct sect, but now comprehend the 
members of various denominations, as 
far as respects church government and dis- 
cipline. They are called Independents, from 
maintaining that all Christian congregations 
are so many independent religious societies ; 
or, that each congregation of Christians 
which meets in one house, for public wor- 
ship, is a complete church; has sufficient 
power to perform every thing relating to 
ecclesiastical government within itself; and 
is in no respect subject or accountable to 
other churches. The founder of the Inde- 
pendents was a Mr. John Robinson, of 
Norfolk, ' a man who had much of the so- 
lemn piety of the times, and was master of 
a congregation of Brownists that had set- 
tled at Leyden. This well-meaning man, 
perceiving the defects that reigned in the 
discipline of Brown, and in the spirit and 
temper of his followers, employed his zeal 
and diligence in correcting them, and in mo- 
delling anew the society, in such a manner 
as to render it less odious to his adversaries, 
and less liable to the just censure of those 
true Christians, who looked upon charity 
as the end of the commandment. The 
independents, accordingly, were much 
more commendable than the Brownists in 
two respects, — they surpassed them both in 
the moderation of their sentiments, and in 
the order of their discipline.' 

A Mr. Henry Jacobs, who had fled to 
Holland, in consequence of archbishop 
Bancroft's active exertions against the 
Puritans, meeting with Mr. Robinson in 
that country, embraced his sentiments 
respecting church discipline ; and, return- 
ing to England, established the first Inde- 
pendent or Congregational Church here 
in 16TG. 

Independency, however, ' made at first 
but a very small progress in England: it 
worked its way slowly, and in a clandestine 
manner , and its members concealed their 
principles from public view, to avoid the' 
penal laws that had been enacted against 
565 



non-conformists. But during the reign of 
Charles I., when, amidst the shocks of civil 
and religious discords, the authority of the 
Bishops and the cause of Episcopacy 
began to decline, and more particularly 
about the year 1640, the Independents 
grew more courageous, and came forth, 
with an air of resolution and confidence, 
to public view. After this period, their 
affairs took a prosperous turn ; and in a 
little time they became so considerable, 
both by their numbers, and by the reputa- 
tion that they acquired, that they vied in 
point of pre-eminence and credit, not only 
with the Bishops, but also with the Pres- 
byterians, though at this time in the very 
zenith of their power. This rapid progress 
of the Independents was, no doubt, owing 
to a variety of causes ; among which jus- 
tice obliges us to reckon the learning of 
their teachers, and the regularity and sanc- 
tity of their manners. During the admi- 
nistration of Cromwell, whose peculiar 
protection and patronage they enjoyed on 
more than one account, their credit rose 
to the greatest height, and their influence 
and reputation were universal: but after 
the restoration of Charles II., their caruse 
declined, and they fell back gradually into 
their primitive obscurity. The sect, indeed, 
still subsisted ; but in such a state of de- 
jection and weakness, as engaged them in 
the year 1G91, under the reign of King 
William, to enter into an association with 
the Presbyterians residing in and about 
London, under certain heads of agreement, 
that tended to the maintenance of their re- 
spective institutions.' 

At that era, the Independents and Pres- 
byterians, called, from their association, the 
United Brethren, were generally Calvinists, 
and differed only with respect to ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline. At present, though the Eng- 
lish Independents and Presbyterians form 
two distinct parties of Protestant dissenters, 
they are distinguished by very trifling differ- 
ences with regard to church government. 
Indeed, the distinguishing tenet of the Inde- 
pendents is maintained, with some shades of 
difference, not only by the three classes of 
Protestant Dissenters in England, in gene- 
ral, but also by the Sandemanians in Eng- 
land, by their brethren the Glassites, and by 
both classes of Baptists in Scotland. That 
which unites them, or rather which distin- 
guishes them from other denominations oi 
Christians, is their disclaiming, more or less, 
every form of union between churches, ami 
assigning to each congregation the exclusive 
government of itself. The religious doc- 
trines of the Independents, properly bo 
called, are, in general, strictly Calvinistic. 
However, many ofthe Independents, both at 
home and abroad, reject theuse of all creeds 
and confessions drawn up by fallible men ; 
and they merel) require of their teachers b 
declaration of their belief in the truth ofthe 



IND 



IND 



Gospel and its leading doctrines, and of their 
adherence to the Scriptures as the sole 
standard of faith and practice, and the only 
criterion of faith. Some of them are said to 
require from all persons, who wish to be ad- 
mitted into their communion, an account, 
either verbal or written, of what is called 
their experience ; in which not only a decla- 
ration of their faith in the Lord Jesus, and 
their purpose, by grace, to devote them- 
selves to him, is expected, but also a recital 
of the means by which they were led to a 
knowledge and profession of the Gospel. 

The public worship of the Independents, 
which is conducted without form or cere- 
mony, differs little from that of the Presby- 
terians. The Independents consider it as 
their right to choose their own ministers 
and deacons ; and though they attribute 
no virtue to ordination, by imposition of 
hands, as conveying any new powers, yet 
it is allowed and practised by them. Many 
of them, indeed, suppose, that the essence 
of ordination does not lie in the act of the 
ministers who assist, but in the choice and 
call of the people, and in the candidate's 
acceptance of that call ; and hence their or- 
dination may be considered only as a public 
declaration of that agreement. 

It might be well that the term Indepen- 
dents were universally disclaimed and laid 
aside, as the name of a sect ; for other de- 
nominations may, perhaps, have as good a 
right to it as the one that has been distin- 
guished by it. No one, I presume, would 
assume it to the prejudice of their depend- 
dence on our Lord and Saviour ; and, with 
respect to the influence of men, Presbyte- 
rians, or Episcopalians, may, in fact, have 
the advantage of Independents, and their 
ministers be more independent of their bre- 
thren, than theirs are, as they doubtless 
are more independent of their people. " In 
no one instance," says a late writer, " does 
the Independent plan appear to have a 
solid foundation, either in Scripture or an- 
tiquity; yet the interference of the people, 
and the share of authority exercised by 
them, gives some plausible colour to Inde- 
pendency." Milner's Hist, of the Church of 
Christ, vol. i. p. 587; Apologia, or Four 
Letters to a Minister of an Independent 
Church,^. 134 — 136; Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. iv. p. 529, &c. ; Adam's Religious World, 
vol. ii. p. 306—31 8 ; iii. p. 49, &c. 

Independents, Scottish, or New In- 
dependents. John Glas gave rise to In- 
dependency in Scotland, about the year 
1728, since which time the Baptists, and 
some other parties professing Indepen- 
dency, have arisen, and become pretty nu- 
merous. Within the last five and thirty 
years, the controversy between Presbyte- 
rians and Independents has been revived, 
and is still carried on with energy and spi- 
rit. Within this period, a numerous body 
of Independents has arisen, whose ideas of 
566 



union and discipline are perhaps more mild 
and accommodating than those of the 
churches which had previously been col- 
lected, and which possess a greater combina- 
tion of those talents that excite atten- 
tion, and give influence to religious parties. 
The members of this new sect profess to be 
wholly unconnected with any other society 
of Independents ; and their exertions and 
publications seem to have raised some de- 
gree of jealousy in the minds of the esta- 
blished clergy of Scotland, whose attention 
has been employed in defending the order 
and constitution of their church against the 
renewed attacks of the Independents. 

In December, 1797, Robert Haldane, 
esq., a gentleman of much respectability, 
and possessed of an ample fortune in 
Scotland, formed a " Society for propagating 
the Gospel at Home." The object of this 
society was to send forth men to preach 
the Gospel in those parts of Scotland 
where they conceived that this blessing 
was not enjoyed in its purity, or where 
it was not regularly dispensed. Adopting 
the opinion, that it is the right, nay the 
paramount duty, of every Christian who 
knows the Gospel, and is duly^qualified, to 
preach it to his fellow sinners, James Hal- 
dane, esq., brother of Mr. Robert Haldane, 
Mr. Aikman, and others, travelled through 
the greater part of Scotland, and preached 
the Gospel to their countrymen. Where- 
ever they went, they invariably adhered to 
' make the word of God without charge ;' 
and as they had freely received, freely to 
give. In a short time, the Messrs. Hal- 
danes separated from the church of Scot- 
land; and soon after, Messrs. Innes and 
Ewing, both ministers in the national 
church, resigned their charges, and united 
with them and their associates in preach- 
ing the Gospel throughout the kingdom. 
A distinct society was soon formed, at the 
head of which were the Messrs. Haldanes ; 
and hence its members have been also 
called Haldanites, or Haldanite Indepen- 
dents. Large places of public worship, 
denominated Tabernacles, were erected, at 
Mr. Robert Haldane's expense, in the 
principal towns, where the word of God 
was declared to numerous assemblies, 
both by those ministers and others from va- 
rious denominations in England. At the 
expense chiefly, if not solely, of Mr. R. 
Haldane, academies were also formed at 
Edinburgh, Dundee, and Glasgow, for 
the education of young men for the work 
of the ministry ; who, when deemed qua- 
lified for preaching the Gospel, were to 
be employed as itinerants, under the in- 
spection and countenance of the " Society 
for propagating the Gospel at Home." Thus 
a succession of teachers was secured ; and 
so well was their plan founded and ad- 
ministered, that, while their wants were 
duly supplied, it presented no temptation to 



IND 



IND 



any to embark in the cause, whose avarice 
was greater than their zeal for doing good. 

The doctrines of the Scottish Indepen- 
dents are Calvinistic ; and they reject all 
articles of faith or creeds of human com- 
position. They say, that the Scriptures 
are a divine and infallible standard ; and 
that consistent Independents dare not adopt 
any other. They insist, that the Scrip- 
tures contain a full and complete model 
and system of doctrine, government, dis- 
cipline, and worship ; and that in them 
we may find an universal rule for the 
direction of Christians in their associated 
state, as well as all necessary instructions 
for the faith and practice of individuals. 
They require Scripture for every thing, 
even for such things as could not be 
contained in Scripture. Hence they re- 
ject the authority of the civil magistrate in 
matters of religion, and receive the Scrip- 
tures, and nothing else, as binding in the 
worship of God. They conceive the church 
of Christ, as exhibited in Scripture, to be 
an association which has no head on 
earth, and which, as a body, can receive 
no laws from any one, except from Christ 
alone. They say, that the kingdom of 
Jesus is spiritual, neither interfering with 
human governments, nor admitting their 
interference in its peculiar concerns; and 
while they teach obedience to the civil 
magistrate in all civil matters, in re- 
ligion they acknowledge no human au- 
thority whatever. They profess to see an 
inconsistency in every form of national 
religion with the New Testament ; nay, 
they consider a civil establishment of re- 
ligion as ' the very essence of Antichrist.' 
They lay it down as a fundamental prin- 
ciple, that a Christian church ought to 
consist of believers, or of those who give 
evidence of their knowing and believing 
the Gospel, united together in the pro- 
fession of its truths, and walking agree- 
ably to them ; that it ought to be directed 
in its discipline and order by the Scrip- 
tures only ; and that all Christians, of all 
ages, are bound to observe the universal 
and approved practices of the first churches, 
as recorded in Scripture. The congrega- 
tions already formed have adopted all the 
ordinances which they judge to have been 
observed by the apostolical churches ; 
and the practices they do not follow are — 
the community of goods in the church at 
Jerusalem, observing the Lord's Supper 
daily, love feasts, and washing one ano- 
ther's feet. They differ from the more 
early Independents, in admitting Chris- 
tians of all religious denominations to com- 
municate with them in the Lord's Supper, 
provided they have reason to think them 
real Christians ; and in considering all 
association of ministers, for giving counsel 
and advice to the churches in matters of 
doubt, as unnecessary and unscripturaJ. 
5(>7 



With respect to church government, the 
members of this denomination are Inde- 
pendents in the strictest sense of the word, 
and believe, that the apostolical churches, 
according to the model to which it is their 
great and professed object to conform, 
were entirely independent, none of them 
being subject to any foreign jurisdiction, 
but each one governed by its own rulers 
and by no other laws than those written in 
the word of God. They say, that a true 
church of Christ is a society formed for 
the same purpose as the churches planted 
by the apostles, and whose constitution is 
the same as theirs. A deviation in these 
particulars renders it unworthy of the name. 
According to them, when the word church 
in Scripture, in its religious sense, does 
not denote a single congregation of saints, 
it always refers to the whole body or king- 
dom of Christ, part of which is in heaven, 
and part on earth ; which body does not 
constitute two churches, a visible and an 
invisible, but one church or family, con- 
sisting of different parts. They admit 
that all churches, that is, congregations, 
are connected together as being Christ's 
subjects ; but they insist that they are 
dependent only on their King, in whose 
hands the Supreme authority rests. While 
they teach that Independent churches have 
no authority over each other, they allow 
that they may receive the advantage of 
each other's opinion on any matter of im- 
portance. They conceive that bishop and 
elder were, in apostolic times, synonymous 
terms, that the stated officers in all the 
churches then were elders and deacons, 
and, of course, that they are the only offices 
essential to a church of Christ. With them 
every elder is a preacher; and they con- 
ceive there is no difference, in any respect, 
between elder and deacon, except in the 
offices to which they are appointed. They 
insist that ordination is not represented 
in Scripture as conveying an office, or 
giving any person a right to discharge that 
office ; it is only the manner of setting him 
apart to discharge the duties of his office, 
and recommending him to the grace of the 
great Head of the church. It gives him 
no jurisdiction in any church, except in 
that which appointed him; and as soon 
as he lays down, or is removed from, his 
office in that church, his ordination is at 
an end. They contend, that there is a 
distinction of departments in the pastoral 
office, and that teaching and ruling are 
different branches of that office. Both 
elders and deacons are ordained by im- 
position of hands ; and though ordination 
is part of the elder's province, yet, when 
churches are newly formed, or in other 
cases of necessity, they allow that the 
members, who have always the right of 
election, may ordain church officers for 
themselves, or, at least, set them apart to 



IND 



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their respective offices. They say, that 
the legislative authority belongs exclu- 
sively to Christ, and is already exercised 
in his word; they, therefore, disavow all 
right to make laws, but admit a right 
to judge of the application of Christ's laws, 
and a right to execute those laws, when 
judged applicable to any particular case. 
The first belongs to Jesus alone ; the se- 
cond to the whole church; and the third, 
to the rulers or elders of the church, who 
may, therefore, be called the executive offi- 
cers of the church. The power claimed by 
the whole church, that is, rulers and ruled, 
is not to make laws, but to judge of their 
application. The power claimed by rulers is 
not to propose that their opinions should be 
passed into laws, but to carry into execu- 
tion the laws of Christ, when judged appli- 
cable by the church. If the meanest mem- 
ber can point out a misapplication of the 
law, they are bound to hear. If ever such 
a difference shall arise as to cause a separa- 
tion, it is not the majority that constitute 
the church, but those of them who are obe- 
dient to the laws of Christ. 

The Scottish Independents use no form 
of prayer ; and public worship, in other 
respects, is conducted in their congregations 
in much the same manner as in the esta- 
blished kirks. The Independents, however, 
read a large but indefinite portion of the 
Scriptures at each meeting ; in many of 
their chapels they use Dr. Watts's version 
of the Psalms ; and in most of them they 
stand while singing the praises of God. 
They adopt weekly communions ; and as 
they make no real distinction between 
clergy and laity, the want or absence of 
elders and deacons, on any occasion, in 
any of their chapels, is not thought a suffi- 
cient reason for preventing the administra- 
tion of the holy communion on the first day 
of the week. They contend that, by the 
approved practice of apostolic churches, 
it is demonstrated to be the appointment 
of Christ, that his churches must observe 
the Lord's Supper every first day of the 
week. A division has taken place among 
these Independents, chiefly in consequence 
of Mr. Haldane's adoption of Baptist Prin- 
ciples, and introduction of church discipline, 
and of mutual exhortation and prayer by 
the brethren, into the public service on 
Sunday mornings. Haldane's View of Social 
Worship, p. 100, &c. Adam's Religious 
World, vol. iii. p. 260—283. 

INDULGENCES. In the primitive 
church very severe penalties were inflicted 
on those who had been guilty of any sins, 
whether public or private ; and, in parti- 
cular, they were forbidden to partake, for 
a certain time, of the sacrament of the 
Lord's Supper, or to hold any communion 
with the church. General rules were 

formed upon these subjects ; but as it was 
often found expedient to make a discrimi- 
568 



nation in the degrees of punishment, ac- 
cording to the different circumstances of the 
offenders, and especially when they showed 
marks of contrition and repentance, power 
was given to bishops, by the council of 
Nice, to relax or remit those punishments 
as they should see reason. Every favour of 
this kind was called an Indulgence or Par- 
don. Such a power was in itself unobjec- 
tionable ; and it is obvious, that if it had 
been wisely exercised, it might have been 
productive of great benefit to the cause of 
religion. After the bishops had enjoyed 
this privilege for some centuries, and had 
begun to abuse it, the popes discovered 
that in their own hands it might be ren- 
dered a powerful instrument to promote 
both their ambition and their avarice. They 
could not but perceive that if they could 
persuade men that they had the power of 
granting pardon for sin, it would give them 
a complete influence over their consciences ; 
and if they could at the same time prevail 
upon them to purchase these pardons for 
money, it must add greatly to the wealth 
of the Roman see. In the eleventh century, 
therefore, when the dominion of the popes 
was rising to its zenith, and their power 
was almost irresistible, they took to them- 
selves the exclusive prerogative of dispen- 
sing Indulgences, which they carried to a 
most unwarrantable length. Instead of 
confining them, according to their original 
institution, to the ordinary purposes of 
ecclesiastical discipline, they extended them 
to the punishment of the wicked in the 
world to come ; instead of shortening the 
duration of earthly penance, they pretended 
that they could deliver men from the pains 
of Purgatory ; instead of allowing them 
gratuitously, and upon just grounds, to 
the penitent offender, they sold them in 
the most open and corrupt manner to the 
profligate and abandoned, who still conti- 
nued in their vices. They did not scruple 
to call these Indulgences a plenary remis- 
sion of all sins, past, present, and future, 
and to offer them as a certain and imme- 
diate passport from the troubles of this world 
to the eternal joys of heaven. To give 
some sort of colour and support to this in- 
famous traffic, they confidently asserted, 
that the superabundant merits of Christ, 
and of his faithful servants, formed a fund 
of which the pope was the sole manager ; 
and that he could, at his own discretion, 
dispense those merits, as the sure means 
of procuring pardon from God, in any pro- 
portion, for any species of wickedness, and 
to any person he pleased. The bare state- 
ment of this doctrine is a sufficient refu- 
tation of it ; and it is scarcely necessary to 
add, that it has no foundation whatever 
in Scripture. It is an arrogant and im- 
pious usurpation of a power which belongs 
to God alone; and it has an obvious ten- 
dency to promote licentiousness and sin 



INF 



INQ 



of every description, by holding out an easy 
and certain method of absolution. 

The popes derived very large sums from 
the sale of these indulgences ; and it is well 
known that the gross abuses practised in 
granting ihem were among the immediate 
and principal causes of bringing about the 
Reformation. They continued to the last to 
be sold at Rome, and were to be purchased 
by any who were weak enough to buy them, 
whether Protestants or Papists. The sums 
required for indulgences were first pub- 
lished by Anthony Egane, a Franciscan 
friar, in 1673 ; and the original pamphlet 
was re-published by Baron Maseres, in 
1809, in his last volume of ' Occasional Es- 
says.' Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, 
vol. ii. book ii. p. 1019, note ; Bishop Tom- 
line's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. ii. pp. 
351—354. 

INFALLIBILITY, the quality of not 
being subject to deception or mistake. The 
infallibility of the church of Rome has been 
one of the greatest controversies between 
the Protestants and the Papists. By this 
infallibility is understood, that the church 
of Rome cannot at any time cease to be 
orthodox in her doctrine, or fall into any 
pernicious errors ; but that she is consti- 
tuted, by Divine authority, the judge of all 
controversies in religion, and that all Christ- 
ians are obliged to acquiesce in her deci- 
sions. It is observable, that the church of 
Rome existed many centuries before any 
mention was made of infallibility, though it 
had frequent disputes with other churches 
from a very early period. This doctrine 
was afterwards asserted and received ; and 
its long and general prevalence is, perhaps, 
the strongest instance, which can be pro- 
duced from the annals of the world, of the 
presumption and artifice of one set of men, 
and of the blindness and credulity of an- 
other. After infallibility became an estab- 
lished tenet of the church of Rome, a dif- 
ference of opinion has existed among Pa- 
pists, whether it is vested in the popes 
themselves, when they pronounce their de- 
crees ex cathedra, or in general councils. 
This very doubt is a sufficient argument 
against the thing itself, since wherever so 
important and distinguished a privilege as 
infallibility resided, it could not but be ma- 
nifest and apparent ; and we may conclude, 
that if it had pleased God to place such a 
power in any part of his church, he would 
have distinctly pointed out the persons in 
whom that power was to be found. If in- 
fallibility belonged to the whole church col- 
lectively, or to any individual part of it, it 
must be prominent and conspicuous, that 
no mistake or doubt could exist on the sub- 
ject; it must have prevented those dissen- 
sions, contests, heresies, and schisms, which 
have abounded among Christians from the 
days of the apostles to the present times ; 
and of which that very church, which is the 
569 



assertor and patron of this doctrine, has 
had its full share. Many popes, in their 
bulls and other public instruments, have 
themselves laid claim to their own personal 
infallibility in the most arrogant and blas- 
phemous manner. Yet, as Bishop Burnet 
observes, the papacy for more than 800 
years, as it is represented by their own 
writers., is, perhaps, the worst succession of 
men to be found in history. This mon- 
strous doctrine of infallibility is now so 
universally reprobated, as being repugnant 
to the nature of man, as unfounded in 
Scripture, as inconsistent with God's gene- 
ral government of the world, as unsupported 
by miracles or any other authentic sign, and 
as clearly refuted by the opposite and con- 
trary dicisions of different popes, that it is 
unnecessary to add any thing farther on the 
subject. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. 
Theology, vol. ii. pp. 329, 330. 345. Buck's 
Theological Dictionary, vol. i. p. 415. 

INQUISITION, a tribunal erected by 
the popes in several Roman Catholic coun- 
tries, for the examination and punishment 
of heretics. It was not till about the year 
1200, the papal chair being then filled by 
Innocent III., that the terms ' Inquisition 
into heresy,' and ' Inquisitor,' were much, 
if at all, heard of. As the bishops and the 
vicars were not, in the opinion of the pope, 
either so fit or so diligent in the extirpation 
of heresy as he thought necessary, two new 
orders of regulars were at this time insti- 
tuted, namely, those of St. Dominic and St. 
Francis. To St. Dominic the honour of 
first erecting this extraordinary court is 
commonly ascribed. At first, however, it 
was not on the same footing on which it 
afterwards settled, and on which it has since 
continued. The first inquisitors were vested 
with a double capacity, not very happily 
united in the same persons : one was that 
of preachers, to convince the heretics by 
argument ; the other, that of persecutors, to 
instigate magistrates to employ every me- 
thod of extirpating the refractory, that is, 
all who were so unreasonable as not to be 
convinced by the sound reasoning of those 
merciless fanatics and wretched sophisters. 
At first, also, the inquisitors had no tribu- 
nals: they merely inquired after heretics, 
their number, strength, and riches. When 
they had detected them, they informed the 
bishops, who, at that time, had the sole 
power of judging in ecclesiastical affairs, 
and whom they urged to anathematize, ba- 
nish, or otherwise chastise, such heretical 
persons as they brought before them. Some- 
times they excited princes to arm their 
subjects against the heretics ; and at other 
times they inflamed the rabble, whom they 
themselves headed, to take up arms, and 
unite in extirpating them. Buch as they 
could induce to devote themselves to this 
service, obtained the title of crusaders, and 
were distinguished by a cross of cloth affixed 



INQ 



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to their garments. The efforts of the in- 
quisitors were greatly assisted by the em- 
peror of the Romans, Frederick II., who, 
in 1224, promulgated four edicts of the 
most ferocious and sanguinary description 
against heretics. These edicts were ap- 
proved and confirmed by the pope, and in- 
serted in his bulls ; and, in process of time, 
the persecuting spirit which pervades them 
became gradually incorporated into the laws 
of almost every country in Europe. 

After the death of Frederick, which hap- 
pened about the middle of the thirteenth 
century, Pope Innocent IV. remaining sole 
arbiter of the affairs of Lombardy and other 
parts of Italy, set himself diligently to ex- 
tirpate heresy, which of late had exceedingly 
increased ; and considering the labour which 
had been employed in this service by the 
Franciscan and Dominican friars, whose 
zeal, unrestrained by either respect of per- 
sons or the fear of dangers, by any regard 
to justice or the feelings of humanity, had 
recommended them highly to the pontiff, he 
cheerfully availed himself of their ardour to 
second his efforts. Preaching was found 
of little avail, and even the enlisting of 
crusaders and inflicting military execution 
was suspended for the sake of erecting in 
different countries standing tribunals, armed 
with tremendous authority, but charged 
solely with the purgation of heretical pra- 
vity. To obviate an objection started against 
the establishment of these novel tribunals, 
the pope enacted that the tribunal should 
consist of the inquisitor and bishop of the 
place. The inquisitor, however, was not 
only to be the principal, but in reality every 
thing ; and the bishop had little more than 
the name of judge. To give at least the 
appearance of authority to the secular 
powers, they were allowed to appoint the 
subordinate officers to the inquisition, but 
still subject to the approbation of the inqui- 
sitors ; they were also allowed to send with 
the inquisitor, when he should go into the 
country, one of their assessors, whom the 
inquisitor should choose. Of all the pro- 
perty belonging to heretics which they 
should be enabled to confiscate, a third part 
was to go to the community, in return for 
which the community was to defray the 
whole expense of keeping the prisons, and 
supporting the prisoners. The infliction of 
the legal punishment was also vested in the 
magistrate, after trial and condemnation by 
the inquisitors : but that was so much a 
matter of course, and which he well knew 
he could not avoid executing without incur- 
ring the vengeance of the church, that, in 
fact, it only converted him into the execu- 
tioner of a spiritual judge. 

Such was the footing on which ' the holy 
office' was placed in the year 1251, in the 
ecclesiastical states of Italy ; and it was af- 
terwards extended to more distant provinces, 
and every where entrusted to the manage- 
570 



ment of Dominican friars : thirty-one rules 
or articles, defining their jurisdiction and 
powers, and regulating the procedure of 
this spiritual court of judicature, were de- 
vised ; and all rulers and magistrates were 
commanded, by a papal bull, issued for the 
purpose, to give, under pain of excommu- 
nication, the most punctual obedience, and 
every possible assistance to this holy court. 
It was not, however, in the power of the 
pope to obtain the establishment of this tri- 
bunal in many of the most populous coun- 
tries subject to the see of Rome. The dif- 
ficulties arose partly from the conduct of 
the inquisitors, their inordinate severity, 
their unbounded extortion and avarice, and 
the propensity they showed, on every occa- 
sion, to extend, beyond measure, their own 
authority. Indeed, under one pretext or 
another, they were making rapid strides to 
engross all the criminal jurisdiction of the 
magistrate ; for they insisted that under the 
head of heresy were included infidelity, 
blasphemy, perjury, sorcery, poisoning, bi- 
gamy, and usury ! In Spain and Portugal 
this scourge and disgrace of humanity ex- 
isted for centuries, with its most frightful 
aspect ; in Rome, it was much more toler- 
able. Happily for mankind, this diabolical 
tribunal has ceased to exist in many coun- 
tries where it had been erected ; and the 
final erasure of the Inquisition from the face 
of the earth, is a matter extremely to be de- 
sired. At present, however, it still exists 
in some parts ; and at Goa, a Portuguese 
settlement in Asia, it wears all the terrific 
features which it has assumed in any coun- 
try. See Act of Faith. Jones's History of 
the Waldenses, pp. 399 — 408 ; Buchanan's 
Christian Researches in Asia, p. 162, &c. 

INSPIRATION, in the highest sense, is 
the immediate communication of knowledge 
to the human mind by the Spirit of God ; 
but the word is commonly used by divines, 
in a less strict and proper sense, to denote 
such a degree of divine influence, assist- 
ance, and guidance, as enabled the authors 
of the Scriptures to communicate religious 
knowledge to others, without error or mis- 
take, whether the subjects of such commu- 
nication were things then immediately re- 
vealed to those who declared them, or 
things with which they were before ac- 
quainted. When it is said, that Scripture 
is Divinely inspired, we are not to under- 
stand that God suggested every word, or 
dictated every expression. From the dif- 
ferent styles in which the books are written, 
and from the different manner in which the 
same events are related and predicted by 
different authors, it appears that the sacred 
penmen were permitted to write as their 
several tempers, understandings, and habits 
of life, directed ; and that the knowledge 
communicated to them by inspiration on 
the subject of their writings, was applied 
in the same manner as any knowledge 



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acquired by ordinary means. Nor is it 
to be supposed that they were even thus 
inspired in every fact which they related, 
or in every precept which they delivered. 
They were left to the common use of their 
faculties, and did not, upon every occa- 
sion, stand in need of supernatural com- 
munication ; but whenever, and as far as, 
divine assistance was necessary, it was 
always afforded. We perceive that in 
different parts of Scripture were different 
sorts and degrees of Inspiration. God 
enabled Moses to give an account of the 
creation of the world ; Joshua to record 
with exactness the settlement of the Is- 
raelites in the land of Canaan; David to 
mingle prophetic information with the 
varied effusions of gratitude, contrition, and 
piety ; Solomon to deliver wise instructions 
for the regulation of human life ; Isaiah 
to deliver predictions concerning the future 
Saviour of mankind ; and Ezra to collect 
the sacred Scriptures into one authentic 
volume : ' but all these worketh that 
one and the self-same Spirit, dividing to 
every man severally as he will.' ( 1 Cor. xii. 
11.) In some cases, Inspiration only 
produced correctness and accuracy in 
relating past occurrences, or in reciting 
the words of others ; in other cases, it 
communicated ideas not only new and 
unknown before, but infinitely beyond 
the reach of unassisted human intellect; 
and, sometimes, inspired prophets delivered, 
for the use of future ages, predictions 
which they did not themselves compre- 
hend, and which could not be fully un- 
derstood till they were accomplished. 
But whatever distinctions are made with 
respect to the sorts, degrees, or modes of 
Inspiration, we may rest assured that 
one property belongs to every inspired 
writing, namely, that it is free from er- 
ror, that is, any material error. This 
property must be considered as extending 
to the whole of each of those writings, 
of which a part only is inspired ; for it 
is not to be supposed that God would 
suffer any such errors, as might tend to 
mislead our faith or pervert our practice, 
to be mixed with those truths which he 
himself has mercifully revealed to his ra- 
tional creatures as the means of their 
eternal salvation. In this restricted sense 
it may be asserted, that the sacred writers 
always wrote under the influence, or gui- 
dance, or care, of the Holy Spirit, which 
sufficiently establishes the truth and divine 
authority of all Scripture. 

That the authors of the historical books 
of the Old Testament were occasionally 
inspired, is certain, since they frequently 
display an acquaintance with the coun- 
sels and designs of God, and often reveal 
his future dispensations in the clearest 
predictions. But though it is evident that 
the sacred historians sometimes wrote 
571 



under the immediate operation of the 
Holy Spirit, it does not follow that they 
derived from Revelation the knowledge of 
those things which might be collected 
from the common sources of human intel- 
ligence. It is sufficient to believe, that by 
the general superintendence of the Holy 
Spirit, they were directed in the choice 
of their materials, enlightened to judge of 
the truth and importance of those ac- 
counts from which they borrowed their 
information, and prevented from re- 
cording any material error. Indeed, the 
historical books appear, from internal 
evidence, to have been chiefly written by 
persons contemporary with the periods to 
which they relate ; who, in their descrip- 
tion of characters and events, many of 
which they witnessed, uniformly exhibit 
a strict sincerity of intention, and an un- 
exampled impartiality. Some of these 
books, however, were compiled in sub- 
sequent times from the sacred annals men- 
tioned in Scripture as written by prophets 
or seers, and from those public records, 
and other authentic documents, which, 
though written by uninspired men, were 
held in high estimation, and preserved 
with great care by persons specially ap- 
pointed as keepers of the genealogies and 
public archives of the Jewish nation. It 
is not necessary to be able to distinguish 
the inspired from the uninspired parts of 
the historical books of the Old Testament. 
It is enough for us to know, that every 
writer of the Old Testament was inspired, 
and that the whole of the history it con- 
tains, without any exception or reserve, is 
true. These points being ascertained 
and allowed, it is of very little consequence 
whether the knowledge of a particular 
fact was obtained by any of the ordinary 
modes of information, or whether it was 
communicated by immediate revelation 
from God ; whether any particular pas- 
sage was written by the natural powers of 
the historian, or by the positive suggestion 
of the Holy Spirit. Whatever uncertainty 
may exist concerning the direct inspira- 
tion of any historical narrative, or of any 
moral precept, contained in the Old Tes- 
tament, we must be fully convinced that 
all its prophetical parts proceeded from 
God. This is continually affirmed by the 
prophets themselves, and is demonstrated 
by the indubitable testimony which history 
bears to the accurate fulfilment of many 
of these predictions; others are gradually- 
receiving their accomplishment in the 
times in which we live, and afford the 
surest pledge and most positive security fin 
the completion of those which remain to be 

fulfilled 

If the books of the Old Testament, 
which relate to the partial and temporary 

religion of the .lews, were written under 

the direction snd superintendence of God 



INS 



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himself, surely we cannot but conclude the 
same of the books of the New Testament, 
which contain the religion of all mankind. 
The apostles were constant attendants 
upon our Saviour during his ministry ; and 
they were not only present at his public 
preaching, but after addressing himself 
to the multitudes in parables and simili- 
tudes, 'when they were alone, he ex- 
pounded all things to his disciples,' (Markiv. 
34.) He also showed himself alive to the 
apostles, after his passion, by many in- 
fallible proofs, being seen by them forty 
days, and speaking of the things pertaining 
to the kingdom of God. (Acts i. 3.) Yet, 
our Saviour foresaw that these instructions, 
delivered to the apostles as men, and im- 
pressed on the mind in the ordinary man- 
ner, would not qualify them for the great 
work of propagating his religion. It was, 
therefore, promised, that the Holy Ghost 
should not only bring all things to their 
remembrance, which the apostles had heard 
from their divine Master ; but he was also 
to guide them into all truth, to teach them 
all things, and to abide with them for ever : 
that is, the Holy Ghost was to enable them 
to recollect every thing which they had 
been taught by Christ, and was likewise 
to furnish them with all the additional 
knowledge which might be necessary re- 
specting Christianity ; and, moreover, this 
divine Instructor and Guide was, by his 
constant superintendence, to direct and 
assist them in communicating that know- 
ledge to others. It is material to remark, 
that these promises of supernatural instruc- 
tion and assistance plainly show the insuffi- 
ciency of common instruction, and the ne- 
cessity of Inspiration in the first teachers 
of the Gospel ; and we are positively as- 
sured that these promises were accurately 
fulfilled. Of the eight writers of the 
New Testament, five were among these 
inspired preachers of the word of God ; 
and therefore, if we admit the genuine- 
ness and authenticity of the books ascribed 
to them, no reasonable doubt can be en- 
tertained of their Inspiration. Indeed, 
if we believe that God sent Christ into the 
world to found an universal religion, and 
that by the miraculous gifts of the Holy 
Ghost he empowered the apostles to propa- 
gate the Gospel, as stated in these books, 
we cannot but believe that he would, by 
his immediate interposition, enable those 
whom he appointed to record the Gospel, 
for the use of future ages, to write without 
the omission of any important truth, or 
the insertion of any material error. The 
assurance that the Spirit should abide with 
the apostles for ever, must necessarily imply 
a constant Inspiration, without change or 
intermission, whenever they exercised the 
office of a teacher of the Gospel, whether 
by writing or by speaking. Though St. 
Mark and St. Luke were not of the twelve 
572 



apostles, nor were they miraculously called, 
like St. Paul, to the office of apostles, 
yet we have the strongest reason to be- 
lieve that they were partakers of the ex- 
traordinary effusion of the Holy Spirit 
granted to the disciples of Christ; and 
such was the unanimous opinion of the 
primitive Christians. Besides, a perfect 
harmony exists between the doctrines 
delivered by St. Mark and St. Luke, and 
by the other writers of the New Testa- 
ment. Indeed, we can scarcely conceive 
it possible that God would suffer four Gos- 
pels to be transmitted, as a rule of faith 
and practice, to all succeeding generations, 
two of which were written under the im- 
mediate direction of his Holy Spirit, and 
the other two by the unassisted powers of 
the human intellect. It seems impossible 
that St. John, who wrote his Gospel more 
than thirty years after the death of Christ, 
should have been able, by the natural 
power of his memory, to recollect those 
numerous discourses of our Saviour which 
he has related. Indeed, all the evange- 
lists must have stood in need of the pro- 
mised assistance of the Holy Ghost to 
bring to remembrance the things which 
Christ had said during his ministry. We 
are to consider St. Luke in writing the 
Acts of the Apostles, and the Apostles 
themselves in writing the Epistles, as under 
a similar guidance and direction. St. 
Paul, in several passages of his Epistles, 
asserts his own Inspiration in the most 
positive and unequivocal terms. The 
agreement which subsists between the 
Epistles of St. Paul and the other writings 
of the New Testament, is also a decisive 
proof that they all proceeded from one and 
the self-same Spirit. It appears, however, 
that the apostles had some certain method, 
though utterly unknown to us, of distin- 
guishing that knowledge, which was the 
effect of Inspiration, from the ordinary 
suggestions and conclusions of their own 
reason. 

' Maintaining that the apostles were 
under the infallible direction of the Holy 
Spirit, as to every religious sentiment con- 
tained in their writings, secures the same 
advantages as would result from supposing 
that every word and letter was dictated to 
them by his influences, without being lia- 
ble to those objections which might be 
made against that view of the subject. As 
the Spirit preserved them from all error in 
what they have taught and recorded, their 
writings are of the same authority, import- 
ance, and use to us, as if he had dictated 
every syllable contained in them. If the 
Spirit had guided their pens in such a man- 
ner, that they had been only mere machines 
under his direction, we could have had no 
more in their writings than a perfect rule, 
as to all religious opinions and duties, all 
matters of faith and practice. But such 



INT 



JOA 



a perfect rule we have in the New Testa- 
ment, if we consider them as under the 
Spirit's infallible guidance in all the reli- 
gious sentiments they express, whether he 
suggested the very words in which they are 
written, or not. Upon this view of the 
subject, the inspired writings contain a 
perfect and infallible account of the whole 
will of God for our salvation ; of all that 
is necessary for us to know, believe, and 
practise in religion: and what can they 
contain more than this, upon any other 
view of it?' Parry's Enquiry into the na- 
ture and extent of the Inspiration of the Apos- 
tles, and other Writers of the New Testament ; 
Tomline's Elem. of Christian Theology, vol. i. 
pp. 21, &c; 280, &c. Watson's Theological 
Tracts, vol. iv. p. 469. 

INTERIM, the name of a formulary or 
confession of faith, obtruded on the Pro- 
testants, after the death of Luther, by the 
emperor Charles Vth, when he had defeated 
their forces. It obtained the name of 
the Interim, because it contained tempo- 
rary regulations, which were to continue 
no longer in force than till a free general 
council could be held. This system was 
compiled by Pflug, Helding, and Agricola, 
of whom the former two were dignitaries 
in the Romish church, but remarkable for 
their pacific and healing spirit ; the last 
was a Protestant divine, suspected, not 
without reason, of having been gained, by 
bribes and promises, to betray or mislead 
his party on this occasion. The treatise 
contained a complete system of theology, 
conformable, in almost every article, to the 
tenets of the Romish church, though ex- 
pressed, for the most part, in the softest 
words, or in Scriptural phrases, or in terms 
of studied ambiguity. However, every 
doctrine peculiar to popery was retained, 
and the observance of all the rites, which 
the Protestants condemned as inventions of 
men introduced into the worship of God, 
was enjoined. With regard to two points 
only, some relaxation in the rigour of opi- 
nion, as well as some latitude in the prac- 
tice, was admitted. Such ecclesiastics as 
had married, and would not put away their 
wives, were allowed, nevertheless, to per- 
form all the functions of the sacred office ; 
and those provinces which had been ac- 
customed to partake of the cup, as well 
as of the bread, in the sacrament of the 
Lord's Supper, were still indulged in the 
privilege of receiving both. Even these 
were declared to be concessions for the 
sake of peace, and granted only for a sea- 
son, in compliance with the weakness or 
prejudices of their countrymen. This 
system was presented by the emperor to 
the diet at Augsburg, May 15, 1548; 
and Charles had sufficient influence to 
obtain a kind of extorted or tacit consent 
that it should be received and enforced as 
a general svstem of faith throughout the 
573 



German empire. It proved, however, 
equally disgusting to papists and protes- 
tants ; and whilst the Lutheran divines at- 
tacked it on the one hand, the general of 
the Dominicans, with no less vehemence, 
impugned it on the other. Robertson's 
Charles Vth, vol. iii. pp. 400, 401 ; Gregory's 
Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. ii. p. 353. 

JO'AB, 2NV, signifies paternity, or who 
has a father ; otherwise, voluntary. Joab 
was son of Zeruiah, David's sister, and 
brother to Abishai and Asahel. He was 
one of the most valiant soldiers, and 
greatest generals in David's time ; but he 
was also one of the most cruel, revengeful, 
and imperious men of his age. He per- 
formed great services for David, to whose 
interests he was always firm. He was 
commander-in-chief of his troops, when 
David was king of Judah only. He sig- 
nalized himself at the battle of Gibeon 
against Abner, (2 Sam. ii. 13, 14, &c.) ; but 
Asahel his brother was killed in that en- 
gagement by Abner. To revenge his death 
Joab treacherously killed Abner, who had 
come to Hebron to form an alliance 
with David, and bring all Israel to his obe- 
dience, (2 Sam. iii. 27- 39.) David abhor- 
red that base action ; but he did not dare to 
punish Joab, who was become formidable to 
him. 

After David was acknowledged king by 
all Israel, he besieged Jerusalem, and pro- 
mised to make him captain-general of his 
armies, who should first mount the walls, 
and beat off the Jebusites. (1 Chron. xi. 6.) 
Joab was the first that appeared on the 
walls, and by his valour well deserved to 
be continued in his station. He subdued 
the Ammonites, and procured the destruc- 
tion of the brave Uriah, at the siege of 
Rabbah, their capital. (2 Sam. xi. 12.) He 
interceded for Absalom's return from exile, 
and his restoration to David's favour. But 
though he showed himself a friend to 
Absalom in his disgrace, he was his enemy 
at his rebellion. He overcame him in a 
pitched battle near Mahanaim ; and being 
informed that he hung by the hair upon an 
oak, he pierced him to death with his own 
hands, though he well knew that David 
had given orders to preserve Absalom. 
When the king discovered too much sorrow 
for the death of his son, Joab reprimanded 
him. 

When Sheba, son of Richri, erected the 
standard of rebellion, David commanded 
Amasa to assemble the troops of Judah, 
and pursue him; but Amasa being too 
slow, David directed Abishai, Joab's bro- 
ther, to pursue Sheba. Joab, accompanied 
him with the Cherethites and Pelethites 
of the king's guard. Amasa arrived soon 
after; and at Gibeon, Joab pretending to 

kiss him. plunged his poniard into his 
belly, Joab brought the war with Sheba 
to a happy conclusion, without a battle. 



JOA 



JOA 



He returned to Jerusalem, and David con- 
tinued him in the general command of his 
armies. (2 Sam. xx. 23.) 

When David by the impulse of an evil 
spirit, and a criminal curiosity, undertook 
to number his people, he gave that com- 
mission to Joab. Joab endeavoured to pre- 
vent the king's resolution ; but, being ob- 
liged to obey, he executed in part only what 
David had commanded. 

Adonijah, David's son, being the eldest 
of the royal family, after the death of Absa- 
lom, he considered how he might procure 
himself to be acknowledged king. He took 
care principally to engage Joab the gene- 
ral, and Abiathar the high-priest ; but he 
was deceived in his expectation, and Solo- 
mon, by order of David, was crowned king. 
By this last step Joab increased David's 
aversion from him, so that when David was 
near his end, he advised Solomon to punish 
Joab for the various violences of which he 
had been guilty. Some time after the death 
of David, Joab, being informed that Solo- 
mon had caused Adonijah to be put to 
death, and had banished the high-priest 
Abiathar, thought it time to provide for 
his own security. He, therefore, fled into 
the temple, and laid hold on the horns of 
the altar. Solomon sent Benaiah, who re- 
quired him to quit his asylum ; but Joab 
answering that he would die on the spot, 
Solomon ordered him to be put to death at 
the foot of the altar. Thus died Joab, and 
was buried in his own house in the wilder- 
ness, in the year of the world 2990. 

JO' ASH, u>xv, signifies who despairs; 
otherwise, he that burns, who is of fire. 

Joash, son of Ahaziah, king of Judah. 
When the impious Athaliah undertook to 
extinguish the race of the kings of Judah, 
that she might seize the crown herself, she 
ordered all the princes her grand-children 
to be murdered. But Jehosheba, the sister 
of Ahaziah, and wife to the high-priest Je- 
hoiada, rescued young Joash, then a child, 
from the cruelty of Athaliah, and lodged 
him in the temple with his nurse. Here he 
abode six years. In the seventh year, Je- 
hoiada procured him to be acknowledged 
king, and so well concerted his plan, that 
young Joash was placed on the throne, and 
saluted king in the temple, before the queen 
was informed of it. She was killed without 
the temple. (2 Kings xi. 1, &c.) 

Joash received the diadem, together with 
the book of the law, from the hands of Je- 
hoiada, the high-priest, who, in the young 
king's name, made a covenant between the 
Lord, the king, and the people, for their 
future fidelity to God. He also obliged the 
people to take an oath of fidelity to the 
king. Joash was only seven years old when 
he began to reign, and he reigned forty 
years at Jerusalem. His mother's name 
was Zibiah of Beersheba. He governed 
with justice and piety, so long as he was 
574 



guided by the high-priest Jehoiada. Yet, 
he did not abolish the high places. 

Jehoiada, during the king's minority, had 
issued orders for collecting voluntary offer- 
ings to the holy place, with the design of 
repairing the temple ; but his orders were 
ill executed till the twentieth year of Joash. 
Then this prince directed chests to be 
placed at the entrance of the temple, and an 
account to be given him of what money was 
received from them, that it might be faith- 
fully employed in repairing the house of 
God. Jehoiada dying at the age of a hun- 
dred and thirty years, Joash was misled by 
the evil counsel of his courtiers, who had 
before been restrained by the high-priest's 
authority. They began to forsake the tem- 
ple of the Lord, and to worship idols, and 
groves consecrated to idols ; which brought 
wrath on Judea and Jerusalem. 

Then the Spirit of the Lord came on the 
high-priest Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, who 
reprimanded the people ; but they who heard 
him, stoned him, according to orders from 
the king. It was not long before God in- 
flicted on Joash the just punishment of his 
ingratitude to Jehoiada, whose son he had 
so lately stoned. Hazael, king of Syria, 
besieged Gath, which belonged to Judah ; 
and having taken it, he marched against 
Jerusalem. Joash, to redeem himself from 
the difficulties of a siege, and from the 
danger of being plundered, took what mo- 
ney he could find in the temple, which had 
been consecrated by Ahaziah his father, Je- 
horam his grand-father, and himself, and 
all which he gave to Hazael. It is believed 
by some, that the next year the Syrian 
army marched again into Judah ; but Ha- 
zael was not there in person. The Syrians 
made great havoc, defeated the troops of 
Joash, entered Jerusalem, slew the princes 
of Judah, and sent a great booty to the king 
of Syria at Damascus. They treated Joash 
himself with great ignominy, and left him 
extremely ill. His servants revolted against 
him, and killed him in his bed, by which 
the blood of Zechariah the high-priest was 
avenged. He was buried in Jerusalem, but 
not in the royal sepulchre. Amaziah his 
son succeeded him. 

Joash, king of Israel, son and successor 
of Jehoahaz, was declared king during the 
life of his father, in the year of the world 
3163, and reigned alone in the year of the 
world 3165. He reigned sixteen years in 
Samaria, including the two years that he 
reigned with his father. He did evil in the 
sight of the Lord, and imitated Jeroboam, 
the son of Nebat: but we are not acquainted 
with many particulars of his reign. 

Elisha falling sick of the disease of which 
he died, Joash came to see him, and wept 
over him. The prophet ordered Joash to 
shoot with arrows ; he shot three times, and 
ceased. Joash, therefore, gained only three 
victories over Syria. 



JOB 



JOB 



Joash reigned a long time peaceably. 
Amaziah, king of Judah, having been vic- 
torious over the Edomites, challenged him, 
saying, Come, let us look one another in 
the face. Joash reproved him by the fable 
of the cedar and the thistle of Lebanon. 
But Amaziah would not hearken to him. 
Joash, therefore, took the field ; and Ama- 
ziah was routed, and made prisoner. Joash 
entered Jerusalem, and ordered four hundred 
cubits of the city walls to be demolished, 
from the gate of Ephraim to the corner 
gate. He took all the treasures of the tem- 
ple, and of the royal palace, and returned in 
triumph to Samaria ; where he died in peace 
soon after this victory, and was succeeded 
by Jeroboam. (2 Kings xiii. 10, &c.) 

JOB, 1VN, signifies he that weeps, that 
cries ; otherwise, he that speaks out of a hol- 
low place, like the ventriloquists ; otherwise, 
enduring enmity. Job, celebrated for his 
patience, his constancy, his piety, and his 
virtue, dwelt in the land of Uz, which is 
supposed by some to have been situated in 
Arabia Deserta, on the south of the Eu- 
phrates. However, a learned writer, who 
has published a translation of the Book of 
Job, contends, with many others, that Job 
lived in Stony, and not in Sandy Arabia ; 
and he is of opinion, that the Scripture uni- 
versally places the land of Uz, afterwards 
called by the Greeks Idumaea, on the south- 
western coast of the Dead Sea, and sur- 
rounded by Kedar, Teman, and Midian, all 
of them districts of Arabia Petraea, or Stony 
Arabia. Job was probably descended from 
Uz, the eldest son of Nahor, Abraham's 
brother, from whom the country derived its 
name. Elihu, in reckoning up the modes 
of Divine revelation, takes no notice of the 
delivery of the Mosaic law ; nor does the 
Book of Job in any part seem to allude to 
the Jewish history. Hence we may infer 
that Job was prior to Moses, or at least 
contemporary with him ; and this inference 
is supported by the great age to which he 
lived. Job and his friends worshipped the 
one true God in sincerity and truth ; and 
their religious knowledge was in general 
such as might have been derived from the 
early patriarchs. 

Job was a man of great probity, virtue, 
and religion ; and he possessed great riches 
in cattle and slaves, which at that time con- 
stituted the chief wealth even of princes in 
Arabia and Edom. He had seven sons and 
three daughters, and was in great repute 
among all the Eastern people on both sides 
of the Euphrates. His sons, by turns, made 
entertainments for each other ; and when 
they had gone through the circle of their 
days of feasting, Job sent to them, purified 
them, and offered burnt- offerings for each 
of them ; that God might pardon any faults 
inadvertently committed against him during 
such festivities. He was infinitely averse 
to injustice, idolatry, fraud, and adulterv; 
575 



he avoided evil thoughts, and dangerous 
looks ; he was compassionate to the poor, a 
father to the orphan, a protector to the widow, 
a guide to the blind, and a support to the lame. 

God permitted Satan to prove the virtue 
of Job, and at first gave him power over his 
property, but forbade him to touch his per- 
son. Satan began with taking away his 
oxen. A company of Sabaeans slew Job's 
husbandmen, and drove off" all the oxen ; 
one servant only escaped to bring the news. 
Whilst he was telling this misfortune, a se- 
cond messenger came and informed Job that 
fire from heaven had consumed his sheep, 
and those who kept them, and that he alone 
had escaped. A third messenger came, and 
said, The Chaldaeans have carried away thy 
camels, killed all thy servants, and I only 
am escaped. Whilst he was relating this, 
another came, and said, As thy sons and thy 
daughters were eating and drinking in their 
eldest brother's house, an impetuous wind 
suddenly overthrew it, and they were all 
crushed to death under its ruins : I only 
escaped to bring thee this news. Then Job 
rent his clothes, shaved his head, and fell 
down on the ground, saying, ' Naked came 
I out of my mother's womb, and naked shall 
I return thither: the Lord gave, and the 
Lord hath taken away ; blessed be the name 
of the Lord.' 

As Job endured these calamities without 
repining against Providence, Satan solicited 
permission to afflict his person ; and the 
Lord said, ' Behold, he is in thine hand, but 
touch not his life.' Satan, therefore, smote 
him with dreadful diseases ; and Job being 
seated on a dunghill, with a potsherd scraped 
off the corruption. His wife with taunting 
irony said, ' Dost thou still retain thine 
integrity ? Curse God, and die.' Job an- 
swered, ' Shall we receive good at the hand 
of God, and shall we not receive evil ?' In 
the mean time three of Job's friends, who 
had been informed of his misfortunes, came 
to visit him ; Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad 
the Shuhite, and Zophar the Naamathite. 
There was also a fourth, Elihu the Buzite, 
who, (chap, xxxii.) bears a part in their di- 
alogue. They continued seven days sitting 
on the ground by him, without speaking to 
him. At last, Job broke silence, and com- 
plained of his misery. His friends, not 
distinguishing between the evils with which 
God tries those whom he loves, and the 
afflictions with which he punishes the wicked, 
accused Job of having harboured sonic im- 
piety, and invited him to return to God by 
repentance, and humbly submit to his jus- 
tice, since he suffered only according to his 
demerits. Job, convinced o\' his own in- 
nocence, and assured by the testimony of 
his conscience, maintained that his sutTer- 
inga were greater than his faults, and that 
God sometimes chastised the righteous only 
to try them, to give them an opportunity M 
manifesting, or of improving, their dispoei- 



JOB 



JOB 



tions ; or, because it was his good pleasure, 
for reasons uuknown to mankind. Elihu 
takes a middle course, and refers strongly 
to the sovereignty of God. To terminate 
this dispute, God appears in a cloud, and 
decides in favour of Job ; yet, not approv- 
ing those harsh expressions, which the ex- 
tremity of his sorrow, and the warmth of 
dispute, had urged from him, Job humbly 
acknowledged his faults, and asks forgive- 
ness. The Lord condemns Job's friends, 
and enjoins them to expiate their sins with 
sacrifices, offered by the hands of Job. He 
restores Job to health, gives him double the 
riches which he before possessed, blesses 
him with a beautiful and numerous family, 
and crowns a holy life with a happy death. 
This is the substance of Job's history. 

The time in which this pious man lived, 
is very much contested. But supposing 
him to have been contemporary with Moses, 
and fixing the time of his trial to some 
years after the departure of the Hebrews 
out of Egypt, he might have lived till the 
time of Othniel ; and if, as some suppose, 
he speaks of the departure of the Hebrews 
out of Egypt, the time of his trial cannot be 
placed at an earlier period. If he was af- 
flicted seven years after the Exodus, in the 
year of the world 2520, and lived 140 years 
after his recovery, he must have been dead 
in 2660. Huetius, contrary to the opinion 
of Calmet, asserts that Job lived before 
Moses, but that the memory of his misfor- 
tunes was recent, when Moses, whom Hue- 
tius supposes to be the writer of the Book 
of Job, undertook to compose the history of 
them, while he lived in Midian with Jethro. 
By a combination and coincidence of vari- 
ous evidence derived from history, chrono- 
logy, and astronomy, Dr. Hales fixes the 
time of Job's trial to the year 2337 before 
Christ, 818 years after the deluge, 184 years 
before the birth of Abraham, 474 years be- 
fore the settlement of Jacob's family in 
Egypt, and 689 years before their exode or 
departure out of Egypt. 

' If we reckon,' says Dr. Hales, 'with the 
most intelligent critics, Schultens, Peters, 
Lowth, &c. that the work was written by 
Job himself, whose name it bears ; by the 
same analogy, as those of Samuel, Isaiah, 
Jeremiah, Ezra, &c. (and surely among the 
various authors that have been assigned by 
the learned Elihu, Moses, Solomon, Isaiah, 
Ezra, &c. none has a better title than the 
venerable patriarch himself to be consi- 
dered as such), this supposition stamps an 
additional value on the authority and au- 
thenticity of the work ; and accounts for the 
high estimation in which the character of 
Job is represented (and by the Almighty 
himself,) in that solemn denunciation to 
the Israelites, recorded by Ezekiel, and 
thrice repeated, as if to guard against any 
mistake of his name, (Ezek xiv. 14 — 18 — 
20.); and also by the apostle James; and 
576 



also, for the respect with which that pas- 
sage, ' He taketh the wise in their own 
craftiness,' (v. 13.) is cited, as canonical 
Scripture by the apostle Paul, (1 Cor. iii. 
19.) which surely would not have been the 
case, had it been the work of a doubtful or 
unknown author. Nothing, indeed, but its 
intrinsic excellence, and the inspiration of 
the author, which is not obscurely intimated 
by his seeing the Divine presence, (xlii. 5.) 
can account for the admission of a foreign 
production into their sacred canon, cer- 
tainly before the time of Ezekiel ; and not 
improbably, as early as the time of Heze- 
kiah, Solomon, Samuel, or even Moses 
himself, who might have found it among 
the collections of his father-in-law, Je- 
thro, priest of the neighbouring country of 
Midian, who appears to have been a person 
of great wisdom ; and Moses could not want 
curiosity to procure a book so fraught with 
wisdom and instruction, and so apposite to 
his own case, during his long exile of forty 
years.' 

" That Job was a real and not a fictitious 
character," observes Bishop Tomline, " may 
be inferred from the manner in which he 
is mentioned by Ezekiel and by St. James: 
1 Though these three men, Noah, Daniel, 
and Job, were in it, they should deliver but 
their own souls by their righteousness, saith 
the Lord God.' (Ezek. xiv. 14.) As Noah 
and Daniel were unquestionably real cha- 
racters, we must conclude the same of Job. 
' Behold,' says St. James, ' we count them 
happy which endure : ye have heard of the 
patience of Job, and have seen the end of 
the Lord ; that the Lord is very pitiful, and 
of tender mercy.' (James v. 11.) It is 
scarcely to be believed, that the apostle 
would refer to an imaginary character, as 
an example of patience, or in proof of the 
mercy of God. Since, then, the history of 
Job, as here recorded, is manifestly alluded 
to in both the above passages, we may, upon 
these authorities, as well as upon the ground 
of internal evidence, and the concurrent 
testimony of all eastern tradition, consider 
this book as containing a relation of actual 
events, a circumstantial detail of occur- 
rences and discourses which really took 
place." 

The style of the Book of Job is in 
many parts peculiarly sublime ; and it is 
not only adorned with poetical embellish- 
ments, but most learned men consider it as 
written in metre. ' Through the whole 
work we discover religious instruction shin- 
ing forth amidst the venerable simplicity 
of ancient manners. It every where 
abounds with the noblest sentiments of 
piety, uttered with the spirit of inspired 
conviction. It is a work unrivalled for 
the magnificence of its language, and for 
the beautiful and sublime images which it 
presents. In the wonderful speech of the 
Deity, (xxxviii. and xxxix.) every line 



JOC 



JOH 



delineates his attributes, every sentence 
opens a picture of some grand object in 
creation, characterized by its most striking 
features. Add to this, that its prophetic 
parts reflect much light on the economy of 
God's moral government; and every ad- 
mirer of sacred antiquity, every inquirer 
after religious instruction, will seriously 
rejoice that the enraptured sentence (xix. 
23.) of Job is realized to a more effectual 
and unforeseen accomplishment ; that while 
the memorable records of antiquity have 
mouldered from the rock, the prophetic 
assurance and sentiments of Job are graven 
in Scripture, that no time shall alter, no 
changes shall efface.' Gray's Key to the 
Old Testament; Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 93, &c. Hales's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
p. 59, 60 ; Good's Translation of the Book 
of Job. 

JOCH'EBED, -oar, signifies glorious, 
Jionourable, a person of merit ; or, the glory 
of the Lord. Jochebed was wife of Amram, 
and mother of 'Miriam, Moses, and Aaron. 
Several difficulties are started concerning 
the degree of relation between Amram and 
Jochebed. Some assert, that Jochebed was 
the daughter immediately of Levi, and aunt 
of Amram her husband, because (Exod. ii. 
1. ; vi. 20. Num. xxvi. 59.) she is called the 
daughter of Levi. Others maintain that she 
was only cousin-german to Amram, being 
daughter of one of Kohath's brethren. The 
Chaldee on Exod. vi. 20, says, that she was 
the daughter of Amram's sister ; the Septu- 
agint, that she was daughter to Amram's 
brother. The Hebrew, rvrn doda, does not 
always denote the same degree of relation. 
Calmet thinks it most probable, that Joche- 
bed was only cousin-german to Amram. 

JO'EL, Vkv, signifies he that wills, com- 
mands, or swears. Joel, son of Pethuel, 
the second of the twelve minor prophets, 
was, it is said, but without any authority, of 
the tribe of Reuben, and city of Bethhoron. 
It is, however, impossible to ascertain the 
age in which Joel lived, but it seems most 
probable that he was contemporary with 
Hosea. No particulars of his life and death 
are certainly known. His prophecies are 
confined to the kingdom of Judah. He 
inveighs against the sins and impieties of 
the people, and threatens them with divine 
vengeance ; he exhorts them to repentance, 
fasting, and prayer, and promises the fa- 
vour of God to those who should be obe- 
dient. The principal predictions contained 
in this book are the Chaldaean invasion, 
under the figurative representation of lo- 
custs ; the destruction of Jerusalem by 
Titus ; the blessings of the Gospel dispen- 
sation ; the conversion and restoration of 
the Jews to their own land ; the overthrow 
of the enemies of God ; and the glorious 
state of the Christian church in the end of 
the world. 

577 



The style of Joel, though different from 
that of Hosea, is highly poetical : it is ele- 
gant, perspicuous, and copious ; and, at the 
same time, nervous, animated, and sublime. 
In the first two chapters, he displays the full 
force of the prophetic poetry ; and his de- 
scriptions of the plague of locusts, of the 
deep national repentance, and of the happy 
state of the Christian church, in the last 
times of the Gospel, are wrought up with 
admirable force and beauty. Home's Intro- 
duction, vol. iv. p. 193 ; Tomline's Elements 
of Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 120. 

JOHN, pmrv, 'Iwdvvrjg, signifies the grace, 
gift, or mercy of the Lord. John the Bap- 
tist, the forerunner of our Lord Jesus 
Christ, and son of Zachariah and Elizabeth, 
was born in the year of the world 4000, 
about six months before our Saviour. His 
birth, name, and employment were foretold 
to his father Zachariah, when he was per- 
forming his functions as a priest in the 
temple of Jerusalem. (Luke i. 10, 11, &c.) 

The time of Elizabeth's delivery being 
come, her relations and neighbours rejoiced 
at it: and on the eighth day, when the child 
was circumcised, they called him by his 
father's name, Zachariah ; but his mother 
told them his name should be John, which 
was confirmed by his father. The child 
grew, and was strengthened in spirit, and 
dwelt in the wilderness till the day of his 
manifestation to Israel. During his abode 
in the wilderness, he fed on locusts and 
wild honey, and was clothed only with 
camel's hair, and a leathern girdle about his 
loins. (Matt. iii. 4.) 

After John had passed thirty years in 
the wilderness, God manifested him to the 
world, in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, and 
in the year of our Lord 28. He began 
his ministry by publishing the coming of 
the Messiah, in the country about and be- 
yond Jordan, preaching repentance, and 
saying, that the kingdom of heaven was at 
hand, and that the axe was laid at the root 
of the trees. He brought many persons to 
confess their sins, and baptized them in the 
river Jordan, telling them that they should 
believe in Him who was coming after him, 
and who would baptize them with the Holy 
Ghost and with fire. From this baptism, 
John derived the surname of Baptist, or 
Baptizer. Many persons became his dis- 
ciples, exercising themselves in acts of 
repentance, and preaching it to others ; and 
some of his disciples afterwards followed 
our Saviour. 

The virtue of John the Baptist was so 
eminent, that many of the Jews thought 
him to he the Messiah ; but he plainly de- 
clared that he was not that honoured per- 
son. Nevertheless, he was as yet unac- 
quainted with the person of Jesus Christ j 
only the Holy Ghots had told him, that it 
was He on whom lie should see the Holy 
Spirit descend and rest. When Jesus Christ 
'• 1' 



JOH 



JOH 



presented himself to receive baptism from 
him, John excused himself, saying, I need 
rather to be baptized by thee : but Jesus 
said, It is becoming to fulfil all righteous- 
ness. Some time after, the Jews sent a de- 
putation to John, inquiring whether he 
was the Messiah? John answered, No ; he 
was only the voice of one crying in the 
wilderness, Prepare the way of the Lord. 
The next day, John said publicly of Jesus, 
' Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh 
away the sins of the world.' 

Herod Antipas having married his bro- 
ther Philip's wife, while Philip was still 
living, occasioned great scandal. John the 
Baptist, with his usual liberty and vigour, 
reproved Herod to his face, and told him 
that it was not lawful for him to have his 
brother's wife, while his brother was yet 
alive. Herod, incensed at this freedom, 
ordered him into custody, in the castle of 
Machcerus. Josephus gives another turn 
to the causes of his imprisonment, and says 
that it proceeded from Herod's apprehen- 
sion of John's popularity, lest it should oc- 
casion an insurrection. John remained in 
prison for some time, and his disciples did 
not forsake him. Even Herod respected 
and feared him, knowing that he was very 
much beloved by the people ; he heard 
him, and sometimes followed his advice. 
But Herodias, afraid lest he should set him 
at liberty, sought an opportunity of putting 
him to death. Herod having made a great 
entertainment for his friends on his birth- 
day, Herodias sent Salome, her daughter, 
by Philip her former and lawful husband, 
into the banqueting hall, to dance before 
the king and his guests. She acquitted her- 
self so much to the satisfaction of Herod, 
that he promised her any thing she should 
ask of him. Her mother instructed her to 
demand the head of John the Baptist. 
Herod was greatly vexed at her request ; 
but, not daring to be worse than his word 
before his company, he ordered John to be 
beheaded. This order was immediately 
executed. The head was given to Salome, 
who carried it to her mother. See Hero- 
dias. 

John the Evangelist was a native of 
Bethsaida in Galilee, son of Zebedee and 
Salome ; by profession a fisherman. Some 
have thought that he was a disciple of 
John the Baptist, before he attended Jesus 
Christ ; but of this there is no proof. He 
was brother to James the Greater. Our 
Saviour called them sons of thunder, Boan- 
erges. Some think that this name was 
given them on account of a fault in their 
natural temper ; but it seems more pro- 
bable to consider this title as a prophetic 
declaration of the zeal and resolution with 
which they would hereafter bear testimony 
to the great truths of the Gospel. It is be- 
lieved that St. John was the youngest of the 
apostles. Tillemont is of opinion, that he 
578 



was twenty-five or twenty-six years of age 
when he began to follow Jesus. 

Our Saviour had a particular friendship 
for him ; and John describes himself by the 
name of ' That disciple whom Jesus loved.' 
John was one of the four apostles to whom 
our Lord delivered his predictions relative 
to the destruction of Jerusalem, and the 
approaching calamities of the Jewish nation. 
(Mark xiii. 3.) Peter, and James, and 
John, were chosen to accompany our Sa- 
viour on several occasions, when the other 
apostles were not permitted to be present. 
When Christ restored the daughter of 
Jairus to life, (Mark v. 37- Luke viii. 
51.) when he was transfigured on the 
mount, (Matth. xvii. 1, 2. Mark ix. 2. 
Luke ix. 28.) and when he endured his 
agony in the garden, (Matth. xxvi. 36, 37- 
Mark xiv. 32, 33.) Peter, and James, and 
John, were his only attendants. That John 
was treated by Christ with greater fami- 
liarity than the other apostles is evident from 
Peter desiring him to ask Christ who should 
betray him, when he himself did not dare 
to propose the question. (John xiii. 24.) 
He seems to have been the only apostle 
present at the crucifixion, and to him 
Jesus, just as he was expiring upon the 
cross, gave the strongest proof of his con- 
fidence and regard, by consigning to him 
the care of his mother. (John xix. 26, 
27.) As John had been witness to the 
death of our Saviour, by seeing the blood 
and water issue from his side, which a 
soldier had pierced, (John xix. 34, 35.) so 
he was one of the first that were made 
acquainted with his resurrection. Without 
any hesitation, he believed this great event, 
though, ' as yet he knew not the Scripture, 
that Christ was to rise from the dead.' 
(John xx. 9.) He was one of those to 
whom our Saviour appeared at the sea 
of Galilee: and he was afterwards, with 
the other ten apostles, a witness of his as- 
cension into heaven. (Mark xvi. 19. Luke 
xxiv. 51.) John continued to preach the 
Gospel for some time at Jerusalem : he was 
imprisoned by the Sanhedrim, first with 
Peter only, (Acts iv. 1, &c.) and afterwards 
with the other apostles. (Acts v. 17, 18.) 
Some time after this second release, John 
and Peter were sent by the other apostles 
to the Samaritans, whom Philip the Deacon 
had converted to the Gospel, that through 
them they might receive the Holy Ghost. 
(Acts viii. 14, 15.) John informs us in the 
Revelation, that he was banished to Pat- 
mos, (Rev. i. 9.) an island in the iEgean 
Sea. 

This banishment of John to the isle of 
Patmos is mentioned by many of the early 
ecclesiastical writers, all of whom, except 
Epiphanius in the fourth century, agree in 
attributing it to Domitian. Epiphanius 
says, that John was banished by command 
of Claudius ; but he deserves the less credit, 



JOH 



JON 



because there was no persecution of the 
Christians in the time of that emperor, 
and his edicts against the Jews did not ex- 
tend to the provinces. Sir Isaac Newton 
was of opinion that John was banished to 
Patmos in the time of Nero ; but even the 
authority of this great man is not of suf- 
ficient weight against the unanimous voice 
of antiquity. Dr. Lardner has examined 
and answered his arguments with equal 
candour and learning. It is not known at 
what time John went into Asia Minor. 
Lardner thought that it was about the year 
66. It is certain that he lived in Asia 
Minor the latter part of his life, and prin- 
cipally at Ephesus. He planted churches 
at Smyrna, Pergamos, Laodicea, and many 
other places ; and by his activity and suc- 
cess in propagating the Gospel, he is sup- 
posed to have incurred the displeasure of 
Domitian, who banished him to Patmos at 
the end of his reign. He himself tells us, 
that he ' was in the isle that is called Pat- 
mos, for the word of God, and for the testi- 
mony of Jesus Christ;' and Irenaeus, speaking 
of the vision which he had there, says, 
' It is not very long ago that it was seen, 
being but a little before our time, at the 
latter end of Domitian's reign.' On the 
succession of Nerva to the empire in the 
year 96, John returned to Ephesus, where 
he died at an advanced age, in the third 
year of Trajan's reign, A.D. 100. An 
opinion has prevailed that he was, by or- 
der of Domitian, thrown into a cauldron of 
boiling oil at Rome, and came out unhurt ; 
but this account rests almost entirely on 
the authority of Tertullian, and seems to 
deserve little credit. 

The genuineness of St. John's Gospel 
has always been unanimously admitted by 
the Christian church. It is universally 
agreed that St. John published his Gospel 
in Asia, and that when he wrote it he had 
seen the other three Gospels. It is, there- 
fore, not only valuable in itself, but also a 
tacit confirmation of the other three, with 
none of which it disagrees in any material 
point. The time of its publication is placed 
by some rather before, and by others con- 
siderably after, the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem. If we accede to the opinion of those 
who contend for the year 97, this late 
date, exclusive of the authorities which 
support it, seems favoured by the con- 
tents and design of the Gospel itself. The 
immediate design of St. John in writing 
his Gospel, as we are assured by Irenaeus, 
Jerome, and others, was to refute the 
Gnostics, Cerinthians, Ebionites, and other 
heretics, whose tenets, though they branched 
out into a variety of subjects, all origi- 
nated from the erroneous opinions con- 
cerning the person of Christ, and the crea- 
tion of the world. These points had been 
scarcely touched upon by the other Evan- 
gelists, though they had faithfully recorded 
579 



all the leading facts of our Saviour's life 
and his admirable precepts for the regula- 
tion of our moral conduct. St. John, there- 
fore, undertook, at the request of the true 
believers in Asia, to write what Clement 
of Alexandria called a spiritual Gospel ; and 
accordingly we find in it more of doctrine, 
and less of historical narrative, than in any 
of the others. Let it be remembered, 
that this book, which contains so much ad- 
ditional information relative to the doc- 
trines of Christianity, and which may be 
considered as a standard of faith for all 
ages, was written by that apostle, who is 
known to have enjoyed, in a greater de- 
gree than the rest, the affection and con 
fidence of the Divine Author of our reli- 
gion, and to whom was given a special 
revelation concerning the state of the 
Christian church in all succeeding genera- 
tions. 

We have three epistles by this apostle. 
The first has been sometimes cited by the 
name of the epistle to the Parthians, and 
was never contested. The other two have 
been disputed. The first of these is ad- 
dressed 'EkXekt^ Kvpiqt, concerning the 
meaning of which words there has been a 
variety of opinions. Our translators have 
rendered the words, To the Elect Lady, 
which is the common acceptation of them. 
The third epistle is directed to Caius, 
whom St. John praises for hospitality to 
the faithful, and exhorts to continue his 
pious practice. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christ. Theology, vol. i. pp. 328, 491 , &c. ; 
Bishop Watson's Theolog. Tracts, vol. ii. pp. 
124, &c. ; Michaelis's Introduction to the New 
Testament, vol. iv. pp. 272, 273, &c. 

JO'NAH, ror, 'Itovac, signifies a dove, 
otherwise, he that oppresseth. Jonah, son of 
Amittai, the fifth of the minor prophets, was 
born at Gath-hepher in Galilee. He is 
generally considered as the most ancient 
of the prophets, and is supposed to have 
lived 840 years before Christ. The book 
of Jonah is chiefly narrative. He relates 
that he was commanded by God to go to 
Nineveh, and preach against the inhabit- 
ants of that capital of the Assyrian em- 
pire ; that through fear of executing this 
commission, he set sail for Tarshish, and 
that in his voyage thither a tempest 
arising, he was cast by the mariners into 
the sea, and swallowed by a large fish ; 
that while he was in the belly of this fish, 
he prayed to God, and was, after three 
days and three nights, delivered out of it 
alive ; that he then received a second com- 
mand to go and preach against Nineveh, 
which he obeyed ; that, upon his threaten- 
ing the destruction of the city within forty 
days, the king and people proclaimed a 
fast, and repented of their sins ; and that, 
upon this repentance, God suspended tin- 
sentence which he had ordered to be pro- 
nounced in his name. Upon their repent- 
p p2 



JON 



JON 



ance, God deferred the execution of his 
judgment till the increase of their iniqui- 
ties made them ripe for destruction, about 
150 years afterwards. The last chapter 
gives an account of the murmuring of Jo- 
nah at this instance of divine mercy, and 
of the gentle and condescending manner 
in which it pleased God to reprove the 
prophet for his unjust complaint. The style 
of Jonah is simple and perspicuous, and his 
prayer in the second chapter is strongly 
descriptive of the feelings of a pious mind 
under a severe trial of faith. 

Our Saviour mentions Jonah in the Gos- 
pel. (Matt. xii. 41. Luke xi. 32.) ^ He 
says, that the Ninevites should rise in 
judgment against the Jews, and condemn 
them ; because they repented at the preach- 
ing of Jonah. And when the Pharisees 
required from him a sign, his answer re- 
ferred them to that of the prophet Jonah, 
namely, his resurrection. The Scripture 
says, that Jonah fled out of Judea from the 
presence of the Lord, and embarked at Jop- 
pa for Tarshish. Perhaps he imagined that 
God would no more think of sending him to 
Nineveh, but would order some other to go 
thither ; because it was not usual with God 
to pour forth the spirit of prophecy out of 
the Holy Land. See Dagon, Fish, Gourd. 
Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christian Theology, 
vol. i. pp. 123, 124. 

JON'ATHAN, innn", signifies, given 
of God, or the gift of the Lord. Jona- 
than, son of Saul, a prince of an excel- 
lent temper, and in all varieties of fortune 
a most faithful friend to David. (1 Sam. 
xiv.) Jonathan gave proofs of courage 
and conduct during the war between 
Saul and the Philistines. One day when 
the Philistines were encamped at Mich- 
mash with a powerful army, and Saul's 
army of not more than six hundred men 
were at Gibeah of Benjamin, Jonathan 
said to his armour-bearer, Let us go to 
the camp of the Philistines. But he told 
not his father nor the people. There was 
a narrow pass between two rocks, which 
led to the camp of the Philistines. As 
soon, therefore, as the Philistines on guard 
perceived them, they said, Behold the 
Hebrews come like rats out of the holes 
where they had hid themselves, and they 
cried out to them, Come up to us, and 
we will show you something. Jonathan, 
therefore, said to his armour-bearer, Fol- 
low me, for the Lord hath delivered them 
into the hands of Israel. They went up, 
and began to kill all that fell into their 
hands. The camp of the Philistines was 
soon in disorder; and the noise and tu- 
mult increasing, the Hebrews hastily ad- 
vanced nearer to them, and discovered 
that the Philistines killed one another. 
Saul, therefore, pursued the runaways, 
and said before the whole army, Cursed 
be the man that eateth any food this day. 
580 



Jonathan, who was absent when Saul spake 
in this manner, found a quantity of honey 
in a wood, into which he dipped the end of 
his staff, and ate of it ; for which, afterwards, 
Saul would have slain him ; but the people 
opposed the king's resolution, and preserved 
him. 

Some years after, David having over- 
come Goliath, Jonathan conceived so per- 
fect a friendship for him, that he loved him 
as himself. He stripped himself of the 
robe which he wore, and gave it to David. 
He made David likewise a present of his 
sword, his bow, and his belt. And when 
David incurred Saul's displeasure, Jona- 
than continued always zealous in his friend's 
interests. He gave him intelligence of 
his father's determination to kill him, 
advised him to retire, and so wrought upon 
Saul, that he promised him with an oath 
not to kill David. Saul having again re- 
solved on the death of David, Jonathan 
dissuaded the king from his design; but 
perceiving that the destruction of his friend 
was determined, he informed David, who 
lay concealed in a field ; when on a signal 
agreed on between them, they met, con- 
versed, and confirmed their friendship and 
covenant with an oath. 

The year following, while David was 
concealed in a forest in the wilderness of 
Ziph, and Saul was in pursuit of him with 
his troops, Jonathan went secretly to his 
friend, and they renewed their covenant. 
The war breaking out between the He- 
brews and Philistines, Saul and Jonathan 
encamped on Mount Gilboa with the army 
of Israel ; but their camp was forced, their 
troops and themselves killed. The news 
being brought to David, he mourned for 
a year, and composed a funeral song to 
their honour, wherein he evidenced his 
tenderness towards his friend Jonathan. 
Jonathan had a son named Mephibosheth, 
to whom David did great favours. See 
Mephibosheth. 

Jonathan, surnamed Apphus, was son 
of Mattathias, and brother to Judas Mac- 
cabaeus. After the death of Judas, he was 
appointed general of the troops of Israel. 
Bacchides, general of Demetrius Soter, 
his enemy, was soon informed of it. Jona- 
than went immediately into the country 
bordering on the lake Asphaltites : at 
last he passed the river Jordan, and ob- 
serving that Bacchides was advancing to- 
wards him with a powerful army in order 
to give him battle on the sabbath day, 
and being posted in such a manner, that 
he had the enemy before him, Jordan at 
his back, and woods and marshes at his 
right and left, he exhorted his people to 
implore the assistance of Heaven, and re- 
presented to them the necessity they were 
under, of either conquering or dying, since 
there was no way for escape. He therefore 
immediately gave battle, and being within 






JON 



JOP 



reach of Bacchides, he stretched out his 
arm, meaning to run him through ; but Bac- 
chides dexterously avoided the blow by 
retiring backwards. At length Jonathan 
and his people having laid a thousand 
of their enemies dead upon the spot, and 
being apprehensive that they should be 
overwhelmed with numbers, threw them- 
selves into the river Jordan, and swam over 
it in the presence of their enemies, who, not 
daring to pursue them, retreated to Jerusa- 
lem. 

After various other fightings Jonathan 
made proposals of peace, which Bac- 
chides accepted, returned to Syria, and came 
no more into Judea. Jonathan dwelt at 
Michmash, not at Jerusalem, because the 
troops of Demetrius Nicator were in posses- 
sion of the citadel. Some years afterwards, 
Alexander Balas and Demetrius Soter, who 
contended for the kingdom of Syria, wrote to 
Jonathan desiring his friendship ; each en- 
deavouring to engage him in their party. 
Jonathan declared for Alexander Balas 
against Demetrius. The first time of his 
putting on the high-priest's ornaments was 
on the Feast of Tabernacles, in the year 160 
of the Greeks, about A.M. 3852, ante A.D. 
152. After his receiving Alexander Balas's 
letter, who gave him this dignity, the people 
importuned him to accept it, and he so- 
lemnly performed the functions belonging 
to it. 

Two years after, Alexander Balas cele- 
brating his marriage with the king of 
Egypt's daughter at Ptolemais, Jonathan 
was invited thither, and appeared with 
royal magnificence. Some of his enemies 
attempting to accuse him to the king, he 
would not hear them, but clothed him in 
purple, and seated him near himself. Jo- 
nathan returned to Jerusalem, and there 
abode some time in peace. But at the 
end of two years Demetrius Nicator, son 
of Demetrius Soter, king of Syria, whom 
we have mentioned, coming into Syria, 
sent Apollonius, general of his troops, to 
Jamnia in Palestine to defy Jonathan, tell- 
ing him, that he trusted only to his rocks 
and mountains, where he kept close without 
daring to descend into the plain. Jonathan, 
stung with these reproaches, assembled ten 
thousand chosen men, besieged Joppa, and 
took it with ease. From thence he marched 
against Apollonius, defeated him, killed 
eight thousand of his men, and returned 
loaded with booty to Jerusalem. 

Alexander Balas was killed some years 
after ; whereupon Demetrius Nicator was 
advanced to the throne of Syria. Jona- 
than, taking advantage of the troubles in 
Syria, besieged the citadel of Jerusalem. 
Some time after, Jonathan having de- 
sired Demetrius to recall his troops from 
the citadel of Jerusalem, that prince an- 
swered him, that he would not only do 
what he requested, but more, provided he 
581 



would send him succours to reduce the in- 
habitants of Antioch. Jonathan sent him 
three thousand chosen men, who rescued 
him from his danger, for his people had be- 
sieged him in his palace. The city of An- 
tioch was obliged to solicit his clemency, 
and desire peace. 

Demetrius was not so grateful as he 
might have been, but shortly after he 
quarrelled with Jonathan. His ingrati- 
tude was the cause of Jonathan's declaring 
for young Antiochus, whom Tryphon 
had set on the throne of Syria. Jonathan 
fought several battles with Demetrius's 
generals. About the same time he re- 
newed his alliance with the Romans and La- 
cedemonians. Jonathan marched against 
the Zabadean Arabians, or Nabathseans, 
defeated them, and returned to Jerusalem 
with great booty. He undertook to rebuild 
the walls of Jerusalem, and to raise a wall 
between the fortress (which was in the 
hands of the Syrians) and the city. Try- 
phon having conceived the design of dis- 
patching young Antiochus, and stepping 
into his throne, thought it necessary to 
secure the person of Jonathan. He per- 
suaded him to come to Ptolemais, and, 
having not above a thousand men with him, 
the inhabitants, when he was entered into 
their city, shut the gates, killed the Jews 
who attended Jonathan, seized him, and 
put him in chains. Tryphon killed Jona- 
than and his sons some time after at Bas- 
cama, perhaps Besek, not far from Beth- 
san. Simon procured the bones of Jona- 
than his brother, and buried them at Modin, 
in a magnificent mausoleum. There was a 
general and great mourning over all Israel 
for Jonathan many days. 

JOP'PA, 13% signifies beautiful or fair. 
By all accounts, the port of this town scarcely 
deserves the name of fair, being exposed to 
troublesome winds ; but if the name implies 
decorated, as it probably does, the town 
might answer to this description. It appears, 
however, that the situation of this town is 
pleasant, and the prospects from it, and in 
the country around it, are engaging. It was 
on the border of the tribe of Dan, Josh. xix. 
40. 2 Chron. ii. 16. Jonah i. 3.) In Ezra 
(iii. 7-) it is written, Jappua; and in Greek 
Joppe. (Actsix. 36.) 

Joppa, or, as it is now called, Jaffa, 
was situated in a fine plain between Jam- 
nia south, Caesarea of Palestine north, and 
Rama, or Ramula east. According to 
tradition and fable, Joppa was one of the 
most ancient cities in the world. Report 
says it was built before the Deluge ; that 
here reigned Cepheus, the father of Andro- 
meda ; and the rock to which his daughter 
was chained, and from which she was deli- 
vered by Perseus, was shown here, together 
with the ribs of the monster which 
would have devoured her. This history 
probably refers to a vessel of considerable 



JOP 



JOR 



bulk, which ravaged the coast, and being 
driven on shore by superior force, was 
here wrecked, and the country delivered 
from the exactions of the corsair or pirate 
who commanded it. 

Jaffa stands on a circular eminence, 
close to the sea shore. The houses are 
white, and are all of them provided with 
domes and square towers. Near Jaffa is 
a white sandy soil, the heat reflected from 
which is very oppressive. The sea breeze 
constantly prevails during the day time. 
Nearly in the centre of the town is an old 
ruinous building called the citadel, on the 
top of which is a round casemated tower, 
provided with one or two wretched pieces 
of cannon. The city is surrounded by a 
stone wall, provided, at certain distances, 
with towers alternately square and round. 
' Joppa, called also Japha, and now uni- 
versally Jaffa,' observes Dr. E. D. Clarke, 
' owes all the circumstances of its celebrity, 
as the principal port of Judaea, to its situa- 
tion with regard to Jerusalem. As a station 
for vessels, its harbour is one of the worst 
in the Mediterranean. Ships generally an- 
chor about a mile from the town, to avoid 
the shoals and rocks of the place. In an- 
cient times it was the only place resorted to 
as a sea-port, in all Judaea. Hither Solo- 
mon ordered the materials for the temple to 
be brought from Mount Libanus, previously 
to their conveyance by land to Jerusalem.' 
Joppa is frequently mentioned both in 
the Old and New Testament. Tabitha, 
whom Peter raised from the dead, dwelt at 
Joppa. It appears that the Gospel was re- 
ceived here soon after Christ's ascension ; 
and Peter was at Joppa when God showed 
him a sheet full of creeping things, no 
longer making any distinction between Jews 
and Gentiles, if disposed to receive the 
word. (Acts ix. 36, 37- ; x. 5.) From this 
place it was that the prophet Jonah, many 
centuries before, had embarked for Tarshish, 
when commanded to preach repentance to 
the inhabitants of Nineveh. (Jonah, i. 3.) 

D'Arvieux is of opinion that the port of 
Jaffa was anciently much superior to what 
it is at present. He remarked in the sea, 
south of the present port, the vestiges of a 
wall, which extended to a chain of rocks at 
some distance from the shore, by which the 
port was formed and protected against the 
violence of the south-west wind. ' This 
port,' he says, ' was, no doubt, sufficiently 
good before it was filled up, although its 
entrance was exposed to the winds from the 
north. At present it is so shallow, that 
only insignificant vessels can enter it. There 
was a quay, faced with hewn stone, fronting 
the port. It has been ruined purposely; 
what remains of it at each end, shows that 
it was very handsome.' 

' Jaffa,' says Mr. Buckingham, ' as it is 
now seen, is seated on a promontory jutting 
out into the sea, and rising to the height of 
582 



one hundred and fifty feet above its level, 
having a desert coast to the north and 
south, the Mediterranean on the west, and 
fertile plains and gardens behind it on the 
east. It is walled around on the south and 
east towards the land, and partially so on 
the north and west towards the sea. There 
are not more than a thousand habitations in 
all the town, and the number of three 
mosques, one Latin convent, and one Greek 
church, will afford a guide to estimate the 
relative proportions of these religious bodies 
to each other. There is a small fort near 
the sea on the west, another on the north, 
and a third near the eastern gate of en- 
trance, mounting in all from fifty to sixty 
pieces of cannon ; which, with a force of five 
hundred horse, and nearly the same number 
of infantry, would enable the town to be de- 
fended by a skilful commander. The port 
is formed by a ledge of rocks running north 
and south before the promontory, leaving a 
confined and shallow space between these 
rocks and the town. Here the small trading 
vessels of the country find shelter from 
south and west winds, and land their cargoes 
on narrow wharfs running along before the 
magazines. When the wind blows strong 
from the northward, they are obliged to 
warp out, and seek shelter in the small bay 
to the north-east of the town, as the sea 
breaks in here with great violence, and there 
is not more than three fathoms water in the 
deepest part of the harbour ; so accurately 
do the features of the place correspond with 
those given of it by Josephus.' Bucking- 
ham's Travels in Palestine, vol. i. pp. 245, 
246, octavo edition of 1822 ; Dr. Wittman's 
Travels, p. 125; Sacred Geography; Dr. 
Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 441 — 443. 

JO'RAM, Q-)V, also written otkt, Je- 
horam, signifies to cast; otherwise, elevated. 
Joram, son of Ahab, succeeded his eldest 
brother Ahaziah, who died without chil- 
dren. (2 Kings iii. 1, &c.) He did evil 
before the Lord, but not like Ahab his fa- 
ther, and Jezebel his mother. He removed 
the statues of Baal, which his father had 
erected ; but he continued to worship the 
golden calves. Mesha, king of Moab, hav- 
ing refused to pay his tribute, Joram warred 
against him, and invited Jehoshaphat, king 
of Judah, to accompany him, who also 
brought the king of Edom his tributary. 
These princes advanced through the wilder- 
ness of Edom, but soon were in danger of 
perishing for want of water, which Elisha 
procured. 

Elisha performed very important ser- 
vices to Joram during his wars with Syria, 
and discovered to him the designs of Benha- 
dad. Benhadad having besieged Samaria, 
the famine was so terrible, that a woman ate 
her own son. Joram, being informed of 
such calamities, rent his clothes, and all 
the people saw that he wore sackcloth. He 
ordered a servant to go and cut off Elisha's 



JOR 



JOR 



head, as if the cause of these distresses had 
been in his power. Elisha, who was then in 
his house, desired his friends to shut the door, 
and to prevent such a person from entering ; 
observing that Jorara was close at his heels, 
coming to revoke the order. Accordingly, 
the king came almost at the same time, and 
complained to Elisha, who comforted him, 
and foretold a great plenty on the morrow, 
which came to pass. Some time after, the 
king conversing with Gehazi about Elisha's 
miracles, the Shunamite woman, whose son 
Elisha had raised from the dead, solicited 
the king for restitution of her estate, which 
had been confiscated while she was absent 
in some foreign country during the famine. 
Gehazi informed the king that this was the 
very woman whose son had been restored to 
life by Elisha. Joram immediately gave 
directions for the restitution of all her pro- 
perty. 

About that time Joram took the city 
of Ramoth-Gilead, but was dangerously 
wounded, and obliged to return to Jezreel 
for cure. He left Jehu, who commanded 
his army, to reduce the citadel, which still 
held out. In the mean time Jehu, having 
been anointed king by a young prophet, 
made haste to destroy king Joram at Jezreel. 
(2 Kings ix.) This took place in the 
twelfth year of Joram, and in the year of the 
world 3120. 

JO'RDAN, pT, signifies river of judg- 
ment ; otherwise, demonstration, or projec- 
tion of judgment ; otherwise, descending, 
or, from the Hebrew and Syriac, cauldron 
of judgment. Some derive its name from 
IK* Jor, a spring, and p Dan, a small town 
near the source of this river ; others derive 
it from two rivulets, Jor and Dan. But these 
etymologies are dubious. 

The true source of this river is in two 
fountains at Paneas (a city better known by 
its subsequent name of Caesarea Philippi,) at 
the foot of Anti- Libanus ; its apparent source 
flows beneath a cave at the foot of a preci- 
pice, in the sides of which are several niches 
with Greek inscriptions. 

The Jordan from Caesarea Philippi runs 
about fifty leagues, till it discharges itself 
into the Dead Sea. In its course it forms 
the lake Semechon, at five or six leagues' 
distance from its spring. From thence it 
enters and passes the lake of Tiberias. It 
overflows its banks about the time of barley 
harvest, or the feast of the passover. The 
banks of Jordan are covered with rushes, 
reeds, willows, and other trees ; so that 
there are, as it were, two banks of the 
Jordan. The first, is that of this river in 
its natural state, the second is that of its 
overflowings. 

On each side of the Jordan a great plain 
extends from the Dead Sea. Josephus says, 
this plain is 1200 furlongs in length, ami 
600 wide; extremely dry in summer, and 
unwholesome, by reason of the excessive 
583 



heat. The banks of the Jordan may be said 
only to have any moisture ; the rest is a 
wilderness. 

D'Arvieux says, ' the Jordan is bordered 
with trees, which render its course very 
agreeable ; it is pretty rapid ; but its waters 
are thick, because its bed is of fat earth. 
Nevertheless, they are wholesome, and it 
is pretended they are incorruptible, or, at 
least, that they continue good many years. 

' The Jordan is extremely full of fish, 
because nobody catches them. What the 
fishes have to avoid, as well as the trees on 
the banks of the stream, is not to suffer 
themselves to be carried into the Dead Sea ; 
because the former would die instantly, and 
the others would become as light as cork.' 

1 As we approach the Jordan,' says Vol- 
ney, • the country becomes more hilly, and, 
better watered; the valley through which 
this river flows abounds, in general, in pas- 
turage, especially in the upper part of it. 
As for the river itself, it is very far from 
being of that importance which we are apt 
to assign to it. The Arabs, who are igno- 
rant of the name of Jordan, call it El Sharia. 
Its breadth, between the two principal lakes, 
in few places exceeds sixty or eighty feet, 
but its depth is about ten or twelve. In 
winter it overflows its narrow channel, and, 
swelled by the rains, forms a sheet of water, 
sometimes a quarter of a league broad. The 
time of its overflowing is usually in March, 
when the snows melt on the mountains of 
the Shaik; at which time, more than any 
other, its waters are troubled, and of a yel- 
lowish hue, and its course is impetuous. Its 
banks are covered with a thick forest of 
reeds, willows, and various shrubs, which 
serve as an asylum for wild boars, ounces, 
jackals, hares, and different kinds of birds.' 

Viscount Chateaubriand found the Jordan 
to be six or seven feet deep close to the 
shore, and about fifty paces in breadth. 
Messrs. Bankes and Buckingham, who 
crossed it in January 1816, pretty nearly at 
the same ford over which the Israelites 
passed on their first entering the Promised 
Land, found the stream extremely rapid ; 
and as it flowed at that part over a bed of 
pebbles, its otherwise turbid waters were 
tolerably clear, as well as pure and sweet to 
the taste. 

The passage of this deep and rapid, though 
not wide river, by the Israelites, at the most 
unfavourable season, when augmented by 

the dissolution of winter snows, was more 
manifestly miraculous, if possible, than that 
of the Red Sea; because here was no natu- 
ral agency whatsoever employed j do mighty 

winds to sweep a passage, as in the former 
case ; no reflux of the tide, on whieh minute 

philosophers might fasten to depreciate the 

miracle. It seems, therefore, to have been 

providentially designed to silence cavik re- 
specting the former ; and it was done at 
noon-day, in the face o\' the sun, and in the 



JOS 



JOS 



presence, we may be sure, of the neighbour- 
ing inhabitants ; and it struck terror into 
the kings of the Amorites and Canaanites, 
westwards of the river, ' whose hearts melted, 
neither was there any spirit in them any 
more, because of the children of Israel.' 
(Josh. v. 1.) The place where the Israel- 
ites thus miraculously passed this river, is 
supposed to be ' the fords of Jordan.' ( Judg. 
iii. 28.) Hales' 's New Analysis of Chronology, 
vol. i. p. 413; Sacred Geography ; Volneys 
Travels, vol. ii. p. 300 ; Buckingham's Tra- 
vels in Palestine, p. 315 ; Irby's and Mangles' s 
Travels in Egypt, &c. pp. 287—289. 

JO'SEPH, spr, signifies increase, addition. 
Joseph, son of Jacob and Rachel, was born 
in Mesopotamia, in the year of the world 
2256. Joseph was favoured by God in his 
youth with prophetic dreams. His father 
Jacob loved him tenderly, and gave him a 
coat of divers colours. His brothers be- 
came jealous of such little marks of affec- 
tion. But what most incensed his brethren 
was, his relating certain dreams, in one of 
which he had seen twelve sheaves, belong- 
ing to them, bow before his sheaf, which 
stood upright in the field, &c. Jacob heard 
this without remark, but Joseph's brethren 
could not bear the allusion. 

Joseph being sent by his father to visit 
his brethren, they conspired against him, 
and at first would have slain him ; but Reu- 
ben opposing this resolution, they threw him 
into an old well, which had no water: soon 
after, perceiving a caravan of Midianite 
merchants going into Egypt, they sold Jo- 
seph to them, and deceived Jacob into a 
belief of his destruction by a wild beast. 

The merchants took Joseph into Egypt, 
and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, captain 
of Pharaoh's guards. Joseph obtained his 
master's confidence so greatly, that he made 
him steward of his house, and committed to 
him all his domestic affairs. (Gen. xxxix. 
1, 2, 3, &c.) But Potiphar's wife, conceiv- 
ing a criminal passion for this young slave, 
solicited him to gratify that passion, and at 
last pressed him so closely, that he could 
escape only by leaving his cloak in her pos- 
session. Seeing herself thus despised, she 
began to cry out, and complained that the 
young Hebrew had offered her violence. 
Showing his cloak as evidence against him, 
she easily persuaded her husband Potiphar, 
who therefore put Joseph in prison. 

Two of the king of Egypt's officers, his 
butler, and his baker, having incurred their 
master's displeasure, were put into the same 
prison with Joseph. Each of them had a 
dream in reference to himself, which he re- 
lated to Joseph, who explained it to him : 
the butler dreamed favourably, the baker 
fatally. Joseph's interpretation of both 
dreams was fulfilled ; the butler was restored 
to his dignity, but did not remember Jo- 
seph. Two years after this event, Pharaoh 
had dreams which none of his wise men 
584 



were able to explain to him. This making 
him very uneasy, his butler at last remem- 
bered Joseph, and told the king of him. 
Pharaoh commanded Joseph to be brought 
before him. The king related his dreams, 
and Joseph interpreted them, foretelling a 
prodigious plenty, succeeded by distressing 
famine. 

Pharaoh also said to Joseph, Since you 
have discovered futurity to us, where can I 
find a more proper person than yourself for 
the government of my house, and of Egypt? 
My people shall obey you ; and I will be 
your superior only on the throne. He then 
put his own ring upon Joseph's hand, 
clothed him in fine linen or cotton, put a 
chain of gold about his neck, made him ride 
in the chariot next to his own, and gave 
orders to proclaim him governor of all 
Egypt. He changed his name to Zaphnath 
Paaneah, which in Egyptian signifies a re- 
vealer of secrets. He married him to Ase- 
nath, daughter of Potipherah, priest of On 
or Heliopolis, by whom Joseph had two sons, 
Manasseh and Ephraim. 

During the seven years of plenty, Joseph 
accumulated great stores of corn and grain. 
After this abundance came the famine, which 
did not afflict Egypt only, but also Canaan, 
where Jacob lived with his sons. Jacob 
therefore sent his sons into Egypt to buy 
provision, retaining only Benjamin. Joseph 
knew his brethren, though they did not dis- 
cover him. He spoke roughly to them, 
called them spies, detained Simeon in bonds, 
probably because he had been the warmest 
of his enemies, and would not let the rest 
depart, except on condition that they should 
bring their youngest brother with them; 
whom they had mentioned to him. When 
he dismissed them, he ordered their sacks 
to be filled with corn, and every man's mo- 
ney to be put in his sack, without their per- 
ceiving it. 

Jacob was constrained by the famine, not- 
withstanding his reluctance, to send his sons 
again into Egypt, and Benjamin with them. 
When Joseph saw his brother Benjamin, he 
ordered an entertainment for these strangers 
that day at noon : when he came in, his bre- 
thren prostrated themselves before him, and 
offered him presents from Jacob. Having 
saluted Benjamin, he immediately went out, 
being unable to restrain his tears. Joseph 
directed his brethren to be placed at table 
according to their age, and sent to Benja- 
min a portion five times larger than the 
rest, which very much raised their admira- 
tion. 

The next morning, the corn they had 
purchased was loaded, and Joseph's cup 
was privately conveyed into Benjamin's 
sack. They were scarcely out of the city, 
when Joseph sent in great haste after them, 
reproaching them bitterly for this theft. 
Benjamin's sack was opened, and Joseph's 
cup was found in it! All in confusion at 



JOS 



JOS 



this accident, they returned with Benjamin 
to the city. Judah entreated Joseph to re- 
ceive him for his slave instead of Benjamin, 
remonstrating that if he returned to his fa- 
ther, without bringing back his favourite 
son, he would die with grief. Joseph then 
discovered himself, and asked if his father 
were living? After this, he embraced them 
all, and principally Benjamin, and sent 
them with a message to their father, pro- 
posing his removal into Egypt. To this 
Jacob agreed. Joseph, therefore, gave Ja- 
cob and his sons the land of Goshen, where 
the city of Rameses was situated, that they 
might dwell there with their flocks. 

The famine increasing, Joseph drained 
all the money of the Egyptians into the 
king's coffers; then he obtained their cattle, 
afterwards their lands, and lastly their per- 
sons. He restored to the Egyptians their 
lands and cattle, with corn for seed, on con- 
dition that they paid the fifth part of the 
crop to the king. Jacob having spent se- 
venteen years in Egypt, sent for Joseph, 
and made him promise to bury him in the 
land of Canaan, in the sepulchre of his 
fathers. Some time after, Joseph was in- 
formed that his father grew very ill ; where- 
fore taking his two sons with him, Manas- 
seh and Ephraim, he went to visit him. 
Jacob adopted his two sons, embraced them, 
and blessed them ; putting his hands on their 
heads. Joseph observing his left hand to 
be placed on Manasseh's head, though he 
was the eldest, and his right on Ephraim, 
who was the youngest, was desirous to re- 
move them, but Jacob told him, he knew 
what he did. After this, Jacob gave to 
each of his children a particular blessing. 
Of Joseph he said, 'Joseph is a fruitful 
bough, even a fruitful bough by a well, 
whose branches run over the wall.' (Gen. 
xlix. 22, 23, &c.) 

As soon as Jacob expired, Joseph fell on 
his face, and melted into tears. After- 
wards, he had him embalmed, and then 
buried him in the cave of Machpelah, which 
Abraham had purchased of Ephron the 
Hittite. After Joseph was returned to 
Egypt, his brethren, fearing some resent- 
ment might remain latent in him, solicited 
his favour, which he promised them. Jo- 
seph after he had lived an hundred and ten 
years, and seen his grand-children of the 
third generation, fell sick, and made his 
brethren promise with an oath to carry his 
bones with them, when they should depart 
from Egypt. After his death, his body was 
put into a coffin in Egypt ; and Moses car- 
ried it away with him at the Exodus. (Exod. 
xiii. 19.) It was committed to the tribe of 
Ephraim, and was by them buried near 
Shechem, in the field which Jacob a little 
before his death had given to Joseph. (Josh. 
xxiv. 32.) 

Many learned men have entertained an 
erroneous opinion, that the Egyptians wor- 
585 



shipped Joseph as Osiris, Apis, and Sera- 
pis, and even under the names of Hermes, 
Tammuz, and Adonis. 

Joseph, son of Jacob, and grandson of 
Matthan, spouse of the Virgin Mary, and 
reputed father of Jesus Christ. (Matt. i. 
15, 16.) The Gospel says, that Joseph was 
a just man. He lived by labour, and worked 
at a trade, but at what trade is not agreed. 
Some say he was a carpenter, some a lock- 
smith, and others a mason. 

The incarnation of the Son of God was 
not at first discovered to Joseph; but being 
informed that Mary his espoused wife was 
pregnant, and not knowing to what to attri- 
bute it, he inclined to dismiss her privately, 
by giving her a bill of divorce, instead of 
publicly dishonouring her. But while he 
was under this embarrassing uncertainty, an 
angel of the Lord appeared to him in a 
dream, and encouraged him to take home 
Mary. See Annunciation. 

About six months after, Joseph went to 
Bethlehem, there to be registered with 
Mary his wife, in pursuance of an edict 
from Augustus. While they were in this 
place, the time of Mary's delivery came. 
Forty days after the child's birth, Mary and 
Joseph carried him to Jerusalem, and per- 
formed what the law appointed. While 
here, the angel of the Lord directed Joseph, 
in a dream, to carry the child into Egypt, 
because king Herod sought to kill him. 
How long they continued in Egypt we can- 
not tell ; probably not long, since Herod 
died about the passover, some few months 
after the massacre of the innocents. The 
angel again informed Joseph, that he might 
return to Judea ; but, learning that Arche- 
laus succeeded Herod, Joseph retired to 
Nazareth in Galilee, which was not sub- 
ject to Archelaus, but to Herod Antipas. 
He took Jesus, at the age of twelve, with 
Mary, to the passover at Jerusalem, where 
they lost him for three days, but at length 
found him in the temple. (Luke ii. 42 — 
51.) 

It is believed, with great probability, that 
Joseph died before Jesus began his public 
ministry. Joseph does not appear at the 
marriage of Cana, or in any other instance ; 
and Jesus upon the cross recommended his 
mother to St. John, which, without doubt, 
he would not have done, had her husband 
been living. 

JOSH'UA, jwitv, 'Iti<tovq, Jesus, 'Ioxxt;*, 
the Lord, the Saviour. Joshua, the son of 
Nun, by the Greeks called Jesus the son of 
Nave, was of the tribe of Ephraim, and was 
born in the year of the world 2460. His 
first name was Hosea, or Oshea. (Numb, 
xiii. 8. 16.) Some believe that Moses 
changed his name by adding that of God 
to it. 

Hoseah signifies Saviour, Jehosua, tkt 
salvation of God, or he will save. There is 
some dispute concerning the time when 



JOS 



JOS 



Joshua began to be so called. Some think 
it was after the defeat of the Amalekites, 
others not till after the return of the com- 
missioners appointed to survey the promised 
land. 

Joshua signalized his valour against the 
Amalekites, whose whole army he routed. 
When Moses went up Mount Sinai, to re- 
ceive the law, and remained there forty days 
and forty nights, Joshua abode with him, 
though in all probability, not in the same 
place, nor with the same abstinence ; and when 
Moses descended from the mountain, Joshua 
heard the noise of the people playing about 
the golden calf, and thought it was the 
cry of battle. (Exod. xxxii. 17«) Joshua 
was very constant at the tabernacle of 
the congregation ; he had the care and 
custody of it, (Exod. xxxiii. 11.) and seems 
to have dwelt in, or near it. When the 
people came to Kadesh-barnea, Joshua, with 
others, was deputed to survey the land 
of Canaan ; and when these deputies re- 
turned, and represented the difficulties 
of conquering it as extremely great, Jo- 
shua and Caleb maintained the attempt 
to be easily practicable, provided the Lord 
were with them. The murmurers were all 
excluded from the land of promise; but 
God promised Joshua and Caleb that they 
should enter it. 

When Moses was near his end, God 
commanded him to lay hands on Joshua, 
to communicate to him part of his spirit 
and glory, that the people might obey him. 
After the death of Moses, he took the com- 
mand of the Israelites ; and God favoured 
him. He sent spies to the city of Jericho, 
and ordered the army of Israel to pass the 
river Jordan. Joshua took twelve stones 
out of the midst of the river, which he 
placed at Gilgal, and set up twelve likewise 
in the midst of Jordan, as monuments of 
Israel's miraculous passage. 

Some few days after the passage of the 
Jordan, Joshua caused to be circumcised 
all those who being born in the wilderness, 
by reason of their changing place fre- 
quently, had not received circumcision. 
After this, they kept the passover on the 
14th of Nisan, in the year of the world 
2553. While Joshua was before Jericho, he 
saw a man standing before him with a 
naked sword in his hand. He went to him, 
and said, Art thou for us, or for our adver- 
saries ? The man answered, I am captain 
of the host of the Lord, and I am come here 
to thy assistance. Joshua fell with his face 
to the earth : and the angel said to him, 
Take off thy shoes, for the place where thou 
standest is holy ground. 

A few days after, he received orders from 
the Lord to besiege Jericho. Some think 
this siege was carried on during the seven 
days of the passover. The first six days, 
the army of Israel, with the priests and ark 
at their head, marched round the city once ; 
586 



on the seventh day they marched seven 
times round it, and at the seventh time, the 
priests sounding the sacred trumpets, the 
people shouted, and the walls of the city 
fell, so that each man entered at the place 
opposite to him. Joshua then uttered his 
imprecation against Jericho ; which pro- 
phecy was accomplished many ages after. 
See Hiel. Joshua sent 3000 men against 
Ai ; but this small army was repulsed with 
the loss of thirty-six men. Joshua com- 
plained to the Lord, who told him, that 
Israel had violated the anathema pronounced 
against Jericho. The people, therefore, were 
convened; and the lot fell on Achan the 
son of Carmi. After this, Joshua took Ai. 

God had commanded, that after the 
Israelites had passed the Jordan, they should 
erect an altar upon Mount Ebal. Joshua 
fulfilled this order. 

About the same time, the Gibeonites 
came to Joshua, and pretended they were 
from a distant country, and not of the people 
of Canaan, who were devoted to the curse. 
Joshua and the elders of Israel made a cove- 
nant with them, without consulting the Lord ; 
but three days after, they understood that 
they were Canaanites, and dwelt in the cities 
of Gibeon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kirjath- 
jearim. The people murmured against the 
elders ; and it was resolved, that their lives 
should be preserved, since they had been pro- 
mised this in the name of the Lord ; but that 
they should be condemned to cut wood and 
carry water. Upon this Adonibezek, king of 
Jerusalem, confederated with four other 
kings of Canaan, to attack Gibeon. But 
Joshua, being informed of it, marched all 
night, and in the morning fell upon them so 
briskly, that he put the five kings to flight, 
and as they fled along the way to Beth- 
horon, the Lord poured a shower of large 
hail-stones upon them as far as Azekah, 
which killed many. Then Joshua said, Sun, 
stand thou still over against Gibeon, and 
thou moon, in the valley of Ajalon. And 
the sun and moon stood still, till the people 
of the Lord had taken vengeance on their 
enemies. 

This miracle of the sun and moon stand- 
ing still cannot be accounted for on philo- 
sophical principles, but must be resolved 
wholly into the power of God, who heark- 
ened to the voice of a man, to stop the lu- 
minaries in their diurnal courses, or perhaps 
the earth's rotation, and by prolonging the 
day of battle to make them fight for Israel. 
From the circumstances of the narrative we 
may collect the time of the day and of the 
month when it happened, namely, soon after 
sun-rise, and when the moon was rather 
past the full. Joshua, when summoned by 
the Gibeonites to come to their succour 
against the confederate kings, went up from 
Gilgal all night, and came suddenly (we may 
conclude about day-break) upon the enemy, 
whom he discomfited with great slaughter, 



JOS 



JOS 



and chased along the way from Gibeon to 
Beth-horon, in a westerly direction, the 
Lord co-operating in their destruction by a 
tremendous shower of great hail-stones, 
which slew more than the sword of the Is- 
raelites, but did not touch the latter. In 
this situation, the sun appeared to rise over 
Gibeon eastward, and the moon to set over 
Ajalon westward, near the Mediterranean 
Sea, in the tribe of Dan, when Joshua, 
moved by a Divine impulse, uttered the in- 
vocation in the sight of Israel ; ' Sun, stand 
thou still over Gibeon, and thou Moon in 
the valley of Ajalon.' ' So the sun stood 
still in the hemisphere (at his rising), and 
hasted not to go down at his setting) about 
a whole day;' which in that climate, and 
soon after the vernal equinox, might be 
about thirteen hours long; thus giving 
Joshua day-light for the destruction of his 
enemies during twenty-six hours. The ob- 
ject of this miracle was of the most im- 
portant and impressive nature. The sun 
and the moon, the two principal gods of the 
idolatrous heathen nations, were commanded 
to yield miraculous obedience to the chief 
servant of the true God ; and thereby to 
contribute to the more effectual conquest of 
their own worshippers. It was a miracle of 
the same description as those which had 
been wrought in Egypt. With respect to 
the objections to the probability of this mi- 
racle, which originate in a consideration of 
its supposed consequences, it is justly ob- 
served by Bishop Watson, that 'the ma- 
chine of the universe is in the hand of 
God : he can stop the motion of any part or 
of the whole, with less trouble than either 
of us can stop a watch!' How absurd, then, 
are the reasonings of those men who believe 
in the existence of an omnipotent God, yet 
deny the possibility of the exertion of his 
power in other ways, than those which are 
known to their limited experience ! 

The five kings having fled into a cave 
near Makkedah, Joshua ordered great stones 
to be rolled against the mouth of it, till the 
army had entirely dispersed the enemy. 
Towards the close of the day, the army re- 
turned to Makkedah. Joshua killed these 
five kings, and hung their dead bodies upon 
gibbets, where they remained till evening. 
Joshua, taking advantage of the consterna- 
tion of the Canaanites, attacked and took 
several cities belonging to their country. 
He pillaged all the land from Kadesh-barnea 
to Gaza, and all the land of Gozen as far as 
Gibeon, that is, all the southern part of 
Palestine. 

The year following, the king of Hazor 
confederated with several kings of Canaan, 
to endeavour, if they could, to oppose the 
Israelites with their great numbers. Tbey 
met at the waters of Merom, south of Mount 
Carmel. Joshua marched against them; 
and, charging them suddenly, defeated and 
pursued them to great Zidon. The Hc- 
587 



brews killed all that fell into their hands : 
they hamstrung their horses, and burnt all 
their chariots. Joshua returned to Hazor, 
which he took and burnt. He took and 
destroyed in like manner all the cities round 
about, and killed their kings. All this was 
not done in a day. Some years were neces- 
sary to reduce the country ; for he was ob- 
liged to make war with all these kings, none 
surrendering without a battle. 

In the sixth year after the Israelites had 
entered the land of Canaan, they began to 
divide the conquered lands ; Caleb first de- 
manded his portion in the mountains of 
Judah and Hebron. After this, a division 
was made to every tribe by lot ; first to Ju- 
dah, then to Ephraim and the half tribe of 
Manasseh, which hitherto had not received 
its partition. After this the people assem- 
bled at Shiloh, to allot the portions of the 
other tribes. Joshua sent surveyors through- 
out the country; and the tribes of Benja- 
min, Simeon, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, 
Naphtali, and Dan, had their portions as- 
signed them. And lastly they gave to 
Joshua for his inheritance Timnath-serah, 
in the mountains of Ephraim. They then 
appointed six cities of refuge for those who 
had committed casual and involuntary mur- 
der, and forty-six cities as residences of the 
priests and Levites. The tribes of Reuben 
and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh, 
having assisted their brethren in conquer- 
ing the land of Canaan, returned to be- 
yond Jordan their inheritance. On the 
banks of Jordan, they erected a monument 
as a memorial to future generations, that 
they were the same people with the tribes 
on the other side of the river. Joshua, 
fearing lest it might be made an idolatrous 
monument, sent to inquire their intentions 
by it. But the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and 
Manasseh, having declared their real inten- 
tions to the deputies, they returned in 
peace to Joshua. 

This great man drawing near his end, 
summoned all Israel at Shechem, and 
ordered the ark of the covenant to be 
brought thither. After he had repre- 
sented to the Israelites the favours they had 
received from God, and exhorted them to 
continue faithful, he made a covenant on 
the part of God with the people, and the 
people reciprocally engaged to serve the 
Lord. Joshua reduced the act of it into 
form, and wrote it in the book of the law 
of the Lord ; and, to preserve the memory 
of this transaction, he erected a very large 
stone, under the oak, near Shechem. After 
this he died, aged a hundred and ten, in the 
year of the world 2570. 

The Book of Joshua is generally attri- 
buted to this great man. It comprehends 
the history of about thirty years ; and it 
contains an account of the conquest and 
division of the land of Canaan, tin- renewal 

of the covenant with tin' Israelites, and ttu 



JOS 



JOS 



death of Joshua. Two passages in this book 
show that it was written by a person con- 
temporary with the events which it records. 
In the first verse of the fifth chapter the 
author speaks of himself as being one of 
those who had passed into Canaan : ' And 
it came to pass when all the kings of the 
Amorites, which were on this side of Jordan 
westward, and all the kings of the Canaan- 
ites, which were by the sea, heard that the 
Lord had dried up the waters of Jordan from 
before the children of Israel, until we were 
passed over, that their hearts melted.' It 
appears also from the 25th verse of the fol- 
lowing chapter, that the book was written 
before the death of Rahab : ' And Joshua 
saved Rahab the harlot alive, and her fa- 
ther's household, and all that she had ; and 
she dwelleth in Israel even unto this day; 
because she hid the messengers which 
Joshua sent to spy out Jericho.' In the 
last chapter it is said, that ' Joshua wrote 
these words in the Book of the law of God,' 
which expression seems to imply, that he 
subjoined this history to that written by 
Moses. The last five verses, which give an 
account of the death of J oshua, were added 
by one of his successors, probably by Elea- 
zear, Phinehas, or Samuel. Bishop Tomline's 
Elem. of Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 81 ; 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book i. p. 290 ; Home's Introduction, vol. ii. 
p. 557 ; Townsend's Arrangement of the Old 
Testament, vol. i. p. 463, note. 

JOSIAH,"in s WK% 'Iioaiov, signifies the Lord 
burns, or the fire of the Lord. Josiah, son 
of Amon, king of Judah, and of Jedidah, 
daughter of Adaiah of Boscath, began to 
reign when he was eight years of age, in 
the year of the world 3363. (2 Kings xxii. 
I, 2, &c.) He did right in the sight of the 
Lord, and walked in the ways of David. 
He began to seek after God from the eighth 
year of his reign, which was the sixteenth 
year of his age ; and in the twelfth year of 
his reign, which was the twentieth of his 
age, he purged Judah and Jerusalem of the 
high-places, groves, idols, and superstitious 
images. He burned the bones belonging to 
the priests of the false gods upon the altars 
of their idols. Nor was he satisfied with 
thus destroying the remains of idolatry in 
his own dominions, but visited for the same 
purpose the cities of Ephraim, Manasseh, 
Simeon, and Naphtali. 

After this he made it his business to re- 
pair the temple of the Lord, which in the 
preceding reigns had been neglected. But 
as they were removing the money which had 
been offered by the Israelites at the temple, 
to give it to the workmen, the high-priest 
Hilkiah found in the treasury chamber a 
book of the law of the Lord given by Moses. 
It is thought that this was the original of 
the law, and that it was found in some wall 
or chest, or beside the ark ; for it appears 
that it was not then in the sanctuary, since 
588 



Josiah commands the priests to restore it to 
its place, and forbids them to carry it about 
any more. 

Shaphan, the scribe, gave notice to the 
king of this discovery ; and Josiah, having 
heard it read, rent his clothes, and sent to 
Huldah the prophetess, the wife of Shallum, 
and asked her advice. The king having 
convened all the elders of Judah and Jeru- 
salem, went up to the temple of the Lord 
with them. 

He read the book to them which he had 
lately found, and made a covenant with God, 
thereby engaging himself to walk in his 
ways, and to observe his precepts and ordi- 
nances, and made all the assembly promise 
the same thing. He afterwards ordered to 
destroy all remains of superstitious and 
idolatrous monuments in Jerusalem and 
Judah. He cut off" the soothsayers, those 
who worshipped the stars, and the Sodo- 
mites. He enjoined those priests who had 
offered sacrifices in the high-places, to for- 
bear all exercise of their sacred functions. 
He defiled Topheth and the valley of Hin- 
nom, and profaned all the places which had 
been consecrated to superstition and idol- 
atry, filled them with dead men's bones, and 
broke down the statues which were in them. 
He demolished the altar erected by Jero- 
boam the son of Nebat, at Bethel, dug up 
the bones of the false prophets and priests 
of the golden calves, but spared the sepul- 
chre of that prophet whom the Lord sent 
against Jeroboam. (1 Kings xiii.) 

Afterwards, Josiah commanded all his 
people to keep the passover, according to 
the law. The Scripture says, that from the 
time of the judges, and during the reigns of 
all the kings of Judah and Jerusalem, no 
passover was ever kept like that of the 
eighteenth year of Josiah ; and that there 
was no king before him, like unto him, who 
turned as he did to the Lord with all his 
heart, with all his soul, and with all his 
strength. Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, 
desiring to pass through Judea, to attack 
the city of Carchemish on the Euphrates, 
Josiah opposed his passage, at Megiddo, at 
the foot of Mount Carmel. Here this good 
prince was mortally wounded, and being 
carried to Jerusalem there died. The peo- 
ple mourned his death very much ; and Je- 
remiah composed an elegy on that occasion. 
Josiah was buried with the kings his pre- 
decessors at Jerusalem. The people of 
Judah took Jehoahaz, otherwise Shallum, 
one of Josiah's sons, and made him king in 
his stead. 

Several prophets were in Judah while 
Josiah reigned ; Jeremiah and Baruch, 
Joel and Zephaniah, and the prophetess 
Huldah. Many have been of opinion, that 
the Lamentations of Jeremiah, which are 
extant, were composed at the death of 
Josiah; and that these are the Lamenta- 
tions which were so celebrated, and which 



JOT 



ISA 



all the singing men and singing women 
continued to sing long after. (2 Chron. 
xxv. 24, 25.) The mourning of the peo- 
ple on the death of this prince passed, as 
it were, into a law and a proverb; and 
the prophet Zechariah, (xii. 11.) speaking 
of the lamentation of future ages, at the 
death of the Messiah, alludes to that of 
Josiah, ' as the mourning of Hadadrimmon 
in the valley of Megiddon.' Josiah had 
four sons, Jehoahaz, otherwise Shallum, 
Eliakim or Jehoiakim, Zedekiah otherwise 
Matthanias, and Johanan ; but as Joha- 
nan the eldest is not noticed after the death 
of his father, it seems probable that he died 
before Josiah. 

JO'THAM, onv, signifies perfection of 
the Lord. Jotham, Gideon's youngest son, 
escaped the slaughter which the inhabit- 
ants of Ophrah made of his seventy breth- 
ren, killed in the presence and by the order 
of Abimelech, Gideon's bastard son. (Judg. 
ix. 5, 6, &c.) The people of Shechem cre- 
ated this same Abimelech king, because 
he was their countryman. Jotham, there- 
fore, went up to the top of Mount Gerizim, 
and thence addressed himself to the in- 
habitants of Shechem, in the famous fable 
of the trees, who offered their kingdom, 
which the valuable trees declined, and at 
length they elected the bramble. He then 
fled to Beer. We know not what became 
of him after this ; but his prediction against 
Shechem and Abimelech was soon accom- 
plished. (Judg. ix. 5, &c.) 

Jotham, son and successor of Uzziah 
otherwise Azariah, king of Judah. Azariah 
having been smitten with a leprosy for 
attempting to offer incense, (2 Chron. xxvi. 
16, 17, &c.) the government was committed 
to Jotham, his son, in the year of the world 
3221. He governed twenty- five years ; he 
then assumed the title of king, and reigned 
alone till the year of the world 3262. Hence 
it appears that he governed Judah forty-one 
years ; sixteen years alone, and twenty-five 
during the life of his father. He did right 
in the sight of the Lord, and imitated the 
piety of his father Uzziah. Yet, he did not 
destroy the high places. He built the great 
gate of the temple, and other works on the 
walls of Jerusalem, in Ophel. He caused 
forts and castles to be erected upon the 
mountains, and in the forests of Judah. 
The Ammonites, who had been brought 
into subjection by Uzziah his father, hav- 
ing shown an inclination to revolt, he 
defeated them, and imposed on them a 
tribute of a hundred talents of silver, and 
ten thousand measures of wheat, with as 
many of barley. Towards the end of his 
reign, the Lord sent against him Rezin 
king of Syria, and Pekah king of Israel. 
It appears from Isaiah, (i. 1,2, 3, 4.) that 
the laud of Judah was in a very melancholy 
condition in the beginning of the reign of 
Ahaz, the son and successor of Jotham. 
589 



IRON. Moses forbids to use any stones 
for forming the altar of the Lord, which 
had been wrought with iron, as if iron 
communicated to them some pollution. He 
says the stones of Palestine are iron, (Deut 
viii. 9.) that is, of hardness equal to iron, 
or that being melted they yield iron. An 
iron yoke (I Kings viii. 51.) denotes a hard 
and insupportable dominion. The wise man 
says (Prov. xxvii. 17.) ' Iron sharpeneth 
iron ; so a man sharpeneth the counte- 
nance of his friend.' God threatens his 
ungrateful and perfidious people with mak- 
ing heaven iron and the earth brass, to 
make the earth barren, and the air to pro- 
duce no rain. Chariots of iron are chariots 
armed with iron, with spikes and scythes. 
The false prophet Zedekiah made himself 
iron horns, to persuade Ahab that he would 
overcome Syria. ' Thy neck is an iron 
sinew,' as hard and inflexible as iron. God 
said that he would make Jeremiah as stiff 
as a pillar of iron. (Jerem. i. 18.) 

I'SAAC, pnr, or pnu>% signifies laughter, 
and was the name of the son of Abraham 
and Sarah. Sarah gave him this name, 
because when the angel promised that she 
should become a mother, though she was 
beyond the age of having children, she 
laughed at the prediction. And when 
the child was born, she said, ' God hath 
made me to laugh, so that all that hear 
will laugh with me.' She suckled him her- 
self. She would not suffer Ishmael to in- 
herit with him, but prevailed with Abraham 
to turn him and his mother Hagar out of 
doors. 

When Isaac was about twenty-five years 
of age, the Lord tempted Abraham, and 
commanded him to sacrifice his son. Abra- 
ham therefore took Isaac, and two of his 
servants, to the place where the Lord should 
show him. On the third day, ascend- 
ing this place, he provided wood for the 
burnt offering, placed it on his son Isaac, 
and took fire in his hand, and a knife. 
As they two only, were going together, 
Isaac said, ' Behold the fire and the wood, 
but where is the lamb for a burnt-offer- 
ing V Abraham answered, ' My son, God 
will provide himself a lamb for a burnt- 
offering.' When they were come to the 
place appointed, which some think was 
Mount Calvary, Abraham arranged the 
wood, bound Isaac as a victim, and tak- 
ing the knife, stretched forth his hand to 
kill his son. But the angel of the Lord 
called to him, and said, Lay not thine 
hand on the lad. He, therefore, unbound 
Isaac, and in his stead sacrificed a ram 
which he found entangled in a thicket 
adjacent 

When Isaac was forty years of age, 
Abraham sent Eliezer the steward of his 
house into Mesopotamia, to procure ■ 
wife for him from the family of Lahan, 
his brother-in-law. Eliezer succeeded in 



ISA 



ISA 



the object of his journey, and brought Re- 
bekah to Isaac. Rebekah being barren, 
Isaac prayed for her, and God granted 
her the favour of conception. She was de- 
livered of twins, Esau and Jacob. Isaac had 
most inclination for Esau, and Rebekah for 
Jacob. Some years after, a famine obliged 
Isaac to retire to Gerar, where Abimelech 
was king : he reported that Rebekah was 
his sister ; and she was taken from him, by 
reason of her beauty, to be one of the 
king's wives. But Abimelech, having ob- 
served that Isaac behaved otherwise with 
Rebekah than he would have done with 
his sister, restored her to him. Isaac 
grew very rich, and his flocks multiply- 
ing every day, the Philistines of Gerar 
were so envious that they filled up all 
the wells that were dug by Isaac's ser- 
vants. Abimelech himself desired him to 
depart ; which he did, and pitched his tent 
in the valley of Gerar, where he dug new 
wells, but was put to some difficulties 
again. At length he returned to Beer- 
sheba, where he fixed his habitation. The 
Lord appeared to him, and renewed the 
promise of blessing him. Abimelech, king 
of Gerar, came thither likewise to make 
an alliance with him. Isaac when grown 
very old, (for he was an hundred and thirty- 
seven years of age,) and his sight was ex- 
tremely weakened, called Esau his son, and 
directed him to hunt for him some venison. 
But while Esau was gone a hunting, Jacob 
stole the prime, the superior blessing of 
Isaac, so that afterwards Isaac could only 
give Esau an inferior blessing. See Jacob 
and Esau. 

Isaac lived many years after this. He 
sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a 
wife of his own family. When Jacob re- 
turned out of that country, after twenty 
years, Isaac was living, and continued so 
twenty-three years longer. He died aged 
an hundred four score and eight years, in 
the year of the world 2288, and was bu- 
ried with his father Abraham, by his sons 
Esau and Jacob. 

ISA'IAH, inw, signifies salvation of 
the Lord. Isaiah, son of Amos, was, as 
is said, of the royal family, if it be true 
that his father was son to king Joash, 
and brother to Amaziah, king of Judah. 
' He was the earliest of the four great 
prophets, and entered on his prophetic 
office in the last year of Uzziah's reign, 
about 758 years before Christ. It is un- 
certain how long he continued to pro- 
phesy : some have thought that he died in 
the fifteenth or sixteenth year of Heze- 
kiah's reign, and in that case he pro- 
phesied about forty-five years ; but it ap- 
pears more probable that he was put to 
death by command of Manasseh, in the 
first year of his reign ; and in that case 
he prophesied more than sixty- one years. 
Isaiah is uniformly spoken of in Scripture 
590 



as a prophet of the highest dignity. Bishop 
Lowth calls him the prince of all the pro- 
phets, and pronounces the whole of his 
work, except a few detached passages, to be 
poetical. 

' The style of Isaiah is universally al- 
lowed to be remarkable for its elegance, 
force, and sublimity ; and he gives so co- 
pious and circumstantial an account of 
the promised Messiah and his kingdom, 
that he has been emphatically called the 
Evangelical Prophet. This book, how- 
ever, is not confined to prophecies relative 
to our Saviour ; it contains many other 
predictions, and likewise several historical 
relations. It may be considered under six 
general divisions; the first division con- 
sists of the first five chapters, containing 
a general description of the state and con- 
dition of the Jews in the several periods 
of their history; the promulgation and 
success of the Gospel, and the coming of 
Christ to judgment. The second division 
consists of the next seven chapters, con- 
taining the promise to Ahaz, which was 
predictive of Christ, whose nature, birth, 
and kingdom, are distinctly described in 
the 9th chapter ; the denunciations of 
punishment upon the Assyrians in the 
10th chapter, seem an interruption to this 
glorious subject, which is resumed in the 
11th chapter, where the prophet breaks 
out into a hymn of praise, celebrating the 
future triumphant state of the church. The 
third division, which reaches from the 13th 
to the 27th chapter inclusive, begins with 
a very remarkable prophecy of the de- 
struction of Babylon, which is considered 
as a type of Antichrist ; it then describes 
the fate of the Jews, Assyrians, Moabites, 
Philistines, Arabians, Syrians, and Egyp- 
tians, and concludes in a manner similar 
to the last. The fourth division, which 
extends from the 28th to the 35th chapter 
inclusive, contains predictions relative to 
the then approaching invasion of Senna- 
cherib ; but it is interspersed with severe 
reproofs and threats against the Jews for 
disobedience and wilful blindness, and also 
with consolatory promises to those who 
should remain faithful in the service of God, 
alluding frequently to the times of the Gos- 
pel. The 36th and two following chapters, 
which constitute the fifth division, give an 
historical account of the invasion of Sen- 
nacherib, and of the prolongation of Heze- 
kiah's life. The sixth division reaches from 
the 39th chapter to the end of the book : 
here the prophet generally addresses his 
countrymen as being actually in the cap- 
tivity which he had previously foretold; 
he predicts the total destruction of the 
empire of Babylon, and the restoration 
of the Jews to their own land, by their 
great deliverer, Cyrus, whom he represents 
the Almighty as calling upon by name to 
execute his will, above 100 years before 



ISA 



ISH 



his birth. In this latter part of the book 
are principally contained the numerous 
prophecies, already noticed, concerning the 
birth, ministry, death, and religion, of Christ, 
together with a variety of circumstances 
which were to precede and follow his in- 
carnation.' 

1 These prophecies,' says Dr. Gray, ' seem 
almost to anticipate the Gospel history, so 
clearly do they foreshow the divine charac- 
ter of Christ ; his miracles ; his peculiar 
qualities and virtues ; his rejection and 
sufferings for our sins ; his death, burial, 
and victory over death ; and, lastly, his 
final glory, and the establishment, increase, 
and perfection of his kingdom, each spe- 
cifically pointed out and pourtrayed with 
the most striking and discriminating cha- 
racters.' With these predictions are mixed 
earnest exhortations to faith and obedience, 
and positive denunciations of God's wrath 
against the impenitently wicked ; the most 
comfortable assurances of the constant 
providence of God, and the fulfilment of all 
his gracious promises, and descriptions of 
the glorious state of the Church, when it 
shall be enlarged by the conversion of the 
Jews, and the fulness of the Gentiles, in 
terms inimitably suited to the variety and 
loftiness of the subjects. 

The Scripture mentions two sons of Isa- 
iah, the one called Shear- Jashub, ' the re- 
mainder shall return,' the other Hash-baz, 
' hasten to the slaughter.' The first name 
showed, that the captives who should be 
carried to Babylon, should return from 
thence after a certain time ; the second name 
implied that the kingdoms of Israel and 
Syria would be shortly ravaged. 

In the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, 
Sennacherib king of Assyria, warring in 
Judaea, sent Rabshakeh his cup-bearer 
with a summons to Hezekiah. Rabshakeh 
harangued the people of Jerusalem in a 
very insolent and blasphemous manner, of 
which Hezekiah being informed by his 
officers, he rent his clothes, went to the 
temple, and sent messengers to tell Isaiah : 
Isaiah answered, ' Fear not the blasphe- 
mous words wherewith the king of Assy- 
ria's servants have dishonoured me : be- 
hold I will send a blast upon him, and he 
shall hear a rumour, and return to his own 
land, and I will cause him to fall by the 
sword in his own land.' Accordingly, the 
Lord caused 18,500 men of Sennacherib's 
army to perish by the hand of the destroy- 
ing angel ; and this prince was obliged to 
fly to Nineveh, where he was killed by his 
own sons. 

About that time Hezekiah fell danger- 
ously ill, and Isaiah, coming to visit him, 
said, ' set thine house in order, for thou 
shalt die and not live.' Then Hezekiah 
prayed to the Lord, and Isaiah was di- 
rected to return and comfort him by promis- 
ing him fifteen years addition of life, as a 
591 



pledge of which he gave him the sign of 
the returning shadow. He also directed a 
lump of figs to be laid on Hezekiah's boil, 
who was so perfectly cured, that in three 
days he was in a condition to go to the 
temple. 

Soon after this, Isaiah received orders 
from the Lord to walk three years bare- 
foot and naked, to denote the approach- 
ing captivity of Egypt and Cush, or Ethi- 
opia. It is the constant tradition both of 
the Jews and Christians, that Isaiah was 
put to death by a saw in the beginning of 
the reign of Manasseh king of Judah. It 
is said, that the pretence of this impious 
prince for thus executing him, was an ex- 
pression, (vi. 1.) ' I saw the Lord sitting 
on a throne ;' which he affirmed to be a 
contradiction to Moses, (Exod. xxxiii. 20.) 
' No man shall see me and live.' Calmet's 
Dictionary ; Gray's Key to the Old Testament; 
Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theology, 
vol. i. p. 105, &c 

ISH'BOSHETH, nua-i^x, signifies man 
of shame, otherwise, the retarding of the 
man. Ishbosheth is the same as Ishbaal, 
the man of Baal. Ishbosheth, or Ishbaal, 
was the son and successor of Saul. Abner, 
Saul's kinsman and general, so managed, 
that Ishbosheth was acknowledged king 
by the greater part of Israel, whilst David 
reigned at Hebron over Judah. Ishbosheth 
resided at Mahanaim, beyond Jordan. He 
was forty-four years of age when he began 
to reign, and he reigned two years pretty 
peaceably. Afterwards, there was war be- 
tween the house of David and that of Saul ; 
but whilst the former continued to increase 
in strength, the latter became weaker every 
day. (2 Sam. ii. 8, &c.) 

Saul had had a concubine named Riz- 
pah. Abner was accused of having made 
too free with her. Ishbosheth, therefore, 
said to Abner, ' Why hast thou come near 
my father's concubine V Abner, provoked 
at this reproach, swore he Would endea- 
vour to transfer the crown from the house 
of Saul to David ; but he was treacherously 
killed by Joab. When Ishbosheth was 
informed of the death of Abner, he lost 
courage ; and all Israel fell into great 
disorder : Ishbosheth almost at the same 
time was assassinated in his own house, by 
two captains of his troops, who coming into 
his palace, while he was sleeping on his 
bed during the heat of the day, stabbed 
him with their poniards. Then cutting 
off his head, they came and presented it 
to David at Hebron, thinking to receive 
a considerable reward. But he commanded 
these two murderers to be killed, and their 
hands and feet to be cut off, and hung up 
near the pool in Hebron. He placed the 
head of Ishbosheth in Abner's sepulchre at 
Hebron. With Ishbosheth ended the roy- 
alty of Saul's family. 

ISH'MAEL, bicyow*, signifies God that 



ISH 



ISR 



hears, and was the name of the son of 
Abraham and Sarah. Sarah, Abraham's 
wife, being barren, desired her husband 
to take her handmaid Hagar, that by her 
means she might have children. (Gen. xvi. 
1, 2, 3, &c.) Hagar, having conceived, de- 
spised her barren mistress Sarah, who 
using Hagar harshly, she fled from her. 
An angel of the Lord appeared to her in 
the wilderness, and bid her return to her 
mistress, adding, 'Thou hast conceived, and 
shalt bring forth a son, and call his name 
Ishmael (the Lord hath hearkened), be- 
cause the Lord hath heard thee in thy 
affliction. He shall be a fierce and savage 
man, whose hand shall be against all men, 
and the hands of all men against him.' 
Hagar returned, therefore, to Abraham's 
house, where she had a son named Ishmael. 
Fourteen years after, the Lord having 
visited Sarah, and Isaac being born to 
Abraham, Ishmael, who till then had been 
considered as Abraham's sole heir, saw his 
hopes disappointed. 

One day Isaac being about five or six 
years old, Ishmael teazed him in a man- 
ner displeasing to Sarah, who, therefore, 
said to Abraham, Expel this servant with 
her son Ishmael. Abraham thought this 
expulsion was hard ; but the Lord confirm- 
ing it, he sent away Hagar with Ishmael, 
who, quitting that part of the country, 
wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba, 
and her stock of water failing, she left 
her son under a tree hard by, and went to 
a distance to lament. While here, she 
heard a voice from Heaven which said, 
'Fear not, the Lord hath heard the child's 
voice. Rise, and take him up, for I will 
make him the father of a great people.' 
She rose, and God having shown her a 
well, she drew water out of it, gave some 
to her son, and carried him farther into the 
wilderness of Paran, where he abode. He 
became a very expert archer: and his 
mother married him to an Egyptian wo- 
man. He had twelve sons, viz. Nebajoth, 
Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Du- 
mah, Massa, Hadar, Tema, Jetur, Na- 
phish, and Kedemah. He had also a daugh- 
ter named Mahalath, or Bashemath, (Gen. 
xxxvi. 3.) who married Esau. (Gen. xxviii. 
9.) From the twelve sons of Ishmael are 
derived the tribes of the Arabians, which 
are still subsisting; and their descendants 
inhabited the country between Havilah and 
Shur. 

Ishmael died in the year of the world 
2231, ' in the presence of all his brethren,' 
agreeably to the promise of God, that he 
should ' dwell in the presence of all his bre- 
thren' (Gen. xvi. 12.) ; and to show that 
this promise had been strictly fulfilled, it is 
remarked that his lot or inheritance was 
assigned him, by divine Providence, con- 
tiguous to that of the other branches of his 
family. 
592 



From Ishmael, as we have observed, pro- 
ceeded the various tribes of Arabs (also cal- 
led Saracens by the Christian writers,) who 
anciently were, and still continue to be, a 
very powerful people. They might, indeed, 
be emphatically styled a great nation, when 
the Saracens made their rapid and extensive 
conquests during the middle ages, and 
erected one of the largest empires that ever 
existed. ' He will be a wild man,' (Gen. 
xvi. 12.) literally, ' a wild ass-man ;' that is, 
as wild as a wild ass ; and the account of 
that animal in Job affords the best possible 
description of the wandering, lawless, and 
free-booting lives and manners of the Arabs. 
'Who hath sent out the wild ass free 1 or who 
hath loosed the bands of the wild ass ? whose 
house I have made the wilderness, and the 
barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the 
multitude of the city, neither regardeth he 
the crying of the driver. The range of the 
mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth 
after every green thing.' (Job xxxix. 5 — 8.) 
God himself has ' sent them out free,' and 
' has loosed them' from all political restraint. 
The same ' wilderness,' in which their an- 
cestor Ishmael dwelt more than three thou- 
sand seven hundred years ago, is still their 
habitation, and in the barren land, 'where 
no other human beings could live, they have 
' their dwellings.' They ' scorn the city,' and 
therefore have no fixed habitations. For 
their ' multitude,' they are not afraid. When 
they make their depredations on cities, 
towns, or caravans, they retire into the 
desert with such precipitancy that all pur- 
suit is eluded ; and in this respect ' the 
crying of the driver is disregarded.' They 
may be said to have no lands, and yet ' the 
range of the mountains is their pasture ;' 
they pitch their tents, and feed their flocks, 
wherever they please ; and they ' search 
after every green thing,' are continually 
looking after their prey, and seize every 
kind of property that comes in their way. 
It was further foretold, that Ishmael's ' hand 
should be against every man, and every 
man's hand against him.' Sesostris, Cyrus, 
Pompey, Trajan, and other ancient sove- 
reigns, vainly attempted to subjugate the 
wandering Arabs ; but, though they had 
temporary triumphs over some tribes, they 
were ultimately unsuccessful. From the 
commencement of the Ishmaelites to the 
present day, they have maintained their 
independency ; and if there were no other 
argument to evince the divine origin of the 
Pentateuch, the account of Ishmael, and 
the prophecy concerning his descendants, 
collated with their history and manner of 
life during a period of nearly four thousand 
years, would be sufficient: it may indeed 
be pronounced absolutely demonstrative. 
Home' s Introduction, vol. i. pp.308, 309 ; Dr. 
A. Clarke's Comment, on Gen. xvi. 12. ; xxv. 
18. 

IS'RAEL, bx~\W, signifies who prevails with 



1SR 



JUB 



God; otherwise, the man that sees God. 
This name was given by the angel to Jacob, 
after having wrestled with him at Maha- 
naim, or Penuel. (Gen. xxxii. 1, 2, 28, 29, 
30. Hosea xii. 3.) See Jacob. 

By the name Israel is sometimes under- 
stood the person of the patriarch Jacob ; 
sometimes, the people of Israel, the race 
of Jacob ; sometimes, the kingdom of Is- 
rael, the ten tribes, distinct from the king- 
dom of Judah ; and sometimes, the called 
of God, from the world — the Church. 

IS'RAELITES, the descendants of Is- 
rael, at first called Hebrews, a name de- 
rived, as some think, from Abraham, who 
came from the other side of the Euphrates, 
or, as others are of opinion, from Heber, 
a progenitor of that patriarch ; afterwards 
Israelites, from Israel or Jacob ; and, lastly, 
Jews, particularly after their return from 
the captivity of Babylon, because the tribe 
of Judah was then most numerous, and 
foreigners knew scarcely any other. See 
Jews. 

IS'SACHAR, -ow», signifies price, or 
recompence. Issachar, the fifth son of Ja- 
cob and Leah, conceived after Rachel 
had purchased the mandrakes which Reu- 
ben brought to his mother Leah, (Gen. xxx. 
14 — 18.) was born about the year of the 
world 2255. He had four sons ; Tola, 
Phuvah, Job, and Shimron. (Gen. xlvi. 13.) 
We know nothing particular of his life. 
Jacob, blessing him, said, ' Issachar is a 
strong ass couching down between two 
burdens : And he saw that rest was good, 
and the land that it was pleasant : and 
bowed his shoulder to bear, and became 
a servant unto tribute.' The Chaldee trans- 
lates in a quite contrary sense, ' He shall 
subdue the provinces of the people, and 
drive out their inhabitants, and those who 
are left shall be his servants and his 
tributaries.' Grotius understands it nearly 
in the same way. The pusillanimity which 
is generally attributed to this tribe cer- 
tainly does not agree with the light in 
which they are represented in Scripture. 
It appears that they were a laborious, 
hardy, valiant tribe, patient in labour, and 
invincible in war ; bearing both these bur- 
dens with great constancy, whenever it 
was found necessary. 

The tribe of Issachar had its portion 
in one of the best parts of the land of 
Canaan, along the great plain, or valley of 
Jezreel. Calmet says, that it was bounded 
on the south by Manasseh, on the north 
by Zebulun, on the west by the Medi- 
terranean Sea, and on the east by the 
Jordan, with the extremity of the sea of 
Tiberias ; but Dr. Wells observes, that as 
it is plainly said, (Josh. xvii. 10.) that the 
lots of Ephraim and Manasseh ' met to- 
gether in Asher on the north, and in Issa- 
char on the east,' it seems necessarily to 
follow, that Issachar could not reach west- 
593 



ward to the sea. Wells's Geography, vol. i. 
p. 316. 

ITURE'A, 'Irovpaia, signifies keepings ; 
in the Syriac, mountains, or mountainous. 
Iturea was a province of Syria or Arabia, 
beyond Jordan, east of the Batanea, and 
south of Trachonitis. Philip, one of Herod's 
sons, was tetrarch, or prince of Iturea, 
when John the Baptist entered on his 
ministry. (Luke iii. 1.) 

JUBILEE, in Hebrew, Jobel. The ju- 
bilee year was the fiftieth year which oc- 
curred after seven weeks of years, or seven 
times seven years : ' And ye shall hallow 
the fiftieth year ; it shall be a jubilee unto 
you.' (Levit. xxv. 10.) Notwithstanding 
the clearness of the text, several commen- 
tators maintain that the jubilee was cele- 
brated in the forty-ninth year, the last 
year of the seventh week of years. Moses 
favours this opinion : ' Thou shalt number 
seven sabbaths of years unto thee, seven times 
seven years, and the space of the seven sab- 
baths of years shall be unto thee forty and 
nine years.' (Levit. xxv. 8.) They w T ho 
maintain this, show the inconveniency of 
celebrating the jubilee in the fiftieth year, 
immediately after the sabbatical rest of the 
forty-ninth year. These two years of rest 
following each other might be attended 
with dangerous consequences in any coun- 
try, and might produce a famine. If the 
civil year began at a different time from 
the ecclesiastical year, this might solve 
the difficulty : that is, the fiftieth year, 
by one account, might begin before the 
forty-ninth year, by the other account, was 
fully completed. Besides, it is probable, 
that any part of a year was commonly reck- 
oned for a whole year among the Jews, as 
it was, and still is, among some of the east- 
ern nations. 

The etymology of the Hebrew word jobel, 
(whence our jubilee is derived) has not been 
well ascertained. Some think that it signi- 
fies a ram's horn, because the trumpets which 
were used in proclaiming this solemnity 
were made out of rams' horns. The most 
probable opinion, however, is that of Calmet, 
who deduces it from the Hebrew verb hobil, 
to bring or call back ; because estates, &c. 
which had been alienated, were then brought 
back to their original owners. Such ap- 
pears also to have been the meaning affixed 
to the word by the Septuagint, who render 
the Hebrew word jobel, by atyioie,, remission, 
and by Josephus, who says that it signifies 
liberty. 

The jubilee year began on the first 
day of Tisri, the first month of the civil 
year, and about the autumnal equinox. In 
this year no one either sowed or reaped ; 
but all were satisfied with what the earth 
and the trees produced of themselves. 
Each took possession again of his inherit- 
ance, whether it had been sold, mortgaged, 
or alienated. Hebrew slaves, with their wives 

Q q 



JUB 



JUB 



and children, were set free ; even they who 
had renounced that privilege, which the sab- 
batical year gave them of recovering their 
liberty. Even all foreign slaves enjoyed the 
right of the jubilee. The first nine days 
were spent in festivity, nearly similar to 
that of the Romans in the Saturnalia. On 
the tenth of Tisri, the day of solemn ex- 
piation, the trumpets were sounded ; and at 
that instant the slaves were declared free, 
and the lands returned to their ancient 
owners. This law was designed to hinder 
the rich from oppressing the poor, and re- 
ducing them to perpetual slavery, and that 
they should not obtain possession of all the 
lands of the whole nation, by purchase, mort- 
gage, or usurpation ; that debts should not be 
too much multiplied ; and that slaves, with 
their wives and children, should not al- 
ways continue in servitude. Besides, Moses 
intended to preserve, as much as possible, 
the liberty of persons, equality of fortunes, 
and the order of families. He also wished 
that the people should be attached both by 
enjoyment and prejudice to their country, 
their lands, and inheritances; that they 
should have an affection for them, as estates 
descended to them from their ancestors, and 
designed for their posterity. 

Several privileges were attached to the 
jubilee year, which did not belong to the 
sabbatical year ; and the sabbatical year pos- 
sessed also some advantages over the jubilee 
year. Houses and other edifices built in 
walled towns did not return to the proprie- 
tor in the jubilee year. 

After the captivity of Babylon, the jubi- 
lee, as it was instituted with a design only 
to prevent the utter destruction of that 
partition which had been made by Joshua, 
and the confusion of tribes and families, 
could no longer be observed, as before the . 
dispersion of the tribes; those Jews who 
returned from the captivity settling as they 
could, and a great number of families, and 
perhaps whole tribes, remaining in the place 
of their captivity. 

Usher places the first jubilee in the year 
of the world 2609, before Christ, 1395; 
the second in the year of the world 2658, 
&c. 

The law concerning the sabbatical year, 
and especially the year of jubilee, affords a 
decisive proof of the divine legation of 
Moses. No legislator, unless he was con- 
scious that he was divinely inspired, would 
have committed himself by enacting such a 
law ; and nothing like it can be found among 
the systems of jurisprudence of any other 
nation, ancient or modern. ' How incredi- 
ble is it that any legislator would have ven- 
tured to propose such a law as this, except 
in the fullest conviction on both sides, that 
a peculiar Providence would constantly faci- 
litate its execution. When this law, there- 
fore, was proposed and received, such a 
conviction must have existed in both the 
594 



Jewish legislator and the Jewish people. 
Since, then, nothing could have produced 
this conviction, but the experience or the 
belief of some such miraculous interposition 
as the history of the Pentateuch details, the 
very existence of this law is a standing 
monument that, when it was given, the 
Mosaic miracles were fully believed. Now 
this law was coeval with the witnesses them- 
selves. If, then, the facts were so plain 
and public, that those who witnessed them 
could not be mistaken as to their existence 
or miraculous nature, the reality of the 
Mosaic miracles is clear and undeniable.' 
' It is not easily believed,' says Stillingfleet, 
' that a nation, whose subsistence was de- 
rived from agriculture and pasturage, would 
have submitted to laws apparently so con- 
trary to their interest, as those relating to 
the sabbatical and jubilee years, unless they 
had been convinced that miraculous plenty 
and security would be the certain conse- 
quence of obedience.' 

' The reason and design of the law of the 
jubilee was partly political, and partly typical. 
It was political, to prevent the too great 
oppression of the poor, as well as their lia- 
bility to perpetual slavery. By this means 
the rich were prevented from accumulating 
lands upon lands, and a kind of equality was 
preserved through all the families of Israel. 
Never was there any people so effectually 
secure of their liberty and property, as the 
Israelites were : God not only engaging so 
to protect those invaluable blessings by his 
providence, that they should not be taken 
away from them by others ; but providing, 
in a particular manner by this law, that they 
should not be thrown away through their 
own folly ; since the property, which every 
man or family had in their dividend of 
the land of Canaan, could not be sold or 
alienated for above half a century. By this 
means, also, the distinction of tribes was 
preserved, in respect both to their families 
and possessions ; for this law rendered it 
necessary for them to keep genealogies of 
their families, that they might be able, 
when there was occasion, on the jubilee 
year, to prove their right to the inheritance 
of their ancestors. By this means it was 
certainly known of what tribe and family the 
Messiah sprung. Upon which Dr. Allix 
observes, that God did not suffer them to 
continue in their captivity out of their own 
land for the space of two jubilees, lest by 
that means their genealogies should be lost 
or confounded. A further civil use of the 
jubilee might be for the readier computa- 
tion of time. For, as the Greeks computed 
by olympiads, the Romans by lustra, and we 
by centuries, the Jews probably reckoned 
by jubilees ; and it might be one design of 
this institution, to mark out these large por- 
tions of time for the readier computation of 
successive years of ages. 

' There was also a typical design and use 



JUD 



JUD 



of the jubilee, which is pointed out by the 
prophet Isaiah, when he says, in reference 
to the Messiah, ' The Spirit of the Lord God 
is upon me, because the Lord hath anointed 
me to preach good tidings unto the meek ; 
he hath sent me to bind up the broken- 
hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, 
and the opening of the prison to them that 
are bound, to proclaim the acceptable year 
of the Lord.' (Isa. lxi. 1,2.) Where 'the 
acceptable year of the Lord,' when ' liberty 
was proclaimed to the captives,' and ' the 
opening of the prison to them that were 
bound,' evidently refers to the jubilee ; but, 
in the prophetic sense, means the Gospel 
state and dispensation, which proclaims 
spiritual liberty from the bondage of sin and 
satan, and the liberty of returning to our 
own possession, even the heavenly inherit- 
ance, to which, having incurred a forfeiture 
by sin, we had lost all right and claim.' 
That our Lord began his public ministry on 
a jubilee, Dr. Hales thinks, is evident from 
his declaration : ' The Lord hath anointed 
me (as the Christ) to preach the Gospel to 
the poor : he hath sent me to heal the 
broken-hearted, to proclaim deliverance to 
the captives, and restoration of sight to the 
blind; to set at liberty the bruised; to pro- 
claim the acceptable year of the Lord.' 
(Luke iv. 18, 19.) The same learned au- 
thor also observes, that it appears to have 
been a jubilee from the following argument : 
1 to the first general sabbatical year, before 
Christ 1589, add the year of our Lord's pub- 
lic ministry, A. D. 28, and divide the sum 
1617 years, by the jubilee period, 49 years, 
it leaves no remainder. Therefore A. D. 
28 was the last year of the period, or a jubi- 
lee itself.' 

The jubilee was likewise typical of the 
general resurrection. ' It was,' says Mr. 
Parkhurst, ' a most lively and animating 
prefiguration of the grand consummation of 
time, which will be introduced in like man- 
ner by the trump of God, (1 Cor. xv. 52.) 
when the children and heirs of God shall be 
delivered from all their forfeitures, and re- 
stored to the eternal inheritance allotted to 
them by their Father ; and thenceforth rest 
from their labours, and be supported in life 
and happiness by what the field of God shall 
supply.' Parkhurst's Hebrew and English 
Lexicon, p. 267 ; Hates' s New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. ii. book i. p. 279; Home's 
Introduction ; Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, 
book iii. cap. 10. 

JU'DAH, or Jehudah, nnrv, 'lovda, 
signifies the praise of the Lord, and was the 
name of the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, 
born in Mesopotamia, in the year of the 
world 2249. He advised his brethren to 
sell Joseph to the Ishmaelite merchants, 
rather than imbrue their hands in his blood. 
He married Shuah, the daughter of a Ca- 
naanite, whose name was Hirah, and by 
whom he had three sons, Er, Onan, and 
595 



Shelah. (Gen. xxxviii. 2—6.) He married Er 
to a young Canaanitess, named Tamar. Er 
behaved wickedly, and was slain by God. 
Judah required Onan his second son to 
marry his brother's widow, and to raise up 
seed to his brother; but Onan eluded the 
purpose of this connexion. Therefore the 
Lord punished him also with death. Judah 
was afraid of giving Shelah his third son 
to Tamar, and amused her with promises 
which he did not perform. Tamar, there- 
fore, disguised herself, and placed herself 
in the way which Judah was to pass, J udah 
went in unto her, and she had by him 
two sons, Pharez and Zarah. (Gen. xxxviii. 
27, 28, 29.) 

Judah was always considered as the 
chief of Jacob's children. His tribe was 
the most powerful and numerous. The pri- 
vileges of the first-born seem to have been 
transferred from Reuben to him, after the 
incest of Reuben with Bilhah, his father's 
concubine. The blessing given by Jacob 
on his death-bed to Judah was as follows : 
• Judah, thou art he whom thy brethren 
shall praise ; thy hand shall be in the neck 
of thine enemies ; thy father's children 
shall bow down before thee. Judah is a 
lion's whelp : from the prey my son thou 
art gone up : he stooped down, he couched 
as a lion, and as an old lion ; who shall 
rouse him up ? The sceptre shall not 
depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from 
between his feet, until Shiloh come ; 
and unto him shall the gathering of the 
people be.' This place contains a pro- 
mise that the regal power should not go 
out of his family, and that the Messiah 
should derive his birth from him. 

The southern parts of Palestine fell to 
Judah's lot ; and the tribes of Simeon and 
Dan possessed many cities, which at first 
were given to Judah. This tribe at the 
Exodus contained 74,600 men, capable of 
bearing arms. The crown passed from 
Benjamin, (from Saul and Ishbosheth) into 
Judah, which was David's tribe, and that 
of the kings his successors, until the Ba- 
bylonish captivity. And after the return 
from that captivity, although this tribe did 
not reign, it gave the sceptre to those 
who did reign, and in some sort combined 
in itself the whole Hebrew nation, who 
from that time were known only as Jews, 
descendants of Judah. Judah, when named 
in opposition to Israel, or the kingdom 
of the ten tribes, or Samaria, denotes the 
government and country of Judah and of 
David's descendants. One of the princi- 
pal prerogatives of this tribe was, that it 
preserved the true religion, and the pub- 
lic exercise of the priesthood, with the 
legal ceremonies in the temple of Jerusa- 
lem; while the ten tribes gave tbemselves 
up to idolatry and the worship of the golden 
calves. 

JUDAISM, the religious doctrines and 
Q q 2 



JUT) 



JUD 



rites of the Jews, the descendants of 
Abraham. With Abraham, Judaism may- 
be said, in some sense, to have begun ; 
but it was not till the promulgation of 
the law upon Mount Sinai, that the Jew- 
ish economy was established, and that to 
his posterity was committed a dispensation 
which was to distinguish them ever after from 
every other people on earth. Their history, 
both before and during their settlement 
in Canaan, the land of promise, is con- 
tained in the Old Testament, and in the 
writings of Josephus, their countryman 
and historian, who was present at the last 
siege of their city. The miseries which 
they sustained from famine, from pesti- 
lence, from the assaults of the Romans, 
and from the implacable fury of contend- 
ing parties among themselves, during the 
last siege of their city, far surpass, in 
horror, every account of every other siege 
in the records of the world. The city was 
taken, burned to the ground, and razed 
from its foundations. Eleven hundred 
thousand Jews perished during the siege ; 
and, of ninety-seven thousand captives, 
some were reserved to grace the triumphal 
return of Titus to Rome, and the rest dis- 
persed as slaves, or as criminals, through- 
out the empire. During the continuance 
of the Roman empire, they experienced 
from different emperors various degrees of 
oppression or forbearance. Sometimes they 
indulged their inveteracy against the Christ- 
ians, in tumultuous and sanguinary out- 
rages; at other times they suffered many 
grievous cruelties from the spirit of bigotry 
and retaliation. From Julian, who equalled 
them in enmity towards the Christians, they 
received many marks of favour. His abor- 
tive endeavours to rebuild the temple and 
city of Jerusalem are well known ; a terri T 
ble earthquake, and flames of fire issuing 
from the earth, killed the workmen, and 
scattered the materials. They soon became 
known as divided into the Western and 
Eastern Jews. The Western were those 
who inhabited Egypt, Judea, Italy, and 
other parts of the Roman Empire ;— the 
Eastern, those who were settled in Babylon, 
Chaldsea, Persia, &c. The head of the 
Western Jews was known by the name of 
Patriarch ; the head of the Eastern Jews 
was called Prince of the Captivity. The 
office of Patriarch was abolished by the 
imperial laws about the year 429; from 
which time the Western Jews were solely 
under the rule of the chiefs of their syna- 
gogues, whom they called Primates. The 
Princes of the Captivity had a longer and 
more splendid sway. They resided at Baby- 
lon or at Bagdad, and exercised their autho- 
rity over all the Jews who were established 
there, or in the adjacent country, or in 
Assyria, Chaldaea, or Parthia; and they 
subsisted as late as the 12th century. About 
the year 1038, the Jews were expelled 
596 



from Babylon, when some of the most 
learned of them passed into Africa, and 
thence into Spain, where great bodies of 
them settled, and soon after assisted the 
Saracens in their conquest of that king- 
dom. Upon that event, an intimate con- 
nexion took place between the disciples of 
Moses and those of Mahomet, which was 
cemented by their common hatred of the 
Christians, and subsisted till their common 
expulsion. 

The Mosaic dispensation consisted of 
three parts ; the religious faith and worship 
of the Jews, their civil polity, and precepts 
for the regulation of their moral conduct. 
Their civil government, as well as their 
sacred polity, was of divine institution; and, 
on all important occasions, their public 
affairs were conducted by the Deity himself, 
or by persons bearing his commission. The 
tenets of the Jews, as long as they retained 
their national existence, are known, or 
ought to be known, by all Christians. 
With respect to those of the more modern 
Jews, Moses Maimonides, an Egyptian, and 
one of the most illustrious of their Rabbins, 
drew up for them, in the eleventh century, 
the following confession of faith, which all 
Jews at this day admit. It consists only 
of these thirteen articles, of which the 
seventh affirms the authenticity, and the 
eighth the genuineness of the books of 
Moses. 1. I believe, with a true and per- 
fect faith, that God is the creator, (whose 
name be blessed) governor, and maker of 
all creatures ; and that he hath wrought all 
things, worketh, and shall work, for ever. — 

2. I believe, with perfect faith, that the 
Creator (whose name be blessed) is one ; 
and that such an unity as is in him can be 
found in none other ; and that he alone hath 
been our God, is, and for ever shall be. — 

3. I believe with a perfect faith, that the 
Creator (whose name be blessed) is not 
corporeal, not to be comprehended with any 
bodily properties ; and that there is no 
bodily essence that can be likened unto 
him. — 4. I believe, with a perfect faith, the 
Creator (whose name be blessed) to be the 
first and the last, that nothing was before 
him, and that he shall abide the last for ever. 
— 5. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the 
Creator (whose name be blessed) is to be 
worshipped, and none else. — 6. I believe, 
with a perfect faith, that all the words of the 
prophets are true. — 7- I believe, with a per- 
fect faith, that the prophecies of Moses (our 
master, may he rest in peace !) were true ; 
that he was the father and chief of all wise 
men that lived before him, or ever shall live 
after him. — 8. I believe, with a perfect faith, 
that all the law, which at this day is found 
in our hands, was delivered by God himself 
to our master Moses, (God's peace be with 
him!). — 9. I believe, with a perfect faith, that 
the same law is never to be changed, nor 
any other to be given us of God (whose name 



JUD 



JUD 



be blessed). — 10. I believe, &c. that God 
(whose name be blessed) understandeth all 
the works and thoughts of men, as it is 
written in the prophets ; he fashioneth their 
hearts alike, he understandeth all their 
works. — 11. I believe, &c. that God will 
recompense good to them that keep his 
commandments, and will punish them who 
transgress them. — 12. I believe, &c. that 
the Messiah is yet to come ; and although 
he retard his coming, yet I will wait for him 
till he come. — 13. I believe, &c. that the 
dead shall be restored to life, when it shall 
seem fit unto God, the Creator (whose name 
be blessed, and memory celebrated, world 
without end. Amen.) 

The laws of the Jews, religious and moral, 
civil, political, and ritual, that is, a com- 
plete system of pure Judaism, are contained 
in the books of the Old Testament, and 
chiefly in the five Books of Moses, whose 
writings are at this day revered, and consi- 
dered as divinely inspired, by almost two- 
thirds of the inhabitants of the world. But 
for the system of the Rabbinists, who have 
long been the most numerous party among 
the Jews, and who, in regard to doctrine, 
seem to be of ' the sect of the Pharisees,' 
recourse must also be had to their Mishna, 
Gemaras, Talmuds, and Targums. 

The religion of the ancestors of the Jews, 
before the time of Moses, was the simplest 
and purest in the woi-ld, consisting in the 
worship of the one living and true God, under 
whose immediate direction they were ; in a 
firm reliance on his promises under all dif- 
ficulties and dangers ; and in a thankful 
acknowledgment for all his blessings and 
•deliverances. In that early age, we find the 
religious custom of tithes ; we likewise read 
of altars, pillars, and monuments raised, and 
sacrifices offered to God ; which last are now 
generally believed to have been of Divine 
institution. They used circumcision, not so 
much as a religious act, as a seal of the co- 
venant which God had made with Abraham. 
As to the mode and circumstances of Di- 
vine worship, they were much at liberty till 
the time of Moses ; but their legislator, by 
the direction and appointment of God him- 
self, prescribed an instituted form of reli- 
gion, and regulated ceremonies, feasts, days, 
priests, and sacrifices, with the utmost ex- 
actness. The rites and observances of their 
religion under the law were numerous, and 
its sanctions severe. Notwithstanding that 
God's prophets, and oracles, and ordinances, 
and the symbol of his presence, were among 
them, the Jews were ever very prone to 
idolatry, till the Babylonish furnace tho- 
roughly purified them from that corruption. 
After their seventy years' captivity, they 
turned indeed from idolatry, and have never 
again been guilty of the crime ; yet they 
turned not to true and pure religion, but 
to superstition, formality, hypocrisy, and 
schism. Such, in a great measure, was 
597 



their religious worship and character in our 
Saviour's time ; and such, many seem to 
think, it still continues to be, in a greater 
or less degree, at the present day. 

In the wilderness, the tabernacle was 
constructed for the worship of God ; and the 
Jewish temple, afterwards built by Solomon, 
was the grandest structure in the world. 
The second temple, built by Zerubbabel and 
the Jews, on their return from Babylon, and 
afterwards repaired by Herod, was far in- 
ferior to the former, and wanted several 
things which the other contained. 

Ancient Judaism, compared with all re- 
ligions except the Christian, was distin- 
guished for its purity and spirituality ; and 
the whole Mosaic ritual was of a typical na- 
ture. As formerly, whilst they enjoyed an 
established religion, they still have litur- 
gies, in which are all the prescribed forms 
of their synagogue-worship ; and these who 
have not time to go to the synagogue, must 
say their prayers at home, three times every 
day, that is, in the morning, in the after- 
noon, and at night. At present, the Jewish 
church is governed by a presiding rabbi in 
the city or town where they may be settled, 
who attaches to himself two other rabbies ; 
and these three combined form a kind of 
tribunal in sacred or religious causes, and 
frequently determine private disputes. This 
tribunal is termed Beth Din, or the House 
of Justice. As the priesthood ceased with 
the temple, and is at present totally abro- 
gated, the term high- priest is an exploded 
name. No presiding rabbi now exercises 
the functions of high-priest, which were 
applicable to the temple only. Hence the 
choice of rabbi is not confined to the tribe 
of Levi, though that tribe is the only one 
that, as they conceive, can now be at all 
distinguished. At present, its members are 
all considered as laymen. Yet, they have 
some trifling distinctions paid them in the 
service of the synagogue. 

It is reckoned that there are as many 
Jews now in the world as formerly, or even 
more than since they became a nation. 
Some have computed them at three millions, 
and others at more than double that num- 
ber. ' It is impossible,' says Basnage, ' to 
fix the number of persons this nation is at 
present composed of. But yet, we have 
reason to believe, there are still nearly three 
millions of people, who profess this religion, 
and, as their phrase is, are witnesses of the 
unity of God in all the nations of the world.'' 
The author of a late work observes, that 
their present number ' is computed to he 
3,000,000, one of which resides in the Turk- 
ish empire ; 300,000 in Persia, China, India, 
on the cast ami west of the Ganges, or 
Tartary ; 1,700,000 in the rest of Europe, 
Alrnn, and in America.' Mr. Adam says. 
' 1 believe I am not quite singular in my 
opinion, that their whole number at present, 
exclusive of the posterity of the ten tribes, 



JUD 



JUD 



to whose numbers, state, and situation, we 
are entire strangers, does not exceed 
2,500,000.' Who could foretell such a won- 
derful increase and propagation of a branch 
only of one man's family, but the same Di- 
vine Person whose power could effect it 1 
The number of Jews in Judea has for many 
ages been inconsiderable, whilst they abound 
every where else. Agreeably to the predic- 
tion respecting them, (Deut. xxviii. 65.) 
they have been so far from finding rest, they 
have been banished from city to city, and 
from country to country. Their land itself 
seems to lie under a never-ceasing curse. 
Pagans, Christians, Mahometans ; in a 
word, all nations have by turns seized and 
held Jerusalem and Judea. To the Jew 
only hath God refused the possession of this 
small tract of ground, so supremely neces- 
sary for him, since he ought to worship upon 
this mountain. 

The dispersion, preservation, and pre- 
sent state of the Jews, are remarkable par- 
ticulars respecting this people, and furnish 
a strong argument in favour of our religion, 
even in the opinion of its boldest adver- 
saries. They are admitted and fixed, but 
never incorporated with any nation under 
heaven. Mr. Bryant well observes, that 
' rivers run downwards through many out- 
lets to the sea, and are soon blended and 
lost in the ocean ; but the Jews are like the 
waters of Styx, which remain unmixed, 
wherever they flow.' They are every where 
distinct and unconverted; nor will their 
prejudices against Christianity allow them 
to examine, with coolness and impartiality, 
its genuine doctrines. Though nothing can 
be more clear and express than our best and 
most esteemed writers are on the unity of 
the Godhead, yet the Jews still persist in 
believing that Christians would destroy that 
unity, and are the direct supporters of Tri- 
theism. Not satisfied with having rejected 
and crucified the Lord that bought them, 
they insist, with Socinians, that the Holy 
Ghost is not a Person, but an energy, oper- 
ation, quality, or power. The Jews ' ought 
to be looked upon as one of those prodigies 
which we admire without comprehending ; 
since, in spite of evils so durable, and a 
patience so long exercised, they are pre- 
served by a particular Providence. The 
Jew ought to be weary of expecting a Mes- 
siah, who so unkindly disappoints his vain 
hopes ; and the Christian ought to have his 
attention and regard excited towards men 
whom God preserves, for so great a length 
of time, under calamities which would have 
been the total ruin of any other people.' 

The Jews comfort themselves with the 
hope, that their hour of triumph is at hand, 
when the long expected Messiah will come, 
— will gather them from the corners of the 
earth, — will settle them in the land of their 
fathers, and subject all the nations of the 
earth to his throne. Whilst they believe, 
598 



that they shall ever continue in the profes- 
sion of their religion, Christians look for 
their general conversion, and acknowledg- 
ment of Jesus Christ as the true Messiah. 
This event, from some remarkable signs of 
the times, has been supposed by some 
learned men to be at no great distance. 
Most Christian divines suppose that they 
shall actually be called to inhabit their own 
land ; but others contend that there will be 
only a general conversion of the Jews in the 
countries where they respectively dwell, 
without emigration. See Jews. Adam's Re- 
ligious World, vol. i. p. 2 — 78. 

JU'DAS MACCABEUS, son of Matta- 
thias, succeeded his father as captain of the 
Jewish people, during the persecution by 
Antiochus Epiphanes. He had before given 
proofs of his valour, conduct, and zeal for 
God's law, by opposing those who forsook 
the Lord, and sacrificed to idols. One of 
the first expeditions of Judas Maccabeus 
was against Apollonius, general of the Sy- 
rian troops in Palestine. Judas killed him, 
and destroyed his army ; he took Apollo- 
nius's sword, which he commonly used in 
battle during the remainder of his life. 

Antiochus, king of Syria, surprised at the 
valour of Judas, sent three generals against 
him, Nicanor, Georgias, and Ptolemy. Ju- 
das attacked Nicanor alone, and routed his 
army. Georgias coming afterwards, and 
seeing Nicanor's camp on fire, made haste 
back again, without engaging. The year 
following, Lysias, regent of the kingdom, 
came into Judea with 60,000 men, and 
5000 horse. Judas went to meet them to 
Bethoron, and defeated them. 

Judas, being thus master of the field, went 
up to Jerusalem, where he found the holy 
places deserted, the altar profaned, the 
courts filled with briars, and the chambers 
adjoining the temple destroyed. Judas em- 
ployed part of his people in cleansing the 
holy places. They laid aside the stones of 
the altar which had been profaned, built a 
new one of rough stones, rebuilt the holy 
place and the sanctuary, made new sacred 
vessels, and on the 25th of Casleu, in the 
year 148 of the Greeks, and in the year of 
the world 3840, they offered the morning 
sacrifice on the altar of burnt-offerings, and 
restored public worship in the temple, which 
had been interrupted three years. They 
made a new dedication of the temple with 
all the pomp they could, according to the 
present state of their affairs, and celebrated 
this feast during eight days. (I Mace. iv. 
53. 54. 55, &c.) The memorial of this dedi- 
cation is spoken of, (John x. 22.) where it 
is said that Jesus came to the temple of Je- 
rusalem at the feast of the dedication, in 
winter. 

In a little time after, and probably the 
same year, Judas again defeated two Syrian 
generals, Timotheus and Bacchides. Beth- 
sura likewise was fortified by his order, 



JUD 



JUD 



being a sort of barrier, which covered Je- 
rusalem on the side of Idumea. Judas 
attacked the Idumeans, the inhabitants of 
the Acrabatane, the sons of Bean, the 
Ammonites, and Timotheus; and he dis- 
persed all his enemies. Judas afterwards 
made war against the Idumeans, took He- 
bron, entered the country of the Philistines, 
took Azotus, over-ran Samaria, and re- 
turned, laden with booty, into the land of 
Judah. In the mean time, Lysias came a 
second time into Judea, at the head of a 
powerful army, but was forced to save himself 
with dishonour, and to make peace with 
Judas. Eupator, who succeeded Antiochus 
Epiphanes, permitted the Jews to live ac- 
cording to their own laws, and to perform 
all their offices in the temple at Jerusalem. 

This treaty having been concluded, Ly- 
sias returned to Antioch. But Timotheus, 
Apollonius, Hieronymus, Demophon, and 
ISicator, who stayed in the country, sought 
all opportunities of interrupting the peace. 
The inhabitants of Joppa having invited 
the Jews of their city to come on board 
their vessels, as if to divert themselves on 
the sea, drowned all of them, together 
with their wives and children. Judas, to 
revenge this treachery, burnt their ships 
and their harbour; he would have done 
the same to their city, if he had not re- 
ceived the news that the people of Jam- 
nia designed likewise to extirpate the 
Jews of their city. Judas prevented them, 
and burnt their harbours and their vessels. 
Thence he went beyond Jordan, attacked 
Caspis or Esebon, took it, sacked it, and 
there was so great a number slain, that 
the water of a neighbouring lake was dyed 
with their blood. He advanced as far as 
Characa in the land of the Tubienians, 
but not finding Timotheus there, of whom 
he was in pursuit, he met him soon after 
at the head of 120,000 foot, and 2,500 
horse. Though Judas had only 6000 sol- 
diers, yet he dispersed this army, and kil- 
led 30,000 men. 

After Pentecost he marched against 
Georgias, who escaped with great difficulty. 
Judas gathered his people together at 
Odollam, to celebrate the sabbath ; and 
the day after, when they came to bury 
the Jews who had been killed in the bat- 
tle, they found under the clothes of the 
dead, some things which had been conse- 
crated to idols in Jamnia. All imputed 
their death to the concealing what was so 
impure and profane. Judas collected twelve 
thousand drachms of silver, which he sent 
to Jerusalem, that sacrifices might be offered 
for the sins of the dead. 

Antiochus Eupator came himself into 
Judea, attended by Lysias, with an army 
of 100,000 foot, 20,000 horse, and thirty- 
two elephants. He besieged Bethsura, and 
the small number of troops which Judas 
had with him, being unable to make head 
599 



against the king's forces, retired to Jeru- 
salem. Eupator followed them, and be- 
sieged the city, particularly the temple, 
which Judas had fortified, and to which 
he had retreated. The siege continuing a 
long time, Lysias, fearing lest Philip, 
who had been declared regent of the king- 
dom by Antiochus Epiphanes, might make 
himself master of Antioch, concluded a 
peace with Judas, and returned speedily 
to Syria. Demetrius, son of Seleucus, Eu- 
pator's uncle, and lawful heir to the king- 
dom of Syria, gave the high-priesthood of 
the Jews to Alcimus, and sent Bacchides 
with him into Judea to establish him. De- 
metrius sent Nicanor with troops into Judea, 
who dispatched to Judas proposals of peace, 
which Judas laid before the people and 
senators, and all were of opinion to accept 
them. Nicanor continued afterwards at 
Jerusalem in the citadel, and Judas in the 
city. Nicanor conceived a very great esteem 
for Judas, and they lived together with 
familiarity. 

Alcimus, observing this good under- 
standing between them, told Demetrius that 
Nicanor betrayed his interests. The king, 
exasperated by these calumnies, wrote to 
Nicanor, that he took very ill his friend- 
ship with Judas, and commanded him to 
send him instantly in chains to Antioch. 
Nicanor sought an opportunity for this 
purpose, but Judas, perceiving his fami- 
liarity to be grown cold, distrusted him ; 
and collecting troops he stole away pri- 
vately from Nicanor, who attacked him 
at Caphar-Salama, but was repulsed with 
loss, and obliged to retreat to Jerusalem. 
He threatened to destroy the temple, if 
Judas was not put into his hands, and 
departed to Bethoron, where the Syrian 
army joined him ; but Judas attacked him 
with so much impetuosity, that he routed 
his troops, and Nicanor himself was one 
of the first that was killed. Nicanor's head 
and right hand were hung up over against 
Jerusalem, and a feast was instituted on the 
13th of Adar to celebrate the memory of 
this victory. 

Demetrius being informed that Nicanor 
was killed, and his army defeated, sent 
again Bacchides and Alcimus into Judea, 
with the right wing of his troops. They 
came first to Jerusalem, and thence to 
Berea, a city of Benjamin. Judas was at 
Eleasa, with three thousand chosen men. 
His people were terrified at so great an 
army; and many fled; so that not above 
eight hundred remained with him. Judas, 
finding himself forsaken, was discouraged, 
and said, Let us go, and, if we can, engage 
the enemy ! His people remonstrated that 
he should wait for reinforcements. He 
said, God forbid that we should do so ; 
if our hour be come, let us die courageously. 
After a long and obstinate fight, Judas him- 
self fell, and the rest fled. Jonathan and 



JUD 



JUD 



Simon carried off their brother's body, and 
laid it in their sepulchre at Modin. All 
Israel greatly lamented his death. 

Ju'das Iscariot, (Heb. Ish Karioth, 
that is, a man of Karioth, or Carioth,) or 
Judas the Traitor, being chosen by Jesus 
Christ into the number of his apostles, and 
appointed their treasurer, was so wicked as 
to betray his Lord into the hands of his 
enemies. Mary, sister of Lazarus, having 
poured a precious perfume on our Saviour's 
feet, and another woman, whose name is not 
mentioned, having on another day anointed 
his head with costly and fragrant spikenard, 
Judas was one that murmured most at these 
actions. Soon after, he went to the chief 
priests, and undertook to deliver Jesus to 
them. They promised him thirty pieces 
of silver, or thirty shekels, about 3/. 15s. 
or, according to Dr. Prideaux, 41. 10s. 
After the paschal supper, and before the 
institution of the eucharist, Judas left 
the room, to inform the priests that he 
would that night give up Jesus to them, 
because he knew the place whither he de- 
signed to retire. 

' The treachery of Judas Iscariot, his re- 
morse, and suicide, are occurrences alto- 
gether so strange and extraordinary, that 
the motives by which he was actuated 
require to be developed as far as may 
be done, where the Evangelists are, in 
a great measure, silent concerning them, 
from the circumstances of the history itself, 
and from the feelings of human nature. 
Judas, the leading trait in whose character 
was covetousness, was probably induced 
to follow Jesus at first, with a view to 
the riches, honours, and other temporal 
advantages which he, in common with the 
rest, expected the Messiah's friends would 
enjoy. The astonishing miracles he saw 
him perform, left him no room to doubt 
of the reality of his Master's pretensions, 
who had, indeed, himself, in private, ac- 
tually accepted the title from his apostles ; 
and Judas must have been much disap- 
pointed when Jesus repeatedly refused 
the proffered royalty from the people in 
Galilee, after the miracle of feeding the 
five thousand, and again after his public 
procession to Jerusalem. He might natu- 
rally have grown impatient under the de- 
lay, and dissatisfied also with Jesus, for 
openly discouraging all ambitious views 
among his disciples; and, therefore, he 
might have devised the scheme of deliver- 
ing him up to the Sanhedrim, or great coun- 
cil of the nation, (composed of the chief 
priests, scribes, and elders) in order to 
compel him to avow himself openly as the 
Messiah before them, and to work such 
miracles, or to give them the sign which 
they so often required, as would convince 
and induce them to elect him in due form, 
and by that means enable him to reward 
his followers. Even the rebukes of Jesus, 
600 



for his covetousness, and detection of his 
treacherous scheme, although they un- 
questionably offended Judas, might only 
serve to stimulate him to the speedier exe 
cution of his plot, during the feast of the 
passover, while the great concourse of the 
Jews, from all parts assembled, might power- 
fully support the Sanhedrim, and their 
Messiah, against the Romans. The suc- 
cess of this measure, though against his 
Master's will, would be likely to procure 
him pardon, and even to recommend him to 
favour afterwards. Such might have been 
the plausible suggestions, by which Satan 
tempted him to the commission of this 
crime. But when Judas, who attended 
the whole trial, saw that it turned out 
quite contrary to his expectations, that 
Jesus was capitally convicted by the coun- 
cil, as a false Christ, and false prophet, 
notwithstanding he had openly avowed 
himself; and that he had wrought no miracle, 
either for their conviction, or for his own 
deliverance, as Judas well knew he could, 
even from the circumstances of healing 
Malchus, after he was apprehended ; when 
he further reflected, like Peter, on his Mas- 
ter's merciful forewarnings of his trea- 
chery, and mild and gentle rebuke, at 
the commission of it ; he was seized with 
remorse, and offered to return the paltry 
bribe of thirty pieces of silver, to the 
chief priests and elders, instantly on the 
spot, saying, I sinned, in delivering up 
innocent blood, and expected that on 
this they would have desisted from the 
prosecution. But they were obstinate, and 
not only would not relent, but threw the 
whole load of guilt upon him, refusing 
to take their own share : for they said, 
1 What is that to us ? see thou to that ;' 
thus, according to the aphorism, loving the 
treason, but hating the traitor, after he 
had served their wicked turn. Stung to 
the quick, at their refusal to take back 
the money, while they condemned himself, 
he went to the temple, cast down the 
whole sum in the treasury, or place for 
receiving the offerings of the people ; and 
after he had thus returned the wages of 
iniquity, he retired to some lonely place, 
not far, perhaps, from the scene of Peter's 
repentance, and in the frenzy of de- 
spair, and at the instigation of the devil, 
hanged himself; crowning with suicide, 
the murder of his master and his friend ; 
rejecting his compassionate Saviour, and 
plunging his own soul into perdition I In 
another place it is said, that ' falling 
headlong he burst asunder, and all his 
bowels gushed out.' (Actsi. 18.) Both these 
accounts might be true : he might first 
have hanged himself from some tree on 
the edge of a precipice ; and the rope or 
branch breaking, he might be dashed to 
pieces by the fall.' Hales's New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. ii. book ii. pp. 877, 878. 



JUD 



JUD 



Judas, or Jude, sumamed Lebbeus and 
Thaddeus, was the son of Alpheus or Cleo- 
phas, the brother of James the Less, the 
cousin-german of our Saviour, and one of 
the twelve apostles. His call to be a dis- 
ciple of Jesus is not recorded ; and, except 
in the catalogue of the apostles, he is men- 
tioned only once in the Gospels. After 
Christ's interesting discourse to his disci- 
ples not long before his crucifixion, ' Judas 
saith unto him, (not Iscariot,) Lord, how 
is it that thou wilt manifest thyself to us, 
and not to the world?' (John xiv. 22.) 
From this question it is inferred, that at 
this time Judas had the common prejudice 
of the Jews concerning the kingdom of the 
Messiah. Jude is not mentioned in the 
Acts of the Apostles, nor does any ancient 
author record of him a single circumstance 
on which we can depend. He is generally 
reckoned among those apostles who did not 
suffer martyrdom. 

The Epistle of St. Jude was considered 
as genuine by several of the ancient fathers ; 
Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, 
and Epiphanius. Jerome says, ' Jude, bro- 
ther of James, left a short Epistle, which is 
one of the seven called catholic. But be- 
cause of a quotation from a book of 
Enoch, which is apocryphal, it is rejected 
by many : however, at length it has ob- 
tained authority, and is reckoned among 
the sacred Scriptures.' Upon this sub- 
ject it has been remarked, that Jude does 
not in fact quote any book of Enoch ; 
he only says, that ' Enoch prophesied,' and 
that prophecy might have been traditional. 
To whatever Jude refers, it does not afford 
a sufficient reason for setting aside the 
genuineness of this epistle, in opposition to 
the authorities of the ancient fathers. As 
it is evident that this Epistle was written 
some time subsequent to St. Peter's Epistles, 
and St. Paul's Epistles to Timothy, in which 
are contained certain prophecies referred 
to by Jude ; the date of this Epistle has 
been placed by many commentators about 
the year 70. Bishop Watson's Theological 
Tracts, vol. ii. pp. 480, &c. ; Bishop Tomline's 
Elem. of Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 501. 

JUDE'A, a province of Asia, called an- 
ciently the Land of Canaan, or Palestine, 
the Land of Promise, the Land of Israel. 
Judea may be considered as divided into 
four parts ; 1. the western district, Pales- 
tine, inhabited by Philistines ; 2. on the 
east of this, the mountainous district called 
the hill country, (Josh. xxi. 11. Luke i. 
39.) which the Rabbins affect to call the 
king's mountain, for what reason is not 
known, except that upon the northern 
part of this ridge Jerusalem is situated ; 
3. east of these mountains was the Wil- 
derness of Judea, along the shore of the 
Dead Sea; and 4. the valleys, &c. west of 
Jerusalem, towards the Mediterranean. 
Judea no doubt derived its name from 



Judah, which tribe was settled in the south 
of the Promised Land, and maintained its 
kingdom after the northern tribes had been 
expatriated. This circumstance, together 
with that of Judah being principally peopled 
with Israelites after the return from capti- 
vity, and being first settled, on account of 
the temple being established in it, accounts 
for the general name of Jews being given to 
the Hebrew nation. Judea was one of the 
principal divisions of the Holy Land in the 
days of Christ : it included from the Medi- 
terranean Sea west, to the Dead Sea east. 
It was bounded north by Samaria, and 
south by Edom or the desert. It is ex- 
tremely mountainous in some parts, as from 
Hebron to Jerusalem. West of these moun- 
tains is the principal extent of country ; 
but this has many hills. East of the moun- 
tains is the Wilderness of Judea, stretching 
to the Dead Sea. 

In the Wilderness of Judea John the Bap- 
tist first taught, (Matt. iii. 1.) and Christ 
was tempted probably towards the north of 
it, not far from Jericho. Some parts of the 
Wilderness were not absolutely barren, nor 
uninhabited ; of other parts the following is 
the latest description which has reached us. 
Mr. Carlyle visited the monastery of St. 
Saba in the Wilderness of Judea. He says, 
the valley of St. Saba is an immense chasm 
in a rifted mountain of marble. It is not 
only destitute of trees, but of every other spe- 
cies of vegetation ; and its sole inhabitants, 
except the wretched monks in the convent, 
are eagles, tigers, and wild Arabs. The 
monastery joins to the rocks on the right, and 
stretches itself half-way across the valley. 
You enter from the top, and descend by 
several flights of stairs and iron doors, to 
the platform where the church is situated. 
Sacred Geography ; Professor Carlyle' s Poems. 
JUDGES, the name given to those su- 
preme magistrates who governed the Is- 
raelites from Joshua to Saul. Some are 
of opinion that the Archons among the 
Athenians, and the Dictators among the 
Romans, were almost the same as the 
judges among the Hebrews. Grotius com- 
pares the government of the Hebrews under 
the judges, to that of Gaul, Germany, and 
Britain, before the Romans changed it The 
office of judge was not hereditary in Israel. 
These governors were no more than God's 
vice-gerents, for he was their only true mo- 
narch. 

The dignity of judges was in some cases 
for life, but not always ; and their office was 
not hereditary, neither was their succes- 
sion constant. There were anarchies, or 
intervals, during which the common-wealth 
was without rulers and judges. There were 
likewise pretty long intervals of servitude 
and oppression, under which the Hebrews 
groaned, and during which they were with- 
out either judges or governors. Although 
God himself did regularly appoint the judges 



JUD 



JUD 



of the Israelites, nevertheless the people, on 
some occasions, chose him who appeared to 
them most proper to deliver them from their 
immediate oppression. Thus the Israelites 
heyond Jordan chose Jephthah. As it often 
happened, that the oppressions, which occa- 
sioned a recourse to the assistance of judges, 
were not felt equally over all Israel, so the 
power of those judges, who were chosen to 
procure deliverance from such servitudes, 
did not extend over all the people, but over 
that district only which they had delivered ; 
as we do not find that Jephthah exercised 
his authority on this side Jordan, or that Ba- 
rak exercised his authority beyond that river. 
The authority of judges was not inferior 
to that of kings ; it extended to peace and 
war. They decided causes with absolute 
authority ; but they had no power to make 
new laws, nor to impose new burdens on 
the people. They were protectors of the 
laws, defenders of religion, and avengers of 
crimes, particularly of idolatry; they were 
without pomp or splendour, without guard, 
train, or equipage, unless their own wealth 
might enable them to make an appearance 
answerable to their dignity. The revenue 
of their employment consisted in presents ; 
they had no regular profits, and levied no- 
thing on the people. The period of the 
Judges from Joshua to Saul was three hun- 
dred and thirty-nine years. 

A list of the Judges in chronological 
order. 
Year of the world. 

2570 The death of Joshua. 

2585 The government of the elders for 
about fifteen years. 

2592 An anarchy of about seven years. 
The history of Micah, the conquest 
of the city of Laish by part of the 
tribe of Dan, and the war under- 
taken by the eleven tribes against 
Benjamin, are all referred to this 
time. 

2591 The first servitude under Cushan- 
rishathaim king of Mesopotamia, 
began in 2591, and continued eight 
years, to 2599. 

2599 Othniel delivered Israel in the 
fortieth year after peace was esta- 
blished in the land by Joshua. 

2662 A peace of about sixty-two years, 
from the deliverance procured by 
Othniel, in 2599, to 2662, when 
the second servitude under Eglon 
king of the Moabites happened. 
It continued eighteen years. 

2679 Ehud delivers Israel. 

After him Shamgar governed, and 
the land was in peace till the 
eightieth year after the first de- 
liverance procured by Othniel. 

2699 The third servitude under the 
Canaanites, which continued twenty 
years, from 2699 to 2719. 

2719 Deborah and Barak deliver the 
602 



Israelites: from the deliverance 
procured by Ehud to the end of 
Deborah and Barak's government 
were forty years. 
2768 Abimelech, the natural son of 
Gideon, is acknowlidged king by 
the Sheohemites. 

2771 He died at the siege of Thebez in 
Palestine. 

2772 Tola after Abimelech governs for 
three-and-twenty years, from 2772 
to 2795. 

2795 Jair succeeds Tola, and governs 
two-and-twenty years, from 2795 
to 2816. 

2799 The fifth servitude under the Phi- 
listines, which continued eighteen 
years, from 2799 to 2817. 

2817 The death of Jair. 

2817 Jephthah is chosen head of the 
Israelites beyond Jordan, and de- 
feated the Ammonites who op- 
pressed them. Jephthah governs 
six years, from 2817 to 2823. 

2823 The death of Jephthah. 

2830 Ibzan governs seven years, from 
2823 to 2830. 

2840 Elon succeeds Ibzan. He go- 
verned from 2830 to 2840. 
Abdon judged Israel eight years, 
from 2840 to 2848. 

2848 The sixth servitude under the 
Philistines, which continued forty 
years, from 2848 to 2888. 

2848 Eli the high-priest, of the race of 
Ithamar, governed forty years, the 
whole time of the servitude under 
the Philistines. 

2849 The birth of Samson. 

2887 The death of Samson, who was 
judge of Israel during the judica- 
ture of Eli the high-priest. 

2888 The death of Eli, and beginning 
of the government of Samuel, who 
succeeded him. 

2909 The election and anointing of Saul, 
first king of the Hebrews. 

Ordinary Judges for civil and religious 
affairs. Moses ordained (Deut. xvi. 18. ; 
xvii. 8, 9. : see also Ezek. xliv. 24. ; and 
Joseph. Antiq. 1. x. cap. ult.) that judges 
and magistrates should be appointed in 
every city, to terminate differences among 
the people, and that affairs of greater 
consequence should be removed to the place 
which the Lord should choose, in order to 
submit the difficulty to the priest of Aaron's 
family, and to the judge (or prince of the 
people) established at that time by the 
Lord ; and he requires all to acquiesce in 
their judgment on pain of death. When 
Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, resolved on 
reforming his dominions, (2 Chron. xix. 5, 8, 
&c.) he settled judges in all the cities, to 
whom he recommended vigilance and jus- 
tice, as exercising the authority of God 
himself. He likewise set up two courts 



.JUD 



JUD 



at Jerusalem, one consisting of priests and 
Levites, the other of the heads of the fami- 
lies of Israel. The first had cognizance 
of the affairs which related to the law and 
religion ; the second of the king's matters, 
that is, of civil affairs, and private interests. 
Such was the polity of the Hebrews before 
the captivity, as far as can be collected from 
the sacred books. 

The Book of Judges treats principally 
of those illustrious persons, who, under the 
name of judges, governed Israel in the in- 
termediate time between Joshua and the 
establishment of the regal government. 
This book has been ascribed to Phinehas, 
to Hezekiah, and to Ezekiel ; and some 
learned men have thought that it was com- 
piled by Ezra, from memoirs left by the re- 
spective judges of their own judicatures. 
But the best founded opinion seems to be, 
that it was written by Samuel, the last of 
the judges. That it was written before the 
reign of David, is proved by the following 
passage : ' The Jebusites dwell with the 
children of Benjamin in Jerusalem unto 
this day,' (Judg. i. 21.) ; for it is certain 
that the Jebusites were driven out of that 
city early in the reign of David. (2 Sam. 
v.) The beginning of the book of Judges 
gives an account of the farther conquests of 
the Israelites in the land of Canaan ; of 
their disobedience to the commands of God, 
and of their consequent subjection to the 
king of Mesopotamia ; it then states the 
appointment of Othniel, the first judge of 
Israel, and continues the history to the 
death of Samson. These events are con- 
tained in the first sixteen chapters ; and in 
the seventeenth and remaining chapters are 
recorded several remarkable occurrences, 
which were omitted in their proper places, 
that they might not interrupt the course of 
the general history of the judges. This 
book includes a period from the death of 
Joshua to that of Samson ; but there is great 
difficulty in settling the precise chronology 
of the several facts related in it, because 
many of them are reckoned from different 
aeras, which cannot be exactly ascertained. 
Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theology, 
vol. i. p. 82. 

JU'DITH, n-Tirr, signifies who praises 
God ; or Judea. According to the apocry- 
phal book which bears her name, Judith, of 
the tribe of Reuben, daughter of Merari, 
and widow of Manasseh, was celebrated for 
the deliverance of Bethulia, besieged by 
Holofernes. 

This apocryphal Book of Judith is 
thought by Grotius, and by many other 
learned Protestants, to be a parabolical 
rather than a real history. In the judg- 
ment, however, of Dr. Prideaux, this book 
seems to carry with it the air of a true his- 
tory in most particulars, except that of the 
long continued peace which is said to be 
procured by Judith : for, according to the 
603 



account given in this book, it must have 
lasted eighty years, which is what the Jews 
never enjoyed since they were a nation, and 
what scarcely any other people did enjoy; 
which therefore he allows to be a fiction, 
though he inclines to think the book in 
other respects a true history. Jerome in- 
forms us, that by the ancient Jews, the book 
of Judith, and apparently that of Tobit also, 
were read along with the Hagiographa, on 
account of their being annexed to that class 
of sacred books, but were not ranked as of 
equal authority. It, therefore, clearly fol- 
lows, that those books were not only uni- 
versally known to the ancient Jews, but 
were also held in high esteem as histories, 
though not inspired, just as in the case of 
the historic book of Maccabees. Nor is 
this the most early testimony extant given 
to the book of Judith, by the ancient Jews, 
as a history ; for the same follows again 
from the mere fact of a translation of it into 
Greek by Jews in still more ancient times. 
We can conceive no other reason for the 
ancient Christians having received Judith 
as a canonical book, except that the first 
Christians, who had been Jews themselves, 
continued to that book the same esteem, 
which it had ever before obtained among 
them. It was, however, read only as a cre- 
dible history, together with Tobit and others. 
Such, accordingly, is the book of Judith, so 
far as respects the historic events and dates 
connected with her own actions ; which 
latter whether altogether true or not, yet 
any exaggerations of these will not derogate 
from the authenticity of the accounts there 
given of other historic facts, and of the times 
when they took place. 

In opposition to the opinion of Dr. Pri- 
deaux, it has been contended by Heidegger, 
Moldenhawer, and others, that, if it were a 
true history, some notice of the victory 
which it records would have been taken by 
Josephus, who on no occasion is deficient 
when an opportunity presents itself of mag- 
nifying the achievements of his countrymen. 
Philo is equally silent concerning this book 
and its author. The time when, and the 
place where he lived, are totally unknown. 
Dr. Prideaux refers the book to the time of 
Manasseh ; Jahn assigns it to the age of the 
Maccabees, and thinks it was written to 
animate the Jews against the Syrians. Gro- 
tius refers it to the same period, and is of 
opinion that it is wholly a parabolic fiction, 
written in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
when he came into Judaea to persecute the 
Jewish church, and that its design was to 
confirm the Jews, under that persecution, 
in their hope that God would send them ■ 
deliverer. 

The book of Judith was originally written 
inChaldee, and translated into Latin. He- 
sides this translation mere are two ethers, 
one in Greek, and the other in Syriae. The 
Syriac version was made from the (-reek, 



JUN 



JUS 



whence also our present English transla- 
tion was made. Home's introduction, vol. 
iv. p. 245 ; Critical Observations on Books, 
Ancient and Modern, No. xvi. p. 150, et seq. ; 
Grotii Prafatio ad Annotationes in Librum 
Judith; Prideaux's Connection, part i. b. i. 
p. 59. 

JUNIPER-TREE, is mentioned in the 
English version of the Bible in three places. 
Elisha flying from Jezebel, towards Beer- 
sheba, was overwhelmed with fatigue, and 
sat down under a juniper- tree. (1 Kings 
xix. 4, 5.) This is the rendering of the 
Hebrew word rothim or retem, by the Rab- 
bins Kimchi and Jarchi. Levi Ben Gerson 
says broom. The Septuagint in verse 5, 
simply say a plant; in Job xxx. 4, wood; 
in Psalm cxx. 4, coals of the Desert, or coals 
of juniper. From these differences it would 
appear, that they did not know the true 
tree in question. The juniper is only a 
bush in England, and it is not large in 
Germany ; but in Spain, in the country be- 
tween Segovia and Madrid, beams and 
boards are made of it, and of some kinds of 
juniper the trunk is the size of a man's body* 
Several circumstances mentioned by au- 
thors seem favourable to the juniper, as the 
retem of Scripture ; but Job, (xxx. 4.) speaks 
of eating its roots, of which we find no ex- 
ample, neither can we find any example of 
eating the roots of broom, which is the other 
rendering. What other trees occur in the 
deserts or uncultivated wilderness of Syria? 
Hasselquist mentions ' frutex foliis triangu- 
laribus splendentibus.' This plant is very 
common in the deserts of Palestine. May 
such a frutex, larger than a shrub, yet not 
equal to a tree, be comprehended among 
the class of retem in ancient Hebrew 1 
Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, pp. 110, 
111. 

IVORY, Heb. ]w, Schen, signifies a tooth ; 
ivory being an elephant's tusk. Ezekiel, 
(xxvii. 15.) calls it horns of teeth, because 
the elephant's tooth is in the shape of a 
horn. In the first book of Kings, (x. 22.) 
it is said, that Solomon had ivory brought 
him from Ophir ; in Hebrew Schen-habbim. 
Bochart is of opinion, that Schen-habbim is 
put for Schen-hehabim, affirming that kehabim 
signifies elephants, of which he produces no 
proof. Calmet thinks that these words 
should be read separately, Schen habenim, 
1 teeth and ebony,' as habenim signifies. 
(Ezek. xxvii. 15.) It is certain that we do 
not read of elephants in the west of Asia, 
so early in any profane author. Mention 
is made of the throne of Solomon, deco- 
rated with ivory, and inlaid with gold, (I 
Kings x. 18.) ; the beauty of these mate- 
rials relieving the splendour, and heighten- 
ing the lustre of each other. The houses 
of ivory built in Samaria, (Amos iii. 15. 
1 Kings xxii. 39.) can only mean that they 
were adorned with, not constructed of ivory. 
Scripture Illustrated. 
604 



JUSTIFICATION, in the language of 
Scripture, signifies the being accounted 
just or righteous in the sight of God ; or 
the being placed in a state of salvation. 
When God justifies a man, it is by for- 
giving him his trespasses, and accepting, 
esteeming, and rewarding him as a righ- 
teous person, although he is not really and 
strictly such. To justify, in the common 
spiritual notion of it, is to absolve from 
guilt, to discharge from punishment. Hence 
justification implies, that the party has 
been, or is charged with some matter of 
complaint against him, from which he vin- 
dicates himself, or is vindicated by an- 
other, either by producing proofs of his in- 
nocence, or of his having suffered the 
penalty of that transgression formerly, or 
referring to some other person who has 
allegations on his behalf, which will effect 
his justification. Justification then is a 
law term, used in ancient times, and greatly 
analogous to our term acquittal. When 
sinners are charged with their sins before 
God, they cannot in any degree prove their 
innocence, since they are accused of only 
bond fide crimes: they cannot say they have 
been formerly acquitted in any other sense 
than by reference to an expected pardon 
through God's grace, and his proposals of 
mercy; though some sins are evidently 
punished in this life, all are not, as is 
equally evident ; but the allegations which 
may be offered by a mediator-party, re- 
main in full force. When an Israelite had 
transgressed against any divine law, he 
acknowledged his transgression, brought 
his sacrifice to the altar, confessed over 
it his fault, thereby symbolically transfer- 
ring his guilt, and the victim was the sub- 
stituted sufferer, which being sacrificially 
offered, the offerer had complied with the 
appointments of the law ; so that, should he 
be afterwards charged with that crime, he 
might plead a discharge in times past : but 
sacrifices were not in their nature capable 
of making absolute reconciliation between 
God and man ; they could only refer to a 
nobler blood, which should accomplish that 
perfectly which they did imperfectly, should 
effectually vindicate the guilty from the 
consequences of their guilt, and should 
justify, when appealed to, from accusations 
of conscience, of the world, of human laws, 
or of the divine law, through the gracious 
acceptance of the divine Lawgiver. 

Such is the general corruption of human 
nature, and such the imperfection of the 
best of men, that if God were to enter 
into judgment with his servants upon the 
strict ground of their own works or deserv- 
ings, no man living would be justified ; and 
therefore we are accounted righteous before 
God, only for the merit of our Lord and 
Saviour Jesus Christ, by faith. This is the 
express declaration of Scripture. ' Justi- 
fication,' says Bishop Hopkins, 'is a gra- 



JUS 



JUS 



cious act of God, whereby, through the 
righteousness of Christ's satisfaction im- 
puted, he freely remits, to the believing 
sinner, the guilt and punishment of his 
sins: and (moreover,) through the righteous- 
ness of Christ's perfect obedience imputed, 
he accounts him righteous, and accepts him 
into love and favour, and unto eternal life. 
This is justification, which is the very sum 
and faith of the whole Gospel, and the only 
end of the covenant of grace. For where- 
fore was there such a covenant made with 
us, through Christ, but, as St. Paul tells us, 
(Acts xiii. 39.) that by him, all that believe 
might be justified from all things which 
they could not be justified from by the law 
of Moses V He proves that justification is 
equivalent to salvation, by the following 
syllogism : If the righteousness of Christ 
be made thine, thou shalt be saved ; if 
thou believest, the righteousness of Christ 
shall be made thine ; therefore, if thou be- 
lievest (from first to last,) thou shalt be 
saved. ' When, therefore, a sinner, being 
on one hand thoroughly convinced of his 
sins, of the wrath of God due to him 
for them, (Rom. ii. 8, 9.) of his utter 
inability either to escape, or bear his 
wrath, (Rom. vii. 24.) and, on the other 
hand, being likewise convinced of the suffi- 
ciency, willingness, and designation of 
Christ to satisfy justice, and to reconcile 
and save sinners, (Rom. vii. 25.) doth 
hereby yield a firm assent unto these truths 
revealed in the Scriptures, and doth also 
accept and receive Jesus Christ in all his 
offices, as his Prophet, resolving to attend 
to his teaching, as his Lord and King, re- 
solving to obey his commands, and as his 
Priest, resolving to rely upon his sacri- 
fice alone, and doth accordingly submit to 
him, and confide in him sincerely and 
perseveringly ; this is that faith which doth 
justify, and will certainly save all those 
in whom it is wrought.' 

The profound Hooker gives a similar ex- 
planation of the doctrine, in his Discourse 
on Justification by Faith : ' The best things, ' 
says he, ' which we do, have something in 
them to be pardoned. How then can we do 
any thing meritorious, or worthy to be 
rewarded ? Indeed, God doth liberally pro- 
mise whatsoever appertaineth to a blessed 
life to as many as sincerely keep his law, 
though he be not exactly able to keep it. 
Wherefore we acknowledge a dutiful neces- 
sity of doing well ; but the meritorious dignity 
of doing well we utterly renounce. We see 
how far we are from the perfect righteous- 
ness of the law; the little fruit which wc 
have in holiness, it is, God knoweth, corrupt 
and unsound : we put no confidence at all in 
it, we challenge nothing in the world for it, 
we dare not call God to reckoning, as if he 
were our debtor : our continual suit to him 
is, and must be, to bear with our infirmities, 
and pardon our offences. 1 ' Our doctrine, in 
605 



truth, is no other than that we have learned 
at the feet of Christ ; namely, that God doth 
justify the believing man, yet not for the 
worthiness of his belief, but for the worthi- 
ness of Him which is believed ; God re- 
wardeth abundantly every one which worketh, 
yet not for any meritorious dignity which is, 
or can be, in the work, but through his 
mercy, by whose commandment he worketh.' 
It may be proper to explain some pas- 
sages in the Epistles of St. Paul and St. 
James relative to justification, which at 
first sight appear to be contradictory to 
each other. St. Paul says, that ' a man 
is justified by faith, without the deeds of 
the law,' (Rom. iii. 28.) and that ' a man is 
not justified by the works of the law, but 
by the faith of Jesus Christ.' (Gal. ii. 16.) 
St James says, ' a man is justified by 
works, and not by faith only.' (James ii. 
24.) We are to remember that St. Paul, 
when he makes the above declarations, is 
arguing, as clearly appears from the con- 
text, against those judaizing Christians, 
who contended that circumcision, and an 
observance of the whole ritual of the 
Mosaic institution, were necessary for sal- 
vation in all who embraced the Gospel. 
St. Paul, therefore, is usually understood 
to mean, in these passages, the ceremonial 
works of the law of Moses, circumcision, 
sacrifices, &c. ; but that he also intended 
to include the moral works, both of the 
law of Moses, and of the law of nature, 
is evident from his reckoning all under sin, 
both Jews and Gentiles, for their gross 
violation of moral and religious duties. 
The tenor of his argument necessarily 
also includes evangelical works ; for if 
justification could come even of such, with- 
out taking in faith in the meritorious suffer- 
ings and satisfaction of a Mediator, then 
might we have of which to boast, or to glory : 
Christ might be justly said to have died in 
vain. (Ephes. ii. 9. Rom. iv. 2. Gal. ii. 21.) 
The obvious sense of these passages was 
soon perverted ; and hence arose the op- 
posite error of an affected humility, that 
justification was by faith alone, not only 
without works, but exclusive of works, 
and that faith in Christ without works or 
deeds of any kind, that is without the prac- 
tice of moral virtue, was of itself sufficient 
to procure salvation. This most unwarrant- 
able interpretation is reprobated and re- 
futed by St. James, who proves that a man 
is justified by his works, and not by faith 
only. When, therefore, lie says, that a 
man is not justified by faith only, he means 
that a man is not justified by a bare belief 
of the divine mission of Christ, that belief 
must be accompanied by obedience, or it 
will be ineffectual, that is, as he Bayi in 

another place, ' faith without works is dead.' 
(.lames ii. 80.) The inseparable connexion 
Of faith and works was diligently inculcated 
bj OUT early divines, one of whom thus 



JUS 



JUS 



quaintly expounds the doctrine, Justificamur 
per fidem solam, sed non per fidem solita- 
riam, or according to his own translation, 
'We are justified by faith alone, but not by 
that faith which is alone, or exclusive of 
good works. Burkitt also well observes, 
4 What God hath joined, none must divide ; 
and what God hath divided, none must join. 
He hath separated faith and works in the 
business of justification ; and He hath joined 
them in the lives of justified persons,' or in 
the business of sanctification. Indeed, as is 



well expressed in the twelfth article of our 
church, good works do spring necessarily out 
of a true and lively faith ; inasmuch that by 
them a lively faith may be as evidently 
known, as a tree discovered by the fruit. 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book ii. pp. 998—1003; Hooker's Ecclesias- 
tical Polity, vol. iii. pp. 440, 482. Oxford 
edit. 1793 ; Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christian 
Theology, vol. ii. pp. 258—261 ; Supplem. 
Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 



K. 



KAD 



KEN 



KA'DESH-BAR'NEA, tfnzrunp, signi- 
fies holiness of the son of instability, or 
holiness of corn, or the purity of commotion, 
or of instability. Kadesh-barnea, a station 
of the Israelites, to which they returned 
again after thirty-eight years, is said to 
be in the wilderness of Zin (Numb. xiii. 
21. ; xx. 1. Deut. xxxii. 51.) ; but in the 
wilderness of Paran (Numb. xii. 16.) In 
the Itinerary it is simply called Rithmah, 
' the wilderness.' Dr. Hales observes, 
that Wells, Shaw, the authors of the 
Universal History, &c. have greatly per- 
plexed and obscured the geography of this 
Itinerary, by supposing that there were 
two places of this name distinct from 
each other. They consider the latter of 
them as situated on the western side of 
Mount Hor, towards the land of Canaan, 
and thus confound it with that Kadesh, 
in the land of the Philistines, where Abra- 
ham sojourned. (Gen. xvi. 14. ; xx. 1.) But 
that it lay on the east side of Mount Hor 
is evident; for why should Moses send 
messengers from Kadesh to the king of 
Edom, requesting permission to pass through 
his territories, in the way to Canaan, if they 
were already at the verge of Palestine? 
(Numb. xx. 14.) This application, how- 
ever, was necessary, if his territories were 
situated between Canaan and the Israel- 
ites. The true situation of Kadesh is 
ascertained beyond a doubt, from its 
lying between Mount Hor and Ezionge- 
ber, on the Elanitic Gulf. (Numb, xxxiii. 
35 — 37.) Hales's New Analysis of Chrono- 
logy, vol. i. pp. 401, 402. 

KAD'MONITES, >mp, signifies an- 
cient, first men, orientals. It is most likely 
that this name expresses the situation of the 
Kadmonites, Easterns. We may, therefore, 
perhaps, safely place this people either on 



the east of Judea, adjoining the Dead 
Sea, or east of the Dead Sea, in the land of 
Moab. It is possible that both ideas may 
be true : they might reside, before the 
formation of the Dead Sea, west of the 
Jordan, and, after that event, east of their 
former establishment. The Kadmonites 
were descended from Canaan, the son of 
Ham. It has been conjectured that the 
celebrated Cadmus, the founder of Thebes 
in Boeotia, was originally a Kadmonite, and 
that his wife, Hermione, was so named from 
Mount Hermon. Sacred Geography ; Wells's 
Geography, vol. i. p. 162. 

KED'EMOTH, man?, signifies ancient 
places, or things, antiquities, or original things, 
or places, or orientals, or burning, or bending 
of death. Kedemoth was a town of Reuben, 
east of the brook Arnon. (Josh. xiii. 18.) 
It was also the name of one of the Hebrew 
stations in the wilderness, (Deut. ii. 26.) 
given to the sons of Merari, the Levite. 
(1 Chron. vi. 79.) 

KEHEL'ATHAH, nnbnp, /ua/ceXXdfl, 
signifies the assembly, or collection (of men). 
Kehelathah was a station of the Israelites. 
(Numb, xxxiii. 22.) Some have thought 
that the gathering and revolt of Korah, 
Dathan, and Abiram, happened at this 
place. Sacred Geography. 

KEI'LAH, nb-yp, signifies their dissolu- 
tion, or divisions, or cuttings ; otherwise 
his fixed abode. It was a city of Judah 
(Josh. xv. 44.) and was a walled town. 
(1 Sam. xxiii. 7>) It adjoined the country 
of the Philistines, west or south-west of 
the tribe of Judah. Wells's Geography. 

KE'NATH, n3p, signifies purchase, or 
possession, or lamentation. It was a city in 
Manasseh, beyond Jordan, (Numb, xxxii. 
42.) and was also called Nob, from Nobah 
who conquered it. 



KEN 



KEY 



KEN'ITES, *3p, signifies his nest, or his 
lamentation, or possession, or purchase. The 
Kenites were a people who dwelt west of 
the Dead Sea, and extended themselves 
pretty far into Arabia Petraea. Jethro, 
the father-in-law of Moses, and a priest 
of Midian, was a Kenite. Hence it ap- 
pears probable, that the Kenites were a 
branch of the Midianites. In the time of 
Saul, the Kenites were mingled with the 
Amalekites. (1 Sam. xv. G.) Though the 
Kenites were among those people, whose 
lands God had promised to the descendants 
of Abraham, yet in consideration of Je- 
thro, the father-in-law of Moses, all of 
them who submitted to the Hebrews, were 
suffered to live in their own country. The 
rest fled, in all probability, to the Edomites 
and Amalekites. The lands of the Kenites 
were in the lot of Judah. 

Balaam, when invited by Balak, king 
of Moab, to curse Israel, stood upon a 
mountain, whence he addressed the Ken- 
ites, and said, ' Strong is thy dwelling- 
place, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock ; 
nevertheless, the Kenite shall be wasted 
until Ashur shall carry thee away captive.' 
(Numbers xxiv. 21, 22.) The Kenites 
dwelt in mountains and rocks, almost inac- 
cessible. They were conquered and carried 
into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar. After 
Saul, the Kenites are not mentioned ; but 
they subsisted, being mingled among the 
Edomites and other nations of Arabia 

KEN'IZZITES, ancient people of Ca- 
naan, whose land God promised to the 
descendants of Abraham. (Gen. xv. 19.) 
It is believed that they dwelt in the moun- 
tains south of Judea, and between the Ken- 
ites and the Kadmonites. Wells's Geography, 
vol. i. p. ICO. 

KETURAH, miap, signifies he that burns, 
or makes the incense to fume ; otherwise, per- 
fumed or odoriferous ; and was the name of 
Abraham's second wife. Abraham mar- 
ried Keturah when he was one hundred 
and forty years of age ; and by her he had 
six sons, Zimram, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, 
Ishbak, and Shuah. Some chronologers, 
as Bishop Clayton, Hallet, &c. thinking it 
improbable that Abraham should marry 
again at such an advanced age, have dislo- 
cated the chronology of this period, by sup- 
posing that Abraham took Keturah as a 
concubine, in consequence of his wife Sarah's 
barrenness, even before he left Charran; 
and that Keturah's children were among the 
souls born to him and Lot during their resi- 
dence in that country. But it seems evi- 
dent from the whole tenor of the history, 
that Abraham was childless until the birth 
of Ishmael (Gen. xv. 2, 3.) ; that he had 
no other son than Ishmael when he re- 
ceived the promise of Isaac (Gen. xvii. 18.) ; 
and that Isaac and Ishmael jointly, as his 
eldest sons, celebrated his funeral. (Gen. 
607 



xxv. 9.) His second marriage, at the age 
of one hundred and forty years, shows 
his faith in the divine promise, that he 
should be ' a father of many nations ;' for 
which purpose his constitution might be 
miraculously renewed, as Sarah's was. Be- 
sides, Abraham himself was born when 
his father Terah was one hundred and 
tnirty years of age. Abraham settled the 
sons of Keturah in the east country of 
Arabia, near the residence of Ishmael. 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book i. p. 146. 

KEY is frequently mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, as well in a natural, as in a figura- 
tive sense. The keys of the ancients were 
very different from ours ; because their 
doors and trunks were closed generally 
with bands, and the key served only to 
loosen or fasten these bands in a certain 
manner. The keys used in the east are 
very different from ours. Chardin says, 
that a lock in the east is like a little har- 
row, which enters half way into a wooden 
staple ; and the key is a wooden handle 
with points at the end of it, which are 
pushed into the staple, and so raise this 
little harrow. 

In a moral sense, key has many signi- 
fications. ' And the key of the house of 
David will I lay upon his shoulder : so 
he shall open and none shall shut: and 
he shall shut and none shall open.' (Isaiah 
xxii. 22.) He shall be grand master and 
principal officer of his prince's house. 
Christ promises to St. Peter, that he should 
first open the gate of his kingdom both to 
Jew and Gentile, in making the first con- 
verts among them. (Matt. xvi. 19.) It is 
observable that no supremacy is here given 
to St. Peter ; as the power of binding and 
loosing belonged equally to all the apostles. 
(Matth. xvi. 18.) The term binding and 
loosing was customarily applied by the Jews 
to a decision respecting doctrines or rites, 
establishing which were lawful and which 
unlawful ; and it may also denote, to bind 
with sickness, and to loose by restoring to 
health. Isaiah remarks, that Eliakim should 
wear his key upon his shoulder, as a mark 
of distinction. These keys were made of 
wood, and pretty long and large, as at pre- 
sent in the east. Callimachus says, that 
Ceres carried a key upon her shoulder. This 
custom of carrying keys upon shoulders 
appears strange to us. The ancients had 
their keys made very large, and in the 
form of a sickle, and the weight and 
shape of them were such that tiny could 
not otherwise be conveniently carried] 
but as we see our reapers carry their 
sickles. 

Jesus Christ reproaches the Scribes and 
Pharisees with having taken away the key 
of knowledge ; that is, with reading and 
studying the Scriptures, without ad van- 
tage to themselves, and without discon r« 



KIB 



KIN 



ing to others the truth, which in some 
sort they held captive in unrighteousness. 
(Rom. i. 18.) 

Jesus Christ (Rev. i. 18.) says, that he 
has the key of death and hell : that is, 
it is in his power to hring to the grave, 
or to deliver from it ; to appoint to life or 
to death. 

KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH, map 
mxnn, signifies the graves of lust. (Numb. 
xi. 34, 35.) This was one of the encamp- 
ments of Israel in the wilderness, where 
they desired of God flesh for their suste- 
nance, declaring that they were tired with 
manna. God sent them quails in great 
quantities ; but whilst the meat was in their 
mouths, (Psal. lxxviii. 30.) God smote so 
great a number of them, that the place was 
thence called the graves of lust. 

By a fortunate discovery, the exact site 
of Kibroth-hattaavah seems to have been 
ascertained by Niebuhr. In his way from 
Suez to Mount Sinai, he was brought by 
his guides to a lofty and sieep mountain 
in the district of Beni Legat, about 
nineteen German miles from Suez, and 
eleven from the convent of St. Catherine's 
at Mount Sinai. After an hour and a half 
spent in climbing to the summit, he was 
surprised to see there a superb Egyptian 
cemetery, as he supposed it, in which 
were a number of stones of a fine and 
hard grit, from five to seven feet long, 
and a foot and a half or two feet broad, 
loaded with hieroglyphics, as beautiful as 
those of Egypt. Some of these stones 
were standing upright, others overturned 
or broken. The inscriptions on three of 
these stones, copies of which are given 
by Niebuhr, consisted of birds, serpents, 
fishes, hares, and tots, or human figures, 
sitting on their hams, some with human, 
and others with dogs' heads. But he 
observes, as remarkable, that though the 
figures of hares were numerous, which 
abound in these deserts, none were to be 
found of oxen, so often to be met with 
on the obelisks of Egypt. Besides these, 
there was an oblong rectangular edifice, 
about fifty geometrical paces long, and 
about ten broad, whose walls were stand- 
ing, containing in its area several of these 
stones covered with hieroglyphics. In 
this edifice were also found busts in the 
Egyptian style, and architectural orna- 
ments like those which Norden copied 
in Upper Egypt. At the larger end was 
a small chamber, the roof of which was 
still subsisting, supported by a square 
pillar ; and this pillar, as well as the walls 
around, was covered with hieroglyphics. 
Niebuhr asks, whether these might not 
be the graves of lust, (Numb. xi. 34.) ; or 
else Mount Hor, where Aaron was buried ? 
(Numb, xxxiii. 38.) No traces exist in 
ancient history of any city formerly sub- 
sisting in this part of the desert, which, 



though not destitute of inhabitants, could 
never be populous from its barren and 
sequestered situation. It could not be 
the tomb of Aaron, which was at Mount 
Hor, at a considerable distance ; it was, 
therefore, most probably at or near Kib- 
roth-hattaavah, erected by the Israelites 
during their long stay in the neighbour- 
hood of Kadesh-barnea, from which it was 
removed only two stages. The inscrip- 
tions on these tomb-stones are strikingly 
Egyptian, like them engraved on hard 
granite, and abounding in Egyptian tots, 
among the hieroglyphic symbols. How- 
ever, the remarkable omission of the ox, 
so frequent in Egypt, intimates that they 
were not the work of Egyptians, pro- 
perly speaking, but rather of the Israelites, 
who were still smarting with the recol- 
lection of the severe chastisement which 
they had received not long before for their 
idolatry of the golden calf at Sinai, and 
who durst not introduce that ominous sym- 
bol among the other Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
These, therefore, might have been the tomb- 
stones of the princes of the congregation 
who perished there. (Psalm lxxviii. 31.) 
Indeed, the minute coincidence of this 
cemetery, in every respect, with the oc- 
currence at Kibroth-hattaavah, raises the 
conjecture almost to a certainty, that this 
could be no other than that remarkable 
station, which was not more than three stages 
from Mount Sinai. Hales's New Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. i. pp. 403 — 406. 

KID'RON, frnpt signifies obscurity, 
obscure, and is the name of a brook which 
runs in the valley east of Jerusalem, be- 
tween the city and the Mount of Olives, 
and discharges itself into the Dead Sea. 
It has generally but little water, and often 
none. However, after storms, or great 
rains, it swells exceedingly, and runs with 
great impetuosity. This brook answered 
the purpose of a drain to the lands around 
the city of Jerusalem after rains ; and pos- 
sibly it might answer the same purpose to 
some of the suburbs of the city, and re- 
ceive their underground discharges. Hence, 
perhaps, its name ' black.' Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

KINGS. The Israelites had no national 
king till Saul. They were governed at 
first by elders, as in Egypt ; then by rulers 
of God's appointment, as Moses and 
Joshua ; then by Judges, as Othniel, Ehud, 
Shamgar, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Eli, 
Samuel ; and, lastly, by kings, as Saul, David, 
Solomon, &c. 

A CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF THE KINGS 

of the Hebrews. Saul, the first king of 
the Israelites, reigned forty years, from the 
year of the world 2909 to 2949. 

Ishbosheth, son of Saul, succeeded him, 
and reigned over part of Israel six or seven 
years, from 2949 to 2956. 

David was anointed king by Samuel in 



KIN 



KIN 



the year of the world 2934, but did not en- 
joy the regal power till the death of Saul in 
2949 ; nor was he acknowledged king of all 
Israel till the death of Ishbosheth in 2956. 
David died in 2990, at the age of seventy. 

He was succeeded by his son Solomon, 
who received the royal unction in 2989, and 
reigned alone after the death of David. So- 
lomon died in 3029. 

After the death of Solomon the kingdom 
was divided ; and the ten tribes having 
chosen Jeroboam king, Rehoboam, the son 
of Solomon, reigned only over the tribes of 
Judah and Benjamin. 

Kings of Judah. — Rehoboam, son and 
successor of Solomon, reigned seventeen 
years, from the year 3029 to 3046. 

Abijam reigned three years, from 3046 to 
3049. 

Asa, one- and- forty years, from 3049 to 
3090. 

Jehoshaphat, five-and-twenty years, from 
3090 to 3115. 

Jehoram, four years, from 3115 to 3119. 

Ahaziah, one year, from 3119 to 3120. 

Athaliah, his mother, reigned six years, 
from 3120 to 3126. 

Joash was placed on the throne by Je- 
hoiada the high-priest, in 3126, and reigned 
forty years, till the year 3165. 

Amaziah reigned twenty-nine years, from 
3165 to 3194. 

Uzziah, otherwise called Azariah, reigned 
twenty-seven years, till the year 3220, 
when, attempting to offer incense in the 
temple, he was struck with a leprosy, and 
obliged to resign the government. He 
lived after this twenty-six years, and died 
in 3246. 

Jotham, his son, assumed the government 
in the year of the world 3221. He reigned 
alone in 3246, and died in 3262. 

Ahaz succeeded Jotham in 3262, and 
reigned sixteen years, till 3278. 

Hezekiah reigned twenty-eight years, 
from 3278 to 3306. 

Manasseh reigned fifty- five years, from 
3306 to 3361. 

Amon, two years, from 3361 to 3363. 

Josiah reigned thirty-one years, from 3363 
to 3394. 

Jehoahaz reigned three months. 

Eliakim, or Jehoiakim, eleven years, from 
3394 to 3405. 

Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, reigned three 
months and ten days, in the year 3405. 

Mattaniah, or Zedekiah, reigned eleven 
years, from 3405 to 3416. In the last year 
of his reign Jerusalem was taken, the tem- 
ple burnt, and Judah carried into captivity 
beyond the Euphrates. 

Kings of Israel. — Jeroboam reigned twenty- 
two years, from 3029 to 3051. 

Nadab reigned one year, and died in 
3051. 

Baasha reigned twenty-two years, from 
3052 to 3074. 
609 



Elah reigned two years, and died in 
3075. 

Zimri, seven days. 

Omri reigned eleven years, from 3075 to 
3086, and was succeeded by his competi- 
tor Tibni, the time of whose death is un- 
certain. 

Ahab reigned twenty-one years, from 
3086 to 3107- 

Ahaziah reigned two years, from 3106 to 
3108. 

Jehoram, the son of Ahab, succeeded him 
in 3108, reigned twelve years, and died in 
3120. 

Jehu usurped the kingdom in 3120, 
reigned twenty-eight years, and died in 
3148. 

Jehoahaz reigned seventeen years, from 
3148 to 3165. 

Joash reigned fourteen years, from 3165 
to 3179. 

Jeroboam II. reigned forty-one years, 
from 3179 to 3220. 

Zachariah reigned twelve years, from 
3220 to 3232. 

Shallum, a month, and was killed in 
3233. 

Menahem reigned ten years, from 3233 
to 3243. 

Pekahiah reigned two years, from 3243 
to 3245. 

Pekah reigned twenty years, from 3245 
to 3265. 

Hoshea reigned eighteen years, from 3265 
to 3283 ; when the kingdom of Israel ter- 
minated, after it had existed two hundred 
and fifty-three years. 

The Jews, after their return from the 
captivity in 3468, lived under the dominion 
of the Persians two hundred and four 
years, till the reign of Alexander the Great, 
who came to Jerusalem in 3672. After 
his death in 3681, Judea was at first subject 
to the kings of Egypt, and afterwards to 
those of Syria. At length, Antiochus Epi- 
phanes having obliged the Jews to take up 
arms in defence of their religion in the 
year 3836, the Maccabees gradually reco- 
vered their ancient liberty, and lived in a 
state of independence, from the govern- 
ment of John Hyrcanus in 3874, till Ju- 
dea was reduced into a province by the 
Romans. 

The Maccabees or dsmoiuran Princes, who 
. governed the Jewish Commonwealth as princes 
and high-priests, till the reign of Herod the 
Great. — Mattathias, father of Judas Macca- 
baeus, died in 3838, in the beginning o( the 
persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes. Ju- 
das Maccabceus governed five years, till his 
death in 3843. 

Jonathan Maccabeus governed seventeen 
years, from 3843 to 3860. 

Simon Maccabeus governed nine years, 
from 3860 to 3869. 

John Hyrcanus governed twenty-nine 
years, from 3869 to 3898. Ho enjoyed 
Rr 



KIN 

perfect liberty after the death of Antiochus 
Sidetes, king of Syria, in 3874. 

Aristobulus assumed the title of king, 
reigned one year, and died in 3899. 

Alexander Jannaeus reigned twenty-seven 
years, from 3899 to 3926. 

Salome, or Alexandra, wife of Alexander 
Jannaeus, governed nine years ; and her 
eldest son Hyrcanus exercised the office of 
high-priest. She died in 3935. 

Hyrcanus, king and high-priest of the 
Jews, began to reign after his mother's 
death, and reigned peaceably three months 
only. 

Aristobulus, brother of Hyrcanus, made 
himself master of the kingdom and high- 
priesthood, which he enjoyed three years 
and three months, till 3940 ; when Pompey 
took Jerusalem, and re-instated Hyrcanus, 
but did not permit him to wear the dia- 
dem, though he allowed him the quality of 
king. Aristobulus was carried to Rome by 
Pompey. 

Hyrcanus did not quietly enjoy the ho- 
nours and dignities which had been re- 
stored by Pompey. Antigonus, his nephew, 
the son of Aristobulus, sent for the Par- 
thians to Jerusalem, and made himself mas- 
ter of the crown and high-priesthood in 
3964. The ears of Hyrcanus were cut off, 
to render him unfit for the priesthood : and 
he was carried to Babylon, whence he did 
not return till 3968. He was put to death 
by Herod in 3974. 

Antigonus, his nephew, who had pos- 
sessed himself of the crown and high- 
priesthood, enjoyed them only about two 
years and seven months. He was taken in 
Jerusalem by Sosius, in 3967, and beheaded 
the same year at Antioch, by order of Mark 
Antony. 

Herod the Great, son of Antipater, and 
an Idumaean by extraction, was declared 
king of the Jews by the Roman senate, in 
3964. He died after a reign of six or seven- 
and-thirty years, at the age of seventy, in 
the year of the world 4001, and the first of 
Jesus Christ, three years before the vulgar 
sera. 

His dominions were divided among his 
three sons, Archelaiis, Herod- Antipas, and 
Philip. 

Herod- Antipas had Galilee and Petraea. 
He was banished to Lyons in the year of 
Jesus Christ 39, and afterwards into Spain, 
where he died, after having reigned from 
the year of the world 4001 to the thirty- 
ninth year of the vulgar Christian aera. His 
tetrarchy was given to Agrippa. 

Philip possessed Batanaea, Trachonitis, 
and Auranitis, and died in the thirty- 
seventh year of the Christian aera ; and his 
tetrarchy was reduced to a province. 

Archelaiis possessed the kingdom of Ju- 

dea, under the title of ethnarch, from the 

year 4001, to the year of Christ 6. Judea 

was then reduced to a province, and sub- 

610 



KIN 

jected to governors till the year of Christ 
37- 

Agrippa I. received part of Judea from 
Caius, with the title of king, in the year of 
the vulgar sera 37 ; and four years after, the 
emperor Claudius gave him the remainder. 
Agrippa died in the forty-fourth year of 
the Christian aera, when Judea again re- 
verted to the Romans, who placed it under 
the administration of governors, till its 
utter ruin in the seventieth year of the 
Christian aera. 

Agrippa II. son of the preceding Agrippa, 
obtained from the emperor Claudius some 
authority over the temple and sacred trea- 
sury, with the power of appointing or de- 
posing the high-priest; which he enjoyed 
till the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Books of Kings, two canonical books 
of the Old Testament, containing the his- 
tory of the kings of Israel and Judah, from 
the beginning of the reign of Solomon to 
the Babylonish captivity. The first book 
of Kings commences with an account of the 
death of David, and contains a period of 
126 years, to the death of Jehoshaphat ; and 
the second book of Kings continues the 
history of the kings of Israel and Judah 
through a period of three hundred years, to 
the destruction of the city and temple of 
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. In the 
Greek and Latin Bibles the two books of 
Samuel are called the first and second books 
of Kings ; and hence in these copies are 
four books of Kings. Anciently these four 
were only two in the Hebrew Bibles, the 
first of which was called Samuel, and the 
others Kings or Kingdoms. At present, in 
the Hebrew copies, the first of these books 
is called the first and second books of Sa- 
muel, and the other the first and second of 
Kings, as in our English version. 

It is probable that the two books of 
Kings were compiled by Ezra from the 
records which were regularly kept, both 
in Jerusalem and Samaria, of all public 
transactions. These records appear to 
have been made by the contemporary 
prophets, and frequently derived their 
names from the kings whose history they 
contained. They are mentioned in many 
parts of Scripture ; thus we read, (1 Kings 
xi. 41.) of the book of the Acts of Solomon, 
which is supposed to have been written by 
Nathan, Ahijah, and Iddo. (2 Chron. ix. 
29.) We also read that Shemaiah the pro- 
phet, and Iddo the seer, wrote the Acts of 
Rehoboam (2 Chron. xii. 15.) ; that Jehu 
wrote the Acts of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 
xx. 34.) ; and Isaiah those of Uzziah and 
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxvi. 22. ; xxxii. 32.). 
Hence we may conclude, that from these 
public records, and other authentic docu- 
ments, the two books of Kings were com- 
posed; and the uniformity of their style 
favours the conclusion that they were put 
into their present shape by the same person. 



KIN 



KOR 



Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christian Theology, 
vol. i. pp. 87, 88. 

The King's Rights. The Israelites hav- 
ing desired Samuel to give them a king, 
such as the neighbouring nations had, he 
told them, that the king who should govern 
them would have the following preroga- 
tives, (1 Sam. viii. 11, &c.) : ' He will take 
your sons to guide his chariots,' &c. It has 
been disputed whether Samuel only fore- 
told what should happen to the Israelites 
from their king, or whether he declared to 
them the real privileges of a king, and the 
lawful use of his authority. Commentators 
in general, however, think that the prophet 
here describes in what manner the prince 
would abuse his power, and what would be 
his excessive pretensions, rather than the 
just and legal exercise of his rights. Gro- 
tius Be jure Belli et Pads, lib. i. cap. 1 ; 
Schicardus de Jure Regni. 

Kings. This word does not always imply 
the same degree of power, nor the same de- 
gree of importance ; nor does it imply the 
magnitude of the dominion or territory of 
this officer. In Scripture many persons are 
called kings, whom we should rather de- 
nominate chiefs or leaders ; and many single 
towns, or, at most, together with their adja- 
cent villages, are said to have had kings. Not 
aware of this lower sense of the word king, 
or unwilling to adopt it, many persons have 
been embarrassed by the following passage, 
(Deut. xxxiii. 5.): 'Moses commanded us 
a law — he was king in Jeshurun — or king 
among the upright,' that is, he was the 
principal among the assembly of the supe- 
riors of the Israelites. Some refer this to 
Jehovah. Moses was the chief, the leader, 
the guide of his people, fulfilling the duties 
of a king ; but he was not king in the same 
sense as David, or Solomon, was afterwards. 
This remark reconciles the following obser- 
vation (Gen. xxxvi. 31.): 'These kings 
reigned in Edom, before there reigned any 
king over the children of Israel ;' for Moses, 
though he was king in an inferior sense, did 
not reign, in the stronger sense, over the 
children of Israel, their constitution not 
being monarchical under him. 

Besides, we find in Joshua, that almost 
every town in Canaan had its king ; and we 
know that the territories of these towns 
must have been very inconsiderable. (Josh, 
xii. 9—24.) Adonizedek, himself no very 
powerful king, mentions seventy kings, whom 
he had subdued and mutilated. 

KI'SHON, )Wp, signifies hard, or stub- 
ble, or cucumber-bed; or, as some think, 
curved, or winding. From Mount Tabor 
flow waters on two sides of it : the stream 
on the one side runs westward to the Medi- 
terranean Sea ; that on the other, eastward 
to the sea of Galilee. Both these might 
be called Kishon, one the Greater Kishon 
running west, the other the Lesser Kishon 
running east. Certain it is, that the Kishon 
(511 



mentioned in Scripture ran westward to the 
Mediterranean Sea. (1 Kings xviii.) Mr. 
Maundrell informs us, that this river flows 
through the middle of the plain of Jezreel, 
or Esdraelon, and, pursuing its course close 
by Mount Carmel, falls into the sea at a 
place called Caipha. When he saw the 
Kishon, its waters were low and inconsider- 
able ; but in passing along the side of the 
plain, he observed the marks of many lesser 
torrents, which, falling into it from the 
mountains, cannot fail of swelling the river 
exceedingly in sudden rains. Wells's Geo- 
graphy, vol. i. p. 336 ; Carne's Letters, p. 
250. 

KNEADING-TROUGHS. The knead- 
ing-troughs of the Israelites, at least those 
which they carried with them out of Egypt, 
(Exod. xii. 34.) were not the cumbersome 
articles now in use among us, but only small 
wooden bowls, like those of the modern 
Arabs, who, after kneading their flour in 
them, employ them as dishes out of which 
they eat their victuals. Harmer's Observa- 
tions, vol. iv. pp. 375, 376. 

KO'RAH, mp, signifies bold, frozen, 
icy. Korah was the son of Izhar, of the 
race of Levi, and father of Asher, Elka- 
nah, and Aliasaph, and head of the Korites, 
a celebrated family among the Levites. 
Korah, being dissatisfied with the rank he 
held among the sons of Levi, and envying 
the authority of Moses and Aaron, formed 
against them a party, in which he engaged 
Dathan, Abiram, and On, with two hundred 
and fifty of the principal Levites. (Numb, 
xvi. 1, 2, 3, &c) Korah, at the head of 
the rebels, went to Moses and Aaron, and 
complained that they alone arrogated to 
themselves all the authority over the people 
of the Lord. Moses, falling with his face 
on the earth, answered them as follows : To- 
morrow in the morning the Lord will dis- 
cover who are his. Let every one of you 
take, therefore, his censer, and to-morrow 
he shall put incense into it, and offer it be- 
fore the Lord : and he shall be acknow- 
ledged priest whom the Lord shall choose 
and approve. 

The next day, Korah, with two hundred 
and fifty of his faction, presenting them- 
selves with their censers before the Lord, 
the glory of the Lord appeared visibly 
over the tabernacle ; and a voice was 
heard to say, ' Separate yourselves from 
among this congregation, that I may con- 
sume them in a moment.' Upon tins Moses 
and Aaron, falling with their faces to the 
ground, said. '() God, the God of the 
spirits of all flesh, shall one man sin, ami 
wilt thou be wroth with all the congrega- 
tion?' And the Lord said unto M 
Command all the people to depart from 
about the tents of Korah, Dathan. and Abi- 
ram. When, therefore, the people were 

retired, Moses said. If these men die the 

common death of all men, then the Lord 
u r 2 



KOR 



KOR 



hath not sent me : hut if the earth open and 
swallow them up quick, ye shall know that 
they have blasphemed the Lord. As soon 
as he had spoken, the earth opened from 
under their feet, and swallowed them up 
with what belonged to them. 

There was one thing which added to 
this surprising wonder, and that was, that 
when Korah was thus swallowed up in 
the earth, his sons were preserved from his 
misfortunes. We know not the exact year 
in which the death of Korah and his com- 
panions happened. The sons of Korah 
continued, as before, to serve in the taber- 
nacle of the Lord. David appointed them 
their office in the temple, to guard the 
doors, and sing the praises of God. 



Eleven psalms, namely xlii. xliv. xlv. 
xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix. lxxxiv. lxxxv. 
lxxxvii. and Ixxxviii. are inscribed ' For 
the sons of Korah ;' but such is the uncer- 
tainty of the prepositional prefix, that it is 
not easy to decide whether these Psalms 
were written by them, or were composed 
for them, and to be performed by them with 
music in the temple. As the names of 
the musical instruments, with which these 
Psalms were to be accompanied, are speci- 
fied in the titles of Psalms xlvi. and Ixxxviii. 
to which last is added the name of Heman, 
it is most probable that they were directed 
to the sons of Korah ; but by whom they 
were composed is not now known. Home's 
Introduction, vol. iv. p. 107. 



L. 



LAB 

LA'BAN, pb, signifies white; other- 
wise, a brick; also a place. Laban, 
son of Bethuel, and grandson of Nahor, 
was brother to Rebekah, and father to 
Rachel and Leah. When Jacob came 
into Mesopotamia, in the year of the 
world 2245, he was well received by his 
uncle Laban. (Gen. xxviii, &c.) A month 
after his arrival, Laban said to him, Must 
you, because you are my nephew, serve 
me without recompence ? Jacob proposed 
to serve him seven years for his youngest 
daughter Rachel, and Laban consented. 
Many are of opinion, that Jacob served 
him seven years, before he married Rachel ; 
but others assert the contrary, and think 
that the words, ' My time is accomplished,' 
signify I am of age to marry, to support a 
family. Jacob was then seventy years of 
age. Jacob said to Laban, Give me my 
wife, for my time is accomplished. Laban, 
therefore, made a wedding feast ; but con- 
veyed Leah into Jacob's chamber, so that 
Jacob did not perceive the fraud. The 
next morning he complained sharply of it. 
Laban replied, that it was unlawful to marry 
the younger daughter before the elder ; but 
if he would serve seven years more, he 
would give him Rachel. To this Jacob 
consented. 

When Jacob had spent fourteen years 
in the service of Laban, he was desirous 
of returning into Canaan. Laban, how- 
ever, wished to continue him in his ser- 
vice, and said, Ask what recompence you 
please. Jacob demanded all the young which 
612 



LAB 

his flocks should produce that were of a 
brown colour, spotted and speckled, that is, 
such as seemed least desirable for their 
wool and their fleece. Laban agreed, and 
committed all that were spotted and of 
divers colours to the keeping of his own 
sons ; fearing, in all probability, that Jacob 
would use art to produce cattle of divers 
colours, by a mixture of spotted sheep and 
goats with those not spotted. Jacob, 
however, accomplished his purpose another 
way. 

After remaining twenty years with La- 
ban, Jacob perceived that Laban did not 
regard him with the same kindness as 
formerly, and resolved to depart without 
the knowledge of Laban, who set out 
in pursuit of him, and overtook him in 
Mount Gilead. God appeared to Laban 
by night, and forbade him to say any 
thing harsh to Jacob. When, therefore, 
Laban saw Jacob, he only complained of 
his sudden retreat, of his not giving him 
the comfort of embracing his daughters 
and grand-children, and of conducting 
them on their journey with cheerful music. 
On the subject, however, of Jacob's 
stealing from him his gods, or Teraphim, 
he made great complaints. Jacob replied 
with some vehemence, and agreed that 
whoever committed this theft should be 
put to death, not knowing that Rachel 
was that person. Laban searched all the 
tents of Jacob in vain, for Rachel con- 
cealed these images under her. See Ra- 
chel and Teraphim. 



LAB 



LAM 



Jacob in his turn remonstrated with 
Laban respecting his conduct towards him, 
and his having changed the rewards due to 
him. Laban answered, Behold my daugh- 
ters and my grand-children. All that is 
yours is as dear to me as what belongs to 
myself. Let us make a covenant together, 
and set up a monument of it. They swore, 
therefore, reciprocal friendship and alliance. 
Laban called this pile of stones Jegar-saha- 
dutha, the heap of testimony; but Jacob 
called it Galeed, the heap of witness ; each 
according to his language, Laban using the 
Chaldee. Having offered sacrifices, they 
ate and drank together ; and the next 
morning Laban took leave of his daugh- 
ters and grand-children, and returned to 
Haran. 

LABBADISTS, were so called from 
their founder John Labbadie, a native of 
France. He was originally in the Romish 
communion : but leaving that, he became 
a member of the reformed Church, and 
performed with reputation the ministerial 
functions in France, Switzerland, and Hol- 
land. At length, he erected a new com- 
munity, which resided successively at 
Middleburg in Zealand, Amsterdam, Her- 
vorden, and at Altona, where he died about 
1674. After the death of Labbadie, his 
followers removed their wandering com- 
munity to Wiewert in North Holland, where 
it soon fell into oblivion. If we are to judge 
of the Labbadists by their own account, 
they did not differ from the reformed church 
so much in their tenets and doctrines as 
in their manners and rules of discipline. 
Yet it seems that Labbadie entertained 
some strange notions. Among other opi- 
nions, he maintained that God might and 
did, on certain occasions, deceive men ; 
that the faithful ought to have all things 
in common ; that there is no subordination 
or distinction of rank in the true Church ; 
that in reading the Scriptures greater atten- 
tion should be paid to the internal sug- 
gestions of the Holy Spirit than to the sense 
of the words ; that the Scriptures are not 
sufficient to lead men to salvation without 
certain particular illuminations and revela- 
tions from the Holy Ghost; and that the 
contemplative life is a state of grace and 
union with God, and the very height of 
perfection. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. v. 
pp. 62, 63. 

LACEDiE'MON, AaKtSaifiwv, signifies 
the lake of demons ; otherwise, the well of the 
insane. Lacedaemon, otherwise called Sparta, 
was a celebrated and very ancient city in 
the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been 
called at first Lelegia, from Lelex, its first 
king, who, they say, was contemporary with 
Creon and Ericthonius. It afterwards 
took the name of Lacedaemon, from Lace- 
daemon, the son of Jupiter and Semele : 
and, lastly, that of Sparta, from queen 
Sparta, wife to Lacedaemon. The present 
613 



Misistra is situated nearly on the place 
where Lacedaemon stood, about a mile dis- 
tant from it. 

It is very remarkable, that the Jews, 
who were, as a nation, extremely reserved, 
should claim kindred with the Lacedae- 
monians, and that these, in return, should 
allow the kindred after examining their 
archives. Mr. Bryant supposes that the 
Lacedaemonians were originally emigrants 
from the same country as Abraham. Ste- 
phanus quotes Cladius Iolaus as deriving 
the Jews from an ancestor named Judaeus 
Sparton ; or the family styled Sparti : 
if this means a people who were dispersed, 
or pilgrims, or emigrants, there is no doubt 
but the character belongs to the posterity 
of Abraham. Besides, a possibility exists 
that some of the early kinsmen of the Jew- 
ish patriarchs, instead of going east to settle, 
might settle in the west. If Ishmael, for 
instance, had done so, his posterity, never- 
theless, would have been related to the sons 
of Isaac ; or if Esau had done so, his de- 
scendants might have claimed kin to the 
sons of Jacob. We have no history of such 
an occurrence ; but if Esau, or part of his 
family, settled in Rome, as the Rabbins af- 
firm, it is not impossible that some other 
branch of Abraham's posterity should settle 
in Greece. Sacred Geography. 

LAMA, GRAND, a name given to the 
sovereign pontiff, or high-priest, of the 
Thibetian Tartars, who resides at Patoli, 
a vast palace on a mountain near the 
banks of Barampooter, about seven miles 
from Lahassa. The foot of this mountain 
is inhabited by twenty thousand lamas, or 
priests, who have their separate apart- 
ments around the mountain, and, according 
to their respective quality, are placed 
nearer, or at a greater distance from, the 
sovereign pontiff. He is not only wor- 
shipped by the Thibetians, but also is the 
great object of adoration with the various 
tribes of heathen Tartars who roam through 
the vast tract of continent which stretches 
from the banks of the Wolga to Correa, 
on the sea of Japan. He is not only the 
sovereign pontiff, the vicegerent of the 
Deity on earth, but the more remote Tar- 
tars are said to absolutely regard him as 
the Deity himself, and call him God the ever- 
lasting Father of Heaven. They believe him 
to be immortal, and endowed with all know- 
ledge and virtue. Every year they come up 
from different parts to worship, and make 
rich offerings at his shrine. Even the em- 
peror of China, who is a Manchou Tartar, 
does not fail in acknowledgments to him in 
his religious capacity, and he actually en- 
tertains at a great expense in the palace oi 
Pekin an inferior lama, deputed as his 
nuncio from Thibet. The grand lama, it 
has been said, is never to be seen hut in 
a secret place of his palace, amidst a 
great number of lamps, sitting cross-legged 



LAM 



LAM 



on a cushion, and decked in every part 
with gold and precious stones, where at 
a distance the people prostrate themselves 
before him, it not being lawful for any so 
much as to kiss his feet. He returns not 
the least sign of respect, nor ever speaks 
even to the greatest princes ; but only lays 
his hand upon their heads, and they are 
fully persuaded they receive from thence 
a full forgiveness of all their sins. 

The Sunniasses, or Indian pilgrims, often 
visit Thibet as a holy place ; and the lama 
always entertains a body of two or three 
hundred in his pay. Besides his religious 
influence and authority, the grand lama 
is possessed of unlimited power throughout 
his dominions, which are very extensive. 
The inferior lamas, who form the most nu- 
merous, as well as the most powerful body 
in the state, have the priesthood entirely 
in their hands ; and, besides, fill up many 
monastic orders, which are held in great 
veneration among them. The whole coun- 
try, like Italy, abounds with priests ; and 
they entirely subsist on the great number 
of rich presents which are sent them from 
the utmost extent of Tartary, from the 
empire of the Great Mogul, and from al- 
most all parts of the Indies. 

The opinion of those who are reputed 
the most orthodox among the Thibetians 
is, that, when the grand lama seems to 
die, either of old age or infirmity, his 
soul, in fact, only quits a crazy habita- 
tion, to look for another younger or bet- 
ter ; and it is discovered again in the body 
of some child by certain tokens, known 
only to the lamas or priests, in which order 
he always appears. 

Almost all nations of the East, except 
the Mahometans, believe the metempsychosis 
as the most important article of their faith ; 
especially the inhabitants of Thibet and 
Ava, the Peguans, Siamese, the greatest 
part of the Chinese and Japanese, and the 
Monguls and Kalmucks, who changed the 
religion of Schamanism for the worship of 
the grand lama. According to the doctrine 
of this metempsychosis, the soul is always in 
action, and never at rest : for no sooner 
does she leave her old habitation, than 
she enters a new one. The dalai, being a 
divine person, can find no better lodging 
than the body of his successor ; or the Foe, 
residing in the dalai lama, which passes 
to his successor : and this being a god, to 
whom all things are known, the dalai lama 
is therefore acquainted with every thing 
which happened during his residence in 
his former body. 

This religion is said to have been of three 
thousand years' standing ; and neither time, 
nor the influence of men, has had the power 
of shaking the authority of the grand lama. 
This theocracy extends as fully to temporal 
as to spiritual concerns. 

Though in the grand sovereignty of the 
614, 



lamas the temporal power has been oc- 
casionally separated from the spiritual by 
slight revolutions, they have always been 
united again after a time ; so that in Thi- 
bet the whole constitution rests on the im- 
perial pontificate in a manner elsewhere 
unknown. For as the Thibetians suppose 
the grand lama is animated by the god 
Shaka or Foe, who at the decease of one 
lama transmigrates into the next, and con- 
secrates him an image of the divinity, the 
descending chain of lamas is continued 
down from him in fixed degrees of sanc- 
tity : so that a more firmly established 
sacerdotal government, in doctrine, cus- 
toms, and institutions, than actually reigns 
over this country, cannot be conceived. 
The supreme manager of temporal af- 
fairs is no more than the viceroy of the 
sovereign priest, who, conformably to the 
dictates of his religion, dwells in divine 
tranquillity in a building that is both tem- 
ple and palace. If some of his votaries 
in modern times have dispensed with the 
adoration of his person, still certain real 
modifications of the Shaka religion is the 
only faith they profess, the only religion 
they follow. The state of sanctity which 
that religion inculcates, consists in mo- 
nastic continence, absence of thought, and 
the perfect repose of nonentity. 

It has been observed that the religion 
of Thibet is the counterpart of the Roman 
Catholic, since the inhabitants of that 
country use holy water and a singing ser- 
vice : they also offer alms, prayers, and sa- 
crifices for the dead. They have a vast 
number of convents filled with monks 
and friars, amounting to thirty thousand : 
who, besides the three vows of poverty, 
obedience, and chastity, make several others. 
They have their confessors, who are chosen 
by their superiors, and have licences from 
their lamas, without which they cannot hear 
confessions or impose penances. They make 
use of beads. They wear the mitre and cap 
like the bishops: and their dalai lama is 
nearly the same among them as the sove- 
reign pontiff among the Romanists. Adams's 
View of Religions, pp. 333—336. 

LA'MECH, yib, signifies poor, made low ; 
or who is struck. Lamech, son of Methu- 
selah, and father of Noah, was an hun- 
dred and eighty-two years old at the birth 
of Noah ; and he lived after that event five 
hundred and ninety-five years. His whole 
life was seven hundred and seventy-seven 
years, being born in the year of the world 
874, and dying in 1651. 

Lamech, of the race of Cain, was the 
son of Methusael, and father of Jabal, 
Jubal, Tubal-cain, and Naamah. (Gen. iv. 
18, 19, 20, &c.) Lamech is celebrated 
for his polygamy, of which he is thought 
to be the author. He married Adah and 
Zillah. Lamech said to his wives, 'Hear 
my voice, ye wives of Lamech ; I have 



LAM 



LAN 



slain a man to my wounding, and a young 
man to my hurt. If Cain shall be avenged 
seven fold, truly Lamech seventy and seven 
fold.' These words present a difficulty. It is 
supposed, that Lamech had slain a man in 
his own defence, and that his wives being 
alarmed lest the kindred of the deceased 
should seek his life in return, to quiet 
their fears he makes this speech, in 
which he endeavours to prove that there 
was no room for fear on this account, for 
if the slayer of the wilful murderer, Cain, 
should suffer a seven-fold punishment, surely 
he who should kill Lamech for having slain 
a man in self-defence, might expect a 
seventy-seven fold punishment. But not- 
withstanding this and other interpretations 
which have been given, the passage is per- 
haps inscrutable. Dr. Adam Clarke's Com- 
mentary on Genesis. 

LAMENTATIONS, a mournful poem, 
composed by Jeremiah. Josephus, and 
several other learned men, have referred 
the Lamentations to the death of Josiah : 
but the more common opinion is, that they 
are applicable only to some period sub- 
sequent to the destruction of Jerusalem 
by Nebuchadnezzar. But though it be 
allowed, that the Lamentations were pri- 
marily intended as a pathetic description 
of present calamities, yet while Jeremiah 
mourns the desolation of Judah and 
Jerusalem during the Babylonian cap- 
tivity, he may be considered as propheti- 
cally painting the still greater miseries 
they were to suffer at some future time ; 
this seems plainly indicated by his refer- 
ing to the time when the punishment of 
their iniquity shall be accomplished, and 
they shall no more be carried into cap- 
tivity, (iv. 22.) 

The Lamentations are written in metre, 
and consist of a number of plaintive ef- 
fusions, composed after the manner of 
funeral dirges. They seem to have been 
originally written by their author as they 
arose in his mind, and to have been after- 
wards joined together as one poem. There 
is no regular arrangement of the subject, or 
disposition of the parts; the same thought 
is frequently repeated with different imagery, 
or expressed in different words. There is, 
however, no wild incoherency, or abrupt 
transition ; the whole appears to have been 
dictated by the feelings of real grief. Ten- 
derness and sorrow form the general cha- 
racter of these elegies ; and an attentive 
reader will find great beauty in many of the 
images, and considerable energy in some of 
the expressions. The book of Lamentations 
is divided into five chapters ; in the first, 
second, and fourth, the prophet speaks in 
his own person, or by an elegant and inter- 
esting personification introduces the city 
of Jerusalem as lamenting her calamities, 
and confessing her sins ; in the third chap- 
ter a single Jew, speaking in the name 
615 



of a chorus of his countrymen, like the 
Coryphaeus of the Greeks, describes the 
punishment inflicted upon him by God, 
but still acknowledges his mercy, and ex- 
presses some hope of deliverance ; and 
in the fifth chapter the whole nation of the 
Jews pour forth their united complaints 
and supplications to Almighty God. Bishop 
To -n line's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. i. 
pp. 112, 113. 

LANGUAGE. Several questions are 
proposed on this subject, as 1. Whether 
God was the author of the first language ; 
whether Adam received it from him by 
infusion, or formed and invented it by his 
industry and labour ? 2. Whether this lan- 
guage is still extant ? 3. Which is that 
language ? 

It is pretty generally allowed, that man 
is the only creature in the world that has 
the use of a regular speech. In ancient 
writers, indeed, we meet with accounts of 
birds and beasts speaking ; and the ancient 
Jewish Rabbinical writers assure us, that 
one part of Solomon's wisdom consisted 
in understanding the language of these 
creatures : but all these are fables, entitled 
to no regard. Without doubt, the brute 
creation have a few simple ideas, and a few 
simple tones by which they can express 
them, so as to be intelligible to each other ; 
but with respect to regular language, they 
certainly have none, as their tones are nei- 
ther sufficiently varied nor numerous to en- 
title them to the name of language. Man, 
therefore, is the only conversable creature in 
the world. Numerous conjectures have been 
formed to account for this faculty in man. 
The following, with all its apparent absurd- 
ity, is the most ingenious, and best entitled 
to attention. Diodorus Siculus and Vitru- 
vius, and after them some modern writers 
of considerable eminence, have asserted, 
' that men at first lived like beasts in woods 
and caves, forming only strange and un- 
couth noises, until their fears caused them 
to associate together ; and that, upon grow- 
ing acquainted with each other, they came 
to correspond about things, first by signs, 
then to make names for them, and in time, 
to frame and perfect a language ; and 
that the languages of the world are dif- 
ferent, because the different companies of 
men happening thus to come together in 
different places would, of course, form dif- 
ferent sounds or names of things ; hence 
would arise the variety observable even in 
ancient languages.' This ingenious con- 
jecture seems to be the utmost that t In- 
human mind, unassisted by a divine reve- 
lation, can form on this subject. 

The Mosaic history, which rives us an 
account of the formation and first occupa- 
tions of man, represents him as being im- 
mediately capable of conversing with his 
Maker; of giving names to the \arious 
tribes and classes of animals ; and ol 



LAO 



LAO 



soning consecutively, and in perfectly 
appropriate terms, concerning his own 
situation, and the relation in which he stood 
to other creatures. As in man's first at- 
tempt at speech, according to this account, 
there appears no crudeness of conception, 
no barrenness of ideas, and no inexpres- 
sive or unappropriate terms, it is most 
rational to conclude, that God, who made 
and endued him with corporeal and mental 
powers, perfectly suited to his state and 
condition in life, endued him also not only 
with the faculty of speech, but with speech 
or language itself ; which latter was as ne- 
cessary to his comfort, and, indeed, to the 
perfection and end of his being, as any 
other power or faculty which his Creator 
thought proper to bestow upon him. 

What the first language was, it is almost 
useless to inquire ; as it is impossible to 
arrive at any satisfactory information on 
this point. Some think it must have been 
the Chinese, because principally composed 
of monosyllables, forming very simple 
sounds, which they suppose must have 
been the grand characteristic of the original 
language. Some contend for the Hebrew, 
such as it is found in our Bible ; some for 
the Chaldee, such as that spoken by the 
father-in-law of Jacob ; some give this 
honour to the Arabic ; but Goropius Be- 
canus and Verstegan seem fully persuaded 
it was the Teutonic, or ancient German ! 
Conjectures of this kind are as useless as 
they are endless and uncertain. Sir W. 
Jones has shown that three great branches 
of language are sufficient to account for all 
the varieties now extant; and this forms 
a very strong, as well as a new argument 
in favour of the Mosaic history of the 
early postdiluvian ages. The variety of 
tongues, the copiousness of some, and the 
scantiness of others, furnish no good ob- . 
jection to the divine origin of language in 
general ; for whether language was at first 
revealed from Heaven, or in a course of 
ages invented by men, a multitude of dia- 
lects would inevitably arise, as soon as the 
human race was separated into a number of 
distinct and independent nations, distant 
from each other. Dr. Adam Clarke's Sup- 
plement to the Bibliographical Dictionary, vol. 
ii. pp. 1 — 3 ; Supplementary Addenda to Cal- 
met's Dictionary. 

LAODICE'A, AaodiKsia, signifies a just 
people. There are several cities of this 
name ; but the Scripture mentions only that 
of Phrygia, on the river Lycus, near Co- 
losse. Its ancient name was Diospolis; and 
it was afterwards called Rhoas. Lastly, 
Antiochus the son of Stratonice rebuilt it, 
and denominated it Laodicea, from the 
name of his wife Laodice. Laodicea, with 
Colosse, its neighbour, was enriched by 
sheep, which produced fleeces exceeding 
Milesian in softness, and the jetty raven 
in colour. 
G16 



This city was often damaged by earth- 
quakes, and restored either by the opulence 
of the inhabitants, or by the munificence of 
the Roman emperors. From the researches 
of modern travellers, it appears to have been 
seated upon a volcanic hill, of moderate 
height, but of considerable extent. Its 
ruins attest that it was large, opulent, and 
splendid ; and there are still to be seen the 
remains of an amphitheatre, an aqueduct, 
and many other buildings. In the primi- 
tive times of Christianity, as appears from 
St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians, in 
which the Laodiceans are frequently men- 
tioned, this place possessed a flourishing 
church. But the doom of Laodicea seems 
to have been more severe and terrible than 
that of the other six apocalyptic churches ; 
and its present condition is in striking con- 
formity with the rebukes and threatenings 
of God. Not a single Christian resides at 
Laodicea ! No Turk even has a fixed resi- 
dence on this forsaken spot. The stately 
edifices of ancient Laodicea are now peopled 
with wolves and jackals. The prayers of 
the mosque are the only prayers heard near 
the still splendid ruins of the city, on which 
the prophetic denunciation seems to have 
been fully executed, in its utter rejection 
as a Church. It is now called Ladik. 

St. Paul did not visit this city, and the 
Laodiceans had ' never seen his face in 
the flesh.' (Colos. ii. 1.) Yet upon infor- 
mation from Epaphras their apostle, that 
false teachers had propagated pernicious 
doctrines in Laodicea and Colosse, he 
wrote to the Colossians, and desires them, 
when they had read his letter, to send it 
to the Laodiceans, and he writes in the 
like manner that the Laodiceans would 
send their letter to the Colossians : ' When 
this epistle is read among you, cause that 
it be read also in the church of the Lao- 
diceans, and that ye likewise read the 
epistle from Laodicea.' (Colos. iv. 16.) St. 
Paul's expression, ' the epistle from Lao- 
dicea,' is ambiguous, and may signify 
either the letter which he wrote to Laodi- 
cea, or that which the Laodiceans wrote 
to him. Interpreters have been divided; 
some taking it in the former, and others 
in the latter sense. A letter is extant 
under the name of Paul to the Laodiceans ; 
but it is agreed, that this letter is spurious. 
What then was the Epistle of the Laodi- 
ceans which St. Paul requires the Colos- 
sians to read in their assembly ? Marcion 
thought that this was the Epistle to the 
Ephesians. Grotius, Le Clerc, and Ham- 
mond, are of the same opinion. Dr. Paley 
observes, ' that the epistle from Laodicea 
was an epistle sent by St. Paul to that 
Church, and by them transmitted to Co- 
losse. The two churches were mutually 
to communicate the epistles they had re- 
ceived. This is the way in which the 
direction is explained by the greater part 



LAT 



LAW 



of commentators, and is the most probable 
sense that can be given to it. It is also 
probable, that the epistle alluded to was 
an epistle which had been received by 
the church of Laodicea lately.' Hence 
the doctor argues, from this and other cir- 
cumstances, that the Epistle to the Ephe- 
sians, was that alluded to by St. Paul. 
He has also judiciously traced the inti- 
mate resemblance between the Epistle to 
the Ephesians and that to the Colossians, 
both in sentiment and expression ; and 
this resemblance has induced Michaelis 
and others to conjecture, that the longer 
and more circumstantial Epistle to the 
Ephesians was that which was sent or 
communicated to the church of Laodicea 
in that neighbourhood, and which the 
apostle recommended to the perusal of 
the church of Colosse in Phrygia. Paley's 
Horee Paulina, pp. 248, 249; Hales' s New 
Analysis of Chro?iology, vol. ii. book ii. p. 
1126; Michaelis' s Introduction to the New 
Testament, vol. vi. p. 121, &c. ; Hartley's 
Visit to the Apocalyptic Churches in 1826 ; 
ArundelVs Visit to the Seven Churches, pp. 
84 — 90 ; Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 
598. 

LATITUDINARIAN, a person not 
conforming to any particular opinion or 
standard, but of such moderation as to sup- 
pose that persons of different persuasions 
will be admitted into heaven. The term 
was more particularly applied to those paci- 
fic doctors in the seventeenth century, who 
offered tbemselves as mediators between the 
more violent Episcopalians, and the rigid 
Presbyterians and Independents, respecting 
the forms of church government, public 
worship, and certain religious tenets, more 
especially such as were debated between the 
Arminians and Calvinists. The chief lead- 
ers of these Latitudinarians were Hales and 
Chillingworth ; but More, Cudworth, Gale, 
Whichcot, and Tillotson, were also among 
the number. These men were firmly at- 
tached to the church of England ; but they 
did not consider episcopacy as indispensably 
necessary to the constitution of a Christian 
church. Hence they maintained, that those 
who adopted other forms of government and 
worship, were not, on that account, to be 
excluded from their communion, or to for- 
feit the title of brethren. As to the doctri- 
nal part of religion, they took the system of 
Episcopius for their model, and, like him, 
reduced the fundamental doctrines of Christ- 
ianity to a few points. By this manner of 
proceeding, they endeavoured to show the 
contending parties, that they had no reason 
to oppose each other with such animosity 
and bitterness, since the subjects of their 
debates were matters of an indifferent na- 
ture with respect to salvation. They met, 
however, with much opposition, and were 
branded as Atheists and Deists by some, 
and as Socinians bv others ; but upon the 
617 



restoration of king Charles II., they were 
raised to the first dignities of the church, 
and were held in great esteem. Mosheim's 
Eccles. Hist. vol. iv. pp. 535, 536 ; Burnet's 
Hist, of his own Times, vol. i. book ii. p. 
188. r 

LAW, a rule of action ; a precept or 
command from a superior authority, which 
an inferior is bound to obey. This word, 
in Scripture, is sometimes taken for the 
law of Moses, and sometimes for the reli- 
gion of the Jews in opposition to the Gos- 
pel. The law of Moses is the most ancient 
in the world. The Rabbins pretend, that 
Noah's sons received certain laws which 
compose the law of nature, and bind all 
people, in all countries. 

A distinction is generally made between 
the law of nature, and positive laws. The 
law of nature is impressed on our hearts — 
such as our obligation to worship the Su- 
preme Being, to honour our parents, and 
those in dignities, to obey superiors, to do 
that to no man which we would not have 
done to us, &c. Positive laws are of seve- 
ral kinds ; moral, civil, and political, or 
ceremonial. Moral laws are, generally, 
only consequences, or explanations, of the 
laws of nature. Judicial, civil, and politi- 
cal laws regard principally the duties of men 
in society, the order and polity of the state ; 
they restrain the violence of the wicked, 
defend the weak from the oppression of the 
strong, and regulate duties, rights, and 
powers. Ceremonial laws respect the ex- 
ternal worship of God, the duties of minis- 
ters and people towards God, and their re- 
ciprocal obligations to each other, with re- 
lation to the Divine Being. 

The law was given to the Hebrews by 
the intervention of Moses, upon Mount 
Sinai, fifty days after their departure out of 
Egypt, in the year of the world 2513, and 
before Christ 1491. The principal laws 
are those of the Decalogue. (Exod. xx 1 
2, &c.) 

Some learned men have been of opinion, 
that Moses, in most of his laws, intended 
either to imitate those of the Egyptians, or 
to reverse their customs and maxims, or to 
circumscribe the Hebrews, so as to prevent 
their falling into those errors, idolatries, 
and superstitions, which they had seen in 
Egypt. On the contrary, others have as- 
serted, that the Egyptians imitated the 
Hebrew laws, at least in part. It would 
seem, however, that the Hebrews often 
imitated the Egyptians, and that, recipro- 
cally, the Egyptians sometimes copied the 
Hebrews; that the Egyptians having a 
different turn of mind, on many occasions 
kept at a distance from the Hebrews; and, 
in like manner, that the practices of the 
Mosaic laws, which oppose the superstition 
of Egypt, were not instituted without de- 
sign, and that the legislator of the Jews in- 
tended to cure the Israelites of their prone- 



LAZ 



LAZ 



ness to idolatry, and to restrain the evil 
habits which they had contracted in Egypt. 
The law of Moses being the shadow only 
of things to come, and bringing nothing to 
perfection, as St. Paul says, (Heb. x. 1. ; 
viii. 9.) it was necessary that Jesus Christ 
should complete what was imperfect in it, 
reform what abuses it tolerated, and fulfil 
what it only promised and typified. This 
he has executed with great precision. He 
declares in the Gospel, (Matt. v. 17.) that 
he came not to destroy the law, but to per- 
fect it. He has explained, modified, and 
restrained the law of Moses, more particu- 
larly the explanations which the Rabbins, 
and masters in Israel, had given of it ; ex- 
planations, which were rather corruptions, 
than illustrations. St. Paul has set in their 
full light the purposes of his Divine Mas- 
ter ; as, for instance, that the law of Moses 
is, in some sort, abrogated by the Gospel ; 
that since the death of the Messiah, the le- 
gal observances are no longer of obligation ; 
that we are no longer under the yoke of the 
law, but under grace ; (Rom. vi. 14.) that 
Jesus Christ has procured for us the liberty 
of sons, instead of the spirit of bondage, 
which reigned under the Old Testament; in 
a word, that it is neither the law, nor the 
works of it, that justify us, (Rom. viii. 1, 2, 
&c.) but faith animated by love, and accom- 
panied with good works. (Gal. iv. 31 ; v. 6. 13.) 
When we say that the Gospel hath rescued 
us from the yoke of the law, we understand 
only the appointments of the ceremonial 
and judicial law, and not those moral pre- 
cepts, whose obligation is indispensable, 
and the observance of which is much more 
perfect and extensive in the law of grace, 
than under the old law. 

Oral law, is that which the Jews say 
they have received by tradition from their 
ancestors. See Cabbala. 

LAZ'ARUS, Ad^apog, signifies assistance 
of God. Lazarus, brother to Martha and 
Mary, dwelt with his sisters at Bethany, 
near Jerusalem ; and Jesus Christ some- 
times lodged with him, when he came to 
that city. Whilst Jesus was beyond Jordan 
with his disciples, Lazarus fell sick: his 
sisters sent information of this to our Sa- 
viour, telling him, that he whom he loved 
was ill. Jesus said, This sickness is not 
unto death, but for the glory of God. After 
two days he said to his disciples, that Laza- 
rus was asleep, but that he would go and 
awake him ; meaning that he was dead, and 
he would restore him to life. Jesus, on his 
arrival, found that he had been already four 
days in the grave. Martha, having ob- 
tained intelligence that Jesus was coming, 
went to meet him, and expostulated on his 
delay. 

In a short time after, Mary also went to 

meet Jesus, who, seeing her weeping, groaned 

in the spirit, and was himself troubled. 

Then he asked, Where have ye laid him ? 

618 



When he was come thither, he said, Take 
away the stone : and Jesus having returned 
thanks to his Father, for that he had always 
heard him, cried with a loud voice, Lazarus, 
come forth. Then he who had been dead 
came forth, bound hand and foot with grave- 
clothes, and his face wrapped up in a nap- 
kin. This miracle, which was wrought al- 
most at the very gates of Jerusalem, made 
a great noise ; and the priests resolved on 
the death of Jesus. (John xi. 1, 2, &c.) 

Six days before his last Passover, Jesus 
came again to Bethany, where he had raised 
Lazarus from the dead; and Lazarus was 
one of those who reclined at table with him. 
The Jews, observing that the resurrection of 
Lazarus had made a great impression on 
the people's minds, took a resolution to 
procure the death of both. The Scripture, 
however, does not inform us what became of 
Lazarus. 

On the nature and credibility of this stu- 
pendous miracle of raising Lazarus from the 
dead the judicious Tittman makes the fol- 
lowing general remarks : — ' The whole story,' 
says he, ' is of a nature calculated to ex- 
clude all suspicion of imposture, and to 
confirm the truth of the miracle. A person 
of Bethany, of the name of Lazarus, and 
well known, falls sick in the absence of Je- 
sus. His sisters send a message announcing 
this to Jesus ; and while he is yet absent, 
Lazarus dies, is buried, and kept in the se- 
pulchre for four days, during which Jesus is 
still absent. Martha, Mary, and all his 
friends, are persuaded of his death. Our 
Lord, while yet remaining in the place 
where he had been hitherto staying, tells 
his disciples, in plain terms, that it is his 
intention to go to Bethany for the purpose 
of raising Lazarus from the dead; that the 
glory of God may be illustrated, and the 
faith of his disciples confirmed. At our 
Lord's approach, Martha respectfully goes 
forth to meet him, and, in a sorrowful tone, 
announces the death of her brother, and 
laments that Jesus had been absent (since, 
if he had been present, he could have easily 
healed the disorder, and prevented death) 
yet not without a faint hope that, by some 
means or other, Jesus might yet render 
assistance. Our Lord affirms that her bro- 
ther shall be raised to life ; and, for the re- 
moval of her doubt, assures her that to him 
is given power of granting life to the dead, 
and therefore of recalling her brother to 
life. Mary now approaches, bathed in tears, 
and grieving at the absence of our Lord 
during her brother's sickness. Her Jeru- 
salem friends also -approach, weeping with 
her. Our Lord himself is seized with heavy 
sorrow on contemplating the fragility of 
human happiness, and the afflictions ever 
attendant on the sons of men. He bids her 
show him the sepulchre. He approaches, 
accompanied by the crowd. The stone is 
removed by other hands. The stench of the 



LAZ 



LEP 



corpse is perceived. Our Lord, after pour- 
ing forth audible prayers to his Father in 
heaven, thus calls them to witness that Di- 
vine Power dwells in him. He, with a loud 
voice, calls forth Lazarus from the grave, 
in the hearing of all. The dead obeys the 
call, comes forth to public view, in the same 
dress as that in which he was buried, and, 
(wonderful to say) though after having ex- 
perienced putridity, alive and well; and 
returns home without assistance. All the 
persons present unanimously agree that 
Lazarus is raised to life by Jesus, and that 
a great miracle has been worked, such as had 
never been heard of from the creation of 
the world. Some relate to tbe rulers what 
Jesus had done, nor do these doubt of the 
truth ; nay, they themselves confess that our 
Lord, by his wonderful works, was becoming 
every day more and more famous, and that 
it required but little to cause him to be re- 
ceived as Messiah by the whole people ; 
and therefore the rulers take counsel how 
they may put him to death, and also Laza- 
rus, who had been raised by him from the 
dead. (John xi. 46. ; xii, 10.) The people, 
informed of this prodigious transaction, 
flock together in great multitudes to Be- 
thany, partly to see Jesus, whose fame had 
been exceedingly increased, and partly to 
view Lazarus. No wonder, therefore, that 
they and the rest of the people, who had 
heard this wonderful account from them, 
should, when Jesus soon after came to Je- 
rusalem, go forth to meet him, and, strew- 
ing the way not only with boughs of trees, 
but with their own garments, show him the 
honour due to the Messiah, (xii. 9, et seq. 
especially 17, 18.) Now if these circum- 
stances do not establish, beyond all doubt, 
the truth of the miracle, there is no truth 
whatever in history.' BloomfieWs Recensio 
Synoptica, vol. iii. pp. 441, 442. 

Lazarus. Luke (xvi. 19.) speaks of a 
poor man, named Lazarus, who lay at a 
rich man's gate, full of sores, and desired 
the crumbs which fell from his table, with- 
out finding relief or pity ; whilst the rich 
man enjoyed great plenty, was clothed in 
purple and fine linen, and fared sumptu- 
ously every day. Lazarus being dead, was 
carried by angels into Abraham's bosom. 
The rich man also died ; and when in hell, 
amidst his torments, he saw Lazarus afar 
off, and cried out, Father Abraham, have 
pity on me, and send Lazarus that he may 
dip the end of his finger in water to cool 
my tongue. But Abraham answered him, 
Son, thou in thy life-time receivedst thy 
good things, and Lazarus his evil things ; 
now he is happy, and thou art miserable. 

Interpreters are divided, whether this is 
a history or parable ; but most modern 
commentators consider it as a parable. 

LE'AH, nxb, Ada, signifies nraricd, 
tired. Leah was the wife of Jacob, and La- 
ban's eldest daughter. Her father intro- 
619 



duced her into Jacob's chamber, on the 
wedding night; Jacob thought her to be 
Rachel, whom he had really married. When 
Jacob complained of the deception, Laban 
answered, that the custom of that country 
forbad to marry the younger daughters be- 
fore the elder. (Gen. xxix. 23, &c.) The 
Lord observing Jacob to have more incli- 
nation for Rachel than for Leah, made Leah 
the mother of six sons and one daughter, 
namely, Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, 
Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah. We know 
not the year of Leah's death ; but she died 
in the land of Canaan, and was buried in 
the same cave with Sarah, Abraham, and 
Isaac. (Gen. xlix. 31.) 

LEAVEN. The Hebrews were for- 
bidden by the law to eat leavened bread, 
or food with leaven in it, during the seven 
days of the Passover. (Exod. xii. 15 — 19. 
Levit. ii. 11.) They were very careful in 
purifying their houses from all leaven 
before this feast began. God forbad 
either leaven or honey to be offered to 
him in his temple ; that is, in cakes or 
in any baked meats. But on other occa- 
sions they might offer leavened bread, or 
honey. 

St. Paul, (1 Cor. v. 7, 8.) expresses his 
desire, that the faithful should celebrate 
the Christian Passover with unleavened 
bread, which, figuratively, signifies since- 
rity and truth. In this he teaches us two 
things: first, that the law which obliged 
the Jews to a literal observance of the 
Passover is no longer in force ; and, se- 
condly, that by unleavened bread, truth 
and purity of heart were denoted. The 
same apostle alludes to the ceremony used 
at the Passover, when he says, ' A little 
leaven leaveneth the whole lump ;' that is, 
a small portion of leaven in a quantity 
of bread or paste, corrupts the whole, and 
renders it unclean. Our Saviour in the 
Gospel, (Matt. xvi. 11.) warns his apos- 
tles to beware of the leaven of the Hero- 
dians and Pharisees, meaning their doc- 
trines. 

LEPER. The law excluded lepers from 
the conversation of mankind, and banished 
them into the country and places unin- 
habited. (Lev. xiii. 45, 46.) Many persons 
attacked with this disease associated to- 
gether, and composed a kind of society. We 
instance the four lepers without the city of 
Samaria, while Benhadad king of Syria 
besieged it; (2 Kings vii. 3, &c) and, the 
ten lepers who came to Jesus Christ, and 
desired to be healed. (Luke xvii. 12.) This 
was observed so punctually, that even kings, 
under this disease, were expelled their 
palace, and deprived of the government 
Azariah, king of Judah, who was afflicted 
with this malady for attempting to offer in- 
cense in the temple. (2 Kings x\. 5. 2 
Chron. xxvi. 20.) 

When a leper was cured, he appeared at 



LEP 



LEP 



the gate of the city, and the priest ex- 
amined whether he was truly healed or not. 
(Lev. xiv. 1, &c.) After this he went to 
the temple, took two pure hirds, made a 
wisp with a branch of cedar, and another 
of hyssop, tied together with a scarlet 
ribbon made of wool ; an earthen vessel 
was filled with water, and one of these 
birds fastened alive to the wisp. The leper 
who was cured killed the other bird, and 
let the blood of it run into the vessel filled 
with water. Then the priest took the wisp 
with the live bird, dipped both in the water 
tinged with the blood of one of the birds, 
and sprinkled the leper with it. After this 
the live bird was. let loose, and the person 
healed and purified in this manner was 
again admitted to the society of the healthy, 
and to the use of things sacred. 

' This ceremony,' says Dr. Hales, ' seems 
to be typical of the purification of our sins, 
by the sprinkling of the blood of Jesus 
Christ, (Isai. lii. 15. 1 Pet. i. 2.) which 
flowed out of his wounded side, mixed with 
water; (John xix. 34.) while the dismissal 
of the living bird resembles that of the 
scape goat into the wilderness, with the sins 
of the leper upon him. And our Lord ex- 
pressly commanded the lepers whom he 
healed, to conform to the law.' (Matt, 
viii. 4. Mark i. 44. Luke v. 14. ; xvii. 14.) 
Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
p. 248. 

LEPROSY. Moses mentions three sorts 
of Leprosies : 1. in men ; 2. in houses ; and 
3. in clothes. 

1. A leprosy in men affects the skin, and 
sometimes increases in such a manner, as 
to produce scurf, scabs, and violent itch- 
ings, and to corrupt the whole mass of 
blood. Lucretius supposed this disease 
to be generated in Egypt : but if the lep- 
rosy of the Jews is the same as that of 
the negroes, which is extremely probable, 
it may be affirmed that this disease is en- 
demical in the southern and inland parts 
of Africa. That it was contagious, all his- 
tories, sacred and profane, agree. Pliny 
acquaints us, that it did not invade Italy 
till the time of Pompey the Great ; and 
that it was brought from Egypt, and is 
peculiar to that country. Some have thought 
that the leprosy of the Arabians, or rather 
of the Africans, ' was the parent of the vene- 
real disease.' 

The Jews considered a leprosy as a dis- 
ease from God ; and Moses prescribes no 
natural remedy for its cure. He requires 
only that the diseased person should show 
himself to the priest, and that the priest 
should judge of his leprosy ; if it ap- 
peared to be a real leprosy, capable of being 
communicated to others, he separated the 
leper from the company of mankind. He 
appointed certain sacrifices and particu- 
lar ceremonies for the purification of a 
leper, and for restoring him to civil so- 
620 



ciety, to the participation of things holy, 
and to the conversation of other men. The 
marks which Moses gives for the better 
distinguishing a leprosy, are signs of the 
increase of this disease. An outward swell- 
ing, a pimple, a white spot, bright, and 
rather reddish, created just suspicions that 
a man was attacked by it. When a bright 
spot, rather reddish or white, appeared, and 
the hair of that place was of a pale red, and 
the place itself rather deeper than the rest 
of the skin, this was a certain mark of 
leprosy. 

Travellers who have seen lepers in the 
East say, that this disease attacks prin- 
cipally the feet. Maundrell, who had seen 
lepers in Palestine, says, that their feet 
are swelled like those of elephants, or 
horses' feet with the farcy. Tournefort, 
who had observed several lepers in his 
travels, believes a leprosy to be only an 
inveterate venereal distemper, and that 
the generality might recover if helped 
in time. ' The negroes,' says Mungo Park, 
' are subject to a leprosy of the very worst 
kind ; it appears, at the beginning, in scurfy 
spots upon different parts of the body; 
which finally settle upon the hands or feet, 
where the skin becomes withered, and 
cracks in many places. At length, the ends 
of the fingers swell and ulcerate ; the dis- 
charge is acrid and fetid ; the nails drop off, 
and the bones of the fingers become carious, 
and separate at the joints. In this man- 
ner the disease continues to spread fre- 
quently until the patient loses all his fingers 
and toes. Even the hands and feet are 
sometimes destroyed by this inveterate 
malady, to which the negroes give the 
name of batta-jou, incurable. Park's Travels 
in Africa, p. 276. 

2. The leprosy of houses (Levit. xiv. 
34, &c.) must have been known to the 
Israelites who had lived in Egypt, and 
must have been cor.imon in the land of 
Canaan, whither they were going, since 
Moses says to them as follows : When ye 
come into the land of Canaan, which 1 
give you for a possession, if there be an 
house infected with a leprosy, he to whom 
the house belongs shall give notice of it to 
the priest, who shall go thither. If he sees 
as it were little holes in the wall, and places 
disfigured with pale or reddish spots, 
which in sight are lower than the wall, he 
shall go out of the house and direct it 
to be shut up for seven days. At the end 
of this time, if he finds that the leprosy is 
increased, he shall command the stones 
infected with the leprosy to be taken away, 
and thrown without the city to some un- 
clean place. New stones shall be put in 
the room of those which were plucked out, 
and the wall shall be again rough-cast. If 
the leprosy does not return, the house shall 
be thought clean ; but if it returns, it is 
then an inveterate leprosy ; the house shall 



LET 



LET 



be declared unclean, and immediately be 
demolisbed ; all the wood, stone, mortar, 
and dust, shall be cast out of the city into 
an unclean place. 

Calmet is of opinion, that this leprosy 
of houses was occasioned by certain worms 
which, like mites in a cheese, infected the 
materials of the building. Might this 
be the same as the dry rot in timber ? 

3. The leprosy in clothes is also noticed 
by Moses in his time. He says, If any 
greenish or red spots be observed upon 
any woollen or linen stuffs, or upon any 
thing made of skin, they shall be carried 
to the priest, who shall shut them up for 
seven days ; and if at the end of this time 
these spots increase and spread, he shall 
burn them, as infected with a real leprosy. 
If these spots are not increased, the priest 
shall command the clothes to be washed ; 
and if he afterwards observe nothing ex- 
traordinary in them, he shall declare them 
to be clean. If the greenish or red spots 
remain, he shall order the garments so 
spotted to be burnt as unclean: or, if 
they spread and increase, he shall order 
the garment to be burnt ; or, if the place 
suspected of a leprosy be in colour like a 
singed garment, and deeper than the rest, 
this part of the garment shall be taken 
away, and the rest preserved. 

Calmet thinks it very credible that the 
leprosy in clothes and skins mentioned 
by Moses, was caused by vermin ; and 
others also are of opinion, that as the 
leprosy infected bodies, clothes, and even 
the walls of houses, it was occasioned 
by a species of animalcula, or vermin. 
Dr. Adam Clarke's Commentary on Levit. 
xiii. 13. 

LETTERS. The inquiry concerning 
the origin of letters has given birth to 
vague and unsatisfactory conjectures. Va- 
rious writers have attributed their inven- 
tion to different people. It is impos- 
sible to arrive at any certain conclusions 
on this subject. Some have been of opi- 
nion, that God, when he inspired man 
with reason and speech, also communi- 
cated to him writing. By some Thyoth 
or Mercury is said to have invented and 
taught the Egyptians the use of letters. 
Some give the honour of this invention 
to the Assyrians, Phoenicians, &c. Some 
think they were perfectly known before 
the confusion of Babel, and imagine them 
to have been in common use in the Ante- 
diluvian world ; and that Noah and his 
family brought them into the new world, 
in which they have been continued through 
a vast variety of successive changes 
until the present time. Some attribute 
the invention to Moses, some to Abraham, 
some to Abel, and some to Adam. Tbe 
Jewish Rabbins say, that 'God created 
them on the evening of the first sabbath ;' 
and Pliny seems to have thought them 
621 



eternal ! This variety of opinions serves 
only to show the uncertainty of the sub- 
ject; for to conjectures on this head, 
where all direct evidence is wanting, there 
can be no limits. That there were various 
symbols and figures used in all ages of the 
world, to represent the objects of sense, 
even before a regular written language was 
necessary, maybe easily believed. It seems, 
however, highly credible, that the use of 
letters was known in the time of Abraham ; 
and it is not improbable that even Noah 
practised the art of writing. But as we 
have no certain account of the existence 
or use of regular alphabetical characters, 
previously to the days of Moses, great 
doubts have been entertained whether 
this art be more ancient than the inter- 
course of Moses with the Deity upon Mount 
Horeb, in the year of the world 2513. 

It is observed, that in the Antediluvian 
world, when the life of man was so pro- 
tracted, there was comparatively little need 
for writing of any kind, as past transac- 
tions had to pass through only few hands. 
Tradition would, at that period, answer 
every purpose to which writing in any 
kind of characters could be subservient. 
But after the dispersion of mankind, in 
the time of Peleg, writing became neces- 
sary, not only because of this general dis- 
persion, but because the life of man was 
so much abridged, and consequently tra- 
dition must become less certain, as the 
facts had to pass through a multitude of 
hands. Hence alphabetical characters be- 
came absolutely necessary, as without these, 
the records of the world must soon be 
obliterated from the minds of the swiftly 
succeeding generations of mankind. 

The usefulness of alphabetical charac- 
ters cannot be sufficiently estimated : 
without writing, the histories of ancient 
times had never reached us ; and the neces- 
sary intercourses of friendship and busi- 
ness must have been greatly retarded in 
general ; and, in many cases, wholly ob- 
structed. — Without it, those living oiacles 
which teach the science of salvation, and 
make known the God of Truth, could never 
have existed. When God, therefore, pro- 
posed to give a revelation of himself to man- 
kind, it is not unreasonable to suppose, that 
he graciously taught them the use of alpha- 
betical characters, that these divine and 
interesting records might be handed down 
from generation to generation. 

As it is thought by many, no sufficient 
evidence exists, that there was any writing 
before the giving of the law; as then God is 
said to have written the Decalogue with his 
own finger ; and as, after this time, writing 

is always mentioned when a suitable oc- 
casion offers, it ha* been concluded, thai 
God himself Bret taught the use of alpha* 

betical charaeters to man. See BlBl i . 
Dr. Adam Clarke's Bibliographical Miscsllany, 



LEV 



LEV 



vol. ii. p. 3 — 6; Supplement. Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary. 

LE'VI, "V?, signifies who is tied and as- 
sociated. Levi, third son of Jacob and 
Leah, was born in Mesopotamia, in the 
year of the world 2248. After Sichem, 
the son of Hamor, had violated Dinah, 
Jacob's daughter, and sister to Levi and 
Simeon, these two brothers fraudulently 
engaged Sichem to receive circumcision, 
and, on the third day, when the pain was 
greatest, they entered the town of Sichem, 
slew all the males, retook their sister 
Dinah, and pillaged the place. (Gen. xxxiv. 
25, 26.) This action was very displeasing 
to their father Jacob : Simeon and Levi 
replied, Should they have thus abused our 
sister 1 &c. Levi went down into Egypt 
with his father, having three sons, Ger- 
shon, Kohath, and Merari. When Jacob 
blessed his sons, he said to Simeon and 
Levi : Ye are brethren, and too much 
united in doing mischief ; ye are the in- 
struments of an unjust war. God forbid 
that I should be a partaker in their evil 
designs, and that my honour should be 
concerned in their combinations ; for in 
their fury they killed a man, and in their 
resentment they pierced a wall. Cursed 
be their anger, for it was fierce ; and their 
wrath, for it was cruel. I will divide them 
in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel. 
(Gen. xlvi. 11. ; xlix. 5, 6.) Accordingly, 
Levi was scattered over all Israel, having 
no share in the division of Canaan, but 
only some cities in the portion of other 
tribes. Yet, he was not the worse pro- 
vided for, since God chose the tribe of 
Levi for the service of his temple, and 
for the priesthood, bestowed many privi- 
leges on it, above the other tribes, in 
dignity, and in the advantages of life ; 
all the tithes, first fruits, and offerings pre- 
sented at the temple, and several parts of 
all the victims, &c. 

LEVI'ATHAN jrvV?, opa/cuv, signifies 
a large fish fastened. The leviathan is now 
universally allowed to be the crocodile, 
which, from the scaly nature and hardness 
of his coat, or because ' his scales' so 
stick ' together that they cannot be sun- 
dered,' is therefore in no danger of ' hav- 
ing his skin filled with barbed irons,' or 
* his head with fish spears.' (Job xli.) 
Job gives an admirable description of the 
leviathan, which may be very naturally ex- 
plained of the crocodile. Harmer's Obser- 
vations, vol. iv. pp. 36. 69. 

LE'VITES. Under this name may be 
comprised all the descendants of Levi; 
but it principally denotes those who were 
employed in the lowest ministries of the 
temple, by which they were distinguished 
from the priests, who, being descended 
from Aaron, were likewise of the race of 
Levi by Kohath, but were employed in 
higher offices. 
622 



The Levites were descendants of Levi 
by Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, ex- 
cepting the family of Aaron ; for the chil- 
dren of Moses had no part in the priest- 
hood, and were only common Levites. God 
chose the Levites instead of the first-born 
of all Israel, for the service of his taber- 
nacle and temple. (Numb. iii. 6, &c.) 
They obeyed the priests in the ministra- 
tions of the temple, and brought to them 
wood, water, and other things necessary 
for the sacrifices. They sang and played 
on instruments, in the temple, &c. They 
studied the law, and were the ordinary 
judges of the country, but subordinate to 
the priests. 

God provided for the subsistence of the 
Levites, by giving them the tithe of corn, 
fruit, and cattle: but they paid to the 
priests the tenth of their tithes ; and as the 
Levites possessed no estates in the land, 
the tithes which the priests received from 
them were looked on as the first-fruits 
which they were to offer to the Lord. (Numb, 
xviii. 21, 22, 23, 24.) 

God assigned them for their habitations 
forty-eight cities, with fields, pastures, and 
gardens. (Numb. xxxv. 1, 2, 3, &c.) Of 
these, thirteen were given to the priests, 
six of which were cities of refuge. (Joshua 
xx. 7. ; xxi. 19, 20, &c.) While the Levites 
were actually employed in the temple, 
they were subsisted out of the provisions 
in store there, and out of the daily offer- 
ings there made : and if any Levite quitted 
the place of his abode, to serve the temple, 
even out of the time of his half-yearly, or 
weekly, waiting, he was received there, 
kept and provided for in like manner as 
his other brethren, who were regularly in 
waiting. (Deut. xviii. 6, 7, 8.) The conse- 
cration of Levites was without much cere- 
mony. They wore no peculiar habit to 
distinguish them from the other Israelites, 
and God ordained nothing particularly for 
their mourning. (2 Chron. xxix. 34.) The 
manner of their consecration may be seen 
in Numb. viii. 5, 6, 7, &c. 

Josephus says, that in the reign of Agrippa 
king of the Jews, about A.D. 62, six years 
before the destruction of the temple by the 
Romans, the Levites desired permission 
from that prince to wear the linen tunic 
like the priests; and this was granted. 
This innovation was displeasing to the 
priests ; and the Jewish historian remarks, 
that the ancient customs of the country 
were never forsaken with impunity. He 
adds, that Agrippa permitted likewise the 
families of the Levites, whose office it was 
to guard the doors, and perform other 
troublesome offices, to learn to sing, and 
play on instruments, that they might be 
qualified for the temple service as mu- 
sicians. 

The Levites were divided into differ- 
ent classes : Gershonites, Kohathites, Me- 



LEV 



LIB 



rarites, and Aaronites or priests. (Numb, 
iii. &c.) The Gershonites, whose number 
was 7,500, were employed, in the marches 
through the wilderness, in carrying the 
veils and curtains of the tabernacle ; the 
Kohathites, whose number was 8,600, in 
carrying the ark and sacred vessels of the 
tabernacle ; the Merarites, whose number 
was 6,200, in carrying the several pieces of 
the tabernacle which could not be placed 
upon the chariots ; and the Aaronites 
were the priests who served the sanctuary. 

When the Hebrews encamped in the 
wilderness, the Levites were placed around 
the tabernacle. Moses and Aaron at the 
east, Gershon at the west, Kohath at the 
south, and Merari at the north. Moses 
ordained, that the Levites should not 
enter upon the service of the tabernacle 
till they were five-and-twenty years of 
age ; (Numb. viii. 24, 25, 26.) or, as he 
says elsewhere, from thirty to fifty years 
old. (Numb. iv. 3.) But David, finding 
that they were no longer employed in these 
grosser offices of transporting the vessels 
of the tabernacle, appointed them to enter 
on service at the temple at twenty years 
of age. The priests and Levites waited 
by turns, weekly, in the temple. They 
began their weeks on one sabbath day, 
and on the sabbath day in the following 
week went out of waiting. (1 Chron. xxiii. 
24. 2- Chron. xxxi. 17. Ezra iii. 8.) When 
an Israelite made a religious entertainment 
in the temple, God required that the 
Levites should be invited to it. (Deut. xii. 
18, 19.) 

LEVIT'ICUS, the third book in the Pen- 
tateuch. It is called Leviticus, because 
it contains principally the laws and regu- 
lations relating to the priests, the Levites, 
and sacrifices, for which reason the He- 
brews called it the priests' law. The Jews 
term it likewise Vajicra, because in He- 
brew it begins with this word, which sig- 
nifies and he called. The first seven chap- 
ters of Leviticus prescribe the ceremo- 
nies to be observed in offering burnt sacri- s 
fices, meat offerings, bread and cakes, 
peace-offerings, or thanksgiving, and sin- 
offerings ; they regulate what parts were to 
be consumed on the fire of the altar, and 
what were to be given to the priest who 
offered them. After this are related in 
what manner the priests were conse- 
crated, and what sacrifices were offered 
on that occasion ; and the punishment 
of Nadab and Abihu, for attempting to 
offer incense to the Lord with strange 
fire. On this occasion Moses appoints 
the mourning of the priests, and forbids 
them to drink wine while waiting in the 
temple. 

Chapters xi. to xv. give rules for distin- 
guishing beasts clean and unclean ; the 
leprosy of men, of houses, and of habits; 
for the purification of men indisposed 
623 



with a gonorrhea, and of women after 
child-birth. After this, the ceremonies on 
the day of solemn expiation are regulated ; 
and the degrees of relation, permitted or 
forbidden in marriage. Then follow pro- 
hibitions of alliances with the Canaanites, 
of idolatry, theft, perjury, calumny, ha- 
tred, the superstitions of the Gentiles, 
magic, divinations, soothsayings, pros- 
titutions, and adultery; explaining the 
blemishes which unfitted animals for sa- 
crifice. Chapter xxiii. notices the prin- 
cipal festivals in the year, the Passover, 
Pentecost, the Feast of Tabernacles, the 
Great Day of Expiation, the Feast of Trum- 
pets, or beginning of the civil year (includ- 
ing the story of a man who was stoned to 
death for having blasphemed the name of 
the Lord), the sabbatical, and the jubilee 
years ; and it contains regulations respect- 
ing vows and tithes. 

All agree that Leviticus is a canonical 
book, and of divine authority. It is gene- 
rally held to be the work of Moses, as well 
as the rest of the Pentateuch. It contains 
the history of the eight days of Aaron's and 
his sons' consecration, in the year of the 
world 2514. The laws prescribed in it 
upon other subjects besides sacrifices, 
have no chronological marks by which we 
may judge at what times they were given. 

LIB'ANUS, p^nb, AijSavoe, Hebrew Le- 
banon, signifies white ; otherwise, incense, 
or the filiation of the heart. Libanus, or 
Lebanon, is a famous mountain which sepa- 
rates Syria from Palestine. It forms a 
kind of horse-shoe in its length, beginning 
three or four leagues from the Mediter- 
ranean above Smyrna, and extending from 
north to south towards Sidon, thence 
bending from west to east towards Damas- 
cus, and returning from the south north- 
ward, from the Strait of Damascus, as 
far as Laodicea Scabiosa. The western 
part of this chain of mountains is properly 
called Libanus. The other part, eastward, 
extends from south to north, and is called 
Antilibanus by the Greeks. Between these 
two mountains is a long valley called Ccele- 
Syria, or hollow Syria, and the valley of 
Lebanon. (Joshua xi. 17-) 

Libanus is about an hundred leagues in 
circumference. It has Mesopotamia east, 
Armenia north, the Holy Land south, and 
the Mediterranean west. It is composed 
of four enclosures of mountains, which rise 
one on the other. The first is very rich in 
grain and fruits; the second is barren. 
abounding in thorns, rocks, and (lints; the 
third, though higher than this, enjoys a per- 
petual spring, tlu- trees being always green, 
and the orchards filled with fruit : it is so 
agreeable and fertile, that some have called 
it a terrestrial paradise. The fourth is so 

high, that it is almost always covered with 

snow, and is uninhabitable by reason of the 
great cold. 



LIB 



LIB 



The following is Volney's account of 
Mount Lebanon : — ' A view of the country 
will convince us that the most elevated point 
of all Syria is Lebanon, on the south east 
of Tripoli. Scarcely do we depart from 
Larneca, in Cyprus, which is thirty leagues 
distant, before we discover its summit 
capped with clouds. This is also distinctly 
perceivable on the map, from the course of 
the rivers. The Orontes, which flows from 
the mountains of Damascus, and loses itself 
below Antioch ; the Kasmia, which, from 
the north of Balbeck, takes its course to- 
wards Tyre ; the Jordan, forced by the de- 
clivities towards the south ; prove that this 
is the highest point. Next to Lebanon, 
the most elevated part of the country is 
Mount Akkar, which becomes visible as 
soon as we leave Marra in the Desert. It 
appears like an enormous flattened cone, 
and is constantly in view for two days' jour- 
ney. No one has yet had an opportunity to 
ascertain the height of these mountains by 
the barometer ; but we may deduce it from 
another consideration. In winter their tops 
are entirely covered with snow, from Alex- 
andretta to Jerusalem ; but after the month 
of March it melts, except on Mount Leba- 
non, where, however, it does not remain 
the whole year, unless in the highest cavi- 
ties, and towards the north east, where it is 
sheltered from the sea winds, and the rays 
of the sun. In such a situation I saw it 
still remaining, in 1784, at the very time I 
was almost suffocated with heat in the val- 
ley of Balbeck. Now, since it is well known 
that snow, in this latitude, requires an ele- 
vation of fifteen or sixteen hundred fathoms, 
we may conclude that to be the height of 
Lebanon, and that it is consequently much 
lower than the Alps, or even the Pyrenees. 

' Lebanon, which gives its name to the 
whole extensive chain of the Kesraouah, 
and the country of the Druses, presents us 
every where with majestic mountains. At 
every step we meet with scenes in which 
nature displays either beauty or grandeur, 
sometimes singularity, but always variety. 
When we land on the coast, the loftiness 
and steep ascent of this mountainous ridge, 
which seems to enclose the country, those 
gigantic masses which shoot into the clouds, 
inspire astonishment and awe. Should the 
curious traveller then climb these summits 
which bounded his view, the wide extended 
space which he discovers becomes a fresh 
subject of admiration ; but, completely to 
enjoy this majestic scene, he must ascend 
to the very point of Lebanon, or the San- 
nin. There, on every side, he will view an 
horizon without bounds; while, in clear 
weather, the sight is lost over the desert, 
which extends to the Persian Gulf, and 
over the sea which bathes the coast of Eu- 
rope. He seems to command the whole 
world, while the wandering eye now survey- 
ing the successive chains of mountains, 
624 



transports the imagination in an instant 
from Antioch to Jerusalem.' 

• To the north,' says Dr. E. D. Clarke, 
' appeared snowy summits, towering beyond 
a series of intervening mountains, with un- 
speakable greatness. We considered them 
as the summits of Libanus : but the Arabs 
belonging to our caravan called the princi- 
pal eminence Jebel el Sich, saying it was 
near to Damascus; probably, therefore, a 
part of the chain of Libanus. This summit 
was so lofty, that the snow entirely covered 
the upper part of it: not lying in patches, 
as during summer, upon the tops of some 
very elevated mountains, but investing all 
the higher part with that perfect white and 
smooth velvet-like appearance which snow 
exhibits only when it is very deep ; a strik- 
ing spectacle in such a climate, where the 
beholder, seeking protection from a burning 
sun, almost believes the firmament to be on 
fire.' Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 201, 202 ; 
Volney's Travels, vol. i. p. 293. 301. 315, &c. ; 
Taylor's Sacred Geography. 

LIBERTINES. A considerable differ- 
ence of opinion exists among the learned, 
with respect to the synagogue of the Liber- 
tines mentioned in Acts, (vi. 9.) whether 
these Libertines were the children of freed- 
men (Italian Jews and proselytes) or African 
Jews from the city or country called Liber- 
tus, or Libertina, near Carthage. 

Now since the word Ai(3ipT~ivoi denotes 
not nature (that is country) but state and 
condition, and since Libertini occurs in the 
middle of these names of nations, and since 
Josephus has told us that many Jews were 
removed by Ptolemy from their country, 
and placed in the cities of Libya, Beza, Le 
Clerc, Gothofred, Valcknaer, and others, 
have, on the authority of CScumenius, con- 
jectured Aifiv<TTiv(ov, or those sprung from 
Libya. To this opinion, Wetstein also 
seems to incline. All the MSS. and an- 
cient versions, however, agree in the com- 
mon reading. Hence others understand by 
the AifSfprlvoi, Jews, inhabitants and citi- 
zens of Libertus, or Libertina, in Africa 
Proper, or Carthage, either a town or a dis- 
trict. It is urged by Bishop Pearce, that 
Suidas in his Lexicon, on the word Aifiep- 
tIvoi, says, that it was ovo\ia tov tSvovg, 
the name of a people ; and that in a Latin 
tract published with the works of Optatus, 
mention is made of Victor, Episcopus Ec- 
clesise Catholicae Libertinensis. From these 
two passages, he is of opinion, that it ap- 
pears there was in Libya a town or district 
called Libertina, whose inhabitants bore the 
name of Aifieprlvoi, Libertines, when 
Christianity prevailed there, in the reign of 
the Roman emperor Honorius. Hence, he 
observes, it seems probable, that the 
town or district, and the people, existed in 
the days of which Luke is here speaking; 
and that they were without doubt Jews, who 
came up as the Cyrenian and Alexandrian 



LIB 



LIT 



Jews did, to bring their offerings to Jeru- 
salem, and to worship God in the temple 
there. 

That there was, however, any such town 
as Libertus or Libertina, cannot be proved. 
The most probable opinion, and that 
adopted by most commentators from the 
time of Chrysostom, is, that the Libertines 
were Jews, whom the Romans had taken 
in war, and conveyed to Rome, but after- 
wards freed ; at whose expense this syna- 
gogue had been built, which might have 
been properly called the synagogue of the 
Romans. AijSfprivoi is, therefore, a name 
of Roman origin, and to be explained by 
Roman customs. This opinion, too, is con- 
firmed by the circumstance that synagogue 
does not occur in the middle of the nations, 
but stands first, and has to it added ttjc. 
\tyopevJ]g, whence it clearly appears that 
AifieprTvoi is not the name of a region cr 
country. Besides, there were, it seems, 
many Libertini of the Jewish religion at 
Rome, as is evident from both Tacitus and 
Suetonius. Bloomfield' s Recensio Synoptica, 
vol. iv. pp. 199, 200. 

Libertines, a denomination that arose 
in Flanders about the year 1525. The 
heads of this party were one Copin, and 
Quintin, of Picardy. The doctrines they 
taught are comprised in the following pro- 
positions : that the Deity is the sole operat- 
ing cause in the mind of man, and the 
immediate author of all human actions ; 
that consequently the distinctions of good 
and evil, which have been established with 
respect to these actions, are false and 
groundless, and that men, properly speak- 
ing, cannot commit sin ; that religion con- 
sists in the union of the spirit, or rational 
soul, with the Supreme Being; that all 
those who have attained to this happy 
union by sublime contemplation and eleva- 
tion of mind, are allowed to indulge, with- 
out exception or restraint, their appetites 
and passions, as all their actions are then 
perfectly innocent; and that after the death 
of the body, they are to be united to the 
Deity. 

This denomination permitted their fol- 
lowers to call themselves either Catholics or 
Lutherans. Broughton's Histor. Dictionary, 
vol. ii. p. 543; Mosheim's Eccles. History, 
vol. iv. pp. 122, 123. 

LIB'NAH, ron 1 ?, signifies moon, or white- 
ness; otherwise, incense, or brick. Libnah 
was a station of the Israelites in the desert. 
(Numb, xxxiii. 20.) It is usual to consider 
the Libnah of Judah as forming a second 
instance of this name; (Josh. x. 29.) but 
it has been doubted whether this Libnah 
was not in or near the station of the Israel- 
ites, as this white district was of some, if 
not of considerable extent. Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

LICE. Swarms of lice were the third 
plague with which God punished the Egvp- 
625 



tians. (Exod. viii. 1G.) The Hebrew 
word a^-D, Chinnim, which the Septuagint 
render aicvifeg, some translate flies, and 
think them the same as gnats. Origen 
says, that the sciniphe is so small a fly, that 
it is scarcely perceptible to the eye, but 
that it occasions a sharp stinging pain. 
However, the original, according to the 
Syriac, and several good interpreters, sig- 
nifies lice. 

LION, a beast well known, and fre- 
quently mentioned in Scripture. The lion 
of the tribe of Judah, (Rev. v. 5.) is Jesus 
Christ, who sprang from the tribe of Judah, 
and overcame, death, the world, and the 
devil. The lion from the swelling of Jor- 
dan, (Jer. 1. 44.) is Nebuchadnezzar march- 
ing against Judea, with the strength and 
fierceness of a lion. The river Jordan, 
when it overflows its banks, drives away the 
lions and other beasts which lie among the 
thickets that cover the banks of this river, 
during the summer heats. Samson tore a 
young lion to pieces with his hands on the 
road to Timnath with his father and mo- 
ther ; and David boasts, that he had killed 
both a lion and a bear. 

Isaiah, (xi. 6, 7-) describing the happy 
time of the Messiah, says, that then the calf 
and the young lion, and the fading, should 
lie down together, and that a little child 
should lead them ; and that the lion should 
eat straw like the ox. This signifies the 
peace and happiness which the church of 
Christ should enjoy. 

LITANY, a solemn form of supplication 
to God. The word is derived from Xiraveia, 
1 supplication.' At first the use of litanies 
was not fixed to any stated time ; but they 
were employed only as exigencies required. 
They were observed in imitation of the Ni- 
nevites, with arden^ supplications and fast- 
ings, to avert the threatened judgments of 
fire, earthquake, inundations, or hostile in- 
vasions. The days on which they were used 
were called Rogation days. Several of these 
days were appointed by the canons of dif- 
ferent councils, till the seventeenth council 
of Toledo decreed that Litanies should be 
used in every month. Thus, by degrees, 
these solemn supplications came to be 
used weekly, on Wednesdays and Fri- 
days, the ancient stationary days in all 
churches. 

As to the form in which Litanies are 
made, namely, in short petitions by the 
priest, with responses by the people, St. 
Chrysostom derives the custom from the 
primitive ages, when the priest began, and 
uttered by the Spirit, some things Ht to be 
prayed for, and file people joined the inter- 
cessions, saying, * We beseech thee to hear 
us, good Lord.' When the miraculous 
gifts of the Spirit began to cease, they 
wrote down several of these forms, which 
were the original of our present Litanies. 
St. Ambrose has left us one, which au 
S s 



LIT 

in many particulars with that of our own 
church. 

About the year 400, Litanies began to 
be used in processions, the people walking 
barefoot, and repeating them with great 
devotion. It is pretended that several 
countries were delivered from great cala- 
mities by this means. About the year 600, 
Gregory the Great, from all the Litanies 
extant, composed the famous seven-fold 
Litany, by which Rome, it is said, was de- 
livered from a grievous mortality. This 
has served as a pattern to all the western 
churches since ; and to it ours of the church 
of England comes nearer than that of the 
Romish Missal, in which later popes have 
inserted the invocation of saints, which our 
reformers properly expunged. These pro- 
cessional Litanies having occasioned much 
scandal, it was decreed that in future the 
Litanies should be used only within the 
walls of the church. 

The days, appointed by the fifteenth ca- 
non of our church, for using the Litany, are 
Wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient fast- 
ing days of the primitive church ; to which, 
by the rubric, Sundays are added, as being 
the days of the greatest assembly for Divine 
service. Before the last review of the Com- 
mon Prayer, the Litany was a distinct ser- 
vice by itself, and used some time after the 
morning prayer was ended. At present, it 
forms one office with the morning service, 
being ordered to be read after the third 
collect for grace, instead of the interces- 
sional prayers in the daily service. Brough- 
ton's Histor. Diet. vol. ii. p. 21. 

LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies 
in general belonging to Divine service, and 
is derived from the Greek, Xarovpyia, 
1 service, public ministry.' When the ex- 
traordinary gifts of the Holy Ghost ceased, 
the rulers of the church endeavoured to 
supply this want by proper forms of their 
own composition, according to Christian 
prudence and discretion. This seems to 
have been the true origin of Liturgies, or 
stated forms of Divine service. In the first 
ages every bishop was at liberty to order 
the form of Divine service in his own 
church ; and, accordingly, each particular 
church, or diocese, had its proper Liturgy. 
This privilege the bishops retained for se- 
veral ages. Afterwards they agreed by 
consent to conform their Liturgy to the 
model of the metropolitical councils to 
which they belonged ; and it was then en- 
acted into a law by several councils, that 
the same order and uniformity should be 
observed in all churches. 

Before the Reformation the public ser- 
vice of the church of England was per- 
formed only in Latin, and different Litur- 
gies were used in different parts of the 
kingdom. These Liturgies consisted of 
prayers and offices, some of which had been 
transmitted from very ancient times, and 
626 



LIT 



others were of later origin, accommodated 
to the Romish religion, which was then the 
established religion of this country. When 
the nation, in the time of Henry the Eighth, 
was disposed to a reformation, something 
was done in liturgical matters for the edifi- 
cation of the people. It was thought ne- 
cessary both to have the service of the 
church in the English or vulgar tongue, in 
order that men might 'pray with the un- 
derstanding,' and also to correct and amend 
the Liturgy, purge it of those corruptions 
by which it had been gradually defiled, and 
render Divine service more agreeable to 
the Scriptures, and more conformable to 
the doctrine and practice of the primitive 
church, in the purest and best ages of 
Christianity. Accordingly, in the year> 
1537, the convocation appointed a commit- 
tee to compose a book, which was intituled, 
' The godly and pious institution of a 
Christian man,' and which contained the 
Lord's Prayer, the Ave- Maria, the Creed, 
the Ten Commandments, and the Seven 
Sacraments, &c. This book was again pub- 
lished in 1540, and 1543, with corrections 
and alterations, under the title of 'A ne- 
cessary doctrine and erudition for any 
Christian man.' In the preface it is said, 
that it was ' set furthe by the king, with the 
advyse of his clergy ; the lordes both spiri- 
tuall and temporall, with the nether house 
of parliament, having both sene and lyked 
it very well.' In the year 1540, a commit- 
tee of bishops and divines was also ap- 
pointed- by king Henry the Eighth, to re- 
form the rituals and offices of the church ; 
and the next year, the king and the clergy 
ordered the prayers for processions and 
litanies to be translated into English, and 
to be publicly used. Afterwards, in 1545, 
came out the king's 'Primer,' containing 
the whole Morning and Evening Prayer in 
English, not very different from the version 
in our present Book of Common Prayer ; 
1 and this,' as Fuller expresses it, 'was the 
farthest pace the reformation stept in the 
rreign of Henry the Eighth.' 

In the year 1547, the first of king Ed- 
ward the Sixth, it was recommended to cer- 
tain grave and learned bishops and others, 
then assembled, by order of the king, at 
Windsor Castle, to draw up a Communion 
Service, and to complete the whole Liturgy, 
by adding public offices for Sundays and 
Holidays, for Baptism, Confirmation, Matri- 
mony, Burial, and other special occasions. 
The persons appointed to compile this 
Liturgy were the following : — 

1. Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 

2. George Day, bishop of Chichester. 

3. Thomas Goodrick, bishop of Ely. 

4. John Skip, bishop of Hereford. 

5. Henry Hoi beach, bishop of Lincoln. 

6. Nicholas Ridley, bishop of Roches- 



: 



LIT 



LIT 



7. Thomas Thirlby, bishop of West- 
minster. 

8. Dr. William May, dean of St. Paul's. 

9. Dr. John Taylor, afterwards bishop 
of Lincoln. 

10. Dr. Simon Haines, dean of Exeter. 

11. Dr. Robinson, archdeacon of Lei- 
cester, and afterwards dean of Durham. 

12. Dr. John Redman, master of Trinity 
College, Cambridge, 

13. Dr. Richard Cox, afterwards bishop 
of Ely. 

It is worthy of remark, that as the first 
translators of the Scriptures into the Eng- 
lish language were, several of them, perse- 
cuted unto death by the papists, so some of the 
chief of those who translated the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer (archbishop Cranmer, and bishop 
Ridley,) were burnt alive by the same cruel 
faction. 

Our excellent Liturgy thus compiled, was 
revised and approved by the archbishops, 
bishops, and clergy, of both the provinces of 
Canterbury and York, and then confirmed 
by the king and three estates in parliament, 
in the year 1548. This was what Mr. 
Fuller calls the first edition of the Common 
Prayer. 

Some objections having been made to this 
work by Mr. John Calvin abroad, and some 
learned men at home, particularly in refer- 
ence to the commemoration of the dead, the 
use of chrism, and extreme miction, it was 
ordered by a statute in parliament (5 and 6 
of EdwardVL), that it should be faithfully and 
godly perused, explained, and made fully per- 
fect. The chief alterations made in conse- 
quence of this order were the following : 
the sentences, exhortation, general confession, 
and absolution, were added to the beginning 
of the morning and evening service, which, 
in the first Common Prayer Book, com- 
menced with the Lord's Prayer ; the ten 
commandments were added to the beginning 
of the communion service ; the use of oil in 
confirmation and extreme unction was left out, 
and also prayers for the dead, and certain ex- 
pressions which had a tendency to counte- 
nance the doctrine of trarisubstantiation were 
omitted. The Liturgy, thus revised and 
altered by the same persons to whom the com- 
piling of the Communion Service had been 
entrusted, was again confirmed by parlia- 
ment, in the year 1551. This, however, and 
the former act made in 1548, were repealed 
in the first year of queen Mary, who restored 
the Latin Liturgies, according to the popish 
forms of worship. 

In 1559, the first year of the reign of 
queen Elizabeth, the act of repeal was re- 
versed, and the former Liturgy, the second 
book of king Edward, was restored. The 
Liturgy, however, was subjected to a further 
revision, by which some few passages were 
altered, and the petition in the Litany for 
being delivered from the tyranny, and all 
the detestable enormities of the bishop of 
627 



Rome, left out, in order that conscientious 
Catholics might not be prevented from join- 
ing in the common service. This being 
done, it was presented to parliament, and 
by them received and established ; and the 
act for uniformity, which is usually printed 
with the Liturgy, was published by the 
queen's authority, and sent throughout the 
nation. The persons employed in this re- 
vision were the following: — 

1. Master Whitehead, once chaplain to 
queen Anna Boleyn. 

2. Matthew Parker, afterwards archbishop 
of Canterbury. 

3. Edmund Grindall, afterwards bishop 
of London. 

4. Richard Cox, afterwards bishop of 
Ely. 

5. James Pilkington, afterwards bishop 
of Durham. 

6. Doctor May, dean of St. Paul's and 
master of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

7. Sir Thomas Smith, principal Secre- 
tary of State. 

It is observable, that of these Drs. Cox 
and May were employed on the first edition 
of this work, as appears by the preceding 
list. It may be also observed, that Cam- 
den and Strype give other names besides 
those which are here mentioned. 

In the first year of king James, 1604, 
another revision took place, and the Liturgy 
received farther additions and improve- 
ments. At this revision, additions were 
made of some prayers and thanksgivings, and 
of that part of the catechism, which contains 
the doctrine of the sacraments. Some alter- 
ations were also made in the rubric, rela- 
tive to the absolution, to the confirmation, and 
to the office of private baptism, which was 
confined to the lawful minister. The other 
additions were, a thanksgiving for divers 
benefits, — a thanksgiving for fair iveather, — 
a thanksgiving for plenty, — a thanksgiving for 
peace and victory, and a thanksgiving for de- 
liverance from the plague. When the work 
was thus completed, a royal proclamation 
was issued, bearing date March 1, 1604, 
in which the king gave an account of the 
Hampton Court Conference, the alterations 
that had been made by himself and his 
clergy in the Book of Common Prayer, and 
commanded it, and none other, to be used 
throughout the kingdom. 

In this state the Book of Common Prayer 
continued till the reign of Charles the Se- 
cond, who, on the 25th of October, 1660, 
'granted his commission, under the great 
seal of England, to several bishops and 
divines, to review the book of Common 
Prayer, and to prepare such alterations 
and additions, as to them should seem meet 
and convenient.' In the following year, the 
king assembled the convocations of both 
the provinces of Canterbury ami York, and 

authorized tin 1 presidents of those convo- 
cations, and others, the bishops and eleTgy 
ss2 



LIT 



LOG 



of the same, to review the said Book of 
Common Prayer,' &c. ; requiring them, 
' after mature consideration, to make such 
alterations and additions as to them should 
seem meet and convenient.' The additions 
and alterations agreed to by the convocation 
were chiefly the following : the collects for 
the ember weeks; the prayer for the high 
court of parliament ; the prayer for all sorts 
and conditions of men ; the general thanks- 
giving ; the collect for Easter eve ; the col- 
lect, epistle, and gospel, for the sixth Sun- 
day after Epiphany ; a new collect for the 
third Sunday in Advent ; the office of baptism 
for those of riper years ; the two psalms 
prefixed to the lesson in the burial service : 
the forms of prayer to be used at sea, for the 
martyrdom of Charles the First, and for the 
restoration of the royal family, were all added. 
There were also several other less material 
additions ; and through the whole service 
ambiguities were removed, and various im- 
provements made. In particular, the por- 
tions of the Epistles and Gospels were 
taken from the new translation of the 
Bible ; but the Psalms, according to the 
translation of Cranmer's Bible, were re- 
tained. The book, in this state, passed 
both houses of convocation ; it was sub- 
scribed by the bishops and clergy ; it was 
ratified by act of parliament, and received 
the royal assent, May 19th, 1662. This 
was the last revisal of the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, in which any alteration was 
made by public authority. 

*■ This is a short history of a work, which,' 
as Dr. Adam Clarke has candidly and justly 
observed, ' all who are acquainted with it, 
deem superior to every thing of the kind, 
produced either by ancient or modern times. 
It would be disingenuous not to acknow- 
ledge, that the chief of these prayers were 
in use in the Roman Catholic Church, from 
which the Church of England is reformed : 
and it would betray a want of acquaintance 
with ecclesiastical antiquity, to suppose 
that those prayers and services originated 
in that Church ; as several of them were in 
use from the first ages of Christianity, and 
many of the best of them before the name 
of pope or popery was known in the earth.' 

Dr. Comber gives the following just 
commendation of the Liturgy of our 
church : — ' Though all churches in the 
world have, and ever had, forms of prayer, 
yet none were ever blessed with so com- 
prehensive, so exact, and so inoffensive a 
composure as ours, which is so judiciously 
contrived, that the wisest may exercise at 
once their knowledge and devotion, and 
ye? so plain, that the most ignorant may 
pray with understanding; so full, that 
nothing is omitted which is fit to be asked 
in public, and so particular, that it com- 
priseth most things which we would ask 
in private, and yet so short as not to tire 
any that have true devotion. Its doctrine 
628 



is pure and primitive ; its ceremonies so 
few and innocent, that most of the Christ- 
ian world agree in them ; its method is 
exact and natural ; its language significant 
and perspicuous, most of the words and 
phrases being taken out of the Holy Scrip- 
tures, and the rest are the expressions of 
the first and purest ages, so that whoever 
takes exceptions at these must quarrel with 
the language of the Holy Ghost, and fall 
out with the church in her greatest inno- 
cence ; and in the opinion of the most im- 
partial and excellent Grotius (who was no 
member of, nor had any obligations to, this 
church) the English liturgy comes so near 
to the primitive pattern, that none of the 
reformed churches can compare with it. 
Whoever desires to worship God with zeal 
and knowledge, spirit and truth, purity and 
sincerity, may do it by these devout forms. 
And to this end may the God of Peace 
give us all meek hearts, quiet spirits, and 
devout affections, and free us from all 
sloth and prejudice, that we may have full 
churches, frequent prayers, and fervent 
charity ; that, uniting in our prayers here, 
we may all join in his praises hereafter, for 
the sake of Jesus Christ our Lord, Amen.' 
Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, 
vol. ii. pp. 20— 31 ; Broughtori s Hist. Dic- 
tionary, vol. ii. p. 23, et seq. ; Dr. Adam 
Clarke's Preface to the Holy Bible. 

LOCUSTS. The Hebrews have many 
names for locusts, which probably indicate 
several sorts. God smote Egypt with lo- 
custs, which ravaged every thing in the 
fields of that country. Historians and 
travellers remark, that locusts are very nu- 
merous in Africa, and in many parts of 
Asia : they sometimes fall like a cloud on 
the country, and eat up every thing ; the 
quantity of them is so large, that they ob- 
scure the sun ; and the people discerning 
them in the air, are in a consternation, 
being uncertain whether they will not fall 
on their lands. The prophet Joel, (i. 6, 7» 
&c. ; ii. 3, 4, 5, &c.) ; speaking of a great 
dearth which happened in Judea, after it 
had been laid waste by a multitude of lo- 
custs, speaks of them as of an enemy's army 
which had committed great devastations. 
Isaiah (xxxiii. 4, 5.) remarks that when 
the locusts were carried away into the sea, 
and were afterwards thrown up in heaps 
upon the sands, great holes were dug 
in the earth to bury them; or else they 
were burnt to prevent infections ; in reality, 
it has happened that great plagues have been 
occasioned by them. 

Moses declares the locust a clean animal. 
(Levit. xi. 22.) This creature is com- 
monly eaten in Palestine, and the neigh- 
bouring countries ; and we are told that 
John the Baptist subsisted on locusts and 
wild honey. Dr. Shaw says, that when 
locusts are sprinkled with salt, and fried, 
they are not unlike our fresh water cray- 






LOR 



LOR 



fish in taste ; and Russel observes, that the 
Arabs salt them, and eat them as a delicacy. 

The Rev. Mr. Hartley, an English cler- 
gyman, who visited Thyatira in June 1826, 
thus describes the ravages of these destruc- 
tive insects : — " I am perfectly astonished 
at their multitudes. They are, indeed, as 
' a strong people set in battle array: they 
run like mighty men ; they climb the walls 
like men of war.' I actually saw them 'run 
to and fro' in the city of Thyatira ; they 
• ran upon the wall ; they climbed up upon 
the houses ; they entered into the windows 
like a thief.' (Joel ii. 5. 7- 9.) This is, 
however, by no means one of the most for- 
midable armies of locusts which are known 
in these countries." Missionary Register, 
July 1827, p- 328 ; Harmer's Observations, 
vol. ii. p. 58. 

LORD'S SUPPER, an ordinance insti- 
tuted by our Saviour in commemoration of 
his death and sufferings. The institution 
of this sacrament is recorded by the first 
three evangelists, and by the apostle St. 
Paul, whose words differ very little from 
those of his companion St. Luke: and 
the only difference between St. Matthew 
and St. Mark is, that the latter omits the 
words ' for the remission of sins.' There 
is so general an agreement among them all, 
that it will only be necessary to recite the 
words of one of them. ' Now when the even 
was come, he sat down with the twelve' (to 
eat the passover which had been prepared 
by his direction) ; ' and as they were eating, 
Jesus took bread, and blessed it, and brake 
it, and gave it to the disciples, and said, 
Take, eat; this is my body. And he took 
the cup, and gave thanks, and gave it to 
them, saying, Drink ye all of it; for this is 
my blood of the New Testament, which is 
shed for many, for the remission of sins.' 
(Matt. xxvi. 20. 26, 27, 28.) The Sacra- 
ment of the Lord's Supper being thus insti- 
tuted, was adopted by all early Christians, 
with very few exceptions ; and no modern 
sect rejects it, except the Quakers, and 
some Mystics, who make the whole of 
religion to consist of contemplative love. 

In the early times of the Gospel, the cele- 
bration of the Lord's Supper was both fre- 
quent and numerously attended. Volun- 
tary absence was considered as a culpable 
neglect ; and exclusion from it by the 
sentence of the church, as a severe punish- 
ment. Every one brought an offering 
proportioned to his ability: these offerings 
were chiefly of bread and wine, and the 
priests consecrated as much as was neces- 
sary for the administration of the Eucha- 
rist. The clergy had a part of what was Kit 
for their maintenance ; and the rest fur- 
nished the repast called dycnrTj, or love 
feast, which immediately followed the cele- 
bration of the Lord's Supper, and of which 
all the communicants, both rich and poor, 
partook. 
62? 



The sacrament of the Lord's Supper 
greatly resembled the religious feasts to 
which the Jews were accustomed. At 
those feasts they partook of bread and wine 
in a serious and devout manner, after a 
solemn blessing or thanksgiving to God for 
his manifold mercies. This was particularly 
the case at the feast of the Passover, which 
our Saviour was celebrating with his apos- 
tles when he instituted this holy sacrament. 
At that feast, they commemorated the de- 
liverance of their own peculiar nation from 
the bondage of Egypt ; and there could not 
be a more suitable opportunity for establish- 
ing an ordinance which was to commemorate 
the infinitely more important deliverance 
of all mankind from the bondage of sin. 
The former deliverance was typical of the 
latter ; and instead of keeping the Jewish 
Passover, which was now to be abrogated, 
they were to commemorate ' Christ, their 
Passover, who was sacrificed for them ;' 
the bread broken was to represent his 
body offered upon the cross, and the wine 
poured out was to represent his blood, 
which was shed for the salvation of men. 
The nourishment, which these elements 
afford to our bodies, is figurative of the 
salutary effects which the thing signified 
has upon our souls. And as the celebra- 
tion of the Passover was not only a con- 
stant memorial of the deliverance of the 
Israelites out of the land of Egypt, but also 
a symbolical action by which they had a 
title to the blessings of the old covenant, 
so the celebration of the Lord's Supper 
is not only a constant memorial of the 
death of Christ, but also a pledge or 
earnest to the communicant of the benefits 
promised by the new covenant. As the 
Passover was instituted the night before 
the actual deliverance of the Israelites, 
so the Lord's Supper was instituted the 
night before the redemption of man was 
accomplished by the crucifixion of the bless- 
ed Jesus. It is to be partaken of by all 
who look for remission of sins by the death 
of Christ ; we are not only to cherish that 
hope in our minds, and express it in our 
devotions, but we are to give an outward 
proof of our reliance upon the merits of his 
passion as the means oi' our salvation, by 
eating that bread and drinking that wine, 
which are typical representations of the body 
and blood of Christ, ' who, by his one obla- 
tion of himself once offered, made a full, 
perfect, and sufficient sacrifice, oblation, 
and satisfaction, for the sins of the whole 
world.' 

As the sacrament of baptism is the pre- 
scribed mode of regeneration, or initiation 
into the privileges of the Christian eove- 
nant. so is the sacrament of the Lord's 

Supper, the instituted mode of renovation, 

sanctilication, ami gradual perfection <>t 
the Christian lite, in the opinion of the 
primitive fathers, ami also oi the church 



LOR 



LOT 



of England ; which in her Catechism states 
the benefits of communicating worthily, to 
he ' the strengthening and refreshing of 
our souls by the body and blood of Christ, 
as our bodies are by the bread and wine.' 
The Lord's Supper is indeed the Christian 
tree of life, replanted by our gracious 
Redeemer, and watered by his blood, ' for 
the healing of the nations,' in the spiritual 
paradise. (Rev. xxii. 1, 2.) 

In the primitive Church, the Lord's Sup- 
per was administered every Sunday, as in- 
timated by the phrase of ' breaking bread' 
(Acts ii. 42. 46. j xx. 7— 11. 1 Cor. x. 16, 
&c.) ; and Justin Martyr informs us, that 
* after they had read a portion of Scripture, 
sung a hymn, preached and prayed, then 
they proceeded to the administration of 
the Eucharist.' In Cyprian's days they 
celebrated it both morning and evening : 
'That as Christ instituted the sacrament in 
the evening, to signify the evening and end 
of the world, so they celebrated it in the 
morning, to denote the resurrection of their 
Lord and Master.' So necessary did they 
hold the early, as well as the frequent par- 
ticipation of this holy rite, that at Carthage 
it was usual to administer it even to chil- 
dren. 

In the present age, professing Christians 
run into the opposite error of omission ; 
and perhaps one of the leading causes of 
the prevailing lukewarmness of the times, 
and decay of vital religion among church- 
men, is to be ascribed to the prevailing 
neglect and disuse of this most holy rite, 
by old and young, by rich and poor, to 
their great loss and spiritual detriment. 
If we consider ourselves as by nature 
slaves to sin, and doomed to eternal misery, 
but redeemed and set at liberty by the 
blood of Christ, we must be utterly incapa- 
ble of gratitude if we do not, on all occa- 
sions, call to mind this instance of infinite 
goodness with all possible love and thank- 
fulness. And as our great Benefactor hath 
himself appointed an holy institution, by 
our attendance on which he expressly and 
peculiarly requires our acknowledgments 
for this astonishing act of compassion to- 
wards us, we cannot refuse that attend- 
ance, without, in effect, either denying 
the favor, or refusing our thanks; nay, 
without returning again into that state 
of slavery to sin, and that just dread of 
infamy and misery, from which he died 
to deliver us. All the benefits of his 
death, forgiveness of sins, grace, mercy, 
and peace with offended Omnipotence, 
are conveyed to us in this holy ordi- 
nance. To decline it, therefore, is in 
form to disclaim those benefits, inasmuch 
as it is presumption in the ungrateful to 
hope for them, especially through any chan- 
nel, except that of Christ's appointment. 
Those who constantly, and with true piety, 
attend tins holy sacrament, know the com- 
630 



fort which it affords in every situation of 
life. It is there the Christian applies 
for relief, when he is ready to sink under 
the sense of his own weakness and imper- 
fection. There he learns that, ' if any 
man sin, we have an advocate with the 
Father, Jesus Christ the righteous, and he 
is the propitiation for our sins.' (John ii. 
1.) When he is in distress or affliction, 
there he hears the consoling voice of Christ, 
which calls to every child of sorrow, 
1 Come unto me, all ye that labour and 
are heavy laden, and I will give you 
rest.' (Matt. xi. 28.) When he feels the 
infirmities of age, and sees the near 
approach of death, there he is taught to 
look for support from him who suffered and 
died for us all. Admitted to communion 
with God, allowed to enter into his pre- 
sence, to eat at his table ; he feels his faith 
strengthened, his hope confirmed, his cha- 
rity enlarged. He returns to the duties of 
life with more ardour ; he supports its sor- 
rows with more resolution. Such are the 
blessings, such are the consolations, which 
our Saviour offered to all his faithful 
servants, when he left with them his last 
command, ' Do this in remembrance of 
me.' Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christian 
Theology, vol. ii. pp. 473—477 ; Hales' s New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book ii. p. 
983 ; Clapham's Sermons for the Use of 
Families, vol. i. pp. 60, 61 ; Sermons on the 
Doctrines and Duties of Christianity, pp. 54, 
55. 

LOT, W)b, signifies wrapped up, hidden, 
covered ; otherwise, myrrh, rosin. Lot 
was the son of Haran, and nephew to 
Abraham. He followed his uncle from Ur, 
and afterwards from Haran, to settle in the 
land of Canaan, (Gen. xi. 31.) in the year 
of the world 2082, and 2083. Abraham 
had always a great tenderness for him. 
He took him with him into Egypt, and 
brought him back to Canaan. But they 
could not continue long together : they 
were obliged to separate, because, as they 
both had large flocks, their shepherds some- 
times quarrelled. (Gen. xiii. 6, 7-) Lot 
therefore chose Sodom for his abode, the 
country around it being very beautiful. 
About eight years after, king Chedorlaomer 
and his allies having attacked the kings of 
Sodom, and the neighbouring cities, routed 
them, pillaged Sodom, and took many cap- 
tives, and Lot, Abraham's nephew. Abra- 
ham, being informed of it, armed his ser- 
vants, pursued the confederate kings, over- 
took them near the springs of Jordan, 
recovered the spoils which they had taken, 
and brought back the captives ; including 
his nephew Lot. 

Some years after, the sins of the Sodom- 
ites, and of the neighbouring cities, be- 
ing at their height, God sent three angels, 
to punish and destroy them. See Abra- 
ham. 






LOT 



LOV 



Towards the evening, two of these angels 
being come to Sodom, Lot, who was sitting 
at the city gate, perceived them, and en- 
treated them very earnestly to lodge in his 
house. The angels at first refused ; but Lot 
pressing them, they went in, and he provided 
an entertainment for them. But before they 
were retired to rest, all the inhabitants of 
the city besieged Lot's house, exclaiming, 
Where are these men, who came to you this 
evening ? Produce them that we may know 
them. Do not, I beseech you, brethren, 
said Lot, do so wicked a thing. I have two 
daughters, both virgins ; I will bring them 
to you ; use them as you please, provided 
you injure not these men, who are come to 
my house, as to a place of security. But they 
said, Begone ; you came a stranger hither, 
and now pretend to be our judge. As they 
were on the point of breaking open the 
door, the two angels stretched out their 
hands to Lot, drew him into the house, and 
shut the door ; and struck all those with 
blindness who were assaulting it. 

Then said the angels to Lot, Direct all 
who belong to you to quit this city ; for we 
are going to destroy it. Lot went and in- 
formed his sons-in-law, who had married 
his daughters. But this intelligence they 
received as an idle fancy. In the morning, 
as soon as it was day, the angels took Lot, 
his wife and daughters, by the hand, and 
carried them forcibly, as it were, out of their 
house ; saying, Save yourselves with all 
haste, look not behind you, get as far as 
you are able to the mountain, lest you be 
involved in the misfortune of the rest. Lot 
entreated the angels, who consented, that he 
might retire to Zoar, which was one of the 
five cities doomed to be destroyed. But 
Lot's wife, looking behind her, was over- 
taken in the flame, which fell from heaven, 
and which consumed Sodom, with the 
country about it ; by which means she was 
changed into a pillar of salt. Lot, having 
beheld the sad calamity of Sodom, had not 
courage to abide in Zoar ; but left it, and 
retreated with his two daughters to a cave 
in some mountain near it. They, imagin- 
ing that all mankind were destroyed, and 
that the world would have an end, unless 
they provided new inhabitants for it, made 
their father drunk, and the eldest lay with 
him without his perceiving it ; she conceived 
a son by him, whom she called Moab. The 
second daughter did the same, and had 
Amnion by him. 

St. Peter says, (2 Pet. ii. 7-) that God 
delivered righteous Lot from the oppression 
and vexation of the Sodomites. 

The Mahometans have added many cir- 
cumstances to the history of Lot ; as that, 
he was sent by God to Sodom, and the four 
cities, in order to reclaim them from their 
abominable crime. Lot acquitted himself 
of the duty of a preacher for twenty years, 
reproaching them with being the first of all 
631 



mankind that fell into this abomination, 
and perverted the order of nature ; but 
his sermons and remonstrances were in 
vain. 

Lot's Wife is called by the Rabbins 
Hedith, which signifies witness. The Scrip- 
ture, (Gen. xix. 26.) says that ' she looked 
back from behind him, and became a pillar 
of salt' The phrase ' to look b^ck behind 
one,' is taken sometimes for delaying, de- 
ferring, staying; it was probably the angel's 
intention to hasten Lot and his family ; to 
convince them that they had reason to fear 
the worst consequences from delay. 

Several difficulties are proposed concern- 
ing her being changed into a pillar of salt. 
The opinions which are the most probable 
are the following: 1. Lot's wife, by the mi- 
raculous power of God, was changed into a 
mass of rock salt, probably retaining the 
human figure.' 2. f Tarrying too long in 
the plain, she was struck with lightning, 
and enveloped in the bituminous and sul- 
phuric matter which abounded in that coun- 
try, and which, not being exposed after- 
wards to the action of the fire, resisted the 
air and wet, and was thus rendered perma- 
nent.' 3. ' She was struck dead, and con- 
sumed in the burning up of the plain ; and 
this judgment on her disobedience being 
recorded, is an imperishable memorial of 
the fact itself, and an everlasting warning 
to sinners in general, and to back-sliders 
and apostates in particular.' On these opi- 
nions it may be only necessary to state, that 
the first two understand the text literally, 
and that the last considers it metaphorically. 
That God might in a moment convert this 
disobedient woman into a pillar or mass of 
salt, or any other substance, there can be 
no doubt. Or that by continuing in the 
plain, till the brimstone and the fire de- 
scended from heaven, she might be struck 
dead with lightning, and indurated or pe- 
trified on the spot, is as possible. And that 
the account of her becoming a pillar of salt, 
may be designed to be understood metapho- 
rically, is also highly probable. It is cer- 
tain that salt is frequently used in the 
Scriptures as an emblem of incorruption, 
durability, &c. Hence a covenant of salt, 
(Numb, xviii. 19.) is a perpetual covenant, 
one that is ever to be in full force, and 
never broken; on this ground, a pillar o( 
salt may signify no more in this case, than 
an everlasting monument against crimi- 
nal curiosity, unbelief, and disobedience. 
Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on Gen. xix. 
26. 

LOVE OF COD. Love has been de- 
fined a partial leaning of the ln-art towards 
a particular object. It is a natural pas-ion 
of the human mind, given to man for the 

most important purposes. Though the af- 
fections often operate- on the mind, vet the 

com action of (he mind will he found to 

the strongest and most 1 utUDg bias to the 



LOV 



LOV 



affections. Our love of any object is usually 
preceded by a consciousness, arising from 
experience or observation, tbat it possesses 
some amiable qualities, which spontaneously 
excite our kind regard; or that goodness, 
under some of its various forms, is a pre- 
vailing ingredient in its nature, and one of 
its predominant characteristics. 

The love of God is the love of a Being, 
who not only exists, but self- exists, and 
whose goodness is infinite and unceasing, 
neither circumscribed by quantity, nor 
space, nor time. The love of God, there- 
fore, is a passion well suited to our nature, 
and which there is, in the circumstances in 
which we are placed, a natural tendency to 
excite. The love of God is the love of all 
that is most excellent, most an object of 
our love ; and it is the love not only of 
goodness, but of our greatest good. For 
God is the Author of all the good that we 
ever enjoyed, and of our capacity for enjoy- 
ing it. The love of God is called by our 
Saviour, (Matt. xxii. 37, 38.) the first and 
great commandment, to which all others 
are subordinate, and in the performance of 
which they are included. For the love of 
God always supposes an entire obedience to 
his will ; and it is obedience to the will of 
God, which is prompted not by fear, but by 
love ; not by the dread of punishment, but 
by the ardour of affection ; which is the 
perfection of all religious excellence. This 
is the love of God, that we keep his com- 
mandments. The love of God supposes a 
devout longing of the soul after God ; a de- 
sire to be present with him, and to have him 
present with us. We cannot, indeed, have 
any corporeal vision of God, but we can be 
present with him in the spirit ; and it is 
our spirit which will feel a continual long- 
ing for his presence. Our soul will thirst 
after God. We shall delight in that con- 
verse which he vouchsafes to hold with 
those that love him. We shall open our 
hearts to him in prayer. In the ardour of 
our supplications, in the aspirations of our 
gratitude, in the effusions of our thanks- 
giving, our devotion, and our praise, our 
spirits will approach his throne, and his 
Spirit will abide in us. The Spirit of God 
is, indeed, every where present, and we can 
go nowhere where it is not; but, though it 
be universally diffused, the hearts of the 
righteous are more especially favoured by 
its influence. God is said by the Evangel- 
ists, to make his abode with those that love 
him ; their souls are the sanctuary in which 
he delights to dwell. 

The love of God is a sentiment purely 
evangelical ; and is one of those many pe- 
culiar circumstances which so eminently 
distinguish the doctrines of the Gospel from 
the dry unanimated precepts of the ancient 
heathen moralists. It is neither a mere 
unmeaning animal fervour, nor a lifeless 
formal worship or obedience. It consists in 
632 



devoutness of heart, as well as purity of life ; 
and it may be defined — such a reveren- 
tial admiration of God's perfections in ge- 
neral, and such a grateful sense of his infi- 
nite goodness in particular, as render the 
contemplation and the worship of him de- 
lightful to us ; and produce in us a constant 
desire and endeavour to please him in every 
part of our moral and religious conduct. 

This it is that the Scriptures mean by the 
love of God ; and it is nothing more than 
what every man may, if he pleases, very 
easily acquire. It is not a new perception, 
of which we never experienced any thing 
before ; it is not an unintelligible, myste- 
rious, or supernatural impression upon the 
soul : it is only a purer degree of that very 
same affection, which we- frequently enter- 
tain for some of the most worthy of our own 
species. This sentiment religion finds al- 
ready existing in our minds, and all that it 
does is to give it a new direction, and to 
turn it upon God, as its highest and proper- 
est, and most adequate object. If then we 
wish to knpw still more clearly in what the 
love of God consists, and what share of it 
we ourselves possess, we must consult our 
own breasts, and consider a little how we 
feel ourselves affected towards the eminently 
great and good among our fellow-creatures. 
Now, when we observe any one of this cha- 
racter going on steadily and uniformly in 
one regular even course of upright, noble, 
disinterested, benevolent conduct, making 
it the chief business of his life to promote 
the comfort and happiness of every human 
being within his reach, we can no more help 
esteeming, and loving, and reverencing, so 
excellent a Person, than we can forbear 
desiring food when we are hungry, even 
though we ourselves are not in the least 
benefited by his goodness. But, should we 
be so fortunate as to live under his influ- 
ence, and to be interested in his virtues, to 
have him for our Friend, our Benefactor ; 
our Parent, Guardian, Governor, or Pro- 
tector ; then it is scarcely possible for lan- 
guage to express the emotions of affection, 
gratitude, and delight, which we feel in con- 
templating his goodness, and even in the 
very mention of his name. In cases like 
this, how does our heart burn within us, how 
restless and impatient are we, till we find 
some better way than that of words, to ex- 
press the sense we have of our Benefactor's 
kindness towards us ! With what solici- 
tude do we study every turn of his counte- 
nance, and endeavour to prevent his very 
wishes ! We not only do what he desires, 
but we do it with alacrity and ardour. We 
love to speak of him, to think of him, to 
converse with him, to imitate him. We 
never mention him but in terms of reve- 
rence and respect. We are jealous of his 
reputation ; we cannot bear to hear it 
lightly treated. We enter heartily into his 
interests, and adopt his sentiments. We 



LOV 



LOV 



love what he loves, we hate what he hates ; 
we are ready for his sake to do any thing, 
to relinquish any thing, to suffer any thing. 
These are the sentiments we entertain, and 
this the conduct we observe towards those 
that we love on earth ; and in this manner 
does Christianity expect us to love our Fa- 
ther that is in heaven. If this sincerity and 
ardour of affection are justly esteemed both 
natural and laudable in the one case, why 
are they not at least equally so in the other? 
Why may they not, without any stretch of 
our faculties, or any imputation of hypo- 
crisy or enthusiasm, be exercised towards 
Him, who is the very perfection of every 
thing that is great and good ; who is, in 
reality and in the strictest sense, our Friend 
and Benefactor, our Parent, Guardian, Pro- 
tector, and Governor all in one ? It is 
true, indeed, there is one difference, and 
that, as some think, a very material one, 
between the two cases. Our earthly friends 
are seen, our heavenly One is unseen. But 
who will pretend to say, that we can have 
no love for those whom we have never seen? 
It is enough that we feel that they are pre- 
sent with us, by that most pleasing and 
convincing of all proofs, the benefits they 
confer upon us. Now we know that God is 
every where present ; that \ he is not far 
from every one of us ;' that in him we most 
literally ' live, and move, and have our be- 
ing.' Though we see not him, yet his kind- 
ness and bounty to us we see and feel every 
moment of our lives ; and the invisibility of 
the Giver is amply compensated by the in- 
estimable value of his gifts. By him we 
were first brought into being ; by his power 
that being is continually upheld; by his 
mercy in Christ Jesus we are redeemed 
from sin and misery ; by his grace we are 
excited to every thing that is good ; by his 
providence we are hourly protected from a 
multitude of unseen dangers and calamities; 
to his bounty we owe the various comforts 
and delights that surround us here, and the 
provision that is made for our everlasting 
happiness hereafter. Is it possible now to 
receive such favours as these, without some- 
times thinking of them ; or to think of them 
without being filled with love and gratitude 
towards the gracious Author of them ? If 
they affect us at all, they must affect us 
strongly and powerfully. For, although the 
love of God is not a sudden start of passion, 
but a sober, rational, religious sentiment, 
acquired by reflection, and improved by 
habit ; yet, as was before observed, it must 
not be so very rational as to exclude all af- 
fection ; it may, and it ought to produce in 
us a steady and uniform, a sedate yet fer- 
vent sense of gratitude towards God ; ex- 
erting itself in acts of adoration and praise, 
and substantialized in the practice of every 
Christian virtue.' Bishop Porteuss Sermons, 
vol. i. pp. 1 — 11. 

Lovk OF OUK NEIGHBOUR. The word 

633 



neighbour, the Jews explained by the 
children of thy people; but our Saviour, 
by the parable of the Samaritan, has shown 
that the word neighbour does not mean 
only the men of one nation, or one reli- 
gion ; and that a proper object, of what 
nation or religion soever, being brought in 
our way, it is our duty to pay this debt of 
love to him. Hence neighbourhood now 
comprehends all mankind. 

Our Saviour not only raises the value of 
such love, both by calling it a new com- 
mandment, which he gave his disciples, and 
by making it such a badge and cognizance, 
' that all men might know whether they 
were his disciples or not, if they had love 
one to another ;' but he has also raised the 
obligation yet higher, by the standard he has 
given of our love to the brethren ; ' as I have 
loved you, so love ye one another.' When 
we consider the extent of that expression, 
' as I have loved you ;' both in respect to the 
infinite dignity of him who so loved us, and 
the unworthiness of us, whom he has so 
loved ; and as to the wonderful instances 
and endearing effects of his love, in that he 
gave himself for us, and bore our sins in 
his own body, that he might thereby redeem 
and deliver us from the punishment of sin, 
by reconciling us to his Father : we must 
acknowledge that here is love indeed, and 
a perfect pattern for our imitation. He 
has made all mankind our neighbours, and 
all Christians our brethren, whom we ought 
to love with a pure heart fervently. But 
though we should exclude none from our 
love, yet some have a right to a higher 
measure of it ; for such, in whom we see the 
likeness of God, are entitled to the largest 
share of it, in proportion to the degrees of 
that goodness we see in them. 

We are required to be holy, I as he who 
called us is holy, in all manner of conver- 
sation ; and to purify ourselves even as he 
is pure ;' and our Saviour said, ' be ye there- 
fore perfect, even as your Father which is 
in heaven is perfect.' But since we cannot 
rise in holiness and purity to an equality 
with Christ, much less can we be perfect, 
as God is perfect ; we see that ' as' in those 
places means only a conformity or simili- 
tude, or the proposing of God and Christ 
for our imitation, as the pattern after which 
we ought to frame our thoughts and actions. 
Hence also the meaning of loving our neigh- 
bour as ourselves, is, that as we feel nature 
teaches us to love ourselves with much ten- 
derness and care; to have a quick sense of 
all our concerns, ami great solicitude about 
every thing that relates to us; so we ought 
to love our neighbour with a sineere ami 
hearty affection, bearing a share of all his 
burthens, and employing ourselves with an 

active diligence to procure bis real pood ami 

happiness; with a love o\ tlie same sort as 
that we bear to ourselves, though not to the 
same degree; in a word, the dviwj. to others 



LOV 



LUK 



what we would that others should do to us. 
This is what we owe, at all times, to all men, 
as God in his providence puts them in our 
way, to become our neighbours. But on 
some occasions we are required to love them 
in a stricter sense, as ourselves ; nay, even 
with a preference. We are commanded to 
be kindly affectioned one to another, in 
honour preferring one another. We ought 
to esteem others better than ourselves, and 
to be ready, when the circumstances of Pro- 
vidence call us to it, to lay down our lives 
for the good of others. For though it is an 
extraordinary instance of love, now, indeed, 
seldom required, and not often in our power, 
willingly to suffer death for the sake of 
others, or for promoting the glory of God ; 
yet, as some generous minds, from love to 
their country or friends, have sacrificed their 
own lives for their good ; so this brotherly 
love, when raised to some higher degrees 
than is common with us, often in the first 
ages of Christianity, induced Christians to 
expose themselves to the most exquisite 
torments for the sake of others. But as it 
is not the lot of Christians, now, to suffer 
much for the faith, so there are not many 
instances of it, even in times of persecution. 
Thus we see what is meant by loving our 
neighbour as ourselves. 

In the next place it is necessary to ex- 
amine the several acts and instances, in 
which this love of. ours ought to consist. 
And to animate our zeal in each of these, 
we ought to consider what obligations we 
are under of mutual love one to another. 
Among men, those of the same kindred, 
household, and family, reckon themselves 
strictly bound to love one another. But 
we are all brethren, derived from one com- 
mon origin ; our bodies are all of the same 
mould, our souls all come from one Father 
of spirits, and Fountain of life. We all 
partake of one nature, and however distin- 
guished by our birth, yet we are all upon a 
level as to every thing that is essential. We 
ought, therefore, to despise none, though 
below us, because of the depression of their 
fortune ; since those accidental matters are 
produced and lost by such imperceptible 
means, and often so very unaccountably, 
that we ought never to value ourselves by 
any thing, but what is inseparable from, or 
belonging to us. We ought, therefore, to 
consider ourselves as partakers of the same 
being with others, and, therefore, to bear a 
share with them, in their common concerns, 
and to love them as parts of ourselves. 

Another reason for this mutual tender- 
ness, is the common interest of mankind, 
that it should universally prevail ; and which 
may not improperly be called, the voice and 
law of nature. Man is a necessitous and 
helpless creature, wanting the aid and as- 
sistance of different persons. God has also 
given to men different talents, capacities, 
and inclinations, that they might be useful 
634 



to one another. No man is of so exalted a 
station, as not to want the assistance of those 
who are far beneath him. There must be a 
circulation of mutual advices and assist- 
ances, and nothing so much promotes it as 
love. It both commands, and, by a happy 
infection, spreads and insinuates itself into 
others, and engagingly induces them to make 
such returns as are in their power. A man 
who is governed by love feels, that, as it 
subdues himself, so it subdues others. 

We have already observed in how effec- 
tual a manner our Saviour has recommended 
this love of our neighbour to us, and what 
an inimitable pattern he has set us ; with 
what patience he bore the sense of injuries 
and all resentments. He has taught us to 
ask forgiveness, only as we forgive others ; 
he enlarges in repeated expressions on that 
clause of the short prayer which he taught 
his disciples, to impress it the more on their 
minds. His apostles enforce none of the 
Christian duties more frequently, and in 
expressions more sublime and tender, than 
when they treat of this. St. Paul, after a 
long discourse on the different gifts, and 
powers, which were commonly bestowed at 
that time, and which had so far prevailed 
on human infirmity, that some were thereby 
greatly exalted ; and after he had shown 
how unreasonable such an abuse of those 
gifts was, leads them to a more excellent 
way, and proves to them that charity is pre- 
ferable to the gifts of tongues, the working 
of miracles, and the understanding all mys- 
teries ; nay, even to the giving of our bodies 
to be burnt, and all our goods to the poor. 
Charity is not only preferred to all these, 
but also to faith and hope, as being the 
highest state of perfection to which our 
souls can possibly be advanced. St. John 
had the peculiar honour to be called the 
beloved disciple, and one reason of his hav- 
ing that character, seems to be, on account 
of that tender strain of eloquence, in which 
he recommends love and charity to others. 
It is recorded of him, that when his strength 
failed, as to other things, and his nature 
was decayed, he continued still to exhort 
his disciples, as little children, to love one 
another. Bishop Burnet in Warner's System 
of Divinity and Morality, vol. ii. pp. 132 — ■ 
138. 

LUKE, Aovicag, signifies light. Luke 
the Evangelist was a Syrian, a native of 
Antioch, and by profession a physician. 
Some maintain that he was the same as 
Lucius, the kinsman of St. Paul, (Rom. xvL 
21.) but this opinion has been sufficiently 
refuted by Michaelis. It is not agreed 
whether he was by birth a Jew or a heathen. 
Some have thought that he was one of the 
seventy disciples ; but there is no authority 
in the Scriptures for that opinion. It has 
been considered as probable, that St Luke 
was the companion of Cleophas, with whom 
he went to Emmaus, when Jesus Christ 



LUK 



LUT 



joined them. We are told by some that 
he was a painter ; and Grotius and Wetstein 
thought that he was in the early part of his 
life a slave : but there seems to be no foun- 
dation for either opinion in any ancient 
writer. In the introduction to his Gospel, 
(i. 1.) Luke appears to intimate that he 
was not himself an eye-witness of the ac- 
tions he was about to relate. He is not 
named in any of the Gospels. In the Acts 
of the Apostles, which were written by him, 
he uses the first person plural, when he is 
relating some of the travels of St. Paul; 
and thence it is inferred that, at those 
times, he was himself with that apostle. 
He says, (Acts xvi. 11.) 'Loosing from 
Troas, we came with a straight course to 
Samothracia.' Thus we learn that St. 
Luke accompanied St. Paul in this his first 
voyage to Macedonia. From Samothracia 
they went to Neapolis, and thence to 
Philippi. It has been concluded, that at 
this last place St. Paul and St. Luke sepa- 
rated, because in continuing the history of 
St. Paul, after he left Philippi, St. Luke 
uses the third person, saying, (Acts xvii. 1.) 
' Now when they had passed through Am- 
phipolis,' &c. ; and he does not resume the 
first person till St. Paul was in Greece 
the second time. We have no account of 
St. Luke during this interval ; it only ap- 
pears that he was not with St. Paul. When 
Paul was about to go to Jerusalem from 
Greece, after his second visit into that 
country, Luke, mentioning certain persons, 
says, (Acts xx. 5, 6.) ' These going before 
tarried for tts at Troas ; and we sailed away 
from Philippi.' Thus again we learn that 
Luke accompanied Paul out of Greece, 
through Macedonia, to Troas ; and the 
sequel of St. Paul's history in the Acts, and 
some passages in his Epistles, written 
whilst he was a prisoner at Rome, inform us 
that Luke continued from that time with 
Paul, till he was released from his confine- 
ment at Rome. It seems probable, that 
Luke went from Rome into Achaia ; and 
some authors have asserted, that he after- 
wards preached the Gospel in Africa. None 
of the most ancient fathers have mentioned 
that St. Luke suffered martyrdom ; and 
hence it is supposed that he died a natural 
death, but at what time, or in what place, is 
not known. 

St. Luke's Gospel is thought by some to 
have been published in Greece, about the 
year 63. Different places, however, have 
been mentioned where his Gospel has been 
supposed to be written. 

St. Luke seems to have had more learn- 
ing than any other of the Evangelists, and 
his language is more varied, copious, and 
pure. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christian 
Theology, vol. i. p. 320, &c. ; Bishop Watsons 
Theolog. Tracts, vol. ii. p. 7',), &c. ; Mi- 
chacliss Introduction to the New Testament, 
vol. iv. p. 235. 
635 



LUTHERANISM, a name given by the 
followers of Martin Luther to the opinions 
and religious system established by that 
celebrated Reformer. 

Rise, Progress, and History. — The begin- 
ning of the 16th century witnessed an event 
the most glorious that had occurred since 
the days of the apostles, — the Reformation 
of corrupted Christianity, by the blessing 
of God on the exertions of Luther and his 
associates. Martin Luther was a native of 
Aisleben in Upper Saxony, and was born in 
1483. After passing through the usual 
stages of education with honour, he became 
a monk of the Augustinian Eremites, who 
were one of the mendicant orders. He was 
professor of divinity in the newly-erected 
academy of Wittemberg in 1517, when Tet- 
zel, an agent of Pope Leo X. arrived there 
with a commission from the Pontiff to grant 
plenary indulgences to every person, who 
should contribute to the expense of build- 
ing the cathedral of St. Peter at Rome. 
Luther, scandalized at this venal remission 
of sins, past, present, or to come, opposed 
a measure so inimical to the interests of 
piety and virtue, and exposed, with vehe- 
ment indignation, this impious traffic from 
the pulpit and the press. None of the 
qualities or talents which characterized 
Luther were of a common or ordinary kind : 
his genius was truly great and unparal- 
leled ; and he was particularly distin- 
guished for Scriptural knowledge, piety, an 
unconquerable spirit, invincible magna- 
nimity, patience, and perseverance. He 
exposed the doctrine of indulgences in 1)5 
propositions, which he publicly maintained 
at Wittemberg in September 1517 ; and his 
arguments and boldness were equally ad- 
mired throughout Germany. Leo, naturally 
fond of ease, and occupied in the pursuits 
of pleasure and ambition, at first despised 
what he deemed a mere squabble among 
monks ; but he was soon roused by the 
tidings of Luther's rapid success, and by 
the clamours of the popish ecclesiastics for 
aid and vengeance. Leo then directed Ca- 
tejan, his legate in Germany, to summon 
him into his presence, and command him to 
recant. Luther obeyed the summons, and 
appeared before the cardinal, but refused to 
retract antecedently to conviction. 

As yet Luther had no thoughts of ques- 
tioning the supremacy of the pope ; nor did 
he entertain any suspicions of the radical 
corruptions of the Romish church. 15ut 
those corruptions are so linked together, 
and so dependent on each other, that the 
discovery of one naturally draws after it a 

detection of more. Such wee the prog 

in the mind of Luther* Whilst Attempts 

at accommodation were taking place in 

Germany, the pontilV, instigated by the 
impatient fury of those around him. ISStted 

a bull in 1520. denouncing destruction 
against Luther as an excommunicated nere- 



LUT 



LUT 



tic, unless he should recant in sixty days. 
The Reformer, whom diligent and deep re- 
searches into the Scriptures had by this time 
firmly convinced of the radical corruption of 
the church of Rome, immediately and pub- 
licly relinquished her communion. Nor did 
he long stand forth the sole adversary of this 
corruption, but was soon encouraged by the 
successes of a distant coadjutor : the sale of 
indulgences at Zurich had excited the spirit 
of Zuinglius, a man equal to Luther in zeal 
and intrepidity, and more speedily convinced 
of the duty of renouncing the Romish 
church. CEcolampadius also ably assisted 
in the work of reformation in Switzerland, 
in the greater part of which it was rapidly 
established : and in Germany the efforts of 
Luther in this arduous undertaking were 
soon powerfully seconded by other learned 
men, as Melancthon, Carolostadius, Csi- 
ander, Bucer, &c. However, Luther has, 
among friends, the whole glory, and, among 
enemies, bears the whole odium of this 
work, and is still called the apostle of 
Germany. 

In the year following, Luther was re- 
quested to appear before his avowed enemy, 
the emperor Charles V., in the diet at 
Worms. Unmoved by the apprehensions 
of his friends, who reminded him of the 
fate of Huss, he instantly obeyed, and there 
acknowledged, that his writings had occa- 
sionally been violent and acrimonious ; 
but he refused to retract his opinions, until 
they should be proved erroneous by the 
Scriptures. An edict, which pronounced 
him an excommunicated criminal, and 
which commanded the seizure of his person, 
as soon as the duration of the safe conduct 
he had obtained should expire, was imme- 
diately promulgated. Frederic the Wise, 
elector of Saxony, who had all along coun- 
tenanced Luther, without professing his 
doctrines, now withdrew him from the storm. 
As Luther was returning from Worms, a 
troop of horsemen, in masks, rushed from a 
wood, seized him, and conveyed him to the 
castle of Wartenberg, where he was con- 
cealed nine months, encouraging his adhe- 
rents by his pen, and cheered in return by 
accounts of the rapid diffusion of his doc- 
trines. Luther, after having written much, 
and exerted himself on various occasions 
with a wonderful firmness and intrepidity, 
departed this life in 1546, lamented by 
his followers, and revered by the Protest- 
ant world. It must be confessed, that 
his temper was violent ; but the times in 
which he lived seem to have required such 
a disposition for the work in which he was 
engaged. 

On the death of Luther, Philip Melanc- 
thon was placed at the head of the Lutheran 
church ; a man inferior to him perhaps in 
nothing so much as in courage and firm- 
ness of mind. But scarcely had they and 
their friends triumphed over the enemies 
636 



of reformation, when they became the prey 
of intestine disputes, and were divided 
among themselves in such a deplorable 
manner, that till Melancthon's death, which 
happened in 1560, and in some degree till 
the end of the sixteenth century, the Pro- 
testant states of Germany were a scene of 
strife and contention ; a circumstance which 
the church of Rome did not fail to turn to 
the advancement of her own interests. In 
the 17th century, the principles of the Lu- 
theran church were carried into Asia, Afri- 
ca, and America, by several persons, who 
fixed their habitations in those distant 
regions, and were introduced into some 
parts of Europe, where they had hitherto 
been unknown. 

Doctrines. — The system of faith embraced 
by the Lutherans was drawn up by Luther 
and Melancthon, and presented to the em- 
peror Charles V., in 1530, at the diet of 
Augusta or Augsburg, and hence called the 
Augustan or Augsburg confession. It is 
divided into two parts, of which the former, 
containing twenty-one articles, was designed 
to represent, with truth and perspicuity, the 
religious opinions of the Reformers ; and 
the latter, containing seven articles, is em- 
ployed in pointing out and confuting the 
seven capital errors which occasioned their 
separation from the church of Rome, and 
which were — communion in one kind, the 
forced celibacy of the clergy, private masses, 
auricular confession, legendary traditions, 
monastic vows, and the excessive power 
of the church. The leading doctrines of 
this confession are — the true and essential 
divinity of the Son of God ; his substi- 
tution and vicarious sacrifice ; and the 
necessity, freedom, and efficacy of divine 
grace. 

From the time of Luther to the present 
day, no change has been introduced into 
the doctrine and discipline received in this 
church. The method, however, of illus- 
trating, enforcing, and defending the doc- 
trines of Christianity, has undergone several 
changes in the Lutheran church ; and 
though the confessions continue the same, 
yet some of the doctrines which were 
warmly maintained by Luther, have been of 
late wholly abandoned by his followers. In 
particular, the doctrines of absolute predes- 
tination, human impotence, and irresistible 
grace, for which Luther was a most zealous 
advocate, have been rejected by most of 
his followers, and are now generally known 
by the name of Calvinistic doctrines. 
The Lutherans now maintain, in regard to 
the divine decrees, that they respect the sal- 
vation or misery of men, in consequence 
of ' a previous knowledge of their senti- 
ments and character,' and, not, with the 
Calvinists, as founded on ' the mere will 
of God.' 

At one time, Luther rejected the Epis- 
tle of St. James, as inconsistent with St. 



LUT 



LUT 



Paul's doctrine of justification ; he also set 
aside the Apocalypse : but both these are 
now received as canonical in the Lutheran 
church. 

The members of this church are distin- 
guished principally by maintaining the fol- 
lowing doctrines : — That neither the pope 
nor any other man possesses any authority 
in matters of faith, but that the Scriptures 
are, as a collection of inspired, sufficient, 
and clear writings, the only source whence 
our religious sentiments, whether they re- 
late to faith or practice, must be drawn, 
and to which human reason ought, in every 
respect, to submit and yield ; that man 
is naturally incapable of thinking or doing 
any good, valid before God ; that justifi- 
cation and future happiness are the effect 
of the meritorious and vicarious death of 
Jesus, as God and man in one person ; 
that faith is the necessary condition of 
grace on the part of man, which faith is 
itself the gift of divine grace ; that good 
works are of value only as far as they are 
the effect of faith ; that, however, there 
exists no unconditional predestination, and 
that the real body and blood of Jesus are 
united in a mysterious manner, through 
the consecration, with the bread and wine, 
and are received with and under them in 
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. This 
last doctrine they distinguished by the 
word consubstantiation, and it formed, to- 
gether with the doctrine of predestina- 
tion, for a long time, the principal party 
wall between the Lutherans and Cal- 
vinists ; bu<; it, as well as some of the 
other doctrines, has been, if not formally, 
at least virtually abandoned, or consider- 
ably modified, by a great number of Lu- 
therans. 

Worship, Rites, and Ceremonies. — In 1523, 
Luther drew up a liturgy or form of prayer 
and administration of the sacraments, which, 
in many particulars, differed little from the 
mass of the church of Rome. But he did 
not intend to confine his followers to this 
form ; and hence, every country, where 
Lutheranism prevails, has its own liturgy, 
which is the rule of proceeding in all that 
relates to external worship, and the public 
exercise of religion. The liturgies used in 
the different countries which have em- 
braced the system of Luther, perfectly agree 
in all the essential branches of religion, 
in all matters that can be considered as of 
real moment and importance; but they dif- 
fer widely in many things of an indifferent 
nature, concerning which the Scriptures 
are silent, and which compose that part of 
the public religion that derives its author- 
ity from the wisdom and appointment of 
men. Assemblies for the celebration of 
divine worship meet every where at stated 
times. Here the Holy Scriptures are pub- 
licly read ; prayers and hymns addressed 
to the Deity ; the sacraments administered ; 
637 



and the people instructed in the know- 
ledge of religion, and excited to the prac- 
tice of virtue, by the discourses of their 
ministers. 

Of all Protestants, the Lutherans are 
perhaps those who differ least from the 
church of Rome, not only in regard to 
their doctrine of consubstantiat ; on, namely, 
that the body and blood of Christ are ma- 
terially present in the sacrament of the 
Lord's Supper, though in an incomprehen- 
sible manner ; or, that the partakers of the 
Lord's Supper receive along with, under, 
and in the bread and wine, the real body 
and blood of Christ ; but likewise as they 
represent several religious practices and 
ceremonies as tolerable, and some of them 
useful, which are retained in no other 
Protestant church. Among these may be 
reckoned the forms of exorcism in the cele- 
bration of baptism ; the use of wafers in 
the administration of the Lord's Supper ; 
the private confession of sins ; the use of 
images, of incense, and of lighted tapers in 
their churches (particularly at the cele- 
bration of the Lord's Supper), with a cruci- 
fix on the altar. All these are practices of 
the church of Rome. Some of them, how- 
ever, are not general, but confined to par- 
ticular parts. 

Formerly private confession was univer- 
sally practised by the Lutherans, though 
they never held, with the Roman Catholics, 
forgiveness of sins in this world to be neces- 
sary for forgiveness in another life ; and it 
was connected with the disgraceful custom 
of giving, on that occasion, a small present 
to the confessor. This confession- money, 
as it is called, constituted, in many places, 
an important part of the clergyman's salary: 
but this custom, as well as private confes- 
sion itself, has been abolished in most of the 
Lutheran countries and congregations, and 
another source of revenue substituted in 
its place. A kind of public and general 
confession is in use as a preparative to 
the celebration of the Lord's Supper. 

Government and Discipline. — In every 
country where Lutheranism is established, 
the supreme head of the state is, at the same 
time, the supreme visible ruler of the 
church ; but ' all civil rulers of the Lu- 
theran persuasion arc effectually restrained, 
by the fundamental principles of the doc- 
trine they profess, from any attempts to 
change or destroy the established rule of 
faith and manners, — to make any alteration 
in the essential doctrines of their religion, 
or in any thing intimately connected with 
them, — or to impose their particular opi- 
nions upon their subjects in a despotic and 
arbitrary manner.' The councils, or so- 
cieties, appointed In- the sover< ign to watch 
over the interests of the church, and to 
govern and direct its affairs, are composed 

of persons versed in the knowledge both of 

civil and ecclesiastical law, and. according 



LUT 



LYD 



to a very ancient denomination, are called 
Consistories. The internal government of 
the Lutheran Church seems to be in some 
respects anomalous. It bears no resem- 
blance to Independency, and yet it is equally 
removed from Episcopacy on the one hand, 
and from Presbyterianism on the other. We 
must, however, except the kingdoms of 
Sweden and Denmark (including Norway,) 
in which the form of ecclesiastical govern- 
ment that preceded the Reformation is 
retained, purged, indeed, from the super- 
stitions and abuses that rendered it so 
odious. 

1 This constitution of the Lutheran hie- 
rarchy,' says Dr. Mosheim, ' will not seem 
surprising, when the sentiments of that peo- 
ple with respect to ecclesiastical polity, are 
duly considered. On the one hand they are 
persuaded that there is no law, of divine 
authority, which points out a distinction 
between the ministers of the Gospel with 
respect to rank, dignity, or prerogatives ; 
and therefore they recede from Episcopacy. 
But, on the other hand, they are of opinion, 
that a certain subordination, a diversity in 
point of rank and privileges among the 
clergy, is not only highly useful, but also 
necessary to the perfection of church com- 
munion, by connecting, in consequence of 
a mutual dependence, more closely to- 
gether the members of the same body ; and 
thus they avoid the uniformity of the Pres- 
byterian governments. They are not, how- 
ever, agreed with respect to the extent of 
this subordination, and the degrees of su- 
periority and precedence that ought to dis- 
tinguish their doctors ; for in some places 
this is regulated with much more regard to 
the ancient rules of church government, 
than is discovered in others.' 

The constitution of the Lutheran church 
in Sweden, bears great resemblance to 
that of the church of England. However, 
neither in Sweden nor in Denmark is that 
authority and dignity attached to the Epis- 
copal office, which the church of England 
bestows upon her dignitaries. 

Countries where found, tyc. — Lutheranism 
is the established creed and form of reli- 
gion in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 
in the greater part of Germany, particularly 
in the north, and in Saxony ; in Livonia, 
and Esthonia, and the greatest part of Prus- 
sia. There are also Lutheran churches 
in Holland, Courland, Russia, Hungary, 
North America, the Danish West India 
Islands, &c. In Russia the Lutherans 
are at present more numerous than any 
other sect, that of the Greek Christians 
excepted. In Poland are several Lutheran 
churches ; and in Hungary, the Lutherans 
have 439 churches, and 472 pastors, who 
are elected by the people, and regulate 
among themselves their church government. 
The Lutherans have too long cherished 
in their breasts that spirit of intolerance 
638 



and bigotry, from which they themselves 
have suffered so long, and so much ; and 
this spirit has often impeded among them 
the progress of science and enlightened 
inquiry, and frustrated rriany attempts of 
the reformed party towards a reunion. 
But this bigotry is by no means character- 
istic in them ; and during the last thirty- 
five or forty years, learning has been cul- 
tivated, and liberality of sentiment and 
doctrine practised by them, in at least 
an equal degree with any other Christian 
party. The names of Michaelis, Mosheim, 
Griesbach, Paulus, Eickhorn, Doederlein, 
Henke, Herder, and many others, all of 
them divines of the Lutheran church, must 
rescue her from the reproach of inferiority 
in learning, as well as from that of bigotry 
and intolerance. Adam's Religious World, 
pp. 321—353. 

LYD'DA, AvdSrj, signifies nativity, or 
generation. Josephus says, that this place 
was a village, not yielding to a city in great- 
ness. It was reckoned a day's journey 
from Jerusalem ; and the second tenths of 
its fruits were carried to Jerusalem to be 
eaten there. ' Lydda,' says D'Arvieux ' is 
called by the Arabs Lydd. It is situated 
on a plain about a league from Rama, north. 
It is so entirely ruined, as to be at present 
but a miserable village, noticeable only on 
account of the market which is held 
here, once a week. The dealers resort to 
it to sell the cottons and other commodi- 
ties, which they have collected during the 
week. There was formerly a handsome 
church, dedicated to St. George, a saint who 
is equally in favour with both Turks and 
Christians.' 

Dr. Wittman says, ' I rode across the 
plains of Jaffa and Lydda. We approached 
the town of Lydda, or Loudda, and saw 
the Arab inhabitants busily employed in 
sowing barley. The soil of these fine and 
extensive plains is a. rich black mould, 
which, with proper care and industry, might 
be rendered extremely fertile. Lydda is 
denominated by the Greeks Diospolis, or 
the Temple of Jupiter, probably because a 
temple had been dedicated, in its vicinity, 
to that deity. Since the crusades, it has 
received from the Christians the name of 
St. George, on account of its having been 
the scene of the martyrdom and burial of 
that saint. In this city tradition reports, 
that the emperor Justinian erected a 
church. Wittman' s Travels, pp. 203. 205. 
Sacred Geography. 

LYD'IA, AvSia ; See Lydda for its sig- 
nification. Lydia, in Asia Minor, was a 
province between Caria and Phrygia ; it 
was bounded by Phrygia on the east, by 
Mysia on the north, and part of Caria on 
the south. The music of the Lydians was 
soft and effeminate. Lydia was peopled 
by Lud, the son of Shem. (Gen. x. 22.) 
Sacred Geography. 



LYS 



LYS 



LYS'TRA, AvffTpa, signifies dissolving. 
It was a city in Lycaonia, of which Timothy 
was a native. Paul and Barnabas, having 
preached in this city, and healed a man 
who had been lame from his birth, were 
taken for gods ; Paul for Mercury, and Bar- 
nabas for Jupiter. These apostles could 
scarcely prevent the people from offering 



to them sacrifices. However, soon after, 
certain Jews of Iconium and Antioch, in 
Pisidia, coming thither, excited against them 
the populace, who began to throw stones 
at Paul and Barnabas, and dragged them 
out of the city, supposing they were dead. 
(Acts xiv. 6, 7, 8.) 



M. 



MAA 



MAC 



MA'ACHAH, or Beth-Ma'achah, 
roj/D, signifies squeezed or ground ; 
otherwise fixed, or sorroiv of the belly. Beth- 
Maachah may signify either the temple of 
the goddess presiding over child-birth, or 
a residence built by a person named Ma- 
achah. It was a city of the Ammorites on 
the Jordan, near Mount Hermon. (Josh, 
xii. 5.; xiii. 13. 1 Chron. iv. 19.) It ap- 
pears to have been a town of Naphtali. (2 
Sam. xx. 14. 1 Kings xv. 20. 2 Kings xv. 
29.) It may be thought to have had a 
district of considerable extent belonging to 
it. (2 Sam. xx. 15.) Sacred Geography. 

MACCABEES, the name of four apoc- 
ryphal books, two of which are esteemed 
canonical by the church of Rome. Among 
Protestants the first two are reckoned 
pretty good historical authority, the last 
two are little known : the third is some- 
times seen among us : the fourth never. 

The First Book of the Maccabees 
was originally written in the Chaldee lan- 
guage, or that spoken by the Jews after 
their return from Babylon. It was extant 
in this language in the time of Jerome. Its 
title at that time was Sarbet sarbane el, 
'The scourge of the rebels against the 
Lord,' or, as some translate the words, 
' The sceptre of the prince of the sons of 
God.' The author of this book is not cer- 
tainly known. Some think him to be John 
Hyrcanus, the son of Simon, who was prince 
and high-priest of the Jews nearly thirty 
years, and who began his government at 
the time when this history ends. Others 
ascribe it to one of the Maccabees them- 
selves, and many think it to be the work of 
the Great Synagogue. It is most probable, 
that it was composed in the time of John 
Hyrcanus, when the wars of the Maccabees 
were terminated either by Hyrcanus him- 
self, or by some others employed by him. 
From the Chaldee it was translated into 
Greek, and from that into Latin. Our 
English version is from the Greek. 

^639 



This first book of the Maccabees is a very 
accurate and excellent history, and, of all 
the apocryphal books extant, approaches 
nearest to the style and manner of the sa- 
cred historians. It contains the history of 
forty years, from the reign of Antiochus 
Epiphanes to the death of Simon the high- 
priest. This book follows the Jewish aera ; 
the second, that of Alexandria, which begins 
six months later. 

The Second Book of the Maccabees 
consists of several pieces compiled by an 
unknown author. It begins with two epis- 
tles sent from the Jews of Jerusalem to 
those of Alexandria and Egypt, to exhort 
them to observe the feast of the dedication 
of the new altar erected by Judas Macca- 
beus, on his purifying the temple. These 
epistles are additions to the history, and 
supposed to be spurious. After the epis- 
tles is the preface of the author to his his- 
tory. This history is an abridgement of a 
larger work composed by one Jason, an 
Hellenistic Jew of Cyrene, who wrote in 
Greek the history of Judas Maccabeus, and 
his brethren, and the wars against Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, and Eupator his son, in 
five books. But the entire work of Jason 
is lost. 

This second book is by no means equal 
to the first in accuracy and fidelity. It 
contains the history of about fifteen years. 
from the execution of the commission of 
Heliodorns, who was sent by Seleucus to 
bring away the treasures of the temple, to 
the victory obtained by Judas Maccabeus 
over Nicanor, that is, from the year of the 
world 3828 to 3843. 

The Third Book of the Mac< 

contains the history of the persecution 

raised by Ptolemy l'hilopater. king 
against the Jews of bis kingdom. I 
happened in the year of the world .".7' ,; 7 
Hence this book, in order of time, should 
be placed before the first o\' the four ; but, 

as it is of less repute and authority than the 



MAC 



MAG 



other two, it has been reckoned after 
them. It seems to have been written by 
some Alexandrian Jew in the Greek lan- 
guage, not long after the time of Siracides. 
It is very improperly inscribed with the 
name of Judas Maccabeus, or any of his 
brethren. 

The Fourth Book of the Maccabees 
is very little known among the Latins. It 
is perhaps the same as the book concerning 
government of reason, ascribed by seme to 
Josephus, extant in certain ancient Greek 
manuscripts of the Bible, and placed after 
the three first books of the Maccabees. 
Broughton's Hist. Diet. vol. ii. pp. 37, 38 ; 
Prideaux's Connection, part ii. pp. 157- 262. 
264. 

MACEDO'NIA, Matcedovia, signifies 
high or eminent; perhaps, the heights, the 
mountainous district. Macedonia was a 
kingdom of Greece, having Thrace to the 
north, Thessaly south, Epirus west, and the 
JEgean Sea east. It is thought that Mace- 
donia was peopled by Kitrim, son of 
Javan, (Gen. x. 4.) and that by Chittim, 
Macedonia is to be understood. See 
Chittim. 

Alexander the Great, son of Philip, king 
of Macedonia, having conquered Asia, and 
subverted the Persian empire, the name of 
the Macedonians became very famous 
throughout the East; and it is often given 
to the Greeks, the successors of Alexander 
in the monarchy. In like manner, the 
name of Greeks is often put for Macedo- 
nians. (2 Mac. iv. 36.) 

St. Paul was invited, say some, by the 
angel of this province, who appeared to 
him at Troas, to preach the Gospel in Mace- 
donia ; but Dr. Doddridge thinks, that the 
expression * a certain man,' cannot refer 
to the guardian angel of Macedonia, as 
Grotius imagines, but rather to some par- 
ticular person whom Paul knew. Bloom- 
field explains the passage as follows : ■ a 
person whom he knew to be a Macedonian, 
either by his dress, or rather from his words.' 
Hence he thinks Doddridge mistaken in 
supposing the tic to denote ' some certain 
Macedonian.' Paul, however, concluded, 
that God had called him to that country; 
and the success which attended his preach- 
ing there confirmed him in his opinion. 
There he founded the churches of Thessa- 
lonica and Philippi, and had the satisfaction 
to see them flourishing, numerous, and 
abounding in spiritual gifts and graces. 
(Acts xvi. 9, &c.) BloomfieWs Recensio Sy- 
noptica, vol. iv. pp. 508, 509 ; Doddridge 1 s 
Family Expositor, vol. iii. p. 141, edit. 1810. 

MACEDONIANS, the followers of Ma- 
cedonius, bishop of Constantinople, who, 
through the influence of the Eunomians, was 
deposed by the council of Constantinople 
in 360, and sent into exile. He con- 
sidered the Holy Ghost as a divine energy 
diffused throughout the universe, and not 
640 



as a person distinct from the Father and 
the Son. The sect of the Macedonians 
was crushed before it had arrived at ma- 
turity, by the council assembled at Con- 
stantinople in 381. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. i. p. 346. 

MACHPELAH, tf>B3S, signifies double; 
and the author of the Vulgate takes it in 
this sense, speaking of the cave that Abra- 
ham bought of Ephron, in which to bury 
his wife Sarah. (Gen. xxiii. 9.) But others, 
with more probability, think that this was 
the name of the plain in which this cave 
was situated, and that, therefore, we should 
translate, ' the cave which is at Machpelah,' 
and ' the field of Ephron, which was in 
Machpelah,' (Gen. xxiii. 17.) as in the Eng- 
lish translation. 

MAD'AI, no, signifies measure; other- 
wise, covering, or clothes. Madai was the 
third son of Japheth. (Gen. x. 2.) It is 
commonly thought that he was the father 
of the Medes: but besides that Media is 
too far distant from the other countries 
peopled by Japheth, it cannot be compre- 
hended under the name of ' The isles of 
the Gentiles,' which were the division of 
the sons of Japheth. These reasons have 
induced some learned men to suggest, that 
Madai was the father of the Macedonians. 
Macedonia was otherwise called iEmathia, 
as if from the Hebrew Ei, an island, and 
Madia, the isle of Madai ; or from the 
Greek Aia-madai, the land of Madai. Near 
this country is mentioned a people called 
Maedi, or Madi ; and in Macedonia, a king 
called Medus. The name of Media given 
to the country beyond the Euphrates, 
seems not to be more ancient than Medea, 
or the voyage of Jason to Colchis. See 
Media. 

MAGI, or MAGIANS, an ancient reli- 
gious sect in Persia, and other eastern 
countries, who, abominating the adoration 
of images, worshipped God only by fire, in 
which they were directly opposite to the 
Sabaeans, or Sabians. 

The Magi believed that there were two 
principles, one the cause of all good, and 
the other the cause of all evil ; and in this 
opinion they were followed by the sect of 
the Manichees. See Manicheans. 

They called the good principle Jazdan 
and Ormuzd, and the evil principle 
Ahraman or Aherman. The former was by 
the Greeks called Oromasdes, and the latter 
Arimanius. The reason of their worship- 
ping fire, was because they looked upon it 
as the truest symbol of Oromasdes, or the 
good god ; as darkness was of Arimanius, or 
the evil god. In all their temples they had 
fire continually burning upon the altars, 
and in their own private houses. 

The religion of the Magi fell into dis- 
grace on the death of those ringleaders of 
that sect who had usurped the sovereignty 
after the death of Cambyses ; and the 



MAG 



MAG 



slaughter that was made of the chief men 
among them sunk it so low, that Sabianism 
every where prevailed against it ; Darius 
and most of his followers, on that occasion, 
going over to it. But, the affection which 
the people had for the religion of their fore- 
fathers not being easily to be rooted out, 
the famous impostor Zoroaster, some ages 
after, undertook to revive and reform it. 

The chief reformation this pretended 
prophet made in the Magian religion was in 
its first principle ; for he introduced a god 
superior both to Oromasdes and Arimanius. 
Dr. Prideaux is of opinion, that Zoroaster 
took the hint of this alteration in their theo- 
logy from the prophet Isaiah, who intro- 
duces God, saying to Cyrus, king of Persia, 
• I am the Lord, and there is none else ; 
I form the light, and create darkness ; I 
make peace, and create evil.' (Isai. xiv. 7-) 
In short, Zoroaster held that there was one 
supreme, independent Being, and under him 
two principles, or angels, one the angel of 
light or good, and the other the angel of 
evil or darkness ; that there is a perpetual 
struggle between them, which shall last till 
the end of the world ; that then the angel 
of darkness and his disciples shall go into a 
world of their own, where they shall be 
punished in everlasting darkness; and the 
angel of light and his disciples shall also 
go into a world of their own, where they 
shall be rewarded in everlasting light. 

Zoroaster was the first that built fire- 
temples ; the Magians before his time per- 
forming their devotions upon the tops of 
hills, and in the open air, by which means 
they were exposed to the inconvenience of 
rain and tempests, which often extinguished 
their sacred fires. To procure the greater 
veneration for these sacred fires, he pre- 
tended to have received fire from heaven, 
which he placed on the altar of the first 
fire- temple he erected, which was that at 
Xls in Media, whence they say it was pro- 
pagated to all the rest. the Magian 
priests kept their sacred fire with the 
greatest diligence, watching it day and 
night, and never suffering it to be extin- 
guished. They fed it only with wood 
stript of the bark, and they never blew it 
with their breath or with bellows, for fear 
of polluting it : to do either of these was 
death by their law. 

The Magian religion, as reformed by 
Zoroaster, seems in many things to be 
built upon the plan of the Jewish. The 
Jews had their sacred fire, which came 
down from heaven on the altar of burnt- 
offerings, which they never suffered to go 
out, and with which all their sacrifices 
and oblations were made. Zoroaster, in 
like manner, pretended to have brought 
his holy fire from heaven; and as the .lews 
had a Shechinah of the divine presence 
among them, resting over the mercy-seat 
in the Holy of Holies, Zoroaster likewise 
641 



taught his Magians to look upon the sacred 
fire in their temples as a Shechinah, in 
which God especially dwelt. From these 
and some other instances of analogy be- 
tween the Jewish and the Magian religion, 
Prideaux infers that Zoroaster had been 
first educated and brought up in the Jewish 
religion. 

The priests of the Magi were the most 
skilful mathematicians and philosophers of 
the ages in which they lived, insomuch 
that a learned man and a Magian became 
equivalent terms. This proceeded so far, 
that the vulgar, thinking their knowledge 
to be more than natural, imagined they 
were inspired by some supernatural power. 
And hence those who practised wicked and 
diabolical arts, taking upon themselves the 
name of Magians, drew on it that ill signi- 
fication which the word Magician now bears 
among us. 

The Magian priests were all of one tribe, 
as among the Jews, none but the son of a 
priest was capable of bearing that office 
among them. The royal family among 
the Persians, as long as this sect subsisted, 
was always of the sacerdotal tribe. They 
were divided into three orders ; the inferior 
clergy, the superintendents or bishops, and 
the archimagus or arch-priest. 

Zoroaster had the address to bring over 
Darius to his newly reformed religion, 
notwithstanding the strongest opposition 
of the Sabians ; and from that time it 
became the national religion of all that 
country, and so continued for many ages 
after, till it was supplanted by that of Ma- 
homet. A remnant of these Magians still 
exist in Persia and India under the name 
of Gaurs. Zoroaster composed a book 
which contains the principles of the Magian 
religion, and which is called Zendavesta, 
and by contradiction Zend. Broitghton's 
Hist. Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 30, 40 ; Prideaux s 
Connection, part i. p. 852, &c. 303, \c. 

Magi, wise men who came from the 
East to adore Jesus Christ at Bethlehem. 
(Matt. ii. 1.) Many questions have been 
asked concerning these Magi ; as, who they 
were ? whence they came ? how many 
there were ? at what time they arrived at 
Jerusalem ? and what was the star which 
appeared to them ? 

It is commonly thought that these Magi, 
or Diviners, belonged to the established 
priesthood of the Persian, or Parthian 
empire; persons of the highest rank and 
consequence in the state. If, according to 
Theophylaet, these Magi were the de- 
scendants of Balaam, the celebrated Chal- 
dsean diviner, who prophesied oi 'the Star 

to rise out of Jacob, and the Sceptre from 
Israel,' (Numb, xxiv. 17.) and also of the 

school of Daniel, the prophet, at Babylon, 

who was appointed archimajrus h;. 
ehadno//.n\ (Dan. ii. 4<'i.> and foretold the 

precise time of the coming of ' Messiah the 
T t 



MAG 



MAH 



Prince ;' (Dan. ix. 25.) we may naturally 
account for their journey to Jerusalem, 
their inquiry, their excessive joy on the 
re-appearance of the star, and their adora- 
tion of the divine child. It is truly re- 
markable, and in perfect conformity with 
this, that among the first fruits of the 
Christian church, founded on the day of 
Pentecost, by another visible appearance of 
the divine glory, resting on the heads of 
the apostles, the fore-ground is occupied by 
Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and dwellers in 
Mesopotamia, from whence the Magi came. 
(Acts ii. 9.) 

Dr. Hales reckons that this journey of 
the wise men must have required at least 
three months, since it employed Ezra and 
his party four months, (Ezra vii. 9.) and 
that the nativity must have preceded the 
manifestation of Christ to the Magi above 
forty days, the time of Mary's purification 
and presentation of the infant Jesus in the 
temple. (Luke ii. 22) He thinks, that the 
star seen by these eastern Magi could not 
have been an ordinary star or meteor ; for 
when it re-appeared on their way to Beth- 
lehem, ' it conducted them till it came and 
stood over the house, where the young child 
was.' (Matt. ii. 9.) It was, probably, he 
says, the same ' glory of the Lord,' which, 
on the night of the nativity, shone round 
about the pious shepherds at Bethlehem, 
and might therefore have been of a globular 
form, and which ascended into heaven 
along with the celestial choir. (Luke ii. 8 — 
15.) It might have been seen in its ascent 
by the Magi at the distance of five or six 
hundred miles, diminished to the size of a 
star or meteor, and rising from the land of 
Judea, in the south-west quarter of the 
horizon, an unusual region, which must 
have strongly attracted their notice and 
attention. Hales's New Analysis of Chro- 
nology, vol. i. pp. 180, 181 ; vol. ii. book ii. 
pp.7L3-715. 

MAGICIAN, in Scripture, generally 
signifies a diviner, a fortune-teller, &c. 
Moses forbids to consult such on pain of 
death s (Levit. xix. 31. ; xx. 6.) ' The soul 
that turneth after familiar spirits, and after 
wizards, to go a whoring after them, I will 
even set my face against that soul, and will 
cut him off' from among his people.' The 
Hebrew word Oboth and Jedonim signify 
literally — the first, those possessed with a 
spirit of Python, or a daemon that foretels 
future events ; the second, those who boast 
of the knowledge of secret things. It was 
such sort of people that Saul extirpated out 
of the land of Israel. (1 Sam. xxviii. 3.) 
Daniel also speaks of the magicians and 
diviners in Chaldaea, under king Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and names four sorts. (Dan. i. 
20, &c.) 

The inquisitive and superstitious arts ex- 
ercised by diviners were prohibited among 
the Israelites. To restrain them from imi- 
642 



tating the other Eastern people, all of whom 
had their diviners, enchanters, and magi- 
cians, God sent them prophets, who dis- 
covered future events in a sure, clear, and 
easy manner. On the contrary, the predic- 
tions of diviners were always obscure, enig- 
matical, doubtful, and dangerous, as well 
in respect of those who consulted them, as 
of those who were consulted; for the law 
condemned both parties to death. Pharaoh's 
magicians counterfeited the miracles of 
Moses. 

MAHOMETANISM.— Name, Life, and 
Character of its Author. — Mahometanism 
derives its name from Mahomet, or Mo- 
hammed, its author and founder. Ma- 
homet was born at Mecca, a city in Arabia 
Felix, in A.D. 571. The circumstances 
which attended his earlier years were such 
as presented no flattering prospects of 
grandeur, and no probable views of am- 
bition to his future life. Though descended 
from the tribe of Koreish, the most honour- 
able of Arabia, and from the noblest family 
of that tribe, yet distress and poverty were 
the only portion which he inherited. Soon 
after he was born, his father, Abdollah, 
died, when five camels and an ^Ethiopian 
female slave comprised the whole of his 
property, which remained for the support 
of his widow Amena, and her infant son. 
When we consider then the point from 
which he set out, and the height to which 
he rose ; when we contemplate the great- 
ness of that empire, and the extent of that 
religion, which he founded ; our astonish- 
ment is excited as well by the splendid 
talents and the profound artifice of the 
impostor, as by the blind compliance, and 
abject credulity, of the multitudes whom he 
deceived. The education which he re- 
ceived, like that of the rest of his country- 
men, was rough and hardy ; neither tem- 
pered by the elegancies of literature, nor 
even enlightened by the first and most ob- 
vious rudiments of knowledge ; but calcu- 
lated rather to invigorate the powers of the 
body, than to polish and enlarge the mind. 
But, graceful in his person, easy and insi- 
nuating in his manners, and endowed with 
a greatness of mind, which could brave the 
storms of adversity, and rise superior to the 
disadvantages of an illiterate education, he 
was in possession of accomplishments more 
valuable in themselves, and capable of 
producing more illustrious effects, than all 
that the influence of wealth, or the au- 
thority of hereditary power could have 
bestowed. 

But if Mahomet, deprived of the usual 
means of cultivation and improvement, was, 
during the earlier years of his life, left 
solely to the guidance of untutored nature ; 
he, at a more advanced age, enjoyed the 
most favourable opportunities of acquiring i 
a species of information far more conducive 
to the success of his subsequent designs, 



MAII 



MAPI 



than the maxims of science, or the refine- 
ments of philosophy ; the knowledge, I 
mean, of men and manners. Surrounded 
by a rough and barren territory, which de- 
nied to its inhabitants even the necessaries 
of life, the people of Mecca, like the Ish- 
maelites their forefathers, depended princi- 
pally on commerce for support. Thus urged 
by the call of unavoidable necessity, and 
favoured by a situation peculiarly advanta- 
geous to such pursuits, they carried on a 
constant and extensive intercourse with 
Persia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, in 
these employments Mahomet was early in- 
itiated by his uncle Abu-Taleb, to whose 
care he had been left by his father ; and 
during his travels into the neighbouring na- 
tions, besides the general improvement and 
cultivation of his mind, he collected those 
particular observations which afterwards 
induced him to form, and acquired that 
knowledge which enabled him to execute, 
his daring and ambitious designs. 

Whilst engaged in the occupations of 
commerce, and discharging with zeal and 
fidelity the humble duties of servitude, his 
strong and active genius already rose above 
the meanness and obscurity of his station ; 
and, from a well-grounded confidence in its 
own powers, inspired him with an opinion, 
that he was born to move in a higher and 
more illustrious sphere. But, when a sud- 
den and unexpected change of fortune had 
raised him from poverty and dependence to 
opulence and ease, this opinion returned 
with augmented force ; and he now began 
to meditate seriously on the means of real- 
izing those ideas, which had hitherto pro- 
ceeded rather from the warmth of imagina- 
tion, than from the deliberate dictates of 
reason, or even the impulses of serious and 
habitual hope. In the 25th year of his age, 
he was raised to an equality with the richest 
citizens of Mecca, by his alliance witli Kha- 
dijah, or Cadigha, an opulent widow of that 
city, whose mercantile affairs he had con- 
ducted in Syria for some years, so much to 
her satisfaction, that she advanced him from 
the rank of a servant to be the partner of 
her bed. This event may justly be consi- 
dered as the foundation of all the future 
fortune of Mahomet. 

From this period to the time when he an- 
nounced his mission as the prophet of the 
Most High, history has recorded nothing of 
consequence concerning his actions and 
pursuits. Fifteen years of his life are in- 
volved in the deepest and most impenetra- 
ble obscurity. It was doubtless in this re- 
tirement, that the artful impostor drew the 
general outlines, and adjusted the several 
particulars, of that great and hazardous pro- 
ject, which was hereafter to raise him to 
glory and dominion. At the time when 
Mahomet travelled into the neighbouring 
nations, the internal distractions of Persia 
on the one side, and the notorious weakness 
643 



of the Roman provinces on the other, toge- 
ther with the universal corruption of man- 
ners that prevailed amongst the inhabitants 
of both, were indications, too stronsr to be 
overlooked, of the approaching ruin of those 
mighty and unwieldy empires. But it is 
probable, that the state of religion was the 
grand and principal object wnich attracted 
his attention, and employed his reflections. 
An acquaintance with the Jewish and Christ- 
ian doctrines must have convinced him of 
the absurdity of that impious idolatry in 
which he had been educated. 

He beheld the Jews, despised and de- 
tested by all men, still obstinately refusing 
to mix with the rest of mankind, and ad- 
hering with unshaken attachment to the 
law of Moses ; whilst the Christians, divided 
in their faith, and degenerate in their prac- 
tice, had miserably perverted the spirit of 
their religion, and, forgetting the union and 
love which it prescribed, were denouncing 
anathemas against each other. Hence it 
was, that, with a boldness of design, ex- 
ceeded only by the cunning that conducted 
it, he meditated a religion, which, by flat- 
tering the corrupt passions and prejudices 
of each, might embrace, in its ample and 
comprehensive law, the Christian, the Idol- 
ater, and the Jew. The plan was great, and 
the execution arduous ; but the wily impos- 
tor facilitated its success by laying the foun- 
dation of his whole system on one plain and 
obvious principle, the belief of one only su- 
preme God. To this he superadded the ob- 
ligation of believing in him, as the inspired 
prophet and messenger of the Almighty. 
He artfully selected from the Jewish and 
Christian moraliiy those parts which seemed 
best adapted to the sentiments and man- 
ners of the inhabitants of the warmer cli- 
mates in particular ; blending them at the 
same time with the popular traditions, and 
the ruling opinions of his idolatrous coun- 
trymen. He alleged, with much plausibi- 
lity, that God had originally given one 
grand and universal religion to all the sons 
of men ; that, when the cares and avocations 
of life had obliterated, or the frailty or per- 
verseness of human nature had corrupted 
this faith, it had pleased the Almighty, in 
his mercy, to send forth successive prophets 
to instruct and reform mankind, ever prone 
to wander from the plain and simple paths 
of truth. Such, among many others, whom 
his own creative imagination raised up and 
dignified with the prophetic office, was 
Moses, whoso mission was. by the particular 
designation of Providence, confined within 
the narrow limits of one people. Such, 
was JeBUS, whoso moiv liberal and compre- 
hensive system proceeded from a fuller and 
more perfect exertion o( Divine goodl 
and was destined to confer its In i 

without distinction, on all the widelj 
tended race of mankind. Since time, i 
ever, had unhappily corrupted the doctrines 

T t 2 



MAH 



MAH 



of Christianity itself, and left men once 
more to wander in darkness and in error, it 
had at length pleased the Almighty to elect 
Mm as the instrument of his gracious de- 
signs ; to commission him to rescue religion 
from the corruptions which obscured its 
native splendour ; and to place him above 
Jesus himself, by making him the last 
great restorer of truth and virtue to the 
world. 

"When the time which he had chosen to 
announce his mission approached, being 
now in his fortieth year; when the night 
which was to cover him with glory, accord- 
ing to the expression of Abulfeda, was at 
length arrived; he withdrew in silence to 
the solitary cave, which had been the usual 
place of his retirement. Here he pre- 
tended the Divine commands were first 
communicated to him with the most awful 
solemnity ; and here he received his great 
commission as the prophet and apostle of 
God, by the hands of Gabriel, the glorious 
messenger of the Most High. The first 
efforts of the impostor were confined to the 
conversion of his own wife and household ; 
and having succeeded thus far, he pretended 
to receive more frequent communications 
of the Divine will, and proceeded, for the 
space of three years, by every species of 
artifice, and by the force of superior talents, 
to gain over to his party some of the most 
powerful inhabitants of Mecca. His pre- 
tensions were, indeed, at first, both by Jews 
and Christians, rejected with disdain ; and 
the rulers of the city endeavoured to im- 
pede his progress, first by severe and re- 
peated menaces, and at length by actual 
violence. Even the multitude, on his first 
public appearance in the character of a 
prophet, ridiculed his pretensions, and in- 
sulted him with the odious appellations of 
a magician and an impostor. But, in defi- 
ance of all opposition, the manly and per- 
suasive eloquence, the consummate policy, 
and the alluring doctrines of the new pro- 
phet, daily augmented the number of his 
disciples. Compelled, however, at length, 
to escape, by a precipitate flight, the last 
desperate effort of his exasperated foes, he 
found a secure and advantageous retreat in 
Medina, whither his reputation had already 
reached. Here, by an exertion of the same 
diligence, and by the practice of the same 
artifice, he soon found himself enabled to 
collect a considerable number of followers, 
whose belief in his mission was firmly es- 
tablished, and whose zeal for the propaga- 
tion of his religion, and the support of his 
character as a prophet, was too strong to be 
shaken by any threats of danger, or of 
death. 

With increasing power, the impatience 
and the ambition of the impostor also in- 
creased. The view of empire seems now to 
have opened more fully and clearly upon 
him ; and he now pretended to have re- 
644 



ceived the Divine command to unsheath 
the sword of the Almighty, and to subdue, 
by the violence of arms, those who had been 
obstinately deaf to the voice of persuasion. 
Hitherto, he had acted the darker and 
more disguised part of the crafty deceiver, 
and the profound politician ; but, without 
neglecting these arts, he now began to as- 
sume also another character, and to display 
the more splendid talents of a commander 
and a hero. The first actions, however, 
with which he began his military career, 
resemble the irregular exploits of the rob- 
ber, more than the systematical operations 
of the warrior : but, enriched by the spoils, 
and aggrandized by the fame of his suc- 
cesses, he was soon enabled to engage in 
attempts of greater and more extensive im- 
portance. Towards those whom his arms 
had conquered, his conduct was different 
under different circumstances : according 
as interest required, or policy directed, we 
behold it now distinguished by an ostenta- 
tion of the most heroic clemency, and now 
stained with all the excesses of ferocious 
cruelty. 

To the sagacious statesman, and even to 
the candid philosopher, Mahomet has some- 
times appeared rather severe from policy, 
than cruel by nature. But this apology, in 
the view of unprejudiced reason and of ge- 
nuine philanthropy, surely aggravates the 
guilt which it is meant to extenuate. For 
the necessity which usurpation creates, the 
usurper is always responsible. This argu- 
ment alleged in favour of Mahomet amounts 
to a full and decisive proof, that Mahomet- 
anism itself could not have been established 
without violence. We readily admit the 
fact ; and we are justified in drawing from 
it such conclusions as are most dishonour- 
able to the genius of the religion itself, and 
to the character of its author. 

We now pass on to another striking fea- 
ture in the character of Mahomet. During 
his earlier years, indeed, every measure 
seems to have been dictated, and every 
inferior consideration utterly absorbed, by 
an unvaried attention to the pursuits and 
the interests of ambition. The nature of 
his undertaking, particularly in its first 
stages, required no common degree of pru- 
dence and caution. But no sooner was 
his reputation as a prophet established ; no 
sooner was his authority rooted too firmly 
to be shaken by any common or ordinary 
event, and his ambition in some measure 
satiated by the possession of power, than 
another passion arose, and, shaking off the 
restraint which had hitherto suppressed it, 
with a violence equally arbitrary, now 
hurried him away into the wildest extrava- 
gancies. Whilst the wretched victims of 
his power were sacrificed to his cruelty or 
his policy, a still severer fate awaited the 
female captive, who was compelled to sub- 
mit to the base and inordinate desires of 



MAH 



MAH 



a barbarian conqueror, and was forced into 
those arms which were stained with the 
recent slaughter of a friend, a brother, or 
a parent, it is sufficient to observe, in 
general, that the retirements of Mahomet, 
from his acquisition of power to his last 
decline of life, were continually disgraced 
by every excessive indulgence of that pas- 
sion, which has a more particular ten- 
dency to degrade the dignity of the human 
character, even below the brute crea- 
tion. The laws which he prescribed for 
the regulation of his disciples were too 
loose for the most compliant moralist to 
justify, and too favourable to afford the 
most abandoned sensualist any probable 
ground of complaint. But the boundless 
lust of Mahomet disdained to be confined 
even within the extensive limits which he 
had drawn for his followers. The impostor 
limited his followers to the number of four 
wives, whilst he himself, according to Abul- 
feda, had no less than fifteen, besides con- 
cubines. But this, it seems, was a particu- 
lar privilege, founded on the express words 
of God himself: ' O prophet, we have al- 
lowed thee thy wives, unto whom thou hast 
given their dower, and also the slaves 
which thy right hand possesseth, of the 
booty which God hath granted thee ; and 
the daughters of thy uncles, and the daugh- 
ters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side, 
and on thy mother's side, whj have fled 
with thee from Mecca ; and any other 
believing woman, if she give herself unto 
the prophet, in case the prophet desireth 
to take her to wife. This is a peculiar 
privilege granted unto thee, above the 
rest of the true believers.' 

Here we behold the God of purity him- 
self introduced to sanctify and approve the 
sensual immoralities of his prophet, and to 
silence the murmurs of his profane or 
short-sighted followers, who had been weak 
enough to imagine that the same laws, which 
were obligatory on the vulgar, likewise ex- 
tended their sanction to the sacred and 
venerable character of the apostle ! In 
another place, he makes the God of Truth 
an abettor of the greatest falsehood, and 
says, that he had received from God a dis- 
pensation for perjury. ' God hath allowed 
you a dissolution of your oaths.' 

But from every view of the life of Ma- 
homet, and even from the partial representa- 
tions of his zealous and infatuated follow- 
ers, it is evident, that ambition and lust 
were the passions which divided the em- 
pire of his breast. From the separate or 
united influence of these powerful prin- 
ciples, it would not be difficult to trace 
almost every great design, and every im- 
portant action of his life. There is no 
stronger or more infallible criterion of truth 
and falsehood, than consistency: for nothing 
is permanent but truth, and nothing con- 
sistent but sincerity'. So far was the cha- 
645 



racter of Mahomet from being consistent, 
that it is ever found to vary with his 
situation. Thus, till they could be indulged 
without shame and without dinger, we 
behold him compelling his lustful pas- 
sions, even in the earliest periods of life, 
when their influence is most powerful, to 
bend to the dictates of policy and the 
views of ambition. Thus, as interest re- 
quired, he now flattered the pride of the 
Jews, and now appealed to the prejudices 
of the Arabs ; now selecting the temple of 
Jerusalem, and now that of Mecca, as the 
Kibla, the hallowed spot, towards which 
the worship and the prayers of his followers 
should be directed. Thus, too, at the com- 
mencement of his imposture, we find him 
humble and yielding, labouring only by the 
powers of eloquence, and by the softer 
arts of insinuation, to captivate the affec- 
tions of his countrymen : but in its more 
advanced state, we behold on a sudden the 
preacher, by divine command, transformed 
into the warrior ; we see his steps every 
where marked with blood and desolation ; 
and we hear him, with the stern and fero- 
cious aspect of a conqueror, proposing death 
or conversion as the only alternative to 
his subject foes. 

But of the various disguises under which 
Mahomet attempted to veil the mysterious 
plan of his imposture, none was more 
artful in its design, or more successful 
in its event, than that profound ignorance, 
and total want of every kind of literature, 
to which he constantly pretended. On 
this was founded his most popular and 
prevailing argument for the truth of that 
revelation which he professed to commu- 
nicate to the world. The elegant style of 
that revelation, as contained in the Koran, 
the harmony of its sentences, and the sub- 
limity of its conceptions, were generally 
acknowledged. Was it not then absurd 
to imagine (as the impostor speciously 
argued, and as his followers argue to this 
day,) that a work of such extraordinary 
beauty and excellence could ever have 
been composed by a man who was desti- 
tute of every species of acquired know- 
ledge, and who, by his ignorance, even of 
the common rudiments of early education, 
had been precluded from the perusal of 
books, and the use of writing? That the 
ignorance of Mahomet, however, was not 
real, but pretended, might have been rea- 
sonably suspected. It might also have 
been inferred from proofs of a more direct 
and positive nature. Even by the confes- 
sion of his own historians, there were mo- 
ments in which his pretended ignorance 
was forgotten ; and he not only expressed a 
desire to exercise, but actually practised, that 
very art, of which he solemnly ami repeatedly 
professed himself to be totally ignorant 

It must be admitted by all parties, that 
vast were the schemes which Mahomet 



MAH 



MAH 



formed, and that great were the revolutions 
which he effected, both in the religion and 
the government of his country. With such 
vigour and intrepidity were his plans exe- 
cuted, and with so great success were his 
adventurous efforts crowned, that he not 
only became the founder of a new system 
of religion, but lived to behold himself 
master of all Arabia, besides several ad- 
jacent countries. After his death, which 
happened A.D. 632, his followers, led on 
by the same intrepidity, and actuated 
by the same fanatical fury, extended their 
new religion far beyond the limits of Ara- 
bia, and subdued Syria, Persia, Egypt, and 
other countries under their dominion. It 
is a lamentable fact, that the great body of 
Greek and Eastern Christians have felt 
the weight of the iron yoke imposed by 
this victorious sect, in a greater or less 
degree, from the seventh century to the 
present day. The Saracens also made in- 
roads into the Greek empire, and carried 
their victorious arms into Media, Chal- 
daea, India, and Tartary. They held Spain 
from A.D. 714 till the beginning of the 
sixteenth century ; but they were driven out 
of France in 726. They infested Italy, 
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Majorca, and Crete ; 
founded in Africa the kingdoms of Fez, 
Morocco, and Algiers ; and, under Mahomet 
II., became masters of Constantinople in 
1453. The success of their arms was every 
where attended with the propagation of 
Mahometanism ; and the professors of this 
religion have long been called Saracens, 
Turks, Tartars, Moors, &c. from their 
respective countries. 

Distinguishing Doctrines, or of the Koran 
and its contents. — When a great part of the 
life of Mahomet had been spent in prepara- 
tory meditation on the system he was about 
to establish, the chapters of the Alcoran of 
Koran, which was to contain the rule of the 
faith and practice of his followers, were 
dealt out slowly and separately during the 
long period of three-and- twenty years. He 
entrusted his beloved wife Kaphsa, the 
daughter of Omar, with the keeping of the 
' chest of his apostleship,' in which were 
laid up all the originals of the revelations 
he pretended to have received by the 
ministration of the angel Gabriel, and out 
of which the Koran, consisting of 114 Su~ 
rats or chapters, of very unequal length, 
was composed after his death. 

Yet, defective in its structure, and not 
less exceptionable in its doctrines and pre- 
cepts, was the work which he thus de- 
livered to his followers as the oracles of God. 
We will not detract from the real merit of 
the Koran ; we allow it to be generally 
elegant, and often sublime ; but at the same 
time we reject with disdain its arrogant 
pretensions to any thing supernatural. Nay, 
if, descending to a minute investigation 
of it, we consider its perpetual inconsist- 
646 



ency and absurdity, we shall indeed have 
cause for astonishment at that weakness 
of humanity, which could ever have re- 
ceived such compositions as the work ot 
the Deity, and which could still hold it in 
such admiration as it is held by the follow- 
ers of Mahomet, to the present day. Far 
from supporting its arrogant claim to a 
supernatural work, it sinks below the level 
of many compositions confessedly of human 
original ; and still lower does it fall in our 
estimation, when compared with that pure 
and perfect pattern which we justly admire 
in the Scriptures of Truth. The first praise 
of all the productions of genius is inven- 
tion ; but the Koran bears little impression 
of this transcendent character. It does not 
contain one single doctrine which may not 
fairly be derived either from the Jewish and 
Christian Scriptures, from the spurious and 
apocryphal Gospels, then current in the 
East, from the Talmudical legends, or from 
the traditions, customs, and opinions of the 
Arabians. And the materials collected 
from these several sources are here heaped 
together, with perpetual and needless repe- 
titions, without any settled principle, or 
visible connexion. The most prominent 
feature of the Koran, that point of excel- 
lence in which the partiality of its admirers 
has ever delighted to view it, is the sublime 
notion it generally impresses of the nature 
and attributes of God. But if its author 
had really derived these just conceptions 
from the inspiration of that Being, whom 
they attempt to describe, they would not 
have been surrounded, as they now are on 
every side, with error and absurdity. By 
attempting to explain what is inconceiva- 
ble, to describe what is ineffable, and to 
materialize what in itself is spiritual, he 
absurdly and impiously aimed to sensual- 
ize the purity of the divine essence. But 
it might easily be proved, that whatever 
the Koran justly defines of the divine attri- 
butes, was borrowed from our holy Scrip- 
tures ; which, even from their first pro- 
mulgation, but especially from the com- 
pletion of the New Testament, have ex- 
tended the views, and enlightened the 
understandings of mankind. 

The Koran, indeed, every where incul- 
cates that grand and fundamental doctrine 
of the unity of the Supreme Being, the 
establishment of which was constantly 
alleged by the impostor as the primary 
cause of his pretended mission; but on the 
subject of the Christian Trinity its author 
seems to have entertained very gross and 
mistaken ideas, and to have been totally 
ignorant of the perfect consistence of that 
opinion with the unity of the Deity. With 
respect to the great doctrine of a future 
life, and the condition of the soul after ils 
departure from the body, it must indeed be 
acknowledged, that the prophet of Arabia 
has presented us with a nearer prospect of 



MAH 



MAH 



the invisible world, and disclosed to us a 
thousand particulars concerning it, which 
the Holy Scriptures had wrapped in the 
most profound and mysterious silence. 
But in his various representations of 
another life, he generally descends to an 
unnecessary minuteness and particularity, 
which excite disgust and ridicule, instead 
of reverence. He constantly pretended to 
have received these stupendous secrets, by 
the ministry of the angel Gabriel, from that 
eternal book, in which the divine decrees 
have been written by the finger of the 
Almighty, from the foundation of the 
world : but the learned inquirer will dis- 
cover a more accessible, and a far more 
probable source whence they might be de- 
rived, partly in the wild and fanciful opi- 
nions of the ancient Arabs, and chiefly in 
those exhaustless stores of marvellous and 
improbable fiction, the works of the 
Rabbins. Hence that romantic fable of 
the Angel of Death, whose peculiar office it 
is, at the destined hour, to dissolve the 
union betwixt soul and body, and to free 
the departing spirit from its prison of flesh. 
Hence, too, the various descriptions of the 
general resurrection and filial judgment, 
with which the Koran every where 
abounds ; and hence the vast, but ideal 
balance, in which the actions of all mankind 
shall then be impartially weighed, and 
their eternal doom be assigned them, 
either in the regions of bliss or misery, 
according as their good or evil deeds shall 
preponderate. Here, too, may be traced 
the grand and original outlines of that 
sensual Paradise, and those luxurious en- 
joyments, which were so successfully em- 
ployed in the Koran, to gratify the ardent 
genius of the Arabs, and allure them to the 
standard of the prophet. 

The same observation, which has been 
applied with respect to the sources whence 
the doctrines were drawn, may, with some 
few limitations, be likewise extended to the 
precepts which the Arabian legislator has 
enjoined. That the Koran, amidst a 
various and confused heap of ridiculous, 
and even immoral precepts, contains many 
interesting and instructive lessons of mo- 
rality, cannot with truth be denied. Of 
these, however, the merit is to be ascribed 
not to the feeble imitation, but to the great 
and perfect original from which they were 
manifestly drawn. Instead of improving 
on the Christian precepts by a superior 
degree of refinement; instead of exhibiting 
a purer and more perfect system of morals 
than that of the Gospel ; the prophet of 
Arabia has miserably debased and weak- 
ened even what he has borrowed from that 
system. We are told by our Saviour, that 
a man is to be the husband of one wife, 
and that there is to be an inseparable 
union between them. By Mahomet' a con- 
fession, Jesus Christ was a prophet of the 
647 



true God, and the Holy Spirit was with 
him. Yet in the Koran we find a permit 
for any person to have four wives, and as 
many concubines as he can maintain. 
Again, our Saviour expressly tells us, that 
at the resurrection, ' They will neither 
marry nor be given in marriage ; but be 
like the angels of God in heaven.' We 
are informed also by St. Paul, that we 
shall be changed, and have a spiritual and 
glorified body : ' for flesh and blood can- 
not inherit the kingdom of heaven ; neither 
can corruption inherit incorruption.* But 
Mahomet gives a very different account ; 
it is clear, from his own confession, that 
the happiness, promised in the Koran, 
consists in base and corporeal enjoyments. 
According to its author, there will not only 
be marriage, but also servitude in the next 
world. The very meanest in Paradise will 
have eighty thousand servants, and seventy- 
two wives of the girls of Paradise, besides 
the wives he had in this world : he will 
also have a tent erected for him, of pearls, 
hyacinths, and emeralds. And as marriage 
will take place, so a new race will be intro- 
duced in heaven ; for, says the Koran, ' If 
any of the faithful in Paradise be desirous 
of issue, it shall be conceived, born, and 
grown up, in the space of an hour." But 
on the contradictions in point of doctrine, 
though sufficient of themselves to confute 
the pretensions of Mahomet, I forbear to 
insist. They were perhaps intentional, 
and adopted in order to promote more 
effectually the plans of interest and ambi- 
tion, which he had concerted. 

The impure designs which gave birth to 
the whole system, may be traced in almost 
every subordinate part ; even its subiimest 
descriptions of the Deity, even its most 
exalted moral precepts, not unfrequently, 
either terminate in, or are interwoven with, 
some provision to gratify the inordinate 
cravings of ambition, or some licence for the 
indulgence of the corrupt passions of the 
human heart. It has allowed private re- 
venge, in the case of murder ; it has given 
a sanction to fornication ; and, if any 
weight be due to the example of its author, 
it has justified adultery. It has made war, 
and rapine, and bloodshed, provided they 
be exercised against unbelievers, not only 
meritorious acts, but even essential duties 
to the good Mussulman ; duties by the 
performance of which he may secure the 
constant favour and protection of God and 
his prophet in this life, and in the next 
entitle himself to the boundless joys 
Paradise. In the Koran are advanc. d 
the following assertions among others al- 
ready noticed : — That both Jews and 
Christians arc idolaters . that the patriarchs 
and apostles were Mahometans: that the 

angels worshipped Adam, and that the fallen 
angels were driven from heaven tor not 

doing so; that our blessed Saviour Wtl 



MAH 



MAH 



neither God, nor the Son of God ; and that 
he assured Mahomet of* this, in a confer- 
ence with the Almighty and him ; yet that 
he was both the Word and the Spirit of 
God : not to mention numberless absurdi- 
ties concerning the Creation, the Deluge, 
the End of the World, the Resurrection, 
and the Day of Judgment, too gross to be 
received by any except the most debased 
understandings. 

The two leading articles in the creed ot 
this denomination of religionists, are — the 
unity of God, and the acknowledgment of 
Mahomet as his prophet ; and in a catechism 
said to have been lately printed at Con- 
stantinople, some further particulars are 
added, and the principal articles to which 
the young Mussulman is there required to 
give his assent, are comprised in the fol- 
lowing declarations : ' I believe in the 
books which have been delivered from 
heaven to the prophets. In this manner 
was the Koran given to Mahomet, the 
Pentateuch to Moses, the Psalter to David, 
and the Gospel to Jesus. I believe in the 
prophets, and the miracles which they have 
performed. Adam was the first prophet, 
and Mahomet was the last. I believe that, 
for the space of fifty thousand years, the 
righteous shall repose under the shade of 
the terrestrial Paradise ; and the wicked 
shall be exposed naked to the burning rays 
of the sun. I believe in the bridge Sirat, 
which passes over the bottomless pit of 
hell. It is as fine as a hair, and as sharp 
as a sabre. All must pass over it ; and the 
wicked shall be thrown off. I believe in 
the water-pools of Paradise. Each of the 
prophets has, in Paradise, a basin for his 
own use : the water is whiter than milk, 
and sweeter than honey. On the ridges of 
the pools are vessels to drink out of, and 
they are bordered with stars. I believe in 
heaven and hell. The inhabitants of the 
former know no want, and the Houris who 
attend them are never afflicted with sick- 
ness. The floor of Paradise is musk, the 
stones are silver, and the cement gold. 
The damned are, on the contrary, tormented 
with fire, and by voracious and poisonous 
animals.' What a farrago of truth and 
falsehood! and how much does the latter 
preponderate ! 

Worship, Rites, Ceremonies, 8fC. — It was 
frequently the triumphant boast of St. Paul, 
that the Gospel of Jesus Christ had for ever 
freed mankind from the intolerable burden 
of ceremonial observances. But the Koran 
renews and perpetuates the slavery, by pre- 
scribing to its votaries a ritual still more 
oppressive, and entangling them again in 
a yoke of bondage yet more severe than 
that of the law. Of this kind, amidst a 
variety of instances, is that great and meri- 
torious act of Mahometan devotion, the 
pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca ; an 
act which the Koran has enjoined, and the 
G43 



pious Mussulman implicitly performs, as 
necessary to the obtaining pardon of his 
sins, and qualifying him to be a partaker of 
the alluring pleasures and exquisite enjoy- 
ments of Paradise. To the several articles 
of faith, to which all his followers were to 
adhere, Mahomet added four fundamental 
points of religious practice, namely, Prayer 
five times a day, Fasting, Alms-giving, and the 
Pilgrimage to Mecca. Under the first of 
these are comprehended those frequent 
washings or purifications which he pre- 
scribed as necessary preparations for the 
duty of prayer. So necessary did he think 
them, that he is said to have declared, that 
'the practice of religion is founded upon 
cleanliness, which is one half of faith, and 
the key of prayer.' The second of these he 
conceived to be a duty of so great mo- 
ment, that he used to say it was the gate of 
religion, and that ' the odour of the mouth 
of him who fasteth is more grateful to God, 
than that of musk.' The third is looked 
upon as so pleasing in the sight of God, 
that the Caliph Omar Ebn Abdalaziz used 
to say : ' Prayer carries us half way to 
God ; fasting brings us to the door of his 
palace ; and alms procures us admission.' 
The last of these practical religious duties 
is deemed so necessary, that, according to 
a tradition of Mahomet, he, who dies with- 
out performing it, ' may as well die a Jew 
or a Christian.' As to the negative pre- 
cepts and institutions of this religion, the 
Mahometans are forbidden the use of wine, 
and are prohibited from gaming, usury, and 
the eating of blood and swine's flesh, and 
whatever dies of itself, or is strangled, or 
killed by a blow, or by another beast. They 
are said, however, to comply with the pro- 
hibition of gaming (from which chess seems 
to be excepted), much better than they do 
with that of wine, under which all strong 
and inebriating liquors are included; for 
both the Persians and Turks are in the 
habit of drinking freely. 

Sects. — However successful and trium- 
phant from without, the progress of the 
followers of Mahomet received a consider- 
able check by the civil dissensions which 
arose among themselves soon after his 
death. Abubeker and Ali, the former the 
father-in-law, the latter the son-in-law, of 
this pretended prophet, both aspired to 
succeed him in the empire which he had 
erected. Upon this arose a cruel and 
tedious contest, whose flames produced that 
schism which divided the Mahometans into 
two great factions : and this separation not 
only gave rise to a variety of opinions and 
rites, but also excited the most implacable 
hatred, and the most deadly animosities, 
which have been continued to the present 
day. With such furious zeal is this conten- 
tion still carried on between these two fac- 
tions, who are distinguished by the name 
of Sonniles and Schiites, that each party 



MAH 



MAI, 



detest and anathematize the other as 
abominable heretics, and farther from the 
truth tban either the Christians or the Jews. 
The chief points in which they differ are : 
1. The Schiites reject Abubeker, Omar, 
and Othman, the first three Caliphs, as 
usurpers and intruders ; but the Sonnites 
acknowledge and respect them as rightful 
Caliphs or Imams. 2. The Schiites prefer 
Ali to Mahomet, or, at least, esteem them 
both equal ; but the Sonnites admit neither 
Ali, nor any of the prophets, to be equal 
to Mahomet. 3. The Sonnites charge 
the Schiites with corrupting the Koran, 
and neglecting its precepts ; and the 
Schiites retort the same charge on the Son- 
nites. 4. The Sonnites receive the Sonna, 
or book of traditions of their prophet, as 
of canonical authority ; but the Schiites 
reject it as apocryphal, and unworthy of 
credit. 

The Sonnites are subdivided into four 
chief sects, of which the first is, that of the 
Hanefites, who generally prevail among the 
Turks and Tartars ; the second, that of the 
Malecites, whose doctrine is chiefly followed 
in Barbary, and other parts of Africa ; the 
third, that of the Shdfeites, who are chiefly 
confined to Arabia and Persia ; and the 
fourth orthodox sect is that of the Hanbalites, 
who are not very numerous, and are seldom 
to be met with out of the limits of Arabia. 
The heretical sects among the Mahometans 
are those which are counted to hold hetero- 
dox opinions in fundamentals, or matters of 
faith ; and they are variously compounded 
and decompounded of the opinions of the four 
chief sects ; the Motazalites, the Safdtians, 
the Khdrejites, and the Schiites. 

Countries where found, Numbers, §c. — It is 
a matter of serious regret, that xWahometan- 
ism exceeds Christianity in extent of terri- 
tory, and is little short of the latter in the 
number of its professors. The Mahometan 
religion is established in, or prevails 
throughout, the Turkish dominions in Eu- 
rope, Asia, and Africa, namely, Romania, 
Bulgaria, Greece, Candia, Cyprus, Natolia, 
Syria, part of Armenia, Egypt, &c. ; the 
Barbary states, namely, Morocco, Algiers, 
Tunis, Tripoli, Fez, &c. ; Africa Inter/or, 
namely, Fezzan, Tombuctoo, Kassina, 
Bornou, Darfoor, Nubia, &c. ; the Eastern 
coast of Africa, and the island of Madagascar, 
namely, Adel, Zanguebar, Mozambique, 
Sofala, &c. ; Arabia; the Persian states, 
namely Persia, Korasan, and part of Arme- 
nia ; the Russian States, of Little Tartary, 
Astrakan, Kazan, Kirghis, Kazaks, Kol- 
hyvane, &c. ; the Independent Tartars, 
namely, those of Turkestan, Bucharia, Balk, 
Karasm, the Usbecs, &c. ; Hindostan ; the 
Eastern Islands of Malaya, Sumatra, Java, 
Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, Luzon, &c. 
It lias likewise made many proselytes in 
various other countries, as in China, \c. 
The number of those professing the Maho- 
040 



metan religion has been calculated to 
amount to about 140,000,000. 

Comparison between Christ arid Mahomet. — 
The authors or founders of the Christian and 
Mahometan religions are thus compared by 
a distinguished and eloquent divine : " Go 
to your natural religion : Lay before her 
Mahomet and his disciples arrayed in 
armour and in blood, riding in triumph 
over the spoils of thousands and tens of 
thousands, who fell by the victorious sword : 
show her the cities which he set in flames, 
the countries which he ravaged and de- 
stroyed, and the miserable distress of all 
the inhabitants of the earth. When she has 
viewed him in this scene, carry her into his 
retirements ; show her the prophet's cham- 
ber, his concubines and wives ; let her see 
his adultery, and hear him allege revelation, 
and his divine commission, to justify his lust 
and his oppression. When she is tired 
with this prospect, then show her the 
blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good 
to all the sons of men, patiently instructing 
both the ignorant and the perverse. Let 
her see him in his most retired privacies : 
let her follow him to the Mount, and hear 
his devotions and supplications to God. 
Carry her to his table to view his poor fare, 
and hear his heavenly discourse. Let her 
see him injured, but not provoked. Let 
her attend him to the tribunal, and consider 
the patience with which he endured the 
scoffs and reproaches of his enemies. Lead 
her to his cross, and let her view him in 
the agony of death, and hear his last prayer 
for his persecutors, — ' Father, forgive them, 
for they know not what they do.' When 
natural religion has viewed both, ask, which 
is the prophet of God ? But her answer we 
have already had, when she saw part of this 
scene through the eyes of the centurion who 
attended at the cross ; by him she spoke 
and said, ' Truly this man was the Son of 
God.' " Bishop Sherlock's Sermons, vol. i. 
serm. ix. ad fin. ; White's Sermons at Bampton 
Lectures; Adam's Religious World, vol. i. 
pp. 217—289. 

MAL'ACHI, »3Nbo, dyytXog, signifies 
my angel, or my ambassador or envoy. Ma- 
lachi was the last of the Jewish prophets, 
and the contemporary of Nehemiah, to 
whose restoration of the Jewish polity, and 
final reform, he appears to have contributed 
the weight of his exhortations. I. He re- 
proves the priests ami the people for sacri- 
ficing 'polluted bread offerings,' and the 
refuse of their cattle, ' the torn, and the 
lame, and the sick ;' and he foretells that 
pure offering, the Lord's Supper, to be 

presented to the Lord by the Gentiles, from 

the rising to the setting sun. (Mai. i. — 
14.) 2. He denounces a curse or judgment 

against the priests, for not instructing the 

people in the law, hut causing them to 

Btumble at the law ; ami for being partial 
ill their decisions in favour of the rich 



MAL 



MAN 



against the poor. (Mai. ii. 1 — 10.) 3. He 
censures the intermarriages of the Jews 
with idolatresses, ' the daughters of a strange 
god;' the divorces of their lawful wives, 
' dealing unfaithfully every man against his 
brother,' by putting away his daughter, and 
*■ covering with the tears of the divorced wives 
' the altar of the Lord ;' and he warns them 
'not to deal unfaithfully with the wife of 
their youth.' (Mai. ii. 11—16.) 4. He cen- 
sures them for their wickedness, and for 
supposing that God would not mind nor 
judge it. (Mai. ii. 17- ; iii- 14.) 5. He 
taxes them with robbing God of their 
tithes and offerings ; and he recommends 
them to bring the tithes into the store- 
house of the temple, and that they should 
be blessed with abundant plenty. (Mai. iii. 
8 — 12.) 6. He foretells the coming of 
Christ, and his harbinger John the Baptist, 
to refine and purify the sons of Levi, the 
priests, and to smite the land with a curse, 
unless they all repented ; and the final 
conversion of the Jews. The great and 
terrible day of the Lord (Mai. iv. 5.) was 
the destruction of Jerusalem b) r the Romans, 
A.D. 70 ; and with this awful prophecy of 
the Roman captivity, the prophetic canon of 
the Old Testament closes. 

According to Kennicott, Malachi flou- 
rished about four hundred and twenty 
years before Christ ; which sufficiently ac- 
cords with the description of Josephus, and 
the varying accounts of chronologers. This 
prophet lived in the decline of the Hebrew 
poetry, which greatly degenerated after the 
return from the Babylonian captivity ; but 
his writings are by no means destitute of 
force or elegance, and he may justly be 
considered as occupying a middle place 
among the minor prophets. Dr. Hales's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
pp. 530 — 533; Bishop Tomline's Elem: of 
Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 131. 

MAN'AHEM, omra, signifies comforter ; 
or, he that conducts them ; or, preparation of 
heat. Manahem, or Menahem, was the 
sixteenth king of Israel, and son of Gadi. 
He revenged the death of his master 
Zachariah, by that of Shallum, son of 
Jabesh, who had usurped the crown of 
Israel, in the year of the world 3232. 
(2 Kings xv. 13, &c.) Manahem, general 
of the army of Zachariah, was at Tirzah, 
when he received news of his master's death. 
He immediately marched against Shallum, 
who had shut himself up in Samaria, killed 
him, and reigned in his stead. He returned 
to Tirzah, but that city shutting its gates 
against him, he vented his passion on Tip- 
shah, a town in the neighbourhood of 
Tirzah, and probably a sharer in its resolu- 
tion. Afterwards he took Tirzah, ruined it 
entirely, and exercised many barbarities in 
it. He reigned in Samaria ten years, and 
did evil in the sight of the Lord. 

Pul, king of Assyria, probably the father 
650 



of Sardanapalus, having invaded Israel 
during the reign of Manahem, this prince 
was obliged to pay him a thousand talents. 
To raise this sum, Manahem was forced 
to tax all persons fifty shekels a head; 
after which Pul returned into his own 
country. Llosea says (v. 13,) ' Ephraim 
saw his sickness, and Judah saw his 
wound, then went Ephraim to the As- 
syrian, and sent to king Jareb.' But the 
Scripture seems to insinuate, that the king 
of Assyria came into the country as an ene- 
my (1 Chron. v. 26.) : ' and the God of 
Israel stirred up the spirit of Pul, king of 
Assyria,' &c. Josephus also thinks the 
same. This is easily reconciled, by sup- 
posing, that, at first Pul invaded Israel as 
an enemy, but that Manahem bought him 
over to his interest by this great sum. 
Manahem slept with his fathers, and his 
son Pekahiah reigned in his stead. (2 Kings 
xv. 22.) 

MANAS'SEH, nuott, signifies forgetful- 
ness, or, he that is forgotten. Manasseh 
was the eldest son of Joseph, and grand- 
son of the patriarch Jacob, (Gen. xli 50, 
51.) and was born in the year of the world 
2290, before Christ 1714. The name Ma- 
nasseh signifies forgetfulness ; because Jo- 
seph said, ' God has made me forget all 
my toil, and all my father's house.' When 
Jacob was going to die, Joseph brought his 
two sons to him that his father might give 
them his last blessing. (Gen. xlviii. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) Jacob, having seen them, adopted 
them ; made them come to his bed-side, 
and kissed them. Joseph having placed 
Ephraim at Jacob's left hand, and Ma- 
nasseh at his right, Jacob put his right 
hand on Ephraim, and his left on Manas- 
seh ; which Joseph observing, would have 
had him alter this disposition. But Jacob 
told him, ' I know what I am doing, my 
son, the eldest shall be father of a great 
people, but his younger brother shall be 
greater than he.' He continued to bless 
them, and said, ' In thee shall Israel be 
blessed, and it shall be said, God make thee 
as Ephraim and Manasseh.' 

The tribe of Manasseh came out of 
Egypt, in number 32,200 men, upwards of 
twenty years old, under the conduct of 
Gamaliel, son of Pedahzur. (Numb. ii. 20, 
21.) This tribe was divided in the Land 
of Promise. One half tribe of Manasseh 
settled beyond the river Jordan, and 
possessed the country of Bashan ; from 
the river Jabbok to Mount Libanus ; and 
the other half tribe of Manasseh settled on 
this side Jordan, and possessed the country 
between the tribe of Ephraim south, and 
the tribe of Issachar north, having the river 
Jordan east, and the Mediterranean Sea 
west. (Josh. xvi. xvii.) 

Manasseh, the fifteenth king of Judah, 
and son and successor of Hezekiah, was 
twelve years old when he began to reign, 



MAN 



MAN 



and reigned fifty-five years, (2 Kings xx. 
21 ; xxi. 1, 2. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 1, 2, &c.) 
His mother's name was Hephzibah. He 
did evil in the sight of the Lord ; worship- 
ped the idols of the land of Canaan ; rebuilt 
the high places that his father Hezekiah 
had destroyed ; set up altars to Baal ; and 
planted groves to false gods. He raised 
altars to the whole host of heaven, in the 
courts of God's house ; made his son pass 
through the fire in honour to Moloch ; was 
addicted to magic, divinations, auguries, 
and other superstitions ; set up the idol 
Astarte in the house of God: finally, he 
involved his people in all the abominations 
of the idolatrous nations to that degree, 
that Israel committed more wickedness 
than the Canaanites whom the Lord had 
driven out before them. To all these crimes 
Manasseh added cruelty ; and he shed rivers 
of innocent blood in Jerusalem. 

The Lord being provoked by so many 
crimes, threatened him by his prophets : 
4 I wiil blot out Jerusalem as a writing 
is blotted out of a writing- tablet, and I 
shall often draw the pen over and over, that 
nothing may remain of it. I shall forsake 
my inheritance,' Sec. 

It is believed, that the prophet Isaiah raised 
his voice loudly against these enormities. 
This prophet was father-in-law to the king ; 
had been in great credit at court in the 
reign of Hezekiah ; and was of high birth, 
being of the blood royal. He thought it 
incumbent on him to endeavour to reclaim 
the king ; but this so exasperated him, that 
he caused Isaiah to be apprehended, and put 
him to death, by sawing him in two with a 
wooden saw. 

The calamities which God had threatened 
began towards the twenty-second year of 
this impious prince. The king of Assyria 
sent his army against him, who, seizing him 
among the briers and brambles where he 
was hid, fettered his hands and feet, and 
carried him to Babylon. (2 Chron. xxxiii. 
11, 12, &c.) It was probably Sargon or 
Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, who sent 
Tartan into Palestine, and who, taking 
Azoth, attacked Manasseh, put him irons, 
and led him away, not to Nineveh, but to 
Babylon, of which Esar-haddon had be- 
come master, and had reunited the empires 
of the Assyrians and the Chaldseans. 

Manasseh, in bonds at Babylon, humbled 
himself before God, who heard his prayers, 
and brought him back to Jerusalem ; ond 
Manasseh acknowledged the hand of the 
Lord. Manasseh was probably delivered 
out of prison by Saosduchin, the successor 
of Esar-haddon. (2 Chron. xxxiii. 13; 14, 
&c.) Being returned to Jerusalem, he re- 
stored the worship of the Lord ; broke down 
the altars of the false gods ; abolished all 
traces of their idolatrous worship; but he did 
not destroy the high places: whioh is the only 
thine: Scripture reproaches him with, after 
651 



his return from Babylon. He caused Je- 
rusalem to be fortified ; and he enclosed with 
a wall another city, which in his time was 
erected west of Jerusalem, and which goes 
by the name of the second city, since his 
reign. (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14.) He put gar- 
risons into all the strong places of Ju- 
dah. 

Manasseh died at Jerusalem, and was 
buried in the garden of his house, the 
garden of Uzza. (2 Kings xxi. 18.) He 
was succeeded by his son Amon, in the 
vear of the world 3361. 

MANDRAKES. Very great are the 
difficulties of interpreters on the plant 
intended by the Hebrew word dudaim, 
which has been translated mandrakes. 
Some have rendered the word lilies, some 
jessamine, some citrons, some mushrooms, 
some figs, and some think that it means 
flowers, or fine flowers in general. Hassel- 
quist imagines, that the plant is intended 
which is commonly called mandrakes, which 
both among the Greeks and Orientals was 
held in high repute as being of a pro- 
lific virtue, and helping conception, and 
from which philtres, or love-potions were 
made. 

A late writer supposes the dudaim to 
be melons. ' The word,' he observes, ' sig- 
nifies the breast of a ivoman ; and there is 
a species of melon so called in Persia at 
this day, nearly the figure of the coloquin- 
tida, colour mingled red and yellow, and of 
a very agreeable odour. The Syrians, Egyp- 
tians, and Persians, call it shemama, that 
is woman's breast ; and possibly this alludes 
also to the fulness of the maternal breast, 
as amma may be allied to the Hebrew as 
annua, mother, and sham to the Hebrew 
sem or shem, aromatics, sweet-scented drugs, 
or spices : this agrees with the character 
of this plant for fragrance, which is 
held in the hand by way of nosegay ; and 
the Persians call it the perfume of the 
hands.' Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, 
p. 163 ; Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dic- 
tionary ; Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on 
Gen. xxx. 14. 

MANICHEANS, a denomination found- 
ed by one Manes, or Manicheus. in the 
third century, and settled in many pro- 
vinces. He was a Persian by birth, edu- 
cated among the Magi, and himself one of 
the number before he embraced Christ- 
ianity. His genius was vigorous ami sub- 
lime, but redundant and ungoverned. He 
attempted a coalition of the doctrine of 
the Magi with the Christian system, or 
rather the explication of the one by the 
other : and, in order to succeed in the en- 
terprise, he affirmed that Christ had left the 
doctrine of salvation imperfect and un- 
finished ; and that be was the Ceinf.Tter 

whom the departing Saviour had pran 

to his disciples to lead them into all truth. 

The principles o\ Manet .ne compre- 



MAN 



MAN 



h ended in the following summary : — There 
are two principles from which all things 
proceed : the one a most pure and subtle 
matter, called light ; and the other a cor- 
rupt and gross substance called darkness. 
Each of these is subject to the dominion 
of a superintending Being, whose existence 
is from all eternity. The Being who pre- 
sides over the light is called God ; he that 
rules the land of darkness bears the title 
of Hyle or Demon. The ruler of the light 
is supremely happy, and, in consequence, 
benevolent and good. The prince of dark- 
ness is unhappy in himself, and, desiring to 
render others partakers of his misery, is 
evil and malignant. These two beings 
have produced an immense multitude, of 
creatures resembling themselves, and dis- 
tributed them through their respective 
provinces. 

The prince of darkness knew not for 
a long series of ages that light existed in 
the universe ; and he no sooner perceived 
it, by means of a war kindled in his do- 
minions, than he bent his endeavours to- 
wards subjecting it to his empire. The 
ruler of the light opposed to his efforts an 
army commanded by the first man, but not 
with the highest success ; for the generals 
of the prince of darkness seized upon a 
considerable portion of the celestial ele- 
ments, and of the light itself, and mingled 
them in the mass of corrupt matter. The 
second general of the ruler of the light, 
whose name was the living spirit, made 
war with more success against the prince 
of darkness ; but could not entirely disen- 
gage the pure particles of celestial matter 
from the corrupt mass through which they 
had been dispersed. The prince of dark- 
ness, after his defeat, produced the first 
parents of the human race. The beings 
engendered from this original stock con- 
sist of a body formed out of the corrupt 
matter of the kingdom of darkness, and 
of two souls, one of which is sensitive and 
lustful, and owes its existence to the evil 
principle ; the other rational and immortal, 
a particle of that Divine light which was 
carried away by the army of darkness, 
and immersed into the mass of malignant 
matter. 

Mankind being thus formed by the prince 
of darkness, and those minds that were the 
productions of the eternal light being 
united to their mortal bodies, God created 
the earth out of the corrupt mass of mat- 
ter by that living spirit who had vanquished 
the prince of darkness. The design of 
this creation was to furnish a dwelling for 
the human race, to deliver by degrees the 
captive souls from their corporeal pri- 
sons, and to extract the celestial elements 
from the gross substance in which they 
were involved. In order to carry this 
design into execution, God produced two 
beings of eminent dignity from his own 
C52 



substance, which were to lend their 
auspicious succours to imprisoned souls : 
one of these sublime entities was Christ ; 
and the other the Holy Ghost. Christ is 
that glorious intelligence which the Per- 
sians called Mithras: he is a most splendid 
substance, consisting of the brightness of 
the eternal light, subsisting in and by him- 
self, endowed with life, enriched with in- 
finite wisdom, and having his residence in 
the sun. The Holy Ghost is also a lumi- 
nous and animated body, diffused through 
every part of the atmosphere, which sur- 
rounds this terrestrial globe. This genial 
principle warms and illuminates the minds 
of men, renders also the earth fruitful, 
and draws forth gradually from its bosom 
the latent particles of celestial fire, which 
it wafts up on high to their primitive sta- 
tion. 

After the Supreme Being had for a long 
time admonished and exhorted the captive 
souls, by the ministry of angels and holy 
men raised up and appointed for that pur- 
pose, he ordered Christ to leave the solar 
regions, and to descend on earth, in order 
to accelerate the return of those imprisoned 
spirits to their celestial country. In obe- 
dience to this Divine command, Christ ap- 
peared among the Jews, clothed with the 
shadowy form of a human body, and not 
with the real substance. During his minis- 
try, he taught mortals how to disengage the 
rational soul from the corrupt body, to con- 
quer the violence of malignant matter ; and 
he demonstrated his Divine mission by stu- 
pendous miracles. On the other hand, the 
prince of darkness used every method to 
inflame the Jews against this Divine mes- 
senger, and incited them at length to put 
him to death, upon an ignominious cross ; 
which punishment, however, he suffered not 
in reality, but only in appearance, and in 
the opinion of men. When Christ had ful- 
filled the purposes of his mission, he re- 
turned to his throne in the sun, and ap- 
pointed a certain number of chosen apos- 
tles to propagate through the world the re- 
ligion he had taught during the course of 
his ministry. But before his departure he 
promised that at a certain period of time 
he would send an apostle, superior to all 
others in eminence and dignity, whom he 
called the Paraclete or Comforter, who should 
add many things to the precepts he had 
delivered, and dispel all the errors under 
which his servants laboured with respect to 
Divine things. This Comforter, thus ex- 
pressly promised by Christ, is Manes, the 
Persian, who, by the order of the Most 
High, declared to mortals the whole doc- 
trine of salvation, without exception, and 
without concealing any of its truths under 
the veil of metaphor, or any other cover- 
ing. 

The souls that believe Jesus Christ to be 
the Son of God renounce the worship of 



MAN 



MAN 



the God of the Jews, who is the prince of 
darkness ; obey the laws delivered by Christ, 
as they are enlarged and illustrated by the 
Comforter, Manes ; combat with persever- 
ing fortitude the lusts and appetites of a 
corrupt nature ; and derive from this faith 
and obedience the inestimable advantage of 
being gradually purified from the contagion 
of matter. The total purification of souls 
cannot indeed be accomplished during this 
mortal life. Hence the souls of men after 
death must pass through two states more of 
probation and trial, by water and fire, before 
they can ascend to the regions of light. 
They mount, therefore, first into the moon, 
which consists of benign and salutary wa- 
ter; whence, after a lustration of fifteen 
days, they proceed to the sun, whose puri- 
fying fire removes entirely all their corrup- 
tion, and effaces all their stains. The bo- 
dies, composed of malignant matter, which 
they have left behind them, return to their 
first state, and enter into their original mass. 
On the other hand, those souls who have 
neglected the salutary work of their purifi- 
cation, pass after death into the bodies of 
animals or other natures, where they remain 
till they have expiated their guilt, and ac- 
complished their probation. Some, on ac- 
count of their peculiar obstinacy and per- 
verseness, pass through a severer course of 
trial, being delivered over for a certain time 
to the power of malignant aerial spirits, who 
torment them in various ways. When the 
greatest part of the captive souls are re- 
stored to liberty and to the regions of light, 
then a devouring fire shall break forth, at 
the Divine command, from the caverns in 
which it is at present confined, and shall 
destroy the frame of the world. After this 
tremendous event, the prince and powers of 
darkness shall be forced to return to their 
primitive seats of anguish and misery, in 
which they shall dwell for ever. For, to 
prevent their ever renewing this war in the 
regions of light, God shall surround the 
mansions of darkness with an invincible 
guard, composed of those souls who have 
fallen irrecoverably from the hopes of sal- 
vation, and who set in array, like a military 
band, shall surround those gloomy seats of 
woe, and hinder any of their wretched in- 
habitants from coming forth again to the 
light. 

To remove the strongest obstacles to this 
system, Manes rejected the Old Testament, 
the four Gospels, and the Acts of the Apos- 
tles ; and he also said that the Epistles of 
Paul were falsified in a variety of places. 
He wrote a gospel, which he pretended 
was dictated to him by God himself, and 
which he distinguished by the name of 
Erteng. 

To support their fundamental doctrine of 

two principles, the Manicheans argue in 

this manner : If we depend only on one 

Almighty Cause, infinitely good, and inli- 

653 



nitely free, who disposes universally of all 
beings according to the pleasure of his will, 
we cannot account for the existence of na- 
tural and moral evil. If the Author of our 
being be supremely good, he will take con- 
tinual pleasure in promoting the happiness 
of his creatures, and preventing everything 
which can diminish or disturb their felicity. 
We cannot, therefore, explain the evils 
which we experience, but by the hypothesis 
of two principles ; for it is impossible to 
conceive that the first man could derive the 
faculty of doing ill from a good principle, 
since this fatuity, and every thing which 
can produce evil, is vicious ; for evil cannot 
proceed except from a bad cause, and there- 
fore the free-will of Adam was derived from 
two opposite principles. He depended on 
the good principle for his power to perse- 
vere in innocence ; but his power to deviate 
from virtue owed its rise to an evil princi- 
ple. Hence it is evident there are two 
contrary principles ; the one the source of 
good, the other the fountain of all vice and 
misery. 

Manes commanded his followers to mor- 
tify and macerate the body, which he 
looked upon as essentially corrupt ; to de- 
prive it of all those objects which could con- 
tribute either to its convenience or delight; 
to extirpate all those desires which lead to 
the pursuit of external objects ; and to di- 
vest themselves of all the passions and in- 
stincts of nature : but he did not impose 
this severe manner of living without dis- 
tinction upon his adherents. He divided 
his disciples into two classes; one of which 
comprehended the perfect Christians under 
the name of the elect ; the other, the imper- 
fect and feeble, under the title of hearers. 
The elect were obliged to an entire absti- 
nence from flesh, eggs, milk, fish, wine, all 
intoxicating drink, wedlock, and all amo- 
rous gratifications ; and to live in a state of 
the sharpest penury, nourishing their ema- 
ciated bodies with bread, herbs, pulse, and 
melons. The discipline appointed for the 
hearers was of a milder nature ; they were 
allowed to possess houses, lands, and wealth ; 
to feed upon flesh, and to enter into the 
bonds of conjugal tenderness. But this li- 
berty was granted them with many limita- 
tions, and under the strictest conditions of 
moderation and temperance. 

The general assembly of the Manicheans 
was headed by a president, who represented 
Jesus Christ. There were joined to him 
tivelee rulers, or uiastci s, who were designed 
to represent the licclre <i/>ust!es \ and these 
were followed by sivcuhj-tico hislioj>s, the 
images of the st ■re/it if-tieo fUseiples oi' our 
Lord. These bishops had presbyter* ami 
deacons under them; and all the members o! 

these religious orders \wve chosen out of 
the class of the < lecf. 

The Manicheans observed the Lord's Jay, 

but fasted upon it. Thej likewise cele- 



MAN 



MAN 



brated Easter, and had a regular church dis • 
cipline and censors. They read the Scrip- 
tures, baptized even infants in the name of 
the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and par- 
took of the Lord's Supper. 

The doctrine of Manes differs from the 
Gnostics in this respect : — Instead of sup- 
posing evil to have originated ultimately 
from inferior and subordinate beings, he 
held the doctrine of two original independ- 
ent principles ; the one immaterial, and su- 
premely good ; the other material, and 
the source of all evil, but actuated by a 
soul, or something of the nature of intelli- 
gence. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. pp. 
239 — 245 ; Adams's View of Religions, p. 
190. 

MANNA, the food of the children of 
Israel, which God gave them in the deserts 
of Arabia during forty years, from their 
eighth encampment in the wilderness of 
Sin. (Exod. xvi. 14, 15.) The manna was 
a little grain, white, like hoar-frost, round, 
and of the size of coriander seed. It fell 
every morning with the dew, and when the 
dew was exhaled by the heat of the sun, the 
manna appeared alone, lying on the rocks, 
or the sand. (Exod. xvi.) It fell every 
day except the Sabbath, and only about the 
camp of the Israelites. It fell in so great 
quantities during the whole forty years of 
their journey in the wilderness, that it was 
sufficient to feed the whole multitude of 
above a million of souls, every one of whom 
gathered, for his share every day, the quan- 
tity of an omer, which is about three quarts. 
It maintained all this multitude, and yet 
none of them found any inconvenience from 
the constant eating of it. Every Friday 
there fell a double quantity of it, (Exod. 
xvi. 5.) ; and though it putrified and bred 
maggots when it was kept any other day, 
yet on the Sabbath it suffered no such al- 
teration. And the same manna that was 
melted by the heat of the sun, when left in 
the field, was of so hard a consistence when 
brought into the house, that it was beat in 
mortars, and would even endure the fire, 
was baked in pans, made into paste, and so 
into cakes. (Numb. xi. 8.) 

This production was, probably, like many 
other miracles, partly natural, partly mira- 
culous. It is certain that manna is now 
found on trees, &c. in the East, and perhaps 
in this very desert. But, that it should fall 
in such quantities, and under such restric- 
tions and peculiarities, is not according to 
nature ; that it should breed worms if kept 
beyond a day ; that none of it should fall on 
the Sabbath ; are altogether extraordinary; 
that it should melt by the heat of the sun is 
not so wonderful, since what is now found 
in these parts exhales like dew after the 
sun is hot. Nor is it certain that there was 
any thing unaccountable in the quantity 
gathered for each person, since it is likely 
the people collected according to their fa- 
654 



milies, and the number of children in each, 
would adjust a considerable apparent differ- 
ence of quantity ; not to say, they might 
impart to each other as wanted. It may, 
however, be doubted whether all the camp 
depended constantly on this manna for food; 
where were the cattle, milch-kine, &c. 
brought out of Egypt? (Numb. xi. 22.) 
Though they might have little fish, yet ve- 
getables of some kinds they might procure, 
as we are not, perhaps, under the necessity 
of supposing that they were entirely secluded 
from intercourse with adjacent tribes of 
Arabs, and neighbouring nations; and if 
they lived on the dates of the palm-tree, 
why not Israel also? and why might not 
Israel purchase those and other fruits ? 
' The mioct multitude fell a lusting.' (Numb. 
xi. 4.) 

' Manna,' says Niebuhr, ' is found at pre- 
sent in divers parts of the East, but I own 
that I neglected to procure information at 
the most celebrated places, that is to say, 
around Mount Sinai, famous for the manna 
of the Israelites. At Merdin it attaches 
itself, like a meal or powder, on the leaves 
of certain trees, which they call Ballot and 
Afs, and which I believe to be oaks. Some 
affirmed they had found manna between 
Merdin and Diarbekr on the trees named 
Elmas and Elmaheb. Others, from whom 
I inquired whether this was true, had ne- 
ver seen any on trees of those kinds ; nor 
did they recollect at Aleppo to have found 
it on the shrub El hadsje. All agreed in 
affirming that between Merdin and Diarbekr, 
it was principally gathered from those trees 
which produce the gall-nut, that is, oaks. 
The gathering time of this manna at Mer- 
din, is in July or August ; and they say it is 
most plentiful after a certain very thick 
fog, or during moist weather, rather than 
during the clear days. I was assured at 
Basra, that the manna named Tarandsjubin, 
or Tarandsjubil, was gathered in great 
quantities near Ispahan, from a little thorny 
bush. I inquired for this kind of manna 
at Basra, and I found that it consisted of 
small grains, round and yellow, by conse- 
quence, of the same figure as the manna of 
the Israelites is described to be. (Exod. 
xvi. 14. 31. Numb. xi. 7-) Perhaps it 
was this kind which served as food to the 
Jews during their journey, for there are 
many thorny bushes in the desert around 
Mount Sinai ; and that district is in nearly 
the same latitude as Ispahan ; but if the 
children of Israel enjoyed their manna dur- 
ing the whole year, that was by miracle ; for 
the manna Tarandsjubin, is found only dur- 
ing certain months. I do not know whether 
sugar is cultivated in other countries of 
Arabia beside Yemen. But if the Jews had 
found in the deserts of Sinai only the natu- 
ral Tarandsjubin, it would have been a very 
pleasant thing to them. In the Kurdestan, 
at Mosul Merdin, Diarbekr, Ispahan, and 



MAN 



MAR 



probably in other cities, they use manna 
only, instead of sugar, for their pastry and 
other dishes. Much of it may be eaten 
without its proving purgative. Neverthe- 
less, a person with whom I conversed at 
Basra thought that both kinds were of that 
quality. Perhaps this is sensible only after 
it has lost its freshness. The tree which 
produces wild honey was not known at 
Basra, but an inhabitant of Ispahan af- 
firmed that this tree grew commonly in 
Persia, and became very large.' 

The comparison of the manna to sugar by 
this intelligent traveller, the observation 
that it is used in pastry, and its figure as 
grains, will not fail to strike the reader. 
Though manna cannot properly be called a 
vegetable gum, yet it is evidently a vege- 
table emission, or inspissation, and, at least 
partially, a juice from the tree or shrub. 
Niebuhr's Travels, p. 128, first edit. ; Scrip- 
ture Illustrated, Expos. Index, pp. 42, 43 ; 
Universal History, book i. chapter vii. 

MANO'AH, rroo, Mavwe, signifies rest ; 
otherwise, present. Manoah, or Manueh, 
was the father of Samson, of the tribe of 
Dan, of the city of Zorah. (Judg. xiii. 1, 
2, 3, &c.) An angel of the Lord having 
appeared to the wife of Manoah, and pro- 
mised her a son, Manoah desired of the 
Lord that he might see him who had thus 
appeared, that he might know from him 
how to treat this son when born. The 
Lord heard his prayer, and the angel ap- 
peared again to his wife, who was in the 
fields, and who ran to acquaint her husband. 
Manoah went to him, and obtained from 
him directions respecting his son. Manoah 
then said, My Lord, I pray you be pleased 
to let us prepare you a kid. The angel 
replied, I must not eat any food ; but you 
may offer it for a burnt-sacrifice to the 
Lord. Manoah said to him, not knowing 
him to be an angel, What is your name, that 
we may pay you honour and acknowledg- 
ment, if that shall happen which you have 
foretold ? He answered, Why askest thou 
thus after my name, seeing it is Wonder- 
ful ? Manoah, therefore, took the kid, 
with the wine for the libations, and put 
them on the fire which he had lighted on a 
stone. The angel acted wondrously in the 
presence of Manoah and his wife ; for he 
[the Lord] ascended up towards heaven in 
the flame of the altar. This was a signi- 
ficant sign to this pious couple, that he was 
the angel of the Lord himself, or the Son 
of God, whose name is called Wonderful, and 
the same God that appeared to Moses. 
(Exod. xxxiii. 20.) 

Manoah, perceiving that it was an angel, 
said to his wife, We shall certainly die, since 
we have seen the Lord. But his wife an- 
swered him, If the Lord would have killed 
us, he would not have conferred such favours 
on us; he would not have received our 
burnt-offering, nor predicted to us the birth 
C55 



of a son. Hales s New Analysis of Chrono- 
logy, vol. ii. book i. p. 324. 

MA'RAH, mo, Utppa, or Tacpia, signi- 
fies bitter, or bitterness. When the Israelites, 
coming out of Egypt, were arrived at the 
desert of Etham, they there found the wa- 
ter so bitter, that neither themselves nor 
their cattle could drink of it. (Exod. xv. 
23.) Therefore, they named the place Ma- 
rah, or bitterness. Then they "began to 
murmur against Moses ; and the Lord 
showed him a tree, which being thrown into 
the waters, they were made sweet. Dr. 
Shaw conjectures, that this place is the 
same as that now called Corondel, where 
there is still a small rill, which, if not di- 
luted with dews or rain, continues brackish. 
Sacred Geography, Geographical Exctirsiu?is, 
p. 72. 

MARCIONITES, a very ancient and 
popular sect of heretics, who^ in the time ot 
Epiphanius, were spread over Italy, Egypt, 
Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and other 
countries j they were thus denominated from 
their author Marcion. Marcion was of 
Pontus, the son of a bishop, and at first 
made profession of the monastic life ; but 
he was excommunicated by his own father, 
who would never admit him again into com- 
munion with the church, not even on his 
repentance. On this he abandoned his own 
country, and retired to Rome, where he 
began to broach his doctrines. 

Marcion taught men to believe in ano- 
ther God, superior to the Creator, who was 
the Supreme God, the Father, invisible, in- 
accessible, and perfectly good. The Crea- 
tor, the God of the Jews, made this lower 
and visible world. The Supreme God, the 
Father, had also a world of his making, but 
better than this, immaterial and invisible. 
For he supposed if a good God had made 
this world, there would have been neither 
sin nor misery ; but all men would have been 
holy and happy. He taught that Jesus was 
the Son of the good God, who took the ex- 
terior form of a man, and, without being 
born, or gradually growing up to the full 
stature of a man, he showed himself at once 
in Galilee as a man grown. He also sup- 
posed, that, at the first moment of his ap- 
pearance in the world, he was completely 
fitted to enter on his great work; and that 
he immediately assumed the character of a 
Saviour. 

According to the doctrine of this deno- 
mination, Christ had the appearance of a 
human body, though not the reality. Mar- 
cion acknowledged that the prophet! of the 

Creator had promised a Saviour to the 
Jewish nation, who should deliver them out 
ol tiie hands of their enemies, and restore 
them to freedoms QUI he pretended that 
this deliverer was not the Sou of God, and 
that the oracles Of the Did Testament did not 

agree to Jesus Canst. Hence hi 

that there are two ChrifitS : 0n< 



MAR 



MAR 



peared in the time of Tiberius, for the sal- 
vation of all nations ; another, the restorer 
of the Jewish state, who is yet to come. 
They supposed that the souls of the virtu- 
ous would enjoy eternal happiness with the 
good God and their Saviour, after their de- 
parture from this world ; but they denied 
the resurrection of the body. 

Marcion rejected the Old Testament al- 
together, as proceeding from the Creator, 
who, in his estimation, was void of good- 
ness. He received only eleven books of 
the New Testament ; and of the Gospels 
that of Luke only, and it with many altera- 
tions ; and he rejected all the parts of the 
New Testament which contain quotations 
from the Old. 

The manners of this denomination were 
virtuous ; and they had many martyrs. 
Lardner' s Works, vol. ix. pp. 369 — 393; 
Adams's View of Religions, p. 196. 

MARK, Mapicog, signifies polite, shining. 
Doubts have been entertained, both in 
ancient and modern times, whether Mark 
the Evangelist is the same as John, whose 
surname was Mark, mentioned in the Acts 
and in some of St. Paul's Epistles. The 
objections which have been made to their 
identity are answered by Lardner. Dr. 
Campbell thinks they were different per- 
sons ; but as a contrary opinion seems to 
preponderate, we shall, with Lightfoot, Wet- 
stein, Lardner, and Michaelis, consider 
them as the same. It is known to have 
been a common thing among the Jews for 
the same person to have different names. 

We shall therefore consider Mark the 
author of the Gospel, as the son of Mary, 
who was an early convert to the religion 
of Christ. St Peter, when he was deli- 
vered out of prison by an angel, went im- 
mediately to her house, where he found 
' many gathered together praying.' (Acts 
xii. 12.) Hence it is inferred, that the 
Christians were accustomed to meet at 
Mary's house, even in these times of per- 
secution, and that there was an early ac- 
quaintance between St. Peter and St. 
Mark. Mark was the nephew of Barna- 
bas, being his sister's son ; and he is sup- 
posed to have been converted to the Gos- 
pel by St. Peter, who calls him his son, 
(1 Pet. v. 13.) ; but no circumstances of 
his conversion are recorded. The first 
historical fact mentioned of him in the 
New Testament is, that he went from 
Jerusalem to Antioch with Paul and Bar- 
nabas. Not long after, he set out from 
Antioch with those apostles, upon a jour- 
ney which they undertook by the di- 
rection of the Holy Spirit, for the pur- 
pose of preaching the Gospel in dif- 
ferent countries; but he soon left them, 
probably without sufficient reason, at 
Perga in Pamphylia, and went to Jeru- 
salem. (Acts xiii.) Afterwards, when PauJ 
and Barnabas had determined to visit the 
656 



several churches which they had established, 
Barnabas proposed that they should take 
Mark with them ; to which Paul objected, 
because Mark had left them in their former 
journey. This produced a sharp conten- 
tion between Paul and Barnabas, which 
ended in their separation. Mark accom- 
panied his uncle Barnabas to Cyprus, but it 
is not mentioned whither they went when 
they left that island. We may conclude 
that St. Paul was afterwards reconciled to 
St. Mark, from the manner in which he 
mentions him in his Epistles, written sub- 
sequently to this dispute, and particularly 
from the direction which he gives to Timo- 
thy : ' Take Mark, and bring him with 
thee ; for he is profitable to me for the 
ministry.' (2 Tim. iv. 11.) No farther cir- 
cumstances are recorded of St. Mark in the 
New Testament. 

It is believed, on the authority of ancient 
writers, that soon after Mark's journey 
with Barnabas, he met Peter in Asia, and 
that he continued with him for some time, 
perhaps till Peter suffered martyrdom at 
Rome. Epiphanius, Eusebius, and Jerome, 
all assert that Mark preached the Gospel 
in Egypt ; and the two latter call him 
bishop of Alexandria. . Baronius, Cave, 
Wetstein, and other learned moderns, have 
thought that Mark died a martyr; but 
there seems to be no authority for that 
opinion in any ancient writer ; and it ap- 
pears to be contradicted by Jerome, who 
says, that he died in the eighth year of 
Nero, and was buried at Alexandria ; which 
expression would imply that he died a na- 
tural death. Papias and several other an- 
cient fathers say that Mark was not a 
hearer of Christ himself ; but, on the con- 
trary, Epiphanius, and the author of the 
Dialogue against the Marcionites, written 
in the fourth century, assert that he was 
one of the seventy disciples to whom our 
Saviour gave a temporary commission to 
preach the Gospel r this, however, does not 
seem probable, as there is reason to believe 
that he was converted to the belief of the 
Gospel by St. Peter. 

The earliest ecclesiastical writer upon 
record that expressly mentions St. Mark's 
Gospel is Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, 
at the beginning of the second century. 
It is mentioned also by Irenseus, Clement 
of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Euse- 
bius, Epiphanius, Jerome, Augustine, Chry- 
sostom, and many others. The works of 
these fathers contain numerous quotations 
from this Gospel ; and as their testimony is 
not contradicted by any ancient writer, it 
may be safely concluded that the Gospel of 
St. Mark is genuine. Different persons 
have assigned different dates to this Gos- 
pel ; but as there is an almost unanimous 
concurrence of opinion that it was written 
whilst St. Mark was with St. Peter at 
Rome, and as we do not find any ancient 



MAR 



MAR 



authority for supposing that St. Peter was 
ia that city till the year 64, we may place 
the publication of this Gospel about the 
year 65. Whether Mark or Luke wrote 
first has been disputed ; but the general 
opinion is, that Mark wrote after, and not 
before, Luke. Some think that Mark 
rather adopted the language of Matthew, 
and the order of Luke, in their joint sec- 
tions ; but that he followed neither im- 
plicitly. He is usually more circumstan- 
tial and correct than they are in the rela- 
tion of joint events. Indeed, to the accurate 
fidelity of this well-informed Evangelist, 
we owe several important facts and illustra- 
tions omitted by his predecessors. His 
style is clear and correct ; and his Gospel 
is a simple and compendious narrative. 
See Gospel. Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christ. Theology, vol. i. pp. 310—318 ; Dr. 
Hales" s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book ii. p. 650. 

MAK'THA, Map0a, signifies who becomes 
bitter ; according to the Syriac, mistress, or 
that teaches. Martha was sister of Lazarus 
and Mary, and mistress of the house where 
our Saviour was entertained, in the village 
of Bethany. Martha is always named be- 
fore Mary, probably because she was the 
elder sister. Once, when our Saviour 
visited them, Martha was very busy in pre- 
paring supper, while Mary sat at our Sa- 
viour's feet, hearing his doctrine with great 
assiduity and attention. (Luke x. 38 — 42.) 
Martha complained to our Saviour, de- 
siring him to bid Mary rise and assist her. 
But Jesus answered, Martha, Martha, you 
are very busy, and in much trouble to 
provide indifferent or unnecessary things ; 
there is but one thing necessary, and Mary 
has chosen the better part, which shall not be 
taken from her. 

Some time after, Lazarus falling sick, the 
two sisters sent word of it to Jesus, then 
beyond Jordan ; but he departed not from 
thence till he knew Lazarus was dead. 
Being come almost to Bethany, Martha 
went out to meet him ; expostulated with 
him on his delay; and professed her faith 
in him. Jesus bid them bring him to La- 
zarus's tomb, where he raised him from the 
dead. (John xi. 20, &c.) 

Six days before his passion, Jesus, being 
come to Bethany for the feast of the pass- 
over, was invited to eat by a Pharisee, 
called Simon the leper. (John xii. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) Martha waited, Lazarus was one of 
the guests, and Mary poured a box of 
precious perfume on the head and feet of 
Jesus. (Matt. xxvi. 6, &c.) This is all 
that the Scripture informs us concerning 
Martha. 

MARRIAGE, a covenant between a 
man and a woman, by which they mutually 
promise cohabitation, and a continual can 
to promote the comfort and happiness of 
each other. As to the nature of the nun - 
657 



riage state, it will be sufficient to apnrehend, 
that it is a society of two persons, who, 
whilst it continues, ought to have but one 
interest, and therefore one only scheme of 
life, pursued by both, in order to one and 
the same sort of happiness, of which both 
are to be equal partakers ; and likewise of 
the reverse, as often as troubles or afflictions 
shall occur, whether the occasion of trouble 
or affliction shall visit them both at once, 
or begin with the one or the other. They 
are to partake of each other's comforts, and 
to share each other's sorrows. All this 
arises from the very nature of an alliance, 
founded on the same interest, and on the 
highest degree of affection which the parties 
are capable of entertaining. 

This natural notion of matrimony is con- 
firmed and enforced by the word of God. 
The apostle represents ' the union between 
Christ and his church,' by the union between 
a husband and his wife ; and this again by 
'the union between the head and the mem- 
bers in a natural body.' Christ loves, pro- 
vides for, and governs his church, just as the 
good husband does his wife ; and he again 
loves, provides for, and governs his wife, 
just as a wise and careful head does the rest 
of the body. On the other hand, you will 
see a good wife loving and obeying her 
husband, as a sound body does in regard to 
its head, and as the church does in regard to 
Christ. Here a sameness of interest and 
happiness is clearly set forth as necessary to 
matrimony, that the husband and wife may 
know themselves to be but one — ' one body 
or flesh :' and the subjection of the wife to 
her husband is as plainly laid before us ; 
that, if differences should arise, they may 
find an easy and speedy determination, 
without the interposition of a third per- 
son, which seldom leaves the contest in a 
better state of agreement than it was before. 
Unity of heart and understanding being 
as essential to the happiness, as unity of in- 
terest is to the nature, of matrimony, it is, 
in the first place, the grand business both 
of husband and wife to aim at the attain- 
ment or preservation of this unity, as early 
and as studiously as they can ; or if it is 
once hurt or lost, to labour earnestly for the 
recovery of it, as not only the foundation of 
all their happiness, but the only preserv- 
ative against the greatest misery that can 
be undergone in this life. If, after having 
lived together for some years, they find 
themselves still one, one in understanding 
and heart, in order to one and the same 
interest, or circle of satisfactions, they have 
only to proceed as they have begun, and to 
stiller nothing, except the means of tluir 
eternal salvation, to prompt them to louder 
or more repeated thanksgivings, than the 
sense of their present comfort. If tlu v art 
only lately married, and, therefore, have not 

had sufficient time to try their tempera with 
respect to each other, they ought seriousU 

Uu 



MAR 



MAR 



to consider that they must infallibly become 
either comforters or tormentors of each 
other. Indifference is inconsistent with the 
very nature of matrimony, which, if it does 
not unite them into one, cannot leave them 
two, simply as they were before marriage ; 
but must make them two bitter, treacherous, 
or suspected enemies to each other, and to 
their common happiness. Ask tbose who 
have been long married, whether there is 
any medium between happiness and misery, 
in that state 1 Their uniform report will 
be, that there neither is, nor can be, any 
such thing. 

Such being the case, they must be more 
than infatuated, if they do not use their ut- 
most endeavours, first, to keep at the great- 
est distance every cause of dispute, and 
every occasion of disgust ; and, next, to say 
and do every thing that may nourish that 
affection and confidence, on which abso- 
lutely depend all their happiness. 

But when all methods are likely to prove 
unsuccessful, and heart from heart be- 
gins to start aside, it is then incumbent on 
them to bring the causes of their uneasi- 
ness before God, to compare them carefully 
with their marriage vows of obedience on 
one side, and of affection on both : and 
then ' meekly kneeling upon their knees,' 
humbly to confess their faults to Him who 
cannot be deceived, to form resolutions of 
better behaviour hereafter on the particu- 
lars of that confession, and most earnestly 
to implore the assistance of the blessed 
Being they are before, who infallibly will 
hear them, and enable them to rise in a 
frame of mind much better fitted for the ob- 
servance of their vows, and for the improve- 
ment of affection and good agreement be- 
tween them. 

A strict fidelity towards each other will 
beget such confidence, and that such es- 
teem and affection, as all other good quali- 
ties are incapable of producing. If to 
this severer virtue they can add ' the orna- 
ment of a meek and quiet spirit,' of a 
gentle and condescending temper, which 
not only 'in the sight of God,' but of 
our partner also, ' is of great price,' 
they will wonderfully promote the har- 
mony, and by that the affection they wish 
to establish. Happy they in whom that un- 
interrupted peace and love, sweeter than 
life itself, are to be found ! where authority 
and obedience lose their names, and almost 
their natures, the husband no more knowing 
that he directs, than the heart does that it 
moves the hand ; and the wife no more 
feeling that she obeys, than the hand that 
it is moved. Marriage so circumstanced is 
truly honourable. 

Let the husband never forget, that his 
wife hath put her person, together with her 
fortune, into his hands, as into those of the 
man in whom she placed the highest confi- 
dence, and that she did this in a pleasing 
658 



expectation of finding in him a generous and 
strenuous protector against all ill-treatment 
from others, and all the distress and trouble 
which a man is better able to repel than a 
woman. To him her feebler nature hath 
fled for a refuge. How base, how unmanly 
a breach of trust would it be in him, to treat 
her with coldness, contempt, or cruelty ; to 
become her chief oppressor; and to force 
from her broken heart the melancholy wish 
to be again where he found her, exposed 
alone to a world, hard indeed, and deceitful, 
but less insensible and treacherous than he ! 
It is true she is not without faults ; and who 
is ? Hear what an inspired apostle says, 
' Ye husbands, dwell with your wives ac- 
cording to knowledge, giving honour unto 
the wife as unto the weaker vessel. Hus- 
bands, love your wives, even as Christ loved 
the church;' for which he thought it not too 
much to give his life. ' So ought men to 
love their wives as their own bodies. He 
that loveth his wife loveth himself; for no 
man ever yet hated his own flesh, but 
nourisheth and cherisheth it, even as the 
Lord the church.' Observe, that the hus- 
band is here forbidden to treat his wife 
with bitterness, and commanded to show 
her that love which Christ hath for his 
church, and he has for himself, and to 
do her honour. Nay, the husband is to 
love his wife, even as himself, though she 
should be not less infirm and faulty than 
he is. 

On the other hand, a married woman 
should at all times, and in every instance, 
bear in mind, that gentleness and pliancy in 
every thing but vice, is her distinguishing 
characteristic. The personal face of an angel, 
without the peculiar ornaments of her sex, 
will not make her beautiful, nor even tolera- 
ble. There is nothing conceivable so un- 
natural, and so shocking, as a woman who 
puts on a masculine, not to say a boisterous 
spirit, and sets up for an object of fear. 
Hear him who says, ' Wives submit your- 
selves unto your husbands as unto the 
Lord ; for the husband is the head of the 
wife, even as Christ is the head of the 
church. As the church, therefore, is sub- 
ject unto Christ, so let the wives be to their 
own husbands in every thing. Let the wife 
see that she reverence her husband. Wives 
submit yourselves unto your own husbands, 
as it is fit in the Lord. Ye wives be in 
subjection to your own husbands.' This 
last precept is followed by another enjoining 
meekness and quietness of spirit, and for- 
bidding an expensive vanity in dress. It 
ought to be considered that these precepts 
are positive, unconditional, and leave no 
excuse for a failure in the duty of a married 
woman, be her husband's behaviour what 
it may. Clapham's Sermons, vol. i. serra. 
xxviii. 

MA'RY, the mother of Jesus, and wife 
of Joseph. She is called by the Jews the 



MAR 



MAR 



daughter of Eli ; and by the early Christian 
writers, ' the daughter of Joakim and Anna :' 
but Joakim and Eliakim are sometimes in- 
terchanged (2 Chron. xxxvi. 4.); and Eli, 
or Heli, is therefore the abridgement of 
Eliakim. (Luke iii. 23.) She was of the 
royal race of David, as was also Joseph her 
husband ; and she was also cousin to Elisa- 
beth, the wife of Zacharias the priest. 
(Luke i. 5. 36.) 

Mary being espoused to Joseph, the angel 
Gabriel appeared to her, to acquaint her 
that she should be the mother of the 
Messiah. (Luke i. 26, 27, &c.) Mary 
asked him how this could be, since she 
knew no man ? The angel replied, ' The 
Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the 
power of the Highest shall overshadow thee,' 
so that thou shall conceive without the con- 
currence of a man. To confirm his mes- 
sage, and to show that nothing is impossible 
to God, he added, that her cousin Elisabeth, 
who was old, and had been hitherto barren, 
was then in the sixth month of her preg- 
nancy. Mary answered, ' Behold the hand- 
maid of the Lord, be it unto me according 
to thy word ;' and presently she conceived. 
She set out for Hebron, a city in the moun- 
tains of Judah, to visit her cousin Elisabeth. 
As soon as Elisabeth heard the voice of 
Mary, her child (John the Baptist) leaped 
in her womb ; and she was filled with the 
Holy Ghost, and spake with a loud voice, 
saying, ' Blessed art thou among women,' 
&c. Then Mary praised God, saying, ' My 
soul doth magnify the Lord, and my spirit 
hath rejoiced in God my Saviour,' &c. Mary 
continued with Elisabeth about three 
months, and then returned to her own 
house. 

When Mary was ready to lie in, an edict 
of Caesar Augustus decreed, that all subjects 
of the empire should go to their own cities, 
to register their names according to their 
families. Joseph and Mary, who were both 
of the lineage of David, went to Bethlehem, 
from whence sprung their family. But while 
they were here, the time being fulfilled in 
which Mary was to be delivered, she brought 
forth her first born son. She wrapped him 
in swaddling clothes, and laid him in the 
manger of the stable or caravansary whither 
they had retired, because there was no room 
in the inn. Angels made this event known 
to shepherds, who were in the fields near 
Bethlehem, and who came in the night to 
see Joseph and Mary, and the child lying 
in the manger, and to pay him their adora- 
tion. Mary took notice of all these things, 
and laid them up in her heart. (Luke ii. 
19.) 'Some time after, the Magi or wise 
men came from the East, and brought to 
Jesus the mysterious presents of gold, 
frankincense, and myrrh. (Matt. ii. 8, 9, 
10, 11, &c.) The time of Mary's purifica- 
tion being come, that is, forty days after the 
birth of Jesus, Mary went to Jerusalem, to 
659 



present her son in the temple, and there to 
offer the sacrifice appointed by the law, for 
the purification of women after child-birth. 
(Luke ii. 21.) There was then at Jerusalem 
an old man named Simeon, full of the Holy 
Ghost, who had l-eceived a secret assurance 
that he should not die, before he had seen 
Christ the Lord. He came then into the 
temple by the influence of the Spirit of God, 
and, taking the child Jesus in his arms, he 
blessed the Lord, &c. 

Afterwards, when Joseph and Mary were 
about to return to their own country, Naza- 
reth, the angel of the Lord appeared to 
Joseph in a dream, bidding him retire into 
Egypt with Mary and the child, because 
Herod designed to destroy Jesus. (Matt. ii. 
13, 14.) Joseph obeyed the admonition, 
and continued in Egypt till after the death 
of Herod, when they returned to Nazareth. 

Mary and Joseph went every year to 
Jerusalem to the passover ; and when Jesus 
was twelve years of age, they took him with 
them. When they were returning, the 
child Jesus continued at Jerusalem, without 
their perceiving it ; and, thinking he might 
be with some of the company, they went on 
a day's journey. Then, not finding him 
among their acquaintance, they returned to 
Jerusalem to seek him. Three days after, 
they found him in the temple, sitting among 
the doctors, hearing them and asking them 
questions. When they saw him, they were 
filled with astonishment ; and Mary said to 
him, Son, why have you served us thus ? 
Your father and myself have sought you 
in much affliction. Jesus answered them, 
Why did you seek me ? Did not you know 
that I must be employed about my Father's 
business? (Luke ii. 49.) Afterwards he 
returned with them to Nazareth, and lived 
in filial submission to them. But his 
mother laid up all these things in her heart 
(Luke ii. 51, 52.) The Gospel speaks 
nothing more of the Virgin Mary, till the 
marriage at Cana of Galilee, at which she 
was present with her son Jesus. 

The Virgin was at Jerusalem, at the last 
passover our Saviour celebrated there. 
There she saw all that was transacted ; she 
followed him to Calvary, she stayed at the 
foot of his cross, with an admirable con- 
stancy and courage. Jesus seeing his 
mother, and his beloved disciple near, he 
said to his mother, Woman, behold thy son ; 
and to the disciple, Behold thy mother. 
And from that hour the disciple took her 
home to his own house. After this she 
dwelt with John the Evangelist, who took 
care of her as of his own mother. 

M u:v, mother of Mark. She had a house 

in Jerusalem, whither it is thought the 

apostles retired, after the ascension of our 
Lord, and where they received the Holy 

Ghost After tin' imprisonment of St 

Peter, the faithful assembled in tins house, 

there praying instantly; when Peter, dah> 

uu2 



MAR 



MAR 



vered by the ministry of an angel, knocked 
at the door of the house. (Acts xii. 5. 12.) 

Mary of CJeophas. Jerome says, she 
bore the name of Cleophas, either because 
of heT father, of her family, or some other 
reason not known. Chrysostom and others 
believe, with greater probability, that she 
was wife of Cleophas, and mother of James 
the Less, and of Simon, brethren of our 
Lord. These authors take Mary, mother of 
James, and Mary, wife of Cleophas, to be 
the same person. St. John gives her the 
name of Mary, wife of Cleophas, and the 
other evangelists the name of Mary, mother 
of James. Cleophas and Alpheus are the 
same person, as James, son of Mary, wife of 
Cleophas, is the same as James son of 
Alpheus. Alpheus and Cleophas differ only 
as a Hebrew name, and the same in Greek. 

We know very few particulars of the life 
of Mary of Cleophas. It is thought she was 
sister of the holy Virgin ; and the mother of 
James the Less, of Joses, of Simon, and of 
Judas, who in the Gospel are named brethren 
of Jesus Christ, that is, his cousin-germans. 
She believed early in Jesus Christ, and ac- 
companied him in some of his journeys to 
minister to him. She was present at the 
death of our Saviour, she followed him to 
Calvary, and was with the Virgin at the foot 
of his cross. She was also present at his 
burial, and prepared perfumes to embalm 
him. But going to his tomb on Sunday 
morning very early, with other women, they 
learned from an angel that he was risen, of 
which they informed the apostles. By the 
way Jesus appeared to them ; and they 
embraced his feet, worshipping him. 

Mary, sister of Lazarus, has been con- 
founded by some with the sinner, (Luke vii. 
37 — 39.) whose name is not noticed, but 
whom others think to have been Mary 
Magdalene. Mary, the sister of Martha 
and Lazarus, lived with her brother and 
sister at Bethany, a village near Jerusalem. 
Jesus Christ had a particular affection for 
this family, and often retired to their house. 
One day, Martha having received him with 
great affection, and thinking to make much 
of him, she prepared a handsome entertain- 
ment, whilst Mary her sister remained at 
our Saviour's feet, hearing his conversation 
with great attention. Martha, therefore, 
said to Jesus, Do you not observe, Lord, 
that my sister leaves me to minister alone 1 
Bid her come to help me. But Jesus took 
occasion to justify Mary, saying, that Mary 
had chosen the better part, which should 
not be taken from her. 

Some time after, their brother Lazarus 
fell sick, and his sisters acquainted Jesus 
with it; but he did not come till after 
Lazarus was dead. He arrived at Bethany, 
and presently Martha came to him. Then - 
he sent to acquaint Mary with his being 
there, who immediately came to him, 
making her complaint of Lazarus's death, 



&c. Jesus restored him to his sisters. 
Six days before the passover, Jesus came 
to Bethany with his disciples, and was 
invited to supper at Simon's the leper. 
Martha attended, and Lazarus was one of 
the guests. Mary taking a pound of spike- 
nard (the most precious perfume of this 
kind,) poured it on the head and feet of 
Jesus. She wiped his feet with her hair, 
and the whole house was filled with the 
scent of the perfume. Judas Iscariot mur- 
mured at this : but Jesus undertook Mary's 
defence, saying, that by this she had antici- 
pated his embalmment, and, in a manner, 
had declared his death and burial at hand. 
From this time the Scripture does not men- 
tion Martha and Mary ; but those who dis- 
tinguish not between Mary sister of Martha, 
and Mary Magdalene, say, that she was 
present at the crucifixion of our Saviour, 
and went to his sepulchre to embalm him. 

Mary Magdale'ne is thought by some 
to have been the sinner, (Luke vii. 36, 37, 
&c.) whose name is not mentioned. Cir- 
cumstances incline us to believe, that she 
was that Mary Magdalene, from whom 
Jesus expelled seven devils. (Luke viii. 2.) 
Jesus, having healed the widow's son of 
Nain, entered into that city, and was there 
invited to eat by a Pharisee named Simon. 
Whilst he was at table, a woman of a scan- 
dalous life came into the house, having an 
alabaster box full of perfume ; and standing 
upright behind Jesus, and at his feet (for he 
was lying at a table on a couch after the 
manner of the ancients,) she poured her 
perfume on his feet, kissed them, watered 
them with her tears, and wiped them with 
her hair, &c. In the following chapter St. 
Luke tells us, that Jesus, in company with 
his apostles, preached the Gospel from city 
to city, accompanied by several women, 
whom he had cured of their infirmities, 
among whom was Mary called Magdalene, 
out of whom went seven devils. Mary 
Magdalene took her surname either from 
the town of Magdala in Galilee, beyond 
Jordan, and not far from Gamala, or from 
Magdolos, a town on this side Jordan, at the 
foot of Mount Carmel, the Megiddo of 
Joshua. (Luke xvii. 11. 2 Kings ix. 27.; 
xxiii. 29.) 

Lightfoot believes, that it is this Mary 
Magdalene whom St. Luke and the other 
evangelists speak of, and whom this author 
does not distinguish from Mary the sister of 
Lazarus. Magdalene is mentioned by the 
evangelists, among the women who followed 
our Saviour to minister to him, according to 
the customs of the Jews. St. Luke (viii. 2.) 
and St. Mark, (xvi. 9.) observe, that this 
woman had been delivered by Jesus Christ 
from seven devils. This some understand 
literally ; some figuratively, for the crimes and 
wickedness of her past life. Others main- 
tain that she had always lived in virginity, 
and consequently was a different person 



MAS 



MAS 



from the sinner mentioned by St. Luke. 
She followed Christ in his last journey from 
Galilee to Jerusalem, and was at the foot of 
the cross with the holy Virgin. She con- 
tinued on mount Calvary till our Saviour's 
death, and saw him put into his tomb. 
After this she returned to Jerusalem, to 
prepare perfumes to embalm him after the 
sabbath was over. (John xix. 25. Mark 
xv. 47.) 

All the sabbath day she remained in the 
city, and the next day, early in the morning', 
she went to the sepulchre with Mary the 
mother of James, and Salome. (Markxvi. 
1, 2. Luke xxiv. 1, 2.) Being come to his 
tomb, they saw the entrance open, and con- 
cluded the body was removed. On this, 
Mary Magdalene runs to Jerusalem, to ac- 
quaint the apostles. Returning to the 
sepulchre, and stooping forward to examine 
the inside of the tomb, she there saw two 
angels sitting, one at the head, and the other 
at the bottom, of the tomb. They asked her, 
why she wept ? To this she replied, They 
have taken away my Lord, and I know not 
where they have laid him. At the same 
time, turning about, she saw Jesus Christ ; 
who asked her, what she looked for ? She 
answered, Sir, if you have removed my 
Master, let me know it, that I may take him 
away. Jesus says to her, Mary! Imme- 
diately she knew him, and cast herself at his 
feet, to kiss them. But Jesus said to her, 
Touch me not, for I am not yet ascended to 
my Father : as if he had said, You shall 
have leisure to see me hereafter ; go now to 
my brethren, my apostles, and tell them, I 
shall ascend to my God and their God, to 
my Father and their Father. Thus had 
Mary the happiness of first seeing our 
Saviour after his resurrection. She re- 
turned then to Jerusalem, and told the 
apostles that she had seen the Lord. But 
they did not believe her, till her report was 
confirmed by other testimony. 

MASORA. This Hebrew word signifies 
tradition. Those Hebrew doctors are 
called Masorites, who have fixed the read- 
ing of the sacred text, by adding pointed 
vowels to it, and who made the notes in the 
margins of the printed Hebrew Bibles ; who 
have counted with most scrupulous exact- 
ness all the words, verses, and letters of 
every book, that in following ages no fur- 
ther change might be made, and that the 
reading of the Bible might be fixed for 
ever. As the Hebrews often write their 
words without vowels, a tradition from 
father to son, is their rule for reading cer- 
tain consonants, which have a variety of sig- 
nifications, according to the nature of the 
vowel supplied. As tradition teaches the 
Jews how to pronounce any word, in the 
several places in which it is found, in con- 
sequence of this tradition, the Masorites 
invented pointed vowels, to fix the reading. 
For this reason they are called Masorites, 
661 



and their work, Masora, or tradition. 
These pointed vowels are instead of the real 
vowels where they are wanting ; and they 
denote what sound is to be given them, 
when they are in the text, and whether they 
are to be pronounced or not, whether long 
or short, whether with a full sound or 
slightly. The Masorites have also marked 
the accents and the points. The accents 
serve for pronunciation, for singing and 
reading of the words. The points serve for 
distinction of sentences and verses. 

The Masorites have been exact in mark- 
ing letters that are either deficient or re- 
dundant in the text; whether a word is 
writ in a regular manner ; whether one 
letter be put for another ; if it be larger or 
shorter, or inverted, or suspended. For the 
Hebrews have such a vast respect for the 
sacred books, that they make a scruple of 
changing the situation of a letter, that is 
plainly out of its place. They incline to 
suppose that some mystery has occasioned 
the alteration. Their ancestors, it is very 
plain, were not so scrupulous, since we find 
many mistakes in the text, that could pro- 
ceed only from the negligence or ignorance 
of transcribers. 

Lastly, when there are various readings 
of the text, or any palpable fault, they put 
the true reading in the margin, without 
daring to alter the text. That which is 
found in the text they call Chetib, that is 
written; what they put in the margin they 
call Keri, that is read or reading, as if they 
would say, Write in this manner, but read in 
that manner. For example, when they find 
certain words, they substitute others. In- 
stead of the sacred name Jehovah, they sub- 
stitute Adonai, or Elohim ; and instead of 
certain terms not very decent, they pro- 
nounce others less indelicate, or more agree- 
able to good manners. 

As to the Masorites, or authors of the 
Masora, and the age in which they lived, 
and to the value of their performance, there 
is a great variety of sentiments. Some 
have very much commended this under- 
taking, and have considered the work of the 
Masorites as an admirable invention, to 
deliver the text from a multitude of equivo- 
cations and perplexities to which it was 
liable, to stop the unbounded licentiousness 
and rashness of transcribers and critics, who 
often make alterations in the text on their 
own private authority. Others have blamed 
the design, suspecting the Masorites cor- 
rupted the purity of the text, substituting 
instead of the ancient and true reading o\ 
their fathers, another reading more iavour- 
able to their prejudices, and more opposite 
to Christianity, whose testimonies ami proofs 
they would weaken as much as ihoy could. 

Dr. Marsh observes, that ■ the text itself. 
as regulated by the learned .lews of '1 "ibcnas. 
was probably the result of I collation ot 
manuscripts. I5ut as those Hebrew critics 



MAS 



MAS 



were cautious of introducing too many cor- 
rections in the text, they noted in the 
margins of their manuscripts, or in their 
critical collections, such various readings, 
derived from other manuscripts, either by 
themselves or by their predecessors, as ap- 
peared to be worthy of attention. This is 
the real origin of those marginal or Masoretic 
readings, which we find in many editions of 
the Hebrew Bible. But the propensity of 
the latter Jews to seek mystical meanings 
in the plainest facts, induced gradually the 
belief, that both textual and marginal read- 
ings proceeded from the sacred writers 
themselves, and that the latter were trans- 
mitted to posterity by oral tradition, as con- 
veying some mysterious application of the 
written words. They were regarded there- 
fore as materials, not of criticism, but of in- 
terpretation.'' In making some observations 
on the work of Cappellus relative to the 
integrity of the Hebrew text, the same 
learned writer says, that Cappellus 'was 
right in asserting, that the Hebrew manu- 
scripts, from which the Septuagint and 
other ancient versions were made, had not 
precisely the same text as modern manu- 
scripts, or printed editions. But he some- 
times ascribed to a diversity of reading, 
what might rather be ascribed to a diversity 
of translation. He was right in asserting, 
that the authors of the Masora had not esta- 
blished a Hebrew text, which was free from 
fault ; but he was unjust in not acknowledg- 
ing the services which they really perform- 
ed. He was right in asserting, that even 
the Masoretic text had not descended to 
posterity without variations ; but he was 
unjust to the authors of the Masora in not 
acknowledging the care which they took to 
preserve it. For if their success has not 
been complete, either in establishing, or in 
preserving, the Hebrew text, they have been 
guilty only of the fault, which is common to 
every human effort.' Marsh's Course of 
Lectures, Part ii. pp. 84. 97- 

MASS, Missa, in the church of Rome, 
the office or prayers used at the celebra- 
tion of the eucharist ; or, in other words, 
consecrating the bread and wine into the 
body and blood of Christ, and offering 
them, so transubstantiated, as an expia- 
tory sacrifice for the quick and the dead. 
Nicod, after Baronius, observes, that the 
word comes from the Hebrew missach 
(oblatum), or from the Latin missa missorum ; 
because in former times the catechu- 
mens and excommunicated were sent out 
of the church, when the deacons said, Ite, 
missa est, after sermon and reading of the 
epistle and gospel : they not being allowed 
to assist at the consecration. Menage de- 
rives the word from missio, ' dismissing;' 
others from missa, ' missing, sending,' be- 
cause in the mass the prayers of men on 
earth are sent up to Heaven. 

As the mass is in general believed to be 
662 



a representation of the passion of our 
blessed Saviour, so every action of the 
priest, and every particular part of the 
service, is supposed to allude to the par- 
ticular circumstances of his passion ana 
death. 

The general division of masses is into 
high and low mass. The first is that sung 
by the choristers, and celebrated with the 
assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon : low 
masses are those in which the prayers are 
barely rehearsed, without singing. 

There are a great number of different 
or occasional masses in the Romish church, 
many of which have nothing peculiar but 
the name : such are the masses of the 
saints ; that of St. Mary of the Snow, 
celebrated on the fifth of August ; that of 
St. Margaret, patroness of lying-in-wo- 
men ; that at the feast of St. John the 
Baptist, at which are said three masses ; 
that of the Innocents, at which the gloria in 
excelsis and hallelujah are omitted, and, 
it being a day of mourning, the altar is of 
a violet colour. As to ordinary masses, 
some are said for the dead, and, as is sup- 
posed, contribute to extricate the soul out 
of purgatory. At these masses the altar 
is put in mourning, and the only decora- 
tions are a cross in the middle of six yel- 
low wax lights : the dress of the celebrant, 
and the very mass- book, are black ; many 
parts of the office are omitted, and the 
people are dismissed without the benedic- 
tion. If the mass be said for a person 
distinguished by his rank or virtues, it is 
followed with a funeral oration; they erect 
a chapelle ardente, that is, a representation 
of the deceased, with branches and tapers 
of yellow wax, either in the middle of the 
church, or near the deceased's tomb, where 
the priest pronounces a solemn absolution 
of the deceased. There are likewise pri- 
vate masses said for stolen or strayed goods 
or cattle, for health, for travellers, &c. 
which go under the name of votive masses. 
There is still a further distinction of masses, 
denominated from the countries in which 
they were used : thus, the Gothic mass, 
or missa mosarabum, is that used among 
the Goths when they were masters of Spain, 
and which is still observed at Toledo and 
Salamanca ; the Ambrosian mass is that 
composed by St. Ambrose, and used only 
at Milan, of which city he was bishop ; 
the Gallic mass, used by the ancient Gauls ; 
and the Roman mass, used by almost all 
the churches in the Romish communion. 

Mass of the presanctified (missa prcesanc- 
tificatorum), is a mass peculiar to the 
Greek church, in which there is no conse- 
cration of the elements ; but, after singing 
some hymns, they receive the bread and 
wine which were before consecrated. This 
mass is performed all Lent, except on Satur- 
days, Sundays, and the Annunciation- The 
priest counts upon his fingers the days of 



MAT 



MAT 



the ensuing week on which it is to be cele- 
brated, and cuts off as many pieces of bread 
at the altar as he is to say masses ; and, 
after having consecrated them, he steeps 
them in wine, and puts them in a box, out 
of which, upon every occasion, he takes 
some of it with a spoon, and, putting it on 
a dish, sets it on the altar. Broughton's Hist. 
Diet. vol. ii. pp. 68—72. 

MATERIALISTS. The Manicheans, 
and certain Oriental sects, abhorred matter, 
and on that account rejected as spurious all 
parts of Scripture that mentioned the uses 
of matter, and at length the whole of the 
Old Testament. On the contrary, many 
of our modem philosophers are great friends 
to matter ; and, therefore, to suit their prin- 
ciples, the Scripture must be so interpreted, 
that even the soul may be material. Hence 
the abettors of this doctrine are called Ma- 
terialists. 

The Materialists believe and attempt to 
prove, contrary to the opinion which has 
almost universally prevailed in the Christ- 
ian church, that man does not consist of 
two substances essentially different from 
each other, but is of an uniform composi- 
tion ; and that the conscious principle, or 
what we generally term the soul, is merely 
a property resulting from such an organic 
structure as that of the brain. From this 
hypothesis it seems to follow, as an imme- 
diate and necessary consequence, that man 
is not a free agent ; that the soul is not 
naturally immortal, and that there is no 
intermediate state of consciousness between 
death and the resurrection ; for the pro- 
perties of sensation and thought must of 
course be extinguished at the dissolution 
of that system of organized matter, to which 
they appertain. In searching the Scrip- 
tures for passages expressive of the state 
of man at death, the Materialists cite Job 
xiv. 7 — 12, Psalm vi. 5, &c, as texts in 
which they find such declarations as they 
conceive expressly exclude any trace of 
sense, thought, or enjoyment. This doctrine 
of Materialism has long been considered 
as a tenet peculiar to infidelity, and has 
even been held in almost as much abhor- 
rence by the generality of Christians as 
Atheism itself. Yet, it was very preva- 
lent in France before the Revolution, and 
of late has been gaining ground in this 
country. It would seem that the doctrines 
of Unitarianism, Materialism, and philoso- 
phical or mechanical Necessity, if they be 
not equally parts of one system, are nearly 
connected. The scheme of necessity is the 
immediate result of the materiality of man, 
mechanism being the undoubted consequence 
of materialism ; and this last is eminently 
subservient to the Unitarian doctrine of 
the proper or mere humanity of Christ. For, 
if no man have a soul distinct from bis 
body, Christ, who in all other rcspi 
peared as a man, could not have a soul which 
663 



existed before his body ; and thus the whole 
doctrine of the pre-existence of souls, of which 
the opinion of the pre-existence of Christ is 
a branch, will be effectually overturned. 

The doctrine of Materialism was copiously 
discussed, and warmly patronized, by the 
late Dr. Priestley, who states it as a primary 
axiom, ' that the power of sensation, or per- 
ception, never having been found but in 
conjunction with a certain organized sys- 
tem of matter, we ought, as philosophers, 
to conclude, that this power necessarily 
exists in, and results from, that organized 
system, unless it can be shown to be incom- 
patible with other known properties of the 
same substance.' This, if the premises be 
granted, will not readily be denied : at the 
same time, it must be admitted, that con- 
stant conjunction implies necessary con- 
nexion, only when reasons cannot be dis- 
covered to prove the conjunction to be acci- 
dental and arbitrary. Indeed, the argument 
seems to rest on rather similar ground to 
that ridiculed by Tully, by which Epicurus 
attempted to prove, 'that the gods had 
human bodies, because he had never seen 
a reasonable or intelligent mind, but in 
such bodies.' The absolute incompatibility 
of perception with the known and acknow- 
ledged properties of the material substance, 
has been illustrated by Dr. S. Clarke with 
great ability. 

Modern philosophers have been perhaps 
too hasty in concluding, from the recipro- 
cal influence of the soul and body on each 
other, that the former, as well as the latter, 
is material ; for, according to the opponents 
of this doctrine, there are, no doubt, argu- 
ments sufficient to evince them to be dis- 
tinct beings, with different powers, though 
capable of exerting a mutual influence on 
each other. In supposing them to do so, 
there is no absurdity ; and that they cannot 
exert such a mutual influence, allowing them 
to be distinct substances, is a negative, 
which, say they, never has been, nor ever 
can be proved. Every power of the mind, 
and every property observable in matter, 
are so essentially different, that the idea of 
homogeneity in the two substances is too 
extravagant to be admitted on any other 
ground than a direct proof of the impos- 
sibility of the action of spirit on matter, 
without the existence of some common pro- 
perty. The orthodox opinion, therefore, is. 
that the soul is simple, uneompounded. and 
immaterial, or incorporeal, and distinct 
from matter. On this head. Christians in 
general, however widely they may differ on 
other points, are fully agreed; and, indeed. 

so well satisfied in regard to it. that you 

will scarcely find one oi' a thousand who, 
on being questioned, will not be ready to 

with Sterne: ' 1 am positive I have 
a soul; nor can all the books with which 
materialists have pestered the world over 
convince me to the contrary.' 



MAT 



MAT 



It is further observed, that, independently 
of what has been said against the doctrine 
of Materialism by others, the question 
seems now at length to be determined, and 
the modern theory of the materialists 
shaken from its very foundation, by Dr. 
Ferrier, who has proved anatomically 
concerning the brain, by evidence appa- 
rently complete, that every part of it has 
been injured without affecting the act of 
thought. 

Mr. Locke seems to suppose it possible 
that there may be some such unknown 
substratum, as may be capable of receiving 
the properties both of matter and of mind, 
namely, extension, solidity, and cogita- 
tion ; for he supposes it possible for God 
to add cogitation to that substance which 
is corporeal, and thus to cause matter to 
think. If this be true, spirits then (for 
aught we know) may be corporeal beings ; 
which is a doctrine very favourable to the 
mortality of the soul. 

But the question respecting the immate- 
riality of the soul is not perhaps of so 
great consequence as some may imagine ; 
for, when we consider the nature and 
attributes of God, the faculties of man, 
and the constitution of the world in which 
he is placed, there are the best grounds for 
believing, that he is an accountable being ; 
and we may rest assured, that of whatever 
materials his sentient part is composed, 
Omnipotence will not want the means of 
placing him hereafter in an accountable state, 
so as that he shall be obliged to give an 
account of his conduct. 

The advocates for Materialism are so far 
from allowing that their doctrine militates 
against the hopes of a resurrection, that 
they insist it is not only more philosophical, 
but also points out 'more fully the ne- 
cessity, and value of a resurrection from the 
dead ;' on which alone, say they, the sacred 
writers build all our hope of a future life. 
(1 Cor. xv. 16. 32, &c.) See Necessita- 
rians. — Adam's Religious World, vol. ii. 
pp. 207—212. 

MATTHEW, MarOaZog, signifies given. 
St. Matthew, an apostle and evangelist, was 
son of Alpheus, a Galilean by birth, a Jew 
by religion, and a publican by profession. 
(Mark ii. 14. Luke v. 27.) The other 
evangelists call him only Levi, which was 
his Hebrew name; but he always calls him- 
self Matthew, which probably was his name 
as a publican, or officer for gathering taxes. 
His usual abode was at Capernaum ; and 
his office was out of the town, at the Sea of 
Tiberias, where he appears to have collected 
the customs due upon commodities which 
were carried, and from persons who passed, 
over the sea. As he was sitting at the 
place where he received these customs, our 
Saviour commanded him to follow him. 
Matthew immediately obeyed; and from 
that time he became a constant attendant 
664 



upon our Saviour, and was appointed one 
of the twelve apostles. Soon after his call, 
Matthew made an entertainment at his 
house, at which were present Christ and 
some of his disciples, and also several pub- 
licans. (Matt. ix. 10, 11, &c.) After the 
ascension of our Saviour, he continued, with 
the other apostles, to preach the Gospel for 
some time in Judea ; but as there is no far- 
ther account of him in any writer of the 
first four centuries, it is uncertain into 
what country he afterwards went, and also 
in what manner, and at what time, he died. 
What the Scripture says, that he was son of 
Alpheus, has given occasion to some to 
suppose that he was brother of James, son 
of Alpheus, or James the Less : but this is 
not probable. 

In the few writings which remain of the 
apostolical fathers are manifest allusions to 
several passages in St. Matthew's Gospel ; 
but the Gospel itself is not mentioned in 
any one of them. Papias, the companion 
of Polycarp, is the earliest author upon re- 
cord that has expressly named Matthew as 
the author of a Gospel. The work itself of 
Papias is lost ; but the quotation in Euse- 
bius is such as to convince us, that in the 
time of Papias no doubt was entertained of 
the genuineness of St. Matthew's Gospel. 
The Gospel is repeatedly quoted by Justin 
Martyr, but the name of Matthew is not 
mentioned. It is both frequently quoted, 
and St. Matthew mentioned as its author, 
by Irenaeus, Origen, Athanasius, Cyril, 
Epiphanius, Jerome, Chrysostom, and a 
long train of subsequent writers. Indeed 
it was universally received by the Christian 
church; and we may therefore conclude, 
upon the concurrent testimony of antiquity, 
that this Gospel is rightly ascribed to St. 
Matthew. 

It is generally agreed, upon the most 
satisfactory evidence, that St. Matthew's 
Gospel was the first that was written : but 
though this is asserted by many ancient 
authors, none of them, except Irenaeus and 
Eusebius, have said any thing concerning 
the exact time in which it was written. The 
only passage in which the former of these 
fathers mentions this subject is so obscure, 
that no positive conclusion can be drawn 
from it; and Eusebius, who lived a hun- 
dred and fifty years after Irenaeus, merely 
says, that Matthew wrote his Gospel just 
before he left Judea to preach the religion 
of Christ in other countries; but, when that 
was, neither he nor any other ancient au- 
thor informs us with certainty. The im- 
possibility of settling this point upon an- 
cient authority has occasioned a variety of 
opinions among moderns. Of the several 
dates assigned to this Gospel which deserve 
any attention, the earliest is the year 38, 
and the latest the year 64. It appears very 
improbable that the Christians should be 
left any considerable number of years with- 



MAT 



MAT 



out a written history of our Saviour's mi- 
nistry. It is certain that the apostles, im- 
mediately after the descent of the Holy 
Ghost, which took place only ten days after 
the ascension of our Saviour into heaven, 
preached the Gospel to the Jews with great 
success. Hence it is reasonable to suppose, 
that an authentic account of our Saviour's 
doctrines and miracles would very soon be 
committed to writing, for the confirmation 
of those who believed in his Divine mis- 
sion, and for the conversion of others ; and, 
more particularly, to enable the Jews to 
compare the circumstances of the birth, 
death, and resurrection of Jesus with their 
ancient prophecies respecting the Messiah. 
We may conceive that the apostles would 
be desirous of losing no time in writing an 
account of the miracles which Jesus per- 
formed, and of the discourses which he de- 
livered, because the sooner such an account 
was published, the easier it would be to in- 
quire into its truth and accuracy ; and con- 
sequently, when these points were satisfac- 
torily ascertained, the greater would be its 
weight and authority. These arguments 
appear strong in favour of an early publi- 
cation of some history of our Saviour's mi- 
nistry ; and it may perhaps be acceded to 
the opinion of Mr. Jones, Mr. Wetstein, 
Dr. Owen, and Bishop Tomline, that St. 
Matthew's Gospel was written in the year 
38. 

There has also of late been great differ- 
ence of opinion concerning the language in 
which St. Matthew wrote his Gospel. Many 
of the ancients, who allow the other Gospels 
to have been written in Greek, have deli- 
vered it as their opinion that St. Matthew 
wrote his Gospel in Hebrew. Mr. Wetstein 
says, ' Here we are of opinion that the Fa- 
thers do not so properly bear testimony, as 
deliver their own conjecture ; which needs 
not be admitted, if it be not supported by 
good reasons, or may be refuted by probable 
arguments. Supposing, and taking it for 
granted, that Matthew wrote for the Jews 
in Judea, they concluded that he wrote in 
Hebrew. But there is no weight in that 
reason. The Greek language was at that 
time much used throughout the whole Ro- 
man empire, and particularly in Judea. 
Papias, who first advanced this opinion, 
was a weak and credulous man. Nor are 
there in our Greek Gospel any marks of its 
being a translation from another language.' 
Dr. Jortin observes, that 'in the 'time of 
Christ and his apostles the Greek was really 
the universal language. The New Testa- 
ment is a proof of this, if proof were wanting. 
And this is one reason among many others, 
why St. Matthew probably wrote his Gospel 
in Greek.' The presumption, indeed, is 
strongly in favour of the opinion, that St. 
Matthew wrote his Gospel in Greek. But as 
the main point in dispute is, whether the pre- 
sent Greek copy is entitled to the authority 
665 



of an original or not ; and as this is a ques- 
tion of real and serious importance, the 
principal arguments on both sides deserve 
consideration. The advocates of the He- 
brew Gospel, Campbell, Michaelis, Marsh, 
&c. lay most stress on the testimonies o? 
Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, 
A.D. 116, of Irenaeus, A.D. ]/8, and the 
learned Origen, A.D. 230, which have been 
followed by several of the Fathers, Jerome, 
&c. Papias, as cited by Eusebius, says, 
' Matthew composed the [sacred] oracles 
in the Hebrew dialect, and each interpreted 
them as he was able.' 2. Irenaeus, as cited 
by Eusebius, says, ' Matthew published also 
a Scripture of the Gospel among the He- 
brews, in their own dialect' 3. Origen, as 
cited by Eusebius, says, ' As I have learned 
by tradition, concerning the four Gospels, 
which alone are received, without dispute, 
by the whole church of God under heaven. 
The first was written by Matthew, once a 
publican, afterwards an apostle of Jesus 
Christ ; who published it for the believers 
from Judaism, composed in Hebrew letters* 
On the other hand, Whitby, Lardner, 
Jones, Jortin, &c. contend, 1. that the 
testimony of Papias is vague and obscure ; 
that he had not seen the Hebrew Gospel 
itself; that, by his own account, it could 
not have been intended for universal cir- 
culation, because every one was not able 
to interpret it ; and that the Greek Gospel 
was published before his time, as appears 
from the express or tacit references to it, 
of Barnabas the apostle, A.D. 71. Cle- 
mens Romanus, A.D. 96, Hermas, A.D. 
100, Ignatius, A.D. 107, and Polycarp, A.D. 
108, who were all prior to Papias, who 
all wrote in Greek, and who, unquestion- 
ably, referred to the Greek Gospels. 2. 
Irenaeus, more critically translated, may 
well be understood to signify, that, in 
addition to his Greek Gospel, Matthew 
published also a Hebrew Gospel for the 
benefit of the Hebrews, or converts from 
Judaism, who used the vernacular lan- 
guage of Palestine. This was most pro- 
bably the fact. This was the original 
basis of the Gospel of the Nazarenes, 
the Gospel of the Ebionites, the Gospel ac- 
cording to the Hebrews, cited by Origen, 
Epiphauius, and Jerome, which in process 
of time became so adulterated by those 
Judaizing converts, as to lose all authority 
in the church, and to be reckoned spurious. 
3. With this the testimony of Origen 
perfectly corresponds; for surely when 
he cited tradition for the existence of a 
Hebrew Gospel written by Matthew for 
the converts from Judaism, he by no 
means denied, but rather presupposed, 
his Greek Gospel, written for all class* a of 
Christians, composing the whole church o( 
God under heaven, for whose use the 
Hebrew Gospel would be utterly inade- 
quate. Indeed, it is sufficiently evident 



MAT 



MED 



that Origen himself considered the Greek 
as the only authentic original in his time. 
Hales 1 s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book ii. pp. 664 — 666 ; Bishop Watson's 
Theolog. Tracts, vol. ii. pp. 45, 46 ; Bishop 
Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. i. pp. 
296—301. 

MATTHI'AS, Mar9iag, signifies gift of 
the Lord. Matthias, the Apostle, was first 
in the rank of our Saviour's disciples, and 
one of those who continued with him from 
his baptism to his ascension. (Acts i. 21, 
22.) It is very probable that he was of the 
number of the Seventy, as Clement of 
Alexandria, and other ancients, inform us. 
After the ascension of our Lord, the apostles 
retired to Jerusalem in expectation of the 
effusion of the Holy Ghost, as had been 
promised ; and Peter stood up in the midst 
of the brethren, and proposed to fill up the 
place of Judas. To this the disciples 
agreed. Then they presented two persons, 
Joseph called Barsabas, and surnamed 
Justus ; and Matthias. The lot fell on 
Matthias, who was associated with the 
eleven apostles. 

There was a Gospel ascribed to Matthias ; 
but it was universally rejected as spurious. 

MEAT. The Hebrews had several 
kinds of animals which they refused to eat. 
Among domestic animals they only ate the 
cow, the sheep, and the goat ; the hen and 
the pigeon, among domestic birds ; besides 
several kinds of wild animals. To eat the 
flesh with the blood was forbidden them, 
much more to eat the blood without the 
flesh. We may form a judgment of their 
taste by what the Scripture mentions of 
Solomon's table. (1 Kings iv. 22, 23.) 
Thirty measures of the finest wheat flour 
were provided for it every day, and twice as 
much of the ordinary sort ; twenty stall-fed 
oxen, twenty pasture-oxen, an hundred 
sheep, besides the venison of deer, roebucks, 
does, and wild fowls. It does not appear 
that the ancient Hebrews were very nice 
about the seasoning and dressing of their 
food. We find among them roast meat, 
boiled meat, and ragouts. They roasted the 
paschal lamb. 

At the first settling of the Christian 
church, very great disputes arose concern- 
ing the use of meats offered to idols. Some 
newly converted Christians, convinced that 
an idol was nothing, and that the distinction 
of clean and unclean creatures was abolished 
by our Saviour, ate indifferently of whatever 
was served up to them, even among Pagans, 
without inquiring whether these meats had 
been offered to idols. They took the same 
liberty in buying meat sold in the markets, 
not regarding whether it was pure or impure 
according to the Jews, or whether it had 
been offered to idols. But other Christians, 
weaker, or less instructed, were offended at 
this liberty, and thought to eat of meat 
that had been offered to idols, was a kind of 
666 



partaking of that wicked and sacrilegious 
offering. This diversity in opinion produ- 
ced some scandal, for which St. Paul thought 
it behoved him to provide a remedy. (Rom. 
xiv. 20. Tit. i. 15.) He determined, there- 
fore, that all things were clean to such as 
were clean, and that an idol was nothing at 
all ; that a man might safely eat of whatever 
was sold in the shambles, and need not 
scrupulously inquire whence it came ; that 
if an unbeliever should invite a believer to 
eat with him, the believer might eat of what- 
ever was set before him, &c. (1 Cor. x. 25, 
26, 27.) But at the same time he enjoins, 
that the law of charity and prudence should 
be observed; that men should be cautious 
of scandalizing or offending weak minds ; 
and that though all things may be lawful, 
yet all things are not always expedient ; that 
no one ought to seek his own accommoda- 
tion or satisfaction, but that of his neigh- 
bour ; that if any one should say to us, 
' This has been offered to idols,' we may not 
then eat of it, for the sake of him who gives 
the information, not so much for fear of 
wounding our own conscience, as his: in 
a word, that he who is weak, and thinks he 
may not indifferently use all sorts of food, 
should forbear, and eat herbs. (Rom. xiv. 
1, 2.) Yet it is certain, that generally 
Christians abstained from eating meat that 
had been offered to idols. 

ME'DIA, Media, signifies measure, habit, 
or covering, otherwise abundance. It has 
been commonly thought, that Media was 
peopled by the descendants of Madai, son of 
Japheth. (Gen. x. 2.) The Greeks maintain 
that this country took its name from Medus 
the son of Medea. If, however, Madai and 
his immediate descendants did not people 
this country, some of his posterity might 
have carried his name thither ; since we find 
it so often given to Media, from the times 
of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah, and 
from the transportation of the ten tribes, 
and the destruction of Samaria under Sal- 
maneser, in the year of the world 3283. 
The expedition of the Argonauts, in which 
happened the rape of Medea, took place in 
the year of the world 2760, about forty years 
before the taking of Troy. Hence there is 
nothing impossible in the conjecture of the 
Greeks, that Media took its name from 
Medus, the son of Jason and Medea, and 
nothing contrary to Scripture, which speaks 
of the Medes from the time of Salmaneser. 
Dr. Hales says, that Media derived its 
name from its midland situation between the 
Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. 

Media Proper was bounded by Arme- 
nia and Assyria Proper, on the west ; by 
Persia, on the east ; by the Caspian pro- 
vinces, on the north ; and by Susiana, on the 
south. It was an elevated and mountainous 
country, and formed a kind of pass between 
the cultivated parts of eastern and western 
Asia. Hence, from its geographical posi- 



MED 



MED 



tion, and from the temperature, verdure, 
and fertility of its climate, Media was one of 
the most important and interesting regions 
of Asia. 

' Into this country,' says Dr. Hales, ' the 
ten tribes, who composed the kingdom of 
Israel, were transplanted, in the Assyrian 
Captivity, by Tiglath-pileser and Salmane- 
ser. The former prince carried away the 
tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh, 
on the east side of Jordan, to Halab, and 
Habor, and Hara, and to the river of Gozan. 
His successor carried away the remaining 
seven tribes and a-half, to the same places, 
which are said to be ' cities of the Medes, by 
the river of Gozan.' (1 Chron. v. 26. 2 
Kings xvii. 6.) The geographical position 
of Media was wisely chosen for the distri- 
bution of the great body of the captives ; for, 
1. it was so remote, and so impeded and in- 
tersected with great mountains and nume- 
rous and deep river"-, that it would be ex- 
tremely difficult for them to escape from 
this natural prison, and return to their own 
country ; 2. they would also be opposed in 
their passage through Kir, or Assyria Pro- 
per, not only by the native Assyrians, but 
also by their enemies, the Syrians, trans- 
planted thither before them; 3. the supe- 
rior civilization of the Israelites, and their 
skill in agriculture, and in the arts, would 
tend to civilize and improve those wild and 
barbarous regions ; and 4. they could safely 
be allowed more liberty, and have their 
minds more at ease, than if they were sub- 
ject to a more rigorous confinement nearer 
to their native country.' Hales's New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 458. 

MEDIATOR, one who stands in a mid- 
dle office or capacity betwixt two differing 
parties, and has a power of transacting 
every thing between them, and of recon- 
ciling them to each other. Hence a Media- 
tor between God and man, is one whose 
office properly is to mediate and transact 
affairs between them relating to the favour 
of Almighty God, and the duty and hap- 
piness of man. 

No sooner had Adam transgressed the 
law of God in Paradise, and become a sinful 
creature, than the Almighty was pleased in 
mercy to appoint a Mediator or Redeemer, 
who in due time should be born into the 
world, to make an atonement both for his 
transgression, and for all the sins of men. 
This is what is justly thought to be implied 
in the promise, that ' the seed of the woman 
should bruise the serpent's head ;' that is, 
that there should, some time or other, be 
born, of the posterity of Eve, a Redeemer, 
who, by making satisfaction for the sins of 
men, and reconciling them to the mercy of 
Almighty God, should by that means bruise 
the head of that old serpent, the devil, who 
had beguiled our first parents into sin, and, 
in a great measure, destroy his empire and 
dominion among men. Thus it became a 
667 



necessary part of Adam's religion after the 
fall, as well as of that of his posterity aftet 
him, to worship God, through hopes in this 
Mediator. To keep up the remembrance of 
it, God was pleased, at this time, to appoint 
sacrifices of expiation, or atonement for sin, 
to be observed through all succeeding gene- 
rations, till the Redeemer himself should 
come, who was to make the true and only 
proper satisfaction and atonement. 

The custom of sacrificing, which appears 
to have been so early practised by Adam, 
and his sons of the very next generation, 
sufficiently shows the hope they had in a 
Mediator or Redeemer, who should, in due 
time, atone the justice of Almighty God by 
shedding his blood for sinners, and thereby 
make way for their pardon and reconcilia- 
tion. The daily sacrifices of the Israelites 
were appointed as continual types and re- 
presentations of that one great Sacrifice, that 
was to be once offered upon the cross for 
the sins of all mankind. Their high priest, 
who was to make atonement for the people, 
was no other than a type of that High 
Priest, who was, in after times, revealed to 
make atonement for us by his own blood. 
If the high priest under the law was per- 
mitted, once a year, to enter into the Holy of 
Holies, there to appear before the presence 
of the God of heaven, and to intercede with 
him for the people of Israel, the Scriptures 
will inform us that all this was intended for 
no other end or purpose, than to foreshow 
and point out that High Priest, who, after 
he had offered up himself a sacrifice for sin- 
ners, ascended up into the highest heavens, 
there to appear in the presence of God for 
us, and to continue for ever to make inter- 
cession for us with his Father. 

If the notion of a Mediator so generally 
prevailed among mankind before the coming 
of our Saviour ; if in the religion God esta- 
blished himself among his own people, for 
about two thousand years before, he was 
shadowed out to them under types, and 
other figurative representations, and yet more 
clearly described in the prophecies of after 
times; he in whom all those types and pro- 
phecies concurred, and had their full comple- 
tion, must doubtless be the true Mediator : 
and thus they all concurred, it is certain, in 
the person of Jesus Christ. His mediatorial 
office principally consisted in procuring for 
us peace and reconciliation with Almighty 
God. To this end it was necessary that he 
should take our nature upon him, and be- 
come man ; that so whatever he should do 
or suffer, being done by him as man, 
might be available to us nun for our salva- 
tion : and as the first Adam, by sinning in 

our nature, brought sin and misery on bis 

whole posterity; so it was necessary that our 
Lord, the Becond Adam, should take OUf 

nature upon him, in order to redeem us 

from it. This he did by bis sufii rii. 

the cross, when he gave himself a ransom 



MED 



MEL 



for all ; the dignity of his person, as the 
only begotten Son of God, adding a merit 
to his sufferings, that rendered him the only 
fit Mediator to intercede with God for man, 
and to reconcile us to his Heavenly Father. 

Hence, the forgiveness of our sins is so 
often in Scripture attributed to the death 
of Christ, as the only meritorious cause of 
pardon. To this the whole work of our 
redemption is ascribed ; and whatever he 
was enabled to do for us, as our Mediator, 
rests on the same foundation. St. Paul, 
after he has told us that ' the only Media- 
tor between God and man is the man Christ 
Jesus, immediately adds, ' who gave him- 
self a ransom for all;' plainly intimating 
that the whole ground of his mediation was 
the giving himself as a ransom for man- 
kind, and paying the price of their re- 
demption in his own blood. Indeed, 
whatever he was pleased to suffer as the Son 
of man must needs be infinitely meritorious, 
as he was also the Son of God. The union 
of the divine and human natures, in the 
person of our Saviour, is one of those in- 
comprehensible mysteries, which we shall 
never in this life perfectly understand. 
But whatever were the manner of that 
union, we are sure the two natures still 
remained distinct. It was the manhood 
only that suffered, as St. Paul intimates, 
by saying, it was ' the Man Christ Jesus 
who gave himself a ransom for all.' Having 
thus fully atoned the justice of God for 
the sins of men by that meritorious sacrifice 
which he offered upon the cross, he was 
by that means authorized to offer pardon 
and salvation to all such as would repent, 
and believe, and obey his Gospel. Having 
thus expiated our sins, our Saviour ' sat 
down at the right hand of the majesty on 
high.' There he continues still to dis- 
charge for us the office of Mediator, by 
interceding for us with his Father, and 
pleading the merits of his most precious 
blood in our behalf, and to the obtaining of 
pardon and remission of our sins. Hence 
it is, that we are required to put up all our 
prayers to God in his name, and to hope 
for every blessing at his hands, through the 
merits and mediation alone of our blessed 
Saviour. Clapham's Sermons, vol. ii. serm. 
xxvii. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK, p-rjrobo, signifies 
justice. Melchizedek, king of Salem, was 
priest of the most high God. The Scrip- 
ture tells us nothing of his father, or of 
his mother, or of his genealogy, or of his 
birth, or of his death. (Heb. vii. 1, 2, 3.) 
In this sense, as St. Paul says, he was a 
figure of Jesus Christ, who is a priest for 
ever, according to the order of Mel- 
chizedek, and not according to the order of 
Aaron, whose origin, life, and death, are 
known. 

When Abraham returned from pursuing 
the four confederate kings, who had de- 
668 



feated the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah 
(Gen. xiv. 17, 18, 19, &c.) Melchizedek 
comes to meet Abraham as far as the val- 
ley of Shaveh, afterwards named the Icing's 
valley, and presents him with the refresh- 
ments of bread and wine ; or, he offered 
bread and wine in sacrifice to the Lord, 
for he was a priest of the most high God. 
He blessed Abraham saying, I Blessed be 
Abram of the most high God, possessor of 
heaven and earth ; and blessed be the most 
high God, which hath delivered thine ene- 
mies into thy hand.' Abraham, desirous 
to acknowledge in him the quality of priest 
of the Lord, offered him the tithes of all 
he had taken from the enemy. After this 
there is no mention made of the person 
of Melchizedek ; only the Psalmist (ex. 
4.) speaking of the Messiah, says, 'Thou 
art a priest for ever after the order of 
Melchizedek.' 

St. Paul (Hebrew v. 6—10.) unfolds the 
mystery of Melchizedek. First he exalts 
the priesthood of Christ, as a priest for ever, 
after the order of Melchizedek, and who 
in this quality ' in the days of his flesh, 
offered up prayers and supplications, with 
strong crying and tears, unto him that was 
able to save him from death, and was heard 
in that he feared.' He also says, that our 
Saviour as a forerunner is entered for us 
into heaven, being made an high-priest for 
ever after the order of Melchizedek. For, 
he adds, to this Melchizedek, king of Salem, 
and priest of the most high God, Abraham 
gave tithe. Now Melchizedek is, accord- 
ing to the interpretation of his name, first, 
king of (sedek) justice ; secondly, king of 
(Salem) peace ; who is without father, 
without mother, without genealogy, who has 
neither beginning nor end of life. Con- 
sider therefore how great this Melchizedek 
is, since Abraham himself gives him tithe, 
and receives his blessing. Moreover, Levi, 
who receives tithes from others, paid it 
himself, as one may say, in the person of 
Abraham, since he was still in the loins of 
Abraham his ancestor, when Melchizedek 
met this patriarch. 

" This Canaanitish prince," observes Dr. 
Hales, " was early considered as a type of 
Christ, in the Jewish church — ' Thou art a 
priest for ever, after the order of Melchi- 
zedek,' (Psal. ex. 4.) who resembled Christ 
in the following particulars : 1. in his name, 
Melchizedek, 'king of righteousness;' 2. in 
his city, Salem, 'peace ;' 3. in his offices of 
king and priest of the most high God ; and 
4. in the omission of the names of his parents 
and genealogy, the time of his birth and 
length of his life ; exhibiting an indefinite 
reign and priesthood ; according to the 
Apostle's exposition. (Heb. vii. 5.) And 
from whom, perhaps, our Lord adopted the 
symbols of bread and wine in the eucharist, 
as of primitive institution." Hales's New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. p. 128. 



MEL 



MEN 



MELI'TA, MeXiTTi, signifies honey-pro- 
ducing. The island on which St. Paul was 
shipwrecked is usually reckoned to have 
been Malta. (Acts xxviii. 1.) However, 
Mr. Bryant, Dr. Hales, and some other 
eminent critics and commentators, have en- 
deavoured to show that this could not be, 
for the vessel was then in Adria, the 
Adriatic Gulf; (Actsxxvii. 27-) and Malta 
lay too far to the south to be the island in 
question. It was, say they, an island on 
the Illyrian coast near Corcyra Nigra, and 
is the same as that which was anciently 
called MeXirr], M.{kr\Tivr\, or MtXtrlvr], and 
is now named Melida or Melede. But Mr. 
Bloomfield observes, t that as to the opinion 
that the Melita here mentioned is the 
Malta of Illyrium (which is supposed by 
some writers of celebrity), it has been 
totally refuted by Cluverius, Scaliger, and 
Bochart, and is, indeed, preposterous to 
think of.' That Malta in the Mediter- 
ranean Sea is the island intended by St. 
Luke, Mr. Home thinks evident for the fol- 
lowing reasons : the apostle left the island 
in a ship of Alexandria that had wintered 
there, on her voyage to Italy ; and after 
touching at Syracuse and Rhegium, landed 
at Puteoli, thus sailing in a direct course. 
The other Melita would be far out of the 
usual track from Alexandria to Italy ; and, 
in sailing from it to Rhegium, Syracuse 
also would be out of the direct course. The 
fact, that the vessel was tossed all night 
before the shipwreck in the Adriatic Sea, 
does not militate against the probability of 
its afterwards being driven upon Malta ; 
because the name Adria was applied to the 
whole Ionian Sea, which lay between Sicily 
and Greece. See Adria. 

The tempestuous wind Euroclydon, which 
shipwrecked the apostle, was a violent 
easterly, or N.N.E. wind. (Acts xxvii. 
14.) It was called by Herodotus, ' Hel- 
lespontine,' which shattered and dispersed 
the fleet of Xerxes, in the Persian war, 
and is now denominated by mariners, ' a 
Levanter.' Bloomfield's Recensio Synoptica 
Annotations Sacrce, vol. v. p. 258 ; Home's 
Introduction, vol. iii. p. 601 ; Rennell's Herod. 
p. 119; Bryant's Observations and Enquiries 
relating to various parts of Ancient History ; 
Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. 
p. 462. 

MENNONITES, a sect in the United 
Provinces, in most respects the same with 
those in other places called Anabaptists. 
They had their rise in 1536, when Menno 
Simon, a native of Friesland, who had been 
a Romish priest, and a notorious profligate, 
resigned his rank and office in the Romish 
church, and publicly embraced the com- 
munion of the Anabaptists. 

Menno was born at Witmarsum a vil- 
lage in the neighbourhood of Bolswort, in 



Friesland, in the year 1505, and died in 
1561, in the duchy of Holstein, at the coun- 
try seat of a certain nobleman not far from 
the city of Oldefloe, who, moved with com- 
passion by the view of the perils to which 
Menno was exposed, and the snares that 
were daily laid for his ruin, took him, with 
certain of his associates, into his protec- 
tion, and gave him an asylum. The writ- 
ings of Menno, which are almost all com- 
posed in the Dutch language, were published 
in folio at Amsterdam, in the year 1651. 
About the year 1557, Menno was earnestly 
solicited by many of the sect with which he 
had connected himself, to assume among 
them the rank and functions of a public 
teacher ; and, as he looked upon the per- 
sons who made this proposal to be exempt 
from the fanatical frenzy of their brethren 
at Munster (though according to other ac- 
counts they were originally of the same 
stamp, only rendered somewhat wiser by 
their sufferings), he yielded to their en- 
treaties. From this period to the end of 
his life, he travelled from one country to 
another with his wife and children, exer- 
cising his ministry, under pressures and 
calamities of various kinds, that succeeded 
each other without interruption, and con- 
stantly exposed to the danger of falling a 
victim to the severity of the laws. East 
and West Friesland, together with the 
province of Groningen, were first visited 
by this zealous apostle of the Anabaptists : 
thence he directed his course into Holland, 
Guelderland, Brabant, and Westphalia, 
continued it through the German provinces 
that lie on the coast of the Baltic Sea, and 
penetrated as far as Livonia. In all these 
places his ministerial labours were attended 
with remarkable success, and added to his 
sect a prodigious number of proselytes. 
Hence he is deservedly considered as the 
common chief of almost all the Anabaptists, 
and the parent of the sect that still subsists 
under that denomination. Menno was a 
man of genius, though not of a very sound 
judgment ; he possessed a natural and 
persuasive eloquence, and such a degree of 
learning as made him pass for an oracle in 
the estimation of the multitude. He ap- 
pears, moreover, to have been a man of 
probity, of a meek and tractable spirit, 
gentle in his manners, pliable and obse- 
quious in his commerce with persons of all 
ranks and characters, and extremely zeal- 
ous in promoting practical religion ami 
virtue, which he recommended by his ex- 
ample as well as by his precepts. The plan 
of doctrine and discipline drawn up by 
Menno was of a nuieh more mild and mo- 
derate nature than that of the furious and 
fanatical Anabaptists, whose tiunultuous 
proceedings have been narrated under that 
article ; but it was rather more severe, 



MEN 



MENT 



though more clear and consistent, than 
the doctrine of the wiser branches of that 
sect, who aimed at nothing more than the 
restoration of the Christian church to its 
primitive purity. Accordingly, he con- 
demned the plan of ecclesiastical discipline, 
which was founded on the prospect of 
a new kingdom to be miraculously esta- 
blished by Jesus Christ on the ruins of 
civil government and the destruction of 
human rulers, and which had been the pes- 
tilential source of such dreadful commo- 
tions, such execrable rebellions, and such 
enormous crimes. He declared, publicly, 
his dislike of that doctrine which pointed 
out the approach of a marvellous reforma- 
tion in the church, by the means of a new 
and extraordinary effusion of the Holy Spi- 
rit. He expressed his abhorrence of the 
licentious tenets which several of the 
Anabaptists had maintained, with respect 
to the lawfulness of polygamy and di- 
vorce, and finally considered, as unworthy 
of toleration, those fanatics who were of 
opinion that the Holy Ghost continued to 
descend into the minds of many chosen 
believers, in as extraordinary a manner as 
he did at the first establishment of the 
Christian church, and that he testified his 
peculiar presence to several of the faith- 
ful, by miracles, predictions, dreams, and 
visions of various kinds. He retained, in- 
deed, the doctrines commonly received 
among the Anabaptists, in relation to the 
baptism of infants, the Millenium, or 
thousand years' reign of Christ on earth, 
the exclusion of magistrates from the 
Christian church, the abolition of war, the 
prohibition of oaths, enjoined by our Sa- 
viour, and the vanity, as well as the perni- 
cious effects of human science. But while 
Menno retained these doctrines in a gene- 
ral sense, he explained and modified them 
in such a manner, as made them resemble 
the religious tenets that were universally 
received in the Protestant churches; and 
this rendered them agreeable to many, 
and made them appear inoffensive even 
to numbers who had no inclination to em- 
brace them. It, however, so happened, 
that the nature of the doctrines considered 
in themselves, the eloquence of Menno, 
which set them off to such advantage, and 
the circumstances of the times, gave a 
high degree of credit to the religious system 
of this famous teacher among the Anabap- 
tists, so that it made a rapid progress in 
that sect. Thus it was in consequence of 
the ministry of Menno that the different 
sorts of Anabaptists agreed together in ex- 
cluding from their communion the fanatics 
who dishonoured it, and in renouncing all 
tenets that were detrimental to the authority 
of civil government, and, by an unexpected 
coalition, formed themselves into one com- 
munity. 
Though the Mennonites usually pass for 
670 



a sect of Anabaptists, yet M. Herman Schyn, 
a Mennonite minister, who published their 
history and apology, maintains that they are 
not Anabaptists either in principle or by 
origin. However, nothing can be more 
certain than that the first Mennonite con- 
gregations were composed of the different 
sorts of Anabaptists ; of those who had 
always been inoffensive and upright, and of 
those who, before their conversion by the 
ministry of Menno, had been seditious 
fanatics. Besides, it is alleged, that the 
Mennonites do actually retain at this day 
some of those opinions and doctrines which 
led the seditious and turbulent Anabaptists 
of old to the commission of so many and 
such enormous crimes. Such, in particular, 
is the doctrine concerning the nature of 
Christ's kingdom, or of the church of the 
New Testament, though modified in such 
a manner as to have lost its noxious 
qualities, and to be no longer pernicious in 
its influence. 

The Mennonites are subdivided into 
several sects, of which the two principal are 
the Flandrians, or Flemingians, and the 
Waterlandians. The former derived their 
name from their being principally natives 
of Flanders ; the latter, from a district in 
North- Holland, called Waterland, which 
they inhabited. The opinions, says Mosheim, 
that are held in common by the Mennonites, 
seem to be all derived from this fundamental 
principle, — that the kingdom which Christ 
established upon earth is a visible church, or 
community, into which the holy and just 
alone are to be admitted, and which is con- 
sequently exempt from all those institutions 
and rules of discipline, that have been in- 
vented by human wisdom for the correction 
and reformation of the wicked. This fana- 
tical principle was avowed by the ancient 
Mennonites ; but it is now almost wholly 
renounced. Yet, from this ancient doctrine 
many of the religious opinions that distin- 
guish the Mennonites from all other 
Christian communities seem to be derived. 
In consequence of this doctrine, they admit 
none to the sacrament of baptism except 
persons that are come to the full use of their 
reason ; they neither admit civil rulers into 
their communion, nor allow any of their 
members to perform the functions of 
magistracy ; they pretend to deny the law- 
fulness of repelling force by force, and con- 
sider war, in all its shapes, as unchristian 
and unjust ; they entertain the utmost aver- 
sion to the execution of justice, and more 
especially to capital punishments ; and they 
also refuse to confirm their testimony by an 
oath. The particular sentiments that di- 
vided the more considerable societies of the 
Mennonites are the following. The rigid 
Mennonites, called the Flemingians, main- 
tain, with various degrees of rigour, the opi- 
nions of their founder Menno as to the 
human nature of Christ, alleging that it 



MEP 



MES 



was produced in the womb of the Virgin by 
the creating power of the Holy Ghost ; the 
obligation that binds us to wash the feet of 
strangers, in consequence of our Saviour's 
command ; the necessity of excommuni- 
cating and avoiding, as one would do the 
plague, not only avowed sinners, but all 
those who depart, even in some slight in- 
stances pertaining to dress, &c. from the 
simplicity of their ancestors; the contempt 
due to human learning ; and other matters 
of less moment. However, this austere 
system declines ; and the rigid Mennonites 
are gradually approaching towards the opi- 
nions and discipline of the more moderate, 
or Waterlandians. 

The first settlement of the Mennonites in 
the United Provinces was granted them by 
William, Prince of Orange, towards the 
close of the sixteenth century ; but it was 
not before the following century that their 
liberty and tranquillity were fixed upon 
solid foundations, when, by a confession of 
faith published in the year 1626, they cleared 
themselves from the imputations of those 
pernicious and detestable errors that had 
been laid to their charge. In order to ap- 
pease their intestine discords, a consider- 
able part of the Anabaptists of 'Flanders, 
Germany, and Friesland, concluded their 
debates in a conference held at Amsterdam 
in the year 1630, and entered into the 
bonds of fraternal communion, each re- 
serving to themselves a liberty of retaining 
certain opinions. This association was re- 
newed and confirmed by new resolutions in 
the year 1649 ; in consequence of which the 
rigorous laws of Menno and his successors 
were in various respects mitigated and 
corrected. See Anabaptists. Mosheim's 
Eccles. Hist. vol. iv. pp. 142 — 161 ; v. p. 
45, 46. 

MEPHIB'OSHETH, nua'so, signifies 
out of my mouth proceeds reproach. Mephi- 
bosheth, son of Saul, and of his concubine 
Rizpah, was delivered up by David to the 
Gibeonites, to be hanged before the Lord. 
(2 Sam. xxi. 8, 9.) 

Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan, other- 
wise named Merribbaal. Mephibosheth 
was very young, when his father Jonathan 
was killed in the battle of Gilboa. (2 Sam. 
iv. 4.) His nurse was in such consterna- 
tion at this news, that she let the child fall, 
who from this accident was lame all his life. 
When David found himself in peaceable 
possession of the kingdom, he sought for all 
that remained of the house of Saul, that he 
might be kind to them in consideration of 
the friendship between him and Jonathan. 
He learned that there was a son of Jona- 
than called Mephibosheth, in the house of 
Ziba, a servant of Saul. The king sent for 
him, and told him that for the sake of Jona- 
than his father he would show kindness to 
him, that he should have his grandfather's 
estate, and eat always at his table. At the 
671 



same time he told Ziba, that he had given 
Mephibosheth all that belonged to Saul. 
(2 Sam. ix. 1, &c.) 

Some years after this, when Absalom 
forced his father to leave Jerusalem, Me- 
phibosheth ordered his servant Ziba to 
saddle him an ass, that he might accompany 
David ; for, being lame, he could not go on 
foot. But Ziba went after Da'id himself 
with two asses laden with provisions, and 
told him that Mephibosheth staid at Jeru- 
salem, in hopes that the people of Israel 
would restore him to the throne of his an- 
cestors. Then said David to Ziba, I give to 
you all that belonged to Mephibosheth. 
But when David returned to Jerusalem in 
peace, Mephibosheth appeared before him 
in deep mourning, having neither washed 
his feet, nor shaved his beard, since the 
king went. When David saw him, he 
learned the truth from him ; nevertheless 
Ziba continued to possess half his estate. 
Mephibosheth left a son named Micah. 
The time of his death is not known. 
(1 Chron. viii. 34.) 

ME'RAB, ma, signifies he that fights, or 
disputes ; otherwise, that multiplies ; or 
mistress. Merab was the eldest daughter 
of King Saul. She was promised to David 
in marriage, in reward for his victory over 
Goliath ; yet Saul gave her to Adriel, the 
son of Barzillai, the Meholathite. (1 Sam. 
xiv. 49.; xviii. 17—19.) Merab had by 
him six sons, who were delivered to the 
Gibeonites, and hanged before the Lord. 
The text insinuates, that the six men that 
were delivered to the Gibeonites, were the 
sons of Michal, daughter of Saul, and wife 
of Adriel. But there is great suspicion, 
that the name of Michal has been inserted 
in the text instead of Merab. For 1. 
Michal did not marry Adriel, but Phaltiel ; 
and 2. we no where read that Michal had 
six sons. Others think, these six were sons 
of Merab by birth, but of Michal by adop- 
tion. 

MESOPOTA'MIA, onn: dik, in He- 
brew, Aram-naharaim, that is, Syria of the 
tivo rivers. The Greek word Mesopataniia 
also signifies between the two rivers. Meso- 
potamia is a famous province, situated be- 
tween the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. 
The Hebrews call it Aram-Naharaim, or 
Aram of the rivers, because it was first 
peopled by Aram, father of the Syrians, and 
is situated between two rivers. This coun- 
try is celebrated in Scripture as the fir^t 
dwelling of men after the Deluge; ami be- 
cause it gave birth to Phaleg, Heber, Terah, 
Abraham, Nahor, Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, 
Leah, and to the sons of Jacob. Babylon 

was in the ancient Mesopotamia, till In I 

labour and industry the two ri\ ( n I 
and Euphrates] were reunited In one chan- 
nel. The plains of Shinar were in this 

country. Balaam, son of Beor, was of 

Mesopotamia. (I)eut. xxiii. -1.) Cushan- 



MES 



MES 



rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, subdued 
the Hebrews. (Judg. iii. 8.) 

Besides the country commonly called 
Mesopotamia in Greek, Padan-aram, the 
plains of Aram, and Aram-Naharaim, in 
Hebrew, Syria of the two rivers, some 
mention another in Syria, between the 
river Marsyas and Orontes. This opinion 
is founded on what follows. First, the term 
Mesopotamia signifies simply a country 
lying between two rivers ; and hence this 
name may be given to any country in such 
a situation, whatever rivers enclose it. 
Secondly, the title of Psalm lx. intimates, 
that David burnt Mesopotamia of Syria, 
and Syria of Zobah. But it is known that 
David did not make war with king Zobah 
but to enlarge his conquests as far as the 
Euphrates, and that Syria of Zobah was 
beyond this river. Thirdly, the book of 
Judith (ii. 24.) says, that Holofernes passed 
over the Euphrates, went through Meso- 
potamia, and destroyed all the high cities. 
It is certain, that this general came out of 
Assyria. Mesopotamia, properly so called, 
was in obedience to Nebuchadnezzar his 
master. He therefore passed over the 
Euphrates into Mesopotamia of Syria, of 
which we are speaking, and which was very 
different from that known to the Greeks and 
Romans between the Tigris and Euphrates. 
It remains to be inquired whether these ob- 
jections are sufficiently strong to set aside 
the opinion of geographers, who acknow- 
ledge only one Mesopotamia, namely Aram- 
Naharaim. If the texts on which the ob- 
jection is founded can be explained without 
the expedient of a second Mesopotamia, we 
ought not to have recourse to it. The title 
of Psalm lx. is of little authority, as the 
greater part of the titles of the Psalms have 
been placed there long after the authors 
composed them. Besides, it may be ex- 
plained by saying, that David fought with 
Mesopotamia of Syria ; that is, that he 
conquered the auxiliary troops which came 
from Mesopotamia, beyond the river Eu- 
phrates, to the assistance of Hadarezear and 
the Ammonites. (2 Sam. x. 16. 10.) With 
respect to the passage of Judith, it may 
be said, that Holofernes went over the 
Euphrates twice, by himself in person, or 
by his captains. The first time when he 
came into Syria and Cilicia, and reduced 
those provinces; the second time when 
he had conquered them, and when he re- 
passed the Euphrates to reduce some other 
people. It is not affirmed that he passed in 
his own person through all the countries 
mentioned in Judith. It is sufficient if 
this was done under his orders, and by 
his troops. Hence it appears, that nothing 
in the two texts objected obliges us to ac- 
knowlege this second Mesopotamia. 

MESSI'AH, rru>D, Mediae, Xpioroc, sig- 
nifies anointed. This name is given prin- 
cipally, and by way of eminence, to that 
672 



sovereign Deliverer formerly expected by 
the Jews, and still expected by them to this 
day. The Jews used to anoint kings, high- 
priests, and sometimes prophets. Saul, 
David, Solomon, and Joash, kings of Ju- 
dah, received the royal unction. Aaron 
and his sons received the sacerdotal unc- 
tion ; and Elisha, the disciple of Elijah, the 
prophetic unction. (1 Kings xix. 16. J But 
sometimes the phrase ' to anoint for an em- 
ployment,' signifies only a particular desig- 
nation or choice for such an employment. 
It is said (2 Sam. xix. 10.) that the Israel- 
ites had anointed Absalom to be their king ; 
but it does not appear that he received 
the royal unction. Cyrus, who founded the 
empire of the Persians, and who set the 
Jews at liberty, is called ' the anointed of 
the Lord.' (Isaiah xlv. 1.) In Ezekiel 
(xxviii. 14), the name of Messiah is given 
to the king of Tyre. 

St. Luke (iv. 18.) relates, that our Sa- 
viour entering a synagogue at Nazareth, 
opened the book of the prophet Isaiah, 
and read as follows: ' The spirit of the 
Lord is upon me, because he hath anointed 
me to preach the Gospel to the poor.' He 
then showed them, that this prophecy was 
accomplished in his own person. St. Peter 
speaking to Cornelius, the centurion, (Acts 
x. 37.) says, ' God anointed Jesus of Naza- 
reth with the Holy Ghost, and with power.' 
It is not recorded, that Jesus Christ ever 
received any external official unction ; and, 
therefore, his anointing must be understood 
in a figurative and spiritual sense, to de- 
note his designation or appointment to the 
office of Messiah. Some, however, have 
supposed, that when the Spirit descended 
on Jesus, at his baptism, he then received 
a peculiar, solemn, and appropriate unc- 
tion. 

Of the many prophecies in the Old 
Testament, that relate to the coming of 
the Messiah, we shall only mention those 
which most distinctly point out the ap- 
pearance of this great Personage. The 
first is the promise made to our first pa- 
rents immediately after the Fall, contained 
in the sentence pronounced against the 
serpent, that had betrayed Eve, (Gen. iii. 
14, 15.) : ' Because thou hast done this,' 
said God, ' thou art cursed above all cattle. 
And I will put enmity between thee and 
the woman, and between thy seed and her 
seed ; it shall bruise thy head, and thou 
shalt bruise his heel.' This prophecy, in 
the opinion of all the Christian expositors, 
relates to the destruction of the empire of 
sin, or Satan, by the coming and death of 
the Messiah, who was to be born of a 
woman. The next prophecy is that of the pa- 
triarch Jacob, when upon his death-bed he 
gave his prophetic blessings to all his sons. 
On this occasion, the good old man is very 
particular in blessing Judah, of whose seed 
and tribe our Lord was born : ' The sceptre 



MES 



MES 



shall not depart from Judah, nor a law- 
giver from between his feet, till Shiloh 
come.' (Gen. xlix. 10.) Shiloh here sig- 
nifies the person sent ; and this was always 
interpreted by the Jewish doctors as a 
direct prophecy concerning the sending 
of the Messiah. The completion of it was 
very remarkable in the coming of our 
Saviour. Israel long enjoyed a sceptre 
of its own ; and even after they were in 
subjection to the Romans, they had a go- 
vernor over them of the tribe of Judah, 
till a little before the birth of Christ, when 
Herod obtained the kingdom, and was the 
first governor not of Jewish race. Since 
that period, there has not been any regal 
power in Judah, — no king, no prince, no 
governor, ruling over them with the em- 
blem of power, the sceptre ; no lawgiver, 
no judiciaj authority, has been known 
among them since the coming of Christ. — 
The third remarkable prediction concern- 
ing the Messiah, is that delivered by the 
prophet Isaiah, (vii. 14.) : ' Behold, a virgin 
shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall 
call his name Immanuel,' that is, God with 
us. The same prophet is very particular 
in describing the many and great blessings 
attending the nativity of this divine Per- 
sonage. — The last prophecy we shall men- 
tion under this head, is that of Daniel's 
seventy weeks, which determines the very 
time of the coming and death of the Mes- 
siah. ' And after three score and ten 
weeks shall Messiah be cut off, but not for 
himself,' (Dan. ix. 26.) : that is, at the end 
of four hundred and ninety years, reckon- 
ing a day for a year, as is usual in the 
prophetic style. This is the clearest pro- 
phecy in the Old Testament respecting the 
coming of the Messiah ; and it determines 
it to the very time in which Jesus Christ 
accordingly came. 

The ancient Hebrews, being instructed 
by the prophets, had clear notions of the 
Messiah ; but these were gradually de- 
praved : and when Jesus appeared in 
Judea, the Jews entertained a false con- 
ception of the Messiah, expecting a tem- 
poral monarch and conqueror, who should 
subject the whole world. Hence they were 
scandalized at the outward appearance, the 
humility, and seeming weakness of our 
Saviour. The modern Jews, lying under 
still greater mistakes, form to themselves 
chimerical ideas of the Messiah, utterly 
unknown to their forefathers. 

The ancient prophets had foretold, that 
Messiah should be God and man, exalted 
and abased, master and servant, priest and 
victim, king and subject, mortal, and a 
victor over death, rich and poor ; a king, 
a conqueror, glorious ; a man of griefs, in- 
volved in infirmities, unknown, in a State 
of abjection and humiliation. All tins.' 
contrarieties were to be reconciled in Un- 
person of the Messiah, as they really were 
673 



in the person of Jesus. It was known that 
the Messiah was to be born (1.) of a virgin, 
(2.) of the tribe of Judah, (3.) of the race of 
David, (4.) in the village of Bethlehem ; 
that he was to continue for ever, that his 
coming was to be concealed, that he was 
the great prophet promised in the law, that 
he was both the Son and Lord of David, 
that he was to perform great miracles, that 
he should restore all things, that he should 
die and rise again, that Elias should be the 
forerunner of his appearance, that a proof 
of his verity should be the cure of lepers, 
life restored to the dead, and the Gospel 
preached to the poor ; that he should not 
destroy, but perfect and fulfil the law ; that 
he should be a stone of offence, and a 
stumbling-block, against which many should 
bruise themselves ; that he should suffer 
infinite oppositions and contradictions ; that 
from his time idolatry and impiety should 
be banished ; and that a strange people 
should submit themselves to his authority. 

When Jesus appeared in Judea, these 
notions were common among the Jews. 
Our Saviour appeals even to themselves, 
and asks, if these are not the characters of 
the Messiah ? and if they do not see their 
completion in himself? The evangelists 
take care to put the Jews in mind of them, 
proving by them, that Jesus is the Christ 
whom they expected. They quote the 
prophecies made to them, which then were 
acknowledged to belong to the Messiah, 
though they have been controverted by the 
Jews since. It may be seen in the early 
fathers of the church, and in the most 
ancient Jewish authors, that in the begin- 
ning of Christianity they did not call in 
doubt many prophecies which their fore- 
fathers understood of the Messiah. But in 
succeeding ages they began to deny that 
the passages we quote against them should 
be understood of the Messiah, endeavouring 
to defend themselves from arguments out 
of their own Scriptures. After this they 
fell into new schemes, and new notions, 
concerning the Messiah. 

Some of them, as the famous Hillel, who 
lived, according to the Jews, before Christ, 
maintain that the Messiali was already 
come, in the person of king He/ekith. 
Others, that the belief of the coming of 
the Messiah is no article of faith, and lie 
that denies this doctrine makes only a small 
breach in the law; he only lops off a branch 
from the tree, without hurting the root 
This was atfirnicd by Joseph Albo, the Jew, 
in a conference hold in Spain, in the pre- 
sence o\' Tope Benedict Kill. BoJEtorf 
says, that the greater part of the modern 
Rabbins believe that the Messiah has 00811 
come a long time, but keeps himself con- 
cealed in some part of the world or oilier, 
and will not manifest himself, beCOUM 
the sins of the .lews, .larchi affirms, that 
the Hebrews believed the Messiah - 

A X 



MES 

on the day of the last destruction of Jeru- 
salem by the Romans. Some assign him 
the terrestrial paradise for his habitation ; 
others, the city of Rome, where, according 
to the Talmudists, he keeps himself con- 
cealed among the leprous and infirm, at 
the gate of the city, expecting Elias to 
come to manifest him. 

A great number believe that he is not 
yet come ; but they are strangely divided 
about the time and circumstances of his 
coming. Some expect him at the end of 
six thousand years. They suppose Jesus 
Christ to be born in the year of the world 
3761. Add to this number 1835, it will 
make 5596 — consequently they have 404 
years to expect still. Kimchi, who lived 
in the twelfth century, was of opinion, that 
the coming of the Messiah was very near. 
David, the grandson of Maimonides, was 
advised with in this matter; Maimonides 
himself had been consulted about it ; but 
neither of them could say any thing to the 
purpose. At length, tired out with these 
uncertainties, they have pronounced an ana- 
thema against all who shall pretend to calcu- 
late the time of the coming of the Messiah. 

To reconcile those prophecies which 
seem to oppose each other, some have 
had recourse to an hypothesis of two Mes- 
siahs, — one in a state of humiliation, in 
poverty, and sufferings ; the other in splen- 
dour, glory, and magnificence ; but both of 
them to be mere men. The first is to pro- 
ceed from the tribe of Joseph, and the 
family of Ephraim ; his father is to be 
called Huziel, and himself Nehemiah. He 
is to appear at the head of an army, com- 
posed of the tribes of Ephraim and Ma- 
nasseh, of Benjamin and part of Gad, and 
shall make war with the Idumaeans, for so 
are designated the Christians and Romans, 
whose empire they are to destroy, and 
bring back the Jews in triumph to Jeru- 
salem. The second Messiah is to be of 
the race of David, is to bring the first 
Messiah to life again, to assemble all Israel, 
to raise those that are dead, to rebuild the 
temple of Jerusalem, and to rule over the 
whole world. 

Jesus Christ gives warning to his disci- 
ples, that false prophets and false Mes- 
siahs should arise, (Mark xiii. 22.) ; that 
they should perform signs and wonders, 
by which even the elect themselves would 
be in danger. The event has verified his 
prediction. Every age among the Jews 
has produced false prophets and false 
Christs, who have succeeded in deceiving 
many of that nation. One appeared even 
in the age of Christ himself; this was Simon 
Magus, who reported at Samaria that he 
was the great power of God. (Acts viii. 9.) 
In the following century, Barchochebas by 
his impostures drew the most terrible per- 
secutions on the Jews that they had ever 
suffered. See Barchochebas. 
674 



MES 



About A.D. 434, there appeared in the 
isle of Candia a false Messiah, called Moses, 
who pretended to be the ancient legislator 
of the Jews, descended from heaven to pro- 
cure a glorious deliverance for the Jews of 
that island, by making them pass over the 
sea, into the Land of Promise. The Jews 
of Candia were foolish enough to be per- 
suaded by him ; many of them jumped into 
the sea in expectation that it would open to 
give them a safe passage. A great number 
were drowned, and the rest got out again 
as well as they could ; the impostor was 
sought for to be punished, but he disap- 
peared. This made it suspected that he 
might be some demon, who had assumed a 
human shape to abuse the Jews. 

A.D. 530, there appeared in Palestine 
a false Messiah called Julian ; he gave him- 
self out to be a conqueror, and assured 
his followers that he would deliver them 
from the oppression of the Christians by 
force of arms. Misled by such promises, 
the Jews took arms, and killed many Christ- 
ians. But the emperor Justinian sending 
troops, Julian was taken and executed, and 
his party dispersed. 

A.D. 714, a Jew, called Serenus, pre- 
tended to the Spanish Jews that he would 
conduct them to Palestine, and set up his 
empire there. Several believed in this 
new Messiah, forsook their country and 
their business, and began to follow him. 
But they soon found him out to be a cheat, 
and had time enough to repent of their 
credulity. 

The twelfth century was very fruitful in 
this kind of impostures ; there appeared 
no less than seven or eight in France, 
Spain, Persia, &c. One, who appeared in 
Moravia, was said to have the secret of 
rendering himself invisible when he pleased, 
and to charm the eyes of those who followed 
him. 

All these impostures, and their ill suc- 
cess, have not been able to cure the Jews 
of their whimsical notions concerning the 
Messiah whom they expect. One of their 
nation, born at Aleppo, in the seventeenth 
century, called Zabatai Tzevi, attempted 
about A.D. 1666 to be received as the 
Messiah. He had concerted this design 
very early, and learned whatever might 
be necessary for the better acting of his 
part. He preached in the fields before the 
Turks, who only derided him; but his 
disciples were in great admiration of him. 
He bragged that he could raise himself up 
above the clouds, as Isaiah had foretold, 
(xiv. 14.) And having asked his disciples 
if they had not seen him do it, he re- 
proached the blindness of those who had 
sincerity enough not to affirm it. He was 
summoned before the heads of the syna- 
gogue at Smyrna, where he then resided, 
and was condemned to death : but no one 
would execute this sentence ; so that they 



: 



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MET 



were contented to banish him. Having 
gone through Greece, he came to Alex- 
andria, and thence to Gaza, where he 
found a Jew called Nathan Levi, or Ben- 
jamin, whom he persuaded to act the part 
of the prophet Elias, who was to go before 
the Messiah. They came to Jerusalem, 
where Nathan declared Tzevi to be him 
whom they expected. Part of the Jews of 
the country were seduced into the cheat ; 
but the wiser sort opposed, and excommu- 
nicated him. Tzevi departed for Constan- 
tinople, where the Grand Signior caused 
him to be apprehended, and ordered him 
to be run through with a sword, to try if he 
was invulnerable. Tzevi, however, chose 
to turn Mahometan rather than suffer 
death; and thus this imposture ended. 
Basnage's Hist, of the Jews, tome iii. lib. v. 
cap. 18; Calmet's Dictionary; Broughton's 
Hist. Diet. vol. ii. pp. 86—92. 

METHODISTS. Name.— The body of 
Christians to which this name is chiefly 
and properly applied, are the followers 
of the Rev. John Wesley, who was the 
founder of this numerous society. This 
name was first given to Messrs. John and 
Charles Wesley, and some serious young 
students who associated with them, by a 
student of Merton College, Oxford, on ac- 
count of the regularity which they main- 
tained in their lives, and pursued in their 
studies ; in allusion to a certain college of 
physicians at Rome, who flourished about 
the time of Nero, and were remarkable for 
putting their patients under regimen, and 
practising medicine by method, and, therefore, 
were called Methodists. The term, however, 
is applied to the followers of Mr. Whitfield, 
and to the English Independents patronized 
by the late Countess of Huntingdon. But 
there is only one body to which the name 
properly belongs; and these are the fol- 
lowers of John Wesley, whose opinions 
they hold, and whose discipline they main- 
tain. 

Rise and Founders. — The Methodist So- 
ciety was first founded at Oxford in 1729. 
Mr. John Wesley, then a fellow of Lincoln 
College, Mr. Charles Wesley, student of 
Christ Church, Mr. Richard Morgan, com- 
moner of Christ Church, and Mr. Kirk- 
man of Merton College, set apart some 
evenings in the week for reading the Greek 
Testament, conversation, and prayer. The 
next year, two or three of Mr. John Wes- 
ley's pupils, and one of Mr. Charles Wes- 
ley's, desired the liberty of meeting with 
them. In 1732, Mr. Benjamin Ingham, of 
Queen's College, and Mr. Broughton, of 
Exeter, were added to the number. Soon 
after, they were joined by Mr. Clayton, of 
Brazennose College, and two or three of 
his pupils, and by Mr. James Hervey, pupil 
to Mr. John Wesley, and in 1735, by the 
celebrated Mr. George Whitfield, of Pem- 
broke College, then in his 18th year. This 
675 



society of Collegians is considered as the 
first Methodists. They formed rules for the 
regulation of their time and studies, for 
reading the Scriptures, and self-examina- 
tion. They also received the Lord's Sup- 
per every week. They visited the prisoners 
in the castle, and the sick poor in the town ; 
and they instituted a fund for the relief of 
the poor. In order to accomplish this be- 
nevolent design, Mr Wesley abridged him- 
self, not only of all superfluities, but of many 
of the necessaries of life. 

In 1735, Messrs. John and Charles Wes- 
ley, Mr. Ingham, and Mr. Delamotte, sailed 
for Georgia, in order to preach the Gospel 
to the Indians. Whilst on their passage, 
Mr. John Wesley adopted the plan of preach- 
ing extempore ; and from that time made it 
his constant practice, so long as he lived. 
During the voyage, they still maintained 
that regularity in the distribution of their 
time, and that singular seriousness in con- 
versation, which at first procured them the 
name of Methodists. It appears, however, 
that they failed in their design of preaching 
the Gospel to the Indians. Whilst Mr. 
Wesley was employed at Savannah, several 
circumstances of a disagreeable nature oc- 
curred, which induced him to return to 
England, after an absence of nearly two 
years, when he was succeeded by Mr. Whit- 
field, whose repeated labours in that part of 
the world are well known. 

Upon Mr. Wesley's return to England, 
he was invited to preach in several churches, 
but the concourse of people who followed 
him being great, and some of his tenets 
rather strange, the genteel part of the con- 
gregation were annoyed by the crowds, and 
the clergy took offence at his doctrines, so 
that the churches in general were soon shut 
against him. He was, therefore, at length 
compelled to take the open air, and com- 
mence field preacher. This seeming de- 
parture from decorum he justified on several 
grounds, among which he observes, that 
field preaching was a sudden expedient, and a 
thing submitted to, rather than chosen ; 
'because,' says he, 'I thought preaching 
even thus, better than not preaching at all.' 
This may be considered as tin- commence- 
ment of his itinerancy. On May 1, 1738, 
Mr. Wesley formed his hearers into a so- 
ciety, in which he was assisted by Peter 
Bolder, a young Moravian teacher; and 
this was the first regular society formed by 
Mr. Wesley, though it seems he did not 
consider this as the origin of Methodism, 
which ho referred to an earlier period The 
Rev. George Whitfield had, during this 
time, been labouring chiefly in America, 
where he imbibed certain doctrines, con- 
trary to those taught by Mr. Wesley. <>n 
his return to England, in 1741, a separation 
took place between him and Mr. Wesley. 

See Willi 1 Mini 1 1 B. 

PrOgrtU and Vies- nt State >■[ Methodism. 
X x2 



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— Mr. Wesley finding his societies increas- 
ing very fast in London, Bristol, and other 
places, selected from his followers those 
whom he thought the best qualified to in- 
struct the rest This was the origin of his 
lay-preachers. We are told by a follower 
of Mr. Wesley, that he was at first exceed- 
ingly averse from employing them ; but 
that having in vain solicited assistance from 
some of the established clergy, and not 
being able to give due attention to all his 
societies, and at the same time to extend 
his sphere of action, necessity obliged him 
to have recourse to this measure. Speak- 
ing of these ' unlettered men,' Mr. Wesley 
affirmed, that they had ' help from God 
for that great work, the saving of souls 
from death, since he had enabled, and did 
enable them still, to turn many to righteous- 
ness. — Thus hath he destroyed the wisdom 
of the wise, and brought to nought the 
understanding of the prudent.' Though 
Mr. Wesley and some of his associates had 
taken orders regularly in the church of 
England, yet this circumstance, which in- 
creased their ministerial respectability in 
the general estimation, did not add to 
their consequence in the opinion of the 
devotees of grace, who were ready to listen 
with profound attention to the effusions of 
the lowest and most illiterate mechanics. 
We are told, indeed, that the labours of 
these unlettered men were eminently use- 
ful in every part of the kingdom, and nu- 
merous societies were formed. Even the 
colliers of Kingswood, and the miners of 
Cornwall, who were extremely ignorant, fe- 
rocious, and wicked, listened to the dis- 
courses of these itinerants, by whom some 
thousands of them were reclaimed from their 
vicious courses. 

It appears from the minutes of the eighty- 
fifth annual conference, held in London, in 
July and August 1828, that the following 
number of members belong to the Method- 
ist Society : — 

In Great Britain 245,194 

In Ireland 22,760 

In our foreign stations 36,917 

Under the British and Irish con- 
ferences 304,871 

Under the American conferences 

in 1827 381,997 

Total number throughout the world 686,868 
This number, however, is exclusive of 
regular travelling preachers, who are statedly 
employed in the work of the ministry. Of 
these, and of supernumerary and super- 
annuated preachers, the number is as fol- 
lows : — 
In Great Britain, 

Regular preachers 741 

Supernumerary and superannuated 88 
In Ireland, 

Regular preachers in the circuits . . 87 
676 



Missionaries 21 

Supernumerary and superannuated 
preachers 37 

In the foreign stations, 

Regular preachers and assistant 

missionaries on the list 169 

Supernumerary and superannuated 

preachers 3 

In the American connection in 1827, 
Regular preachers in circuits, and 

missionaries to the Indians 1 465 

Supernumerary and superannuated 

preachers Ill 

Total of preachers throughout the 

world 2722 

From the same minutes it appears, that 
there has been an increase in the year end- 
ing July 1828, of 7955 members in Great 
Britain, and of 161 in Ireland, as compared 
with the minutes of the year 1827 ; and that 
there was an increase in the United States 
of America of 21,197 in the year 1827- The 
Methodist Magazine for February 1829, 
states that the receipts for the Wesleyan 
Methodist Societies, for the last year, 
amounted to upwards of fifty thousand 
pounds, and that the expenditure was up- 
wards of forty-six thousand pounds. The 
same work also states, that the amount of 
contributions for the Methodist Societies, 
from the 13th day of December 1828, is 
16,566Z. Is. 

Doctrines. — 1. The Methodists hold the 
doctrine of Original Sin. They maintain 
the total fall of man in Adam, and his utter 
inability to recover himself, or take one 
step towards his recovery, ' without the 
grace of God preventing him, that he may 
have a good will, and working with him, 
when he has that good will.' 

2. They hold General Redemption. They 
assert 'that Christ, by the grace of God, 
tasted death for every man.' This grace 
they call free, as extending itself freely to 
all. They say, that ' Christ is the Saviour 
of all men, especially of them that believe ;' 
and that consequently they are authorized 
to offer salvation to all, and ' preach the 
Gospel to every creature.' 

3. They hold Justification by Faith. 
' Justification,' says Mr. Wesley, ' some- 
times means our acquittal at the last day. 
(Matt. xii. 37.) But this is altogether out 
of the present question ; for that justification 
whereof our articles and homilies speak, 
signifies present forgiveness, pardon of 
sins, and consequently acceptance with God, 
who therein (Rom. iii. 25.) declares his 
righteousness, or justice, and mercy, by or 
for ' the remission of the sins that are past, 
saying, I will be merciful to thy unrighte- 
ousness, and thine iniquities I will remem- 
ber no more.' I believe the condition of 
this is faith, (Rom. iv. 5, &c.) ; 1 mean not 
only, that without faith we cannot be justi- 
fied ; but also, that as soon as any one has 
true faith, in that moment he is justified. 



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Faith, in general, is a Divine supernatural 
evidence, or conviction, of things not seen, 
not discoverable by our bodily senses, as 
being either past, future, or spiritual. Jus- 
tifying faith implies, not only a Divine evi- 
dence, or conviction, that God was in Christ, 
reconciling the world unto himself, but a 
sure trust and confidence that Christ died 
for my sins ; that he loved me, and gave 
himself for me. And the moment a peni- 
tent sinner believes this, God pardons and 
absolves him.' 

This faith, Mr. Wesley affirms, 'is the 
gift of God. No man is able to work it in 
himself. It is a work of Omnipotence. It 
requires no less power thus to quicken a 
dead soul, than to raise a body that lies in 
the grave. It is a new creation, and none 
can create a soul anew, but He who at first 
created the heavens and the earth. It is 
the free gift of God, which he bestows, not 
on those who are worthy of his favour, not 
on such as are previously holy, and so fit to 
be crowned with all the blessings of his 
goodness, but on the ungodly and unholy : 
on those who, till that hour, were fit only 
for everlasting destruction ; those in whom 
was no good thing, and whose only plea 
was, i God be merciful to me a sinner.' No 
merit, no goodness, in man, precedes the 
forgiving love of God. His pardoning 
mercy supposes nothing in us but a sense of 
mere sin and misery ; and to all who see, 
and feel, and own, their wants, and their 
utter inability to remove them, God freely 
gives faith, for the sake of him in whom he 
is always well pleased.' 

' Good works follow this faith, (Luke vi. 
43.) but cannot go before it; much less can 
sanctification, which implies a continued 
course of good works, springing from holi- 
ness of heart. But it is allowed, that entire 
sanctification goes before our justification, 
at the last day. (Heb. xii. 14.) It is al- 
lowed also, that repentance, (Mark i. 15.) 
and fruits meet for repentance, (Matt. iii. 
8.) go before faith. Repentance absolutely 
must go before faith ; fruits meet for it, if 
there be an opportunity.' 

Mr. Wesley maintained also salvation in 
general by faith. ' By salvation I mean,' 
says he, ' not barely, according to the vul- 
gar notion, deliverance from hell, or going 
to heaven, but a present deliverance from 
sin ; a restoration of the soul to its primi- 
tive health, its original purity ; a recovery 
of the Divine nature; the renewal of our 
souls after the image of God, in righteous- 
ness and true holiness, in justice, mercy, 
and truth. This implies all holy and hea- 
venly tempers, and, by consequence, all 
holiness of conversation. Now, if by salva- 
tion we mean a present salvation from sin, 
we cannot say holiness is the condition of 
it; for it is the thing itself. Salvation, in 
this sense, and holiness, are synonymous 
terms. We must therefore say, "we are 
(577 



saved by faith." Faith is the condition of 
this salvation; for without faith, we cannot 
be thus saved.' But though the Methodists 
renounce all works from having any part in 
a sinner's justification, yet they maintain 
that good works uniformly flow from it. 

4. The Methodists hold the Witness of 
the Spirit. This is defined by Mr. Wesley 
as follows : ' The testimony of the Spirit is 
an inward impression on the soul, whereby 
the Spirit of God directly witnesses to my 
spirit, that I am a child of God ; that Jesus 
Christ hath loved me, and given himself for 
me ; that all my sins are blotted out, and I, 
even I, am reconciled to God. The manner 
how the Divine testimony is manifested to 
the heart, I do not take upon me to explain. 
Such knowledge is too wonderful and ex- 
cellent for me, I cannot attain to it. The 
wind bloweth, and I hear the sound thereof: 
but I cannot tell whence it cometh, or whither 
it goeth. As no man knoweth the things of 
a man, save the spirit of a man that is in 
him ; so the manner of the things of God 
knoweth no man, save the Spirit of God. 
But the fact we know, namely, that the Spi- 
rit of God does give a believer such a testi- 
mony of his adoption, that, while it is pre- 
sent to the soul, he can no more doubt the 
reality of his sonship, than he can doubt the 
shining of the sun, while he stands in the 
full blaze of his beams.' He also declares 
his sentiments on this point, in a quotation 
from Bishop Pearson : 'It is the office of 
the Holy Ghost,' says that prelate, ' to as- 
sure us of the adoption of sons, to create in 
us a sense of the paternal love of God to- 
wards us, to give us an earnest of our ever- 
lasting inheritance. The love of God is 
shed abroad in our hearts by the Holy 
Ghost, which is given unto us. (Rom. v. 5.) 
For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, 
they are the sons of God. And because we 
are sons, God hath sent forth the Spirit of 
his Son into our hearts, crying, Abba, Fa- 
ther. For we have not received the spirit 
of bondage again to fear, but we have re- 
ceived the Spirit of Adoption, whereby we 
cry, Abba, Father ; the Spirit itself bearing 
witness with our spirit, that we are the chil- 
dren of God.' (Rom. viii. 14. 16.) 

5. They hold Christian Perfection. The 
Methodists maintain, that, by virtue of the 
blood of Jesus Christ, and the operations of 
the Holy Spirit, it is their privilege to ar- 
rive at that maturity in grace, and partici- 
pation of the Divine nature, which excludes 
sin from the heart, and fills it with perfect 
love to Cod and man. This they denomi- 
nate Ckrutian perfection. The subject will 
he best Stated in their own words, by laying 
before the reader a few extracts from the 

minutes of their conferences. Q- ' What is 
implied in being a perfect Christian T \ 

■ The loving the Lord our God with all our 
heart, and with all onr mind, and soul, an 

Slli: It \ i •') . \W. 'i l'./.ck. 



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xxxvi. 25. 29.) Q. " Does this imply that 
all inward sin is taken away ?" A. " With- 
out doubt, or how could he be said to be 
saved from all his uncleannesses ?" Q. " Is 
there any clear Scripture promise of this, 
that God will save us from all sin ?" A. 
" There is ; (Psalm cxxx. 8.) ' He shall re- 
deem Israel from all his iniquities.' This 
is more largely expressed in the prophecy 
of Ezekiel : ' Then will I sprinkle clean 
water upon you,' &c. (Ezek. xxxvi. 25 — 
29.) No promise can be more clear. To 
this the Apostle plainly refers in that ex- 
hortation ; ' having these promises,' &c. 
(2 Cor. vii. 1.) Equally clear and express 
is that ancient promise, ' the Lord thy God 
will circumcise thine heart,' &c. (Deut. 
xxx. 6.)" Q. " But does any assertion an- 
swerable to this occur in the New Testa- 
ment?" A. "There does, and that laid 
down in the plainest terms, (1 John iii. 8.) : 
* For this purpose the Son of God was ma- 
nifested, that he might destroy the works of 
the devil;' without any limitation, or restric- 
tion ; but all sin is the work of the devil ; 
parallel to which is that assertion of St. Paul, 
(Eph. v. 25—27.) ' Christ loved the Church, 
and gave himself for it,' &c. To the same ef- 
fect is his assertion, (Rom. viii. 3, 4.) ' God 
sent his Son, that the righteousness of the 
law might be fulfilled in us," &c. Q. "Does 
the New Testament afford any farther 
ground for expecting to be saved from all 
sin ?" A. " Undoubtedly it does, both in 
those prayers and commands which are 
equivalent to the strongest assertions." Q. 
" What prayers do you mean ?" A. "Prayers 
for entire sanctification ; which, were there 
no such thing, would be mere mockery of 
God. Such, in particular, are, 1. ' Deliver 
us from evil ;' now when this is done, when 
we are delivered from all evil, there can be 
no sin remaining. 2. ' Neither pray I for 
these alone.' (John xvii. 20. 23.) 3. 'I 
bow my knees unto the Father of our Lord 
Jesus Christ,' &c. (Ephes. iii. 14. 16. 19.) 
4. ' The very God of peace sanctify you 
wholly. And I pray God,' &c. (1 Thess. v. 
23.)" Q. " What commands are there to the 
same effect?" A. 1. "'Be ye perfect as 
your Father which is in heaven is perfect.' 
(Matt. v. 48.) 2. 'Thou shalt love the 
Lord thy God with all thy heart,' &c. (Matt. 
xxii. 37.) If the love of God fill all the 
heart, no sin can be there." Q. " But how 
does it appear that this is to be done before 
the moment of death ?" A. " First, from the 
very nature of a command, which is not 
given to the dead, but to the living. ' Thou 
shalt love God with all thy heart,' cannot 
mean thou shalt do this when thou diest, 
but, while thou livest. Secondly, from ex- 
press texts of Scripture : ' The grace of 
God that bringeth salvation hath appeared 
to all men,' &c. (Titus ii. 11. 14.) 'He 
hath raised up a horn of salvation for us,' 
&c. ' That he would grant unto us that 
678 



we,' &c. (Luke i. 69. 74, 75.)" Q. "Is 
there any example in Scripture of persons 
who had attained to this?" A. "Yes, St. 
John, and all those of whom he says in his 
First Epistle (iv. 17.) ■ Herein is our love 
made perfect, that we may have boldness 
in the day of judgment, because as he is, so 
are we in this world,' " 

This doctrine Mr. Wesley endeavoured 
to modify by observing, that ' Christian per- 
fection does not imply an exemption from 
ignorance or mistake, infirmities or tempta- 
tions ; but it implies the being so crucified 
with Christ, as to be able to testify, ' I live 
not, but Christ liveth in me,' (Gal. ii. 20.) 
and ' hath purified my heart by faith.' (Acts 
xv. 9.) Again, he observes on the same 
subject as follows : ' To explain myself a 
little further on this head, 1. Not only sin, 
properly so called, that is, a voluntary trans- 
gression of a known law ; but sin, improperly 
so called, that is, an involuntary transgress 
sion of a divine law, known or unknown, 
needs the atoning blood. 2. I believe there 
is no such perfection in this life as excludes 
these involuntary transgressions, which I ap- 
prehend to be naturally consequent on the 
ignorance and mistakes inseparable from 
mortality. 3. Therefore sinless perfection is 
a phrase I never use, lest I should seem to 
contradict myself. 4.1 believe a person filled 
with the love of God is still liable to these 
involuntary transgressions. 5. Such trans- 
gressions you may call sins, if you please ; I 
do not, for the reasons above mentioned.' 

Church Discipline and Government. — Mr. 
Wesley drew up certain regulations, or rules, 
which are still observed by his followers. 
Each society is divided into smaller com- 
panies, called Classes, each of which con- 
sists of from twelve to twenty persons, one 
of whom, generally a person of more ex- 
perience than the rest, is styled the Leader. 
It is the business of a leader, 1. To see 
each person in his class once a week, at least, 
in order to inquire how their souls prosper ; 
to advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as 
occasion may require ; to receive what they 
are willing to give to the poor, or toward 
the support of the Gospel. 2. To meet the 
minister and stewards of the society once a 
week, in order to inform the minister of any 
that are sick, or of any that walk disorderly, 
and will not be reproved ; to pay to the 
stewards what they have received of their 
several classes in the week preceding ; and 
to show their account of what each person 
has contributed. 

There is only one condition previously 
required of those who desire admission into 
this society, namely, a desire to flee from 
the wrath to come, to be saved from their 
sins. But in order to continue therein, it is 
expected that all the members should con- 
tinue to evidence this desire of salvation : 
First, By doing no harm, by avoiding evil 
of every kind ; such as taking the name of 



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God in vain, profaning the sabbath, drunk- 
enness, fighting and broiling, brother going 
to law with brother, dealing in unaccustomed 
goods, taking unlawful interest, speaking 
evil of magistrates and ministers, acting un- 
fairly, costly dress, fashionable amusements, 
borrowing money without a probability of 
returning it, or taking up goods without a 
probability of paying for them, &c. Se- 
condly, By doing good, according to their 
ability, as they have opportunity, to all men : 
to their bodies, by feeding the hungry, 
clothing the naked, and visiting or helping 
them that are sick or in prison ; to their 
souls, by instructing, reproving, or exhort- 
ing, all they have any intercourse with. By 
doing good, especially to them that are of 
the household of faith, employing them in 
preference to others, and, by this means, 
assisting each other in business ; by dili- 
gence and frugality in their temporal con- 
cerns ; by perseverance, and patiently en- 
during reproach, &c. Thirdly, By attend- 
ing on all the ordinances of God : such as 
the public worship of God ; the ministry of 
the word, either read or expounded ; the 
Lord's Supper ; family and private prayer ; 
searching the Scriptures, fasting, &c. 
These are the general rules of the society. 
If any of the members do not observe them, 
or habitually break any of them, they are 
admonished, and borne with for a season; 
but, if they repent not, expulsion follows. 

A number of these societies united to- 
gether form what is called a Circuit. A 
Circuit generally includes a large market- 
town, and the circumjacent villages, to the 
extent of ten or fifteen miles. To one cir- 
cuit, two or three, and sometimes four, 
preacbers are appointed, one of whom is 
styled the Superintendent ; and this is the 
sphere of their labours for at least one year, 
or not more than two years. Once a 
quarter, the preachers meet all the classes, 
and speak personally to each member, 
Those who have walked orderly the prece- 
ding quarter then receive a ticket. These 
tickets are in some respects analogous to 
the tessera? of the ancients, and answer all 
the purposes of the commendatory letters 
spoken of by the apostle. Their chief use 
is to prevent imposture. After the visita- 
tion of the classes, a meeting is held, con- 
sisting of all the preachers, leaders, and 
stewards, in the circuit. At this meeting, 
the stewards deliver their collections to a 
circuit steward, and every thing relating to 
temporal matters is publicly settled. At 
this meeting the candidates for the ministry 
are proposed, and the stewards, after otliei- 
ating a definite period, are changed. It is 
superior to a leader's meeting, and is called 
a Quarterly Meeting. 

A number of these circuits, from five to 

ten, more or fewer, according to their i\- 

tent, form a District, the preachers of which 

meet annually. Every district has a chaii- 

679 



man, who fixes the time of meeting. These 
assemblies have authority, 1. to try and 
suspend preachers who are found immoral, 
erroneous in doctrine, or deficient in abili- 
ties ; 2. to decide concerning the building 
of chapels ; 3. to examine the demands from 
the circuits respecting the support of the 
preachers, and of their families ; and 4. to 
elect a representative to attend and form a 
committee, four days before the meeting of the 
conference,in order to prepare a draught of the 
stations for the ensuing year. The judgment 
of this meeting is conclusive until conference, 
to which an appeal is allowed in all cases. 

The Conference, strictly speaking, con- 
sists only of a hundred of the senior travel- 
ling preachers, in consequence of a deed of 
declaration executed by Mr. Wesley, and 
enrolled in Chancery. But, generally speak- 
ing, the conference is composed of the 
preachers elected at the preceding district 
meetings as representatives ; of the other 
superintendents of the districts ; and of 
every preacher who chooses to attend ; all 
of them (except the probationers) having 
an equal right to vote, &c. whether they 
belong to the hundred or not. At the con- 
ference, every preacher's character under- 
goes the strictest scrutiny ; and if any 
charge be proved against him, he is pun- 
ished accordingly. The preachers are also 
stationed; the proceedings of the subordinate 
meetings are reviewed ; and the state of the 
connexion at large is considered. It is the 
supreme court of the Methodists, over 
which there is no control, and from whose 
decisions there is no appeal. The confer- 
ence is commonly held in London, at Leeds, 
Bristol, and Manchester, in rotation, about 
the latter end of July ; and the time which 
it occupies seldom exceeds a fortnight. 

Ordinances and Worship. — Class Sleetings 
are each composed of from twelve to twenty 
persons, one of whom is styled the Leader. 
When they assemble, which is once a week, 
the leader gives out a few verses of a hymn, 
which they join in singing. He then makes 
a short prayer; after which, he converses 
with each member respecting Christian ex- 
perience, gives suitable advice to all, and 
concludes by singing and praying. 

Band Meetings consist of about four or five 
members, who are nearly of the Bame age, in 
nearly similar circumstances, and of the same 
sex, who meet together once a week, in 
order to speak their minds more freely than 

it would be agreeable to do in a promiscuou 
assembly of member*, such as a dan meet- 
ing. The meeting is conducted in nearly 
the same manner as a class meeting. At 
stated periods, those who meet in the>e 

private bands, meet all together, formin 

public or select band, when, alter «nging 
and prayer, any of the memhers arc at liberty 
to rise and speak their experience. \lter 
a few of them have spoken, the meeting, as 
usual, is concluded with singing ^nA pr.iwr. 



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Watch-nights are rather similar to the 
vigils of the ancients, which they kept on 
the evenings preceding the grand festivals. 
They are held once a quarter. On these 
occasions, three or four of the preachers 
officiate, and a great concourse of people 
attend. The service commences between 
eight and nine at night. After one of the 
ministers has preached, the rest pray and 
exhort, giving out at intervals suitable 
hymns, which the congregation join in 
singing till a few minutes after twelve 
o'clock, when they conclude. 

Love- feasts are also held quarterly. No 
persons are admitted who cannot produce a 
ticket to show that they are members, or a 
note of admittance from the superintendent. 
However, any serious person, who has never 
been present at one of these meetings may 
be supplied with a note for once, but not 
oftener, unless he becomes a member. The 
meeting begins with singing and prayer. 
Afterwards, small pieces of bread, or plain 
cake, and some water, are distributed ; and 
all present eat and drink together, in token 
of their Christian love to each other. Then 
if any persons have any thing particular to 
say concerning their present Christian ex- 
perience, or the manner in which they were 
first brought to the knowledge of the truth, 
they are permitted to speak. When a few of 
them have spoken, a collection is made for 
the poor, and the meeting is concluded with 
singing and prayer. This institution has 
no relation to the Lord's Supper. The ele- 
ments of the Lord's Supper are bread and 
wine ; but at the love-feasts, bread and 
water only are used. The Methodists con- 
sider the former as a positive institution, 
which they are bound to observe as Chris- 
tians ; the latter as merely prudential, 
which they observe because they think them 
scriptural and edifying. They suppose that 
St. Jude (12.) alludes to these love-feasts, 
when, speaking of some evil doers, that asso- 
ciated with the Christians, he says, f These 
are spots in your feasts of love ;' and that of 
them also the apostle Peter speaks. (2 Pet. 
ii. 13.) Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. pp. 
87 — 123; Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. vi. p. 
311, edit. 1811. 

Methodist New Connexion, or New 
Itinerancy. Date and Grounds of the 
Separation. — Mr. Wesley professed a strong 
attachment to the church of England, and 
exhorted the societies under his care to 
attend her service, and receive the sacra- 
ment of the Lord's Supper from the regular 
clergy. But in the latter part of his life, 
he thought proper to assume the episcopal 
office, so as to consecrate some to the office 
of bishops, and ordain several priests for 
America and Scotland : but, as one or two of 
these his bishops have never left England, 
since their appointment to the office, some 
think that he intended a regular ordination 
should take place, when the state of the 
680 



connexion might render it necessary. — 
During his life, some of the societies pe- 
titioned to have preaching in their own 
chapels in church hours, and the Lord's 
Supper administered by the travelling 
preachers. This request, however, he 
generally refused; and, where it could be 
conveniently done, sent some of the clergy- 
men, who officiated at the New Chapel, 
London, to perform these solemn offices. 

The same request was renewed soon 
after his death, by many of the societies ; 
when they had the mortification to find 
that this question was decided by lot, and 
not by the use of reason and serious dis- 
cussion; which, together with some other 
real or imaginary grounds of offence, soon 
brought on a division and separation. 

A separation took place in 1797- The 
Methodist New Connexion declare the 
grounds of this separation to be church 
government and discipline, and not doctrines, 
as affirmed by some of their opponents. 
They object to the Old Methodists, for 
having formed a hierarchy, or priestly cor- 
poration ; and they say, that, in so doing, 
they have robbed the people of those pri- 
vileges, which, as members of a Christian 
church, they are entitled to by reason and 
Scripture. The New Connexion have, 
therefore, attempted to establish every 
part of their church government on popu- 
lar principles, and profess to have united, 
as much as possible, the ministers and 
the people in every department of it. 
This is quite contrary, say they, to the 
original government of the Methodists, 
which, in the most important cases, is 
confined to the ministers only, as appears 
by considering the conference or yearly 
meeting ; for of this meeting no person, 
who is not a travelling preacher, has ever 
been suffered to enter as a member. In- 
deed, this is the point to which the preach- 
ers have always stedfastly adhered with the 
utmost firmness and resolution, and on 
which the division, at present, is said en- 
tirely to rest. They are also upbraided by 
the members of the New Connexion with 
having abused the power which they have 
assumed. The New Methodists are some- 
times called Kilhamites, from Mr. Alex- 
ander Kilham, who took so active a part 
in the separation, that he is considered by 
many as the head and founder of the New 
Connexion. Though these are the points 
on which the division seems principally to 
have rested, yet there are several other 
things that have contributed to it. The 
attachment of the Old Methodists to the 
established church, which originated in Mr. 
Wesley, and was much cherished by him 
and many of the preachers, and also the 
dislike to the church, in many others of 
the preachers and of the societies, were 
never-failing subjects of contention. As 
all parties are distinguished in their con- 



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tests by some badge or discriminating cir- 
cumstance, so here the receiving or not 
receiving the Lord's Supper, in the es- 
tablished church, was long considered as 
the criterion of Methodistical zeal or dis- 
affection. Thus the rupture which had 
been long foreseen by intelligent persons, 
and for which the minds of the Methodists 
had been undesignedly prepared, became 
inevitable when Mr. Wesley's influence no 
longer interfered. 

Government, Discipline, &c. — The New 
Methodists profess to proceed upon liberal, 
open, and ingenuous principles, in the con- 
struction of their plan of church govern- 
ment ; and their ultimate decision in all 
disputed matters is in their popular annual 
assembly, chosen, by certain rules, from 
among the preachers and societies. To 
them it appears agreeable, both to reason 
and the customs of the primitive church, 
that the people should have a voice in the 
temporal concerns of the societies, should 
vote in the election of church officers, and 
give their suffrages in spiritual concerns. 
When this subject was discussed, in the 
conference at Leeds, in 1797. various argu- 
ments were produced on both sides of the 
question ; and on its being decided agains*- 
them, the dissentients proposed a plan for 
a new Itinerancy, and formed themselves 
into a meeting, in order to carry it into 
immediate effect. Of this meeting Mr. 
William Thorn was chosen president, and 
Mr. Alexander Kilham, secretary. A form 
of church government, suited to an itinerant 
ministry, was drawn up at the request of 
the meeting by these two brethren, and, 
with a few alterations, was accepted by the 
conference of preachers and delegates. 

The preachers and people are incorpo- 
rated in all meetings for business, not by 
temporary concession, but by the essential 
principles of their constitution ; for the 
private members choose the class leaders ; 
the leaders' meeting nominates the stewards ; 
and the society confirms or rejects the no- 
mination. The quarterly meetings are com- 
posed of the general stewards and repre- 
sentatives chosen by the different societies 
of the circuits; and the fourth quarterly 
meeting of the year appoints the preacher 
and delegates of every circuit that shall 
attend the general conference. 

Numbers. — In the year 1806, the New 
Methodists had 18 circuits, upwards of 
30 preachers, and about 5018 members. 
ddam's Religious World, vol. iii. pp. 134 — 
139. 

METHU'SELAH, nbvmo, signifies he 
has sent his death ; otherwise, the arms of 
his death ; otherwise, according to the He- 
brew and Syriac, spoil of his death ; other- 
wise, man that demands. Methuselah, son 
of Enoch, (Gen. v. 21, 22.) was born in the 
year of the world 687, begat Lamech in 874, 
and died in the vear of the world 1056, aged 
681 



nine hundred and sixty-nine years ; the 
greatest age attained by any mortal man. 
This same year, the year of the world 1656, 
was the year of the Deluge. 

MI'CAH, rv3*o, Mixaiag, in Hebrew 
Michaihu, signifies who is like to God ? 
Micah, of the tribe of Ephraim, was son of 
a rich widow, who became an occasion of 
falling to Israel. (Judg. xvii. xviii.) The 
mother of Micah had laid by a reserve of 
eleven hundred shekels, about 125/. 10*. 
This money being missing, she was in a 
great passion about it, and even uttered 
heavy imprecations against the thief. — 
Whether Micah had taken it himself, or 
whether he recovered it from some one 
who had taken it, he comes and tells his 
mother that it was in his custody. The 
mother recovered her temper, and, blessing 
her son for his diligence, told him it was 
dedicated to God ; that she would have an 
ephod made with it, and kept at their 
house, for the use of a domestic chapel. 
She immediately causes an ephod or priestly 
habit to be prepared with this money, and 
images of metal. He made one of his 
own sons priest ; and afterwards a young 
Levite. 

It is believed this happened in the in- 
terval of time, after the death of Joshua, 
and the elders that succeeded him, till 
Othniel judged Israel. During this time 
the tribe of Dan, being straitened in their 
inheritance, sent six hundred men to seek 
a more convenient settlement. They passed 
by Micah's house, on the mountains of 
Ephraim, and desired the Levite, who re- 
sided there, to inquire of the Lord about 
the success of their expedition. He an- 
swered them, that the Lord would prosper 
their undertaking. They came a second 
time to the house of Micah ; and, having 
persuaded the priest to their party, they 
took away the ephod, and the graven 
images, and went their way. Micah runs 
after them, crying out ; but they threaten 
him, and oblige him to retire. Having 
taken Laish, they there set up the idol 
purloined from Micah, and appointed 
Jonathan, son of Gershom. the son of 
Moses, their priest This idol continued 
here all the time tlfe house of (iod was 
at Shiloh, and to the captivity of the 
Country, or, according to another version 
of the Hebrew, to the time of the deliver- 
ance of the country. Some understand it, of 
the deliverance of the country by Samuel ; 
and others, of the captivity o\' the ten 
tribes by the kings of \ss\ria. Shahnai.; 
and Tiglath-pilcscr. During all this time. 
the city vf Laish, otherwise called I>.in. 
was a place o( idolatry and superstition j 
Worshipping either the tcraphim of Micah. 
or the golden calves of .lerohoam. 

Micah, ro-o, signifies peer, tnimblr, 
otherwise, trl & strikes, or is stria k : other- 
wise, who is time.' otherwise. t>., I 



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here. Micah, the Morasthite, or of Moresa, 
a village near the city Eleutheropolis, in 
the south of Judah, is the seventh in order 
of the twelve lesser prophets. He pro- 
phesied under Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, 
kings of Judah, about fifty years, from 
about the year of the world 3245, or the 
beginning of the reign of Jotham, to the 
year of the world 3306, or the last year 
of Hezekiah. Some have confounded him, 
but very improperly, with Micaiah, son 
of Imlah, who lived in the kingdom of 
the ten tribes, under the reign of Ahab. 
The spurious Dorotheus says, that Micah 
was buried in the burying - place of the 
Anakim, whose habitation had been at 
Hebron. This prophet was contemporary 
with Isaiah, and has some expressions in 
common with him. Compare Isaiah ii. 2. 
with Micah iv. 1. and Isaiah xli. 15. with 
Micah iv. 13. 

The prophecy of Micah contains only 
seven chapters. He first foretells the cala- 
mities of Samaria ; afterwards he prophe- 
sies against Judah; then he exclaims against 
the iniquities of Samaria: he foretells the 
captivity of the ten tribes, and their re- 
turn. The third chapter contains a pa- 
thetic invective against the princes of the 
house of Jacob, and the judges of the 
house of Israel ; which Calmet thinks is 
intended against the chiefs of the king- 
dom of Judah, the judges, the magistrates, 
the priests, the false prophets, &c. We 
are informed by Jeremiah, (xxvi. 18, 19, 
&c.) that this prophecy was pronounced 
in the time of Hezekiah ; and that in the 
days of Jehoiakim it protected Jeremiah 
from death, who prophesied much the 
same against Jerusalem, as Micah had 
done. 

After these terrible denunciations, Micah 
speaks of the reign of the Messiah, and the 
establishment of his kingdom. He points 
out particularly that the Messiah should be 
born at Bethlehem, and that his dominion 
should extend to the utmost parts of the 
earth. The fifth chapter describes the 
flourishing state of the Jews in their own 
country, after their return from the capti- 
vity. The last two chapters contain a long 
invective against the iniquities of Samaria. 
He then foretells the fall of Babylon, and 
the re-establishment of Israel. 

' The style of Micah,' says Bishop Tom- 
line, ' is nervous, concise, and elegant, 
often elevated and poetical, but sometimes 
obscure from sudden transitions of subject; 
and the contrast of the neglected duties of 
justice, mercy, humility, and piety, with the 
punctilious observance of the ceremonial 
sacrifices, affords a beautiful example of the 
harmony which subsists between the Mosaic 
and Christian dispensations, and shows that 
the law partook, in some degree at least, of 
that spiritual nature, which more immedi- 
ately characterizes the religion of Jesus.' 
682 



Bishop Tomline's Elem. of Christ. Theol. vol. i. 
p. 125. 

MICAFAH, irra'O, Mlxaiag, signifiesw^o 
is like to God ? Micaiah, or Michaiah, was 
the son of Imlah, of Ephraim, and a pro- 
phet of the Lord. It is thought that it was 
Micaiah, though the Scripture does not 
mention his name, who directed one of his 
associates to strike him, and to wound him ; 
which he refusing, Micaiah told him a lion 
should meet and kill him : which happened 
accordingly. Micaiah, meeting another, 
desired of him the same thing, which he 
performed. Thus the prophet being disfi- 
gured, threw dust in his face, and went to 
meet king Ahab. He complained that 
being charged with a prisoner, he had 
escaped, but his ransom was required of 
him. The king gave sentence against him. 
At this the prophet wiping the dust off his 
face, and discovering himself to Ahab, said, 
Just so says the Lord to thee ; because thou 
hast let go a man deserving of death, thy 
life shall answer for his life, and thy people 
for his people. He spoke of Benhadad, king 
of Syria, whom Ahab had suffered to escape 
when he was in his power. (1 Kings xx. 

OO.) 

About three years after, when Ahab made 
war against Benhadad king of Syria, he in- 
vited Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to accom- 
pany him in this expedition. (1 Kings xxii. 
3, 4, 5, &c.) Jehoshaphat, who was then at 
Samaria, consented, but desired that a pro- 
phet of the Lord might be consulted about 
their success; for he would not rely on the 
prophets of Baal, who had assured Ahab of 
victory. They then brought Micaiah, the 
son of Imlah, before the kings, and desired 
him by the way, that his words might agree 
with the words of the other prophets, who 
all had promised the king success. Ahab 
having inquired of him, whether they should 
march against Ramoth-gilead or not, 
Micaiah answered, March on and prosper, 
the Lord shall deliver it into thine hands. 
The king replied, I adjure thee in the name' 
of the Lord, to answer only according to the 
truth. Then Micaiah says to him with a 
more serious countenance, — I saw all Israel 
dispersed upon the mountains, like sheep 
that have no shepherd ; and the Lord said, 
They have no captain, let every one return 
in peace to his own house. Micaiah added, 
I saw the Lord sitting on his throne, and 
the heavenly host on his right hand and on 
his left. And the Lord said, Who shall 
seduce Ahab, king of Israel, to march 
against Ramoth-gilead, that he may die 
there ? One answered one thing, and 
another another. Then an evil spirit 
stepped forth, and said, I will seduce Ahab, 
by putting a lie into the mouth of all his 
prophets. The Lord said to him, Go, and 
thou shalt succeed. Now has the Lord put 
a lying spirit in the mouth of all thy pro- 
phets, and has passed sentence against thee. 



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At the same time Zedekiah, son of Che- 
naanah, stepped up to Micaiah, and gave him 
a blow on the face, saying, 'Which way went 
the Spirit of the Lord from me to speak 
unto thee V To whom Micaiah replied, 
This thou shalt see, when thou shalt skulk 
from chamber to chamber to hide thyself. 
Then Ahab, king of Israel, said to his people, 
Take Micaiah and carry him to Amon the 
governor of Samaria, and let him be fed 
with bread of affliction, and with water of 
affliction, till I return in peace. Micaiah 
answered, If thou return at all in peace, the 
Lord has not spoken by me. The event 
justified the prediction of Micaiah. We 
hear no more of Micaiah the son of Imlah. 

MI'CHAEL, bxi-v, signifies who is like 
to God ? otherwise, humility, poorness of God. 
The Scripture account of Michael is, that 
he was an arch-angel, who presided over the 
Jewish nation, as other angels did over the 
Gentile world, as is evident of the kingdoms 
of Persia and Greece, (Dan. x. 13.) ; that he 
had an army of angels under his command, 
(Rev. xii. 7-) ; that he fought with the 
dragon, or Satan and his angels ; and that, 
contending with the devil, he disputed 
about the body of Moses. (Jude 9.) With 
respect to the combat between Michael and 
the Dragon, some authors understand it 
literally, and think it denotes the expulsion 
of certain rebellious angels, with their head 
or leader from the presence of God. Others 
take it in a figurative sense, and refer it 
either to the contest that happened at 
Rome, between St. Peter and Simon Magus, 
in which the apostle prevailed over the 
magician ; or to those violent persecutions 
under which the church laboured for three 
hundred years, and which happily ceased 
when the powers of the world became Chris- 
tian. Among the commentators, who main- 
tain the former opinion, is Grotius ; and 
among those who understand it in a figu- 
rative sense, are Hammond and Mede. 

The contest respecting the body of Moses, 
is likewise taken both literally and figura- 
tively. Those who understand it literally, 
are of opinion, that Michael, by the order 
of God, hid the body of Moses after his 
death ; and that the devil endeavoured to 
discover it, as a fit means to entice the peo- 
ple to idolatry, by a superstitious worship 
of his relics. But this dispute is figura- 
tively understood to be a controversy about 
rebuilding the temple, and restoring the 
service of God among the Jews at Jerusalem ; 
the Jewish church being properly styled the 
body of Moses. It is thought by some, that 
this story of the contest between Michael 
and the devil, was taken by St. Jude out of 
an apocryphal book, called ' The Assump- 
tion of Moses.' Might not the apostle have 
used it merely as a popular illustration, 
without vouching for the fact, of that sober 
and wholesome doctrine, not to speak evil 
of dignities, from the example of an arcli- 
683 



angel, who did not venture to rail even at 
the devil, but meekly said, ' The Lord re- 
buke thee V Hales s New Analysis of Chro- 
nology, vol. ii. book ii. p. 1144; Micheelis's 
Introduction to the New Testament, vol. vi. 
p. 392. 

MI'CHAL, bJO'Q, signifies who is it that 
has all ? otherwise, who is perfect, or complete? 
otherwise, the whole is water ; otherwise, de- 
fence. Michal was daughter of king Saul. 
The Hebrews think, that she was also 
named Eglah, and was mother of Ithream, 
(2 Sam. iii. 5.) but this opinion has no 
foundation. Michal falling in love with 
David, and her father Saul being informed of 
it, he was not a little glad, saying, I will give 
her to David for a wife, that he may fall by 
the hands of the Philistines. Saul there- 
fore bid his confidants insinuate to David to 
improve his good fortune. David at first 
declined; but, finding his valour might serve 
instead of a dowry, he doubled what Saul 
required as proofs of his victory over the 
Philistines, and Saul gave him his daughter 
Michal. 

Some time after, Saul sent his guards 
after David, to seize him in his own house 
during the night, and to bring him with 
them on the morrow. But Michal let him 
down through a window, and he escaped. 
Michal then took a figure, and laid it in 
David's bed, and put a pillow of goat's hair 
for its bolster, and covered it with a cloth. 
Saul sent next morning to take David, and 
gave orders that he should be brought in 
his bed ; but they found nothing except a 
figure, and Michal excused herself by say- 
ing, that David threatened to kill her if she 
did not favour his escape. Some time 
after, Saul gave Michal to Phalti, or Phal- 
tiel, son of Laish of Gallim. 

David, when he came to the crown, 
caused Michal to be restored to him ; and 
this was one condition that he stipulated 
with Abner. Then David sent messengers 
to Ishbosheth, who sent her back to David, 
and Phaltiel followed her weeping as far as 
Bahurim. The Hebrews pretend, that 
Phaltiel never came near Michal, who in 
strictness could not be his wife, since she 
never had been divorced from David. 
Others believe that Michal had five sons by 
Phaltiel, whom the Gibeonites executed. 
(2 Sam. xxi. 8, 9.) See Mi kai;. 

David, from the very beginning of bis 
reign, had formed a design of translating 
the ark of the covenant from Shiloh to 
Jerusalem, where he had fixed Ins habita- 
tion. This pious design lie executed with 
great pomp ami ceremony ; he himself leap- 
ing and dancing tor joy iii this solemnity. 
Michal observing tins at a window, where 
she had placed herself to see the procession, 
conceived no small contempt tor Icing 
David; and, when he returned to his palace, 

she upbraided him with descending to such 

meannesses, i< to dance and ptayamonghii 



MID 



MIL 



servants, acting rather like a buffoon than a 
king. David vindicated himself by telling 
her, that he would dance and appear still 
more vile before the Lord, who had pre- 
ferred him to be king of Israel, before her 
father and all his family. Michal had no 
children to the day of her death, which the 
Scripture seems to impute to these re- 
proaches made to David. The time of her 
death is unknown. 

MID'IAN,V*fB, signifies judgment ; other- 
wise, measure, habit, covering. Midian was 
the fourth son of Abraham and Keturah. 
(Gen. xxv. 2.) The Midianites, (Numb, 
xxii. 4. 7-; xxv. 15.; xxxi. 2, &c.) whose 
daughters seduced Israel, even to the wor- 
shipping of Baal-peor, were descendants of 
Midian, the son of Abraham. The Midian- 
ites, who were overcome by Hadad son of 
Bedad, king of Edom, (Gen. xxxvi. 35.) 
and those who oppressed Israel, and were 
defeated by Gideon, (Judg. vi. 1, 2, &c. ; 
vii. 1, 2, &c.) were also descended from 
Midian, son of Abraham, whose habitation 
was east of the Dead Sea, and south of the 
country of Moab. Their capital city was 
called Midian, and its remains were to be 
seen in the time of Jerome and Eusebius. 
It was situated on the Arnon, and south of 
the city Ar, or Areopolis. 

The Lord intended to punish the Mid- 
ianites, because their daughters had se- 
duced Israel to the worship of Peor. God 
says to Moses, Take a thousand men out of 
each tribe, and send them under the com- 
mand of Phinehas, son of the high priest 
Eleazar, to execute my vengeance against 
the Midiahites. Phinehas marched there- 
fore at the head of twelve thousand men, 
having with him the ark of the covenant, 
according to some commentators, and the 
trumpets of the tabernacle. He defeated 
the Midianites, and slew five of their kings, 
Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur, and Reba, who 
reigned over several cities of the coun- 
try of Midian, lying east of the Dead Sea. 
God permitted also, that the wicked pro- 
phet Balaam should be involved in their 
misfortune, and lose his life. The Israel- 
ites took the women, the children, the flocks, 
and whatever belonged to the Midianites ; 
they burned their cities, villages, and forts ; 
and they brought into their ~camp all the 
booty they had got in this expedition. 

Midian was probably the son of Cush, 
since Zipporah the wife of Moses, who was 
a Midianite, was nevertheless a Cushite, 
(Numb. xii. 1.); and since Habakkuk (iii.7.) 
puts the Midianites with the Cushites, as if 
they were synonymous, or at least neigh- 
bours. This Midian peopled the country 
of Midian, east of the Red Sea. Into this 
country Moses withdrew, and there mar- 
ried Zipporah the daughter of Jethro. (Exod. 
ii. 15, &c.) It was these Midianites who 
trembled for fear, when they heard the He- 
brews had passed through the Red Sea. 
684 



(Hab. iii. 7-) Abulfeda, speaking of the 
city of Midian, says, ' Madyan is a city, in 
ruins, on the shore of the Red Sea, on the 
side opposite to Tabuc, from which it is 
distant about six days' journey. At Midian 
may be seen the famous well, where Moses 
watered the flocks of Schoaib, for thus the 
Mahometans call Jethro. This city was 
the capital of the tribe of Midian among the 
Israelites. According to Ibusaid, the bay 
of the Red Sea in this place is about one 
hundred thousand paces wide.' 

It should seem as if the Orientals knew 
no other Midianites than those on the shore 
of the Red Sea, near Mount Sinai, among 
whom Moses took refuge. 

MIGDOL, bnyo, signifies a tower, or great- 
ness, and was a frontier town of Lower 
Egypt towards the Red Sea, between which 
and that sea the Israelites encamped. (Exod. 
xiv. 2.) It is there rendered by the Sep- 
tuagint Magdolus ; and there also Herodo- 
tus represents Nekus, or Pharaoh- Necho, as 
gaining a great victory over the Jews ; mis- 
taking Magdolus for Megiddo. Jeremiah 
represents it as belonging to Egypt proper, 
(Jer. xlvi. 14.) and in the neighbourhood 
of Tahpanes or Daphnae. The Itinerary of 
Antoninus reckons it a little to the south of 
the Delta, about twelve miles from Pelu- 
sium. 

On the contrary, the learned editor of 
Calmet's Dictionary considers Migdol 'a 
tower,' which he places at Bir Suez, ' the 
well of water,' because he thinks this well 
was worth protecting by a tower, there 
being no other fresh water, then known, 
in the neighbourhood. He observes, that 
nobody acquainted with the value and 
scarcity of water in the East, will imagine 
that a tower, if inhabited, could be of use, 
or its inhabitants or garrison subsist, without 
water. It was necessary, therefore, for the 
protection of this water for the use of the 
inhabitants at Baal-zephon, that a tower 
should secure it. He has placed, he says, 
Baal-zephon at Suez, because it adjoins to 
Pi-hahiroth ; so that whatever station was ' in 
the face of Pi-hahiroth,' was also in the face 
of Baal-zephon. See Baal-zephon, and 
Pi-hahiroth. Fragments annexed to Cal- 
met's Dictionary, No. xxxix. p. 69 ; Hales's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 376. 

MILE'TUS, or Miletum, MIXtjtov, sig- 
nifies red, or deep purple. Miletus was a 
town in the province of Caria, in Asia 
Minor. This city, situated beyond the river 
Meander, was originally a colony of Cret- 
ans. It became so powerful, that it sent 
out settlers to a great number of cities on 
the Euxine Sea, and many others on the 
continent. ' Miletus,' says Dr. Chandler, 
' was once exceedingly powerful, and illus- 
trious. Its early navigators extended its 
commerce to remote regions. The whole 
Euxine Sea, the Propontis, Egypt, and 
other countries, were frequented by its 



MIL 



MIL 



ships, and settled by its colonies. It boasted 
a venerable band of memorable men ; Heca- 
taeus, an early historian, and Thales, the fa- 
ther of phibpsophy. It withstood Darius, and 
refused to admit Alexander. It has been 
styled the metropolis and head of Ionia ; the 
bulwark of Asia ; chief in war and peace ; 
mighty by sea ; the fertile mother which had 
poured forth her sons to every quarter, count- 
ing not fewer than seventy-five cities de- 
scended from her. It afterwards fell so low 
as to furnish a proverbial saying, ' The Mi- 
lesians were once great ;' but if we compare 
its ancient glory, and its subsequent hu- 
miliation, with its present state, we may 
justly exclaim, S Miletus how much lower 
art thou now fallen !' It is now called by 
the Turks Melas, or according to Mr. Crutt- 
well, Milet. 

St. Paul going from Corinth to Jerusa- 
lem, passed by Miletus, and as he went by 
sea, and so could not take Ephesus in his 
way, &c. he caused the bishops of the 
church of Ephesus to come to Miletus, 
which was about twelve leagues from thence. 
(Acts xx. 14, 15, &c.) Sacred Geography ; 
Dr. Chandler's Travels. 

Miletus, a city of Crete. It seems 
proper to refer to this Miletus, what St. 
Paul says, (2 Tim. iv. 20.) ' Trophimus 
have I left at Miletus sick ;' because when 
St. Paul visited Miletus near Ephesus, (Acts 
xx. 17-) Trophimus went with him to Jeru- 
salem, and St. Paul did not return to that 
Miletus. Additions to Calmet's Dictionary. 

MILLENARIANS. Name.— Millena- 
rians are those who believe, according to an 
ancient tradition in the church, grounded 
on some doubtful texts in the book of Reve- 
lation and other Scriptures, that our Sa- 
viour shall reign a thousand years with the 
faithful upon earth after the first resurrec- 
tion, before the full completion of final 
happiness; and their name, taken from the 
Latin word mille, a thousand, has a direct 
allusion to the duration of this spiritual 
empire, which is styled the Millennium. 
The same name is also given to many who 
reject the literal interpretation of the Mil- 
lennium, both as to its nature and its du- 
ration. 

Origin, Rise, and Progress. — A Millen- 
nium, or a future paradisaical state of the 
earth, is viewed by some as a doctrine not 
of Christian, but of Jewish origin. The 
tradition which fixes the duration of the 
world in its present imperfect state to 
6,000 years, and announces the approach 
of a Sabbath of 1,000 years of universal 
peace and plenty, to be ushered in by the 
glorious advent of the Messiah, has been 
traced up to Elias, a rabbinical writer, who 
flourished about two centuries before the 
birth of Christ, and, by some, even to 
Elias the Tishbite. It certainly obtained 
among the Chaldaeans from the earliest 
times; and it is countenanced by Barna- 
685 



bas, Irenaeus, and other primitive writers, 
and also by the Jews at the present day. 
But though the theory is animating and 
consolatory, and not very improbable, yet, 
as it has not the sanction of Scripture to 
support it, we are not bound to respect it 
any further than as a doubtful tradition. 
The Jews understood several passages of 
the prophets, as Zechariah, (xiv. 16.) &c. 
of the Millennium, in which, according to 
their carnal apprehensions, the Messiah is 
to reign on earth, and to bring all nations 
within the pale, and under subjection to 
the ordinances of the Jewish church. 

Justin Martyr, the most ancient of the 
fathers, was a great supporter of the doc- 
trine of the Millennium, or that our Saviour 
shall reign with the faithful upon earth, 
after the resurrection, for a thousand years, 
which he declares was the belief of all or- 
thodox Christians. But this opinion is not 
generally followed ; for, though there has 
been, perhaps, no age of the church in 
which this doctrine was not admitted by 
one or more divines of the first eminence, 
it yet appears, from the writings of Euse- 
bius, Irenaeus, and others among the an- 
cients, as well as from the histories of 
Dupin, Mosheim, and other moderns, that 
it was never adopted by the whole church, 
nor formed an article of the established 
creed in any nation. Origen, the most 
learned of the fathers, and Dicnysius, bishop 
of Alexandria, usually, for his immense 
erudition, surnamed the Great, both opposed 
the doctrine that prevailed on the subject 
in their day ; and Dr. Whitby, in his learned 
treatise on the subject, proves, first, that 
the Millennium was never generally re- 
ceived in the church of Christ ; and, se- 
condly, that there is no just ground to think 
it was derived from the apostles. 

On the other hand, Dr. T. Burnet, and 
others, maintain that it was very generally 
admitted till the Nicene Council, in 325, 
or till the fourth century. The doctor 
supposes Dionysius of Alexandria, who 
wrote against Nepos, an Egyptian bishop, 
before the middle of the third century, to 
have been the first that attacked this doc- 
trine ; but Origen had previously assailed 
it in many of its fictitious additions. The 
truth seems to be, as Mr. Gray remarks. 
'that a spiritual reign of Christ was be- 
lieved by all who carefully examined the 
Scriptures, though the popular notions of 
the Millennium were often rejected ; and 
ancient as u, II as modern writers, assailed 

the extravagant superstructure, not the 

Scriptural foundation of the doctrine.' 
During the interregnum in England, in the 

time of Cromwell, there arose a set of en- 
thusiasts, sometimes called M lllenarians, 
but more frequently I'iftli Monarchy Men, 
who expected the sudden appearance of 
Christ to establish on earth a new monarchy 
or kingdom. In consequence of tbii 



MIL 



MIL 



of them aimed at the subversion of all 
human government. In ancient history 
we read of four great monarchies, the As- 
syrian, Persian, Grecian, and the Roman ; 
and these men, believing that this new 
spiritual kingdom of Christ was to be the 
fifth, obtained the name by which they were 
called. They claimed to be the saints of 
God, and to have the dominion of saints, 
(Dan. vii. 27.) expecting that, when Christ 
was come into this kingdom, to begin his 
reign on earth, they, as his deputies, were 
to govern all things under him. They went 
so far as to give up their own Christian 
names, and assume others from Scripture, 
like the Manicheans of old. 

Distinguishing Tenets. — About the mid- 
dle of the fourth century, the Millenarians 
held the following tenets : 1. that the city 
of Jerusalem should be rebuilt, and that 
the land of Judea should be the habitation 
of those who were to reign on the earth a 
thousand years ; 2. that the first resurrec- 
tion was not to be confined to the martyrs, 
but that, after the fall of Antichrist, all 
the just were to rise, and all that were on 
the earth were to continue for that space 
of time ; 3. that Christ shall then come 
down from heaven, and be seen on earth, and 
reign there with his servants ; 4. that the 
saints, during this period, shall enjoy all 
the delights of a terrestrial paradise. 

These opinions were founded on several 
passages in Scripture, which the Millena- 
rians, among the fathers, understood in no 
other than a literal sense ; but which those 
moderns, who hold nearly the same opinion, 
consider as partly literal, and partly meta- 
phorical. Of these passages, that upon 
which the greatest stress has been laid, is 
perhaps Rev. xx. 1 — 7- This passage the 
ancient Millenarians took in a sense grossly 
literal, and taught, that, during the Millen- 
nium, the saints on earth were to enjoy 
every bodily delight. Most of the moderns, 
on the other hand, consider the power and 
pleasures of this kingdom as wholly spiri- 
tual ; and they represent them as not to 
commence till after the conflagration of the 
present earth. But that this last supposi- 
tion is a mistake, the following verses as- 
sure us ; for we are there told, that, ' when 
the thousand years are expired, Satan shall 
be loosed out of his prison, and shall go out 
to deceive the nations which are in the four 
quarters of the earth ;' and we have no rea- 
son to believe that he will have such power 
or such liberty in * the new heavens and 
the new earth, wherein dwelleth righteous- 
ness.' 

The opinions of the moderns on tnis sub- 
ject may be reduced to two. 1. Some be- 
lieve that Christ will reign personally on 
the earth, and that the prophecies of the 
Millennium point to a resurrection of mar- 
tyrs and other just men, to reign with him 
a thousand years in a visible kingdom. 2. 
686 



Others are inclined to believe, that, by the 
reign of Christ and the saints for a thou- 
sand years on earth, ' nothing more is meant 
than that, before the general judgment, the 
Jews shall be converted, — genuine Christ- 
ianity be diffused through all nations, and 
mankind enjoy that peace and happiness, 
which the faith and precepts of the Gospel 
are calculated to confer on all by whom 
they are sincerely embraced.' The state of 
the Christian church, say they, will be, for a 
thousand years before the general judgment, 
so pure and so widely extended, that, when 
compared with the state of the world in the 
ages preceding, it may, in the language of 
Scripture, be called a resurrection from the 
dead In support of this interpretation, 
they quote two passages from St. Paul, in 
which a conversion from Paganism to 
Christianity, and a reformation of life, is 
called a resurrection from the dead. (Rom. 
vi. 13. Ephes. v. 14.) There is indeed an 
order in the resurrection, (1 Cor. xv. 23.) 
but we no where observe mention made of 
a. first and second resurrection at the distance 
of 1000 years from each other : yet, were 
the Millenarian hypothesis well founded, 
the words should rather have run thus : 
' Christ the first fruits, then the martyrs at 
his coming, and a thousand years after- 
wards the residue of mankind, — then cometh 
the end,' &c. 

Mr. Joseph Mede, Dr. Gill, Bishop New- 
ton, Mr. Winchester, Mr. Eyre, Mr. Kett, 
&c, are advocates for the first of these opi- 
nions, and contend for the personal reign of 
Christ on earth. ' When these great events 
shall come to pass,' says Bishop Newton, 
' of which we collect from the prophecies, 
this to be the proper order ; the Protestant 
witnesses shall be greatly exalted, and the 
1260 years of their prophesying in sack- 
cloth, and of the tyranny of the beast, shall 
end together ; the conversion and restora- 
tion of the Jews succeed; then follows the 
ruin of the Ottoman empire ; and then the 
total destruction of Rome, and of Anti- 
christ. When these great events, I say, 
shall come to pass, then shall the kingdom of 
Christ commence, or the reign of the saints 
upon earth. So Daniel expressly informs 
us, that the kingdom of Christ and the saints 
will be raised upon the ruins of the king- 
dom of Antichrist. (Dan. vii. 26, 27-) So 
likewise St. John saith, (Rev. xx. 2 — 6.) that 
upon the final destruction of the beast and 
of the false prophet, " Satan is bound," &c. 
It is, I conceive, to these great events, the 
fall of Antichrist, the re-establishment of 
the Jews, and the beginning of the glorious 
Millennium, that the three different dates in 
Daniel of 1260 years, 1290 years, and 1335 
years, are to be referred. And as Daniel 
saith, (xii. 12.) " Blessed is he that waiteth 
and cometh to the 1335 years," so St. 
John saith, (Rev. xx. 6.) " Blessed and holy, 
is he that hath part in the first resurrection." 



MIL 



MIR 



Blessed and happy indeed will be this pe- 
riod : and it is very observable, that the 
martyrs and confessors of Jesus, in Papal 
as well as Pagan times, will be raised to par- 
take of this felicity. Then shall all those 
gracious promises in the Old Testament be 
fulfilled, — of the amplitude and extent, — of 
the peace and prosperity, — of the glory and 
happiness of the church in the latter days. 
Then, in the full sense of the words, (Rev. 
xi. 15.) " Shall the kingdoms of this world 
become the kingdoms of our Lord, and of 
his Christ, and he shall reign for ever and 
ever." According to tradition, these thou- 
sand years of the reign of Christ and the 
saints, will be the seventh Millenary of the 
world ; for as God created the world in six 
days, and rested on the seventh, so the 
world, it is argued, will continue 6000 years, 
and the seventh thousand will be the great 
Sabbatism, or holy rest to the people of 
God : " One day being with the Lord as a 
thousand years, and a thousand years as one 
day." (2 Pet. iii. 8.) According to tradi- 
tion too, these thousand years of the reign 
of Christ and the saints are the great day 
of judgment, in the morning or beginning 
whereof, shall be the coming of Christ in 
flaming fire, and the particular judgment of 
Antichrist, and the first resurrection ; and 
in the evening or conclusion whereof, shall be 
the general resurrection of the dead, small 
and great ; " and they shall be judged every 
man according to his works." ' 

Such is the representation of the Millen- 
nium, as given by those who embrace the 
opinion of Christ's reigning personally on 
earth during the period of one thousand years. 
But Dr. Whitby, Mr. Lowman, Dr. Priest- 
ley, &c. contend against the literal inter- 
pretation of the Millennium, both as to its 
nature and duration. Dr. Priestley, enter- 
taining an exalted idea of the advantages to 
which our nature may be destined, treats 
the limitation of the world's duration to se- 
ven thousand years, as a rabbinical fable ; 
and he intimates, that the thousand years 
may be interpreted prophetically, in which 
sense every day would signify a year, and 
the Millennium continue three hundred and 
sixty -five thousand years ! Again, he sup- 
poses that there will be no resurrection of 
any individuals, till the general resurrec- 
tion ; and that the Millennium implies only 
the revival of religion. It would seem, how- 
ever, that Dr. Priestley was inclined, at a 
later period of his life, to the personal reign 
of Christ. The author of the ' Illustrations 
of Prophecy' contends, that in the Millen- 
nium an amelioration of the human race will 
gradually take place, by natural means, 
throughout the world. 

On this subject, Mr. Evans seems to be 
correct when he says, ' that we cannot sug- 
gest our opinions with too great a degree of 
modesty.' Mr. Faber also observes, that 
1 respecting the yet future and mysterious 
687 



Millennium, the less that is said upon the 
subject the better. Unable myself to form 
the slightest conception of its specific na- 
ture, I shall weary neither my own nor my 
reader's patience with premature remarks 
upon it. That it will be a season of great 
blessedness is certain ; further than this we 
know nothing definitely.' 

The Millenarians do not form a sect dis- 
tinct from others, but their distinguishing 
tenet, in one view or other, prevails in a 
greater or less degree among most denomi- 
nations into which the Christian world is 
divided. Adam's Religious World, vol. iii. 
pp. 362 — 374 ; Mr. Robert Gray's Discourses, 
Discourse x. ; Bishop Newton's 25th and 
26lh Dissertations on the Prophecies. 

MINISTER, one who attends, or waits 
on another. Thus, Elisha was the minister 
of Elijah, and rendered him services of va- 
rious kinds (2 Kings iii. 11.); and Joshua 
was the servant of Moses. (Exod. xxiv. 
13. ; xxxiii. 11.) These persons by no means 
felt themselves degraded by their stations, 
but in due time succeeded to the offices of 
their masters. In like manner, John Mark 
was minister to Paul and Barnabas (Acts 
xiii. 5.). Christ is called a minister of the 
true, that is, the heavenly sanctuary. 

The office of the minister of the synagogue, 
(Luke iv. 20.) consisted in keeping the book 
of the law, in observing that those who read 
in it read correctly, &c. The Rabbins say, 
that he was the same as the angel of the 
church, or overseer. Lightfoot says, Baal 
Aruch expounds the chazan, or minister of 
the congregation, by sheliach hatzibbor, or 
angel of the congregation. Some under- 
stand the word chazan to answer to the 
Greek Siclkovoq, deacon. 

Ministers were servants, yet servants not 
menial, but honourable. Those who dis- 
pense the word, and conduct the service of 
God ; those who dispense the laws, and pro- 
mote the welfare of the community ; the 
holy angels, who, in obedience to the Divine 
commands, protect, preserve, succour, and 
benefit the godly ; are all ministers, bene- 
ficial ministers, to those under their charge. 
(Heb. viii. 2. Exod. xxx. 10. Levit xvi. 
15. 1 Cor. iv. 1. Rom. xiii. 6. Psalm civ. 
4.) Supplem. Addenda to Calmct's Diet. ; 
Prideaux, part i. book vi. 

MIRACLE has been defined, an event 
out of the ordinary and settled course of 
nature, and such as could not have been 
produced either by the operation of its 
genera] laws, or the combination of con- 
tinent circuinstamvs ; or, an operation 

performed by any particular agent, whisk 

transcend! his skill and power, and which 

required the assistance- of 1 aupat iialnral 
Being. 

Mr. Hume has insidiously or erroneously 
maintained, that a miracle is contrary to 

experience! bul in reality it ia only dif- 
ferent from experience. Kxpcricnco in- 



MIR 



MIR 



forms us, that one event has happened 
often ; testimony informs us, that another 
event has happened once, or oftener. That 
diseases should be generally cured by the 
application of external causes, and, some- 
times, at the mere word of a prophet, and 
without the visible application of causes, 
are facts not inconsistent with each other 
in the nature of things themselves, nor 
irreconcileable according to our ideas. Each 
fact may arise from its own proper cause ; 
each may exist independently of the other ; 
and each is known by its own proper proof, 
whether of sense or testimony. As secret 
causes often produce events contrary to 
those we do expect from experience, it is 
equally conceivable, that events should 
sometimes be produced which we do not 
expect. To pronounce, therefore, a miracle 
to be false, because it is different from ex- 
perience, is only to conclude against its 
general existence, from the very circum- 
stance which constitutes its particular na- 
ture ; for if it were not different from 
experience, where would be its singularity ? 
Or what particular proof could be drawn 
from it, if it happened according to the 
ordinary train of human events, or was 
included in the operation of the general 
laws of nature ? We grant that it does 
differ from experience ; but we do not pre- 
sume to make our experience the standard 
of the divine conduct. He that acknow- 
ledges a God, must at least admit the pos- 
sibility of a miracle. The Atheist, that 
makes him inseparable from what is called 
nature, and binds him to its laws by an 
insurmountable necessity ; that deprives 
him of will, and wisdom, and power, as 
a distinct and independent Being; may 
deny even the very possibility of a mi- 
raculous interposition, which can in any 
instance suspend or counteract those ge- 
neral laws by which the world is governed. 
But he who allows of a First Cause, in itself 
perfect and intelligent, abstractedly from 
those effects which his wisdom and power 
have produced, must, at the same time, 
allow that this Cause can be under no such 
restraints as to be debarred the liberty 
of controlling its laws as often as it sees 
fit. Surely the Being that made the world 
can govern it, or any part of it, in such 
a manner as he pleases ; and he that con- 
stituted the very laws by which it is in 
general conducted, may suspend the opera- 
tion of those laws in any given instance, 
or impress new powers on matter, in 
order to produce new and extraordinary 
effects. 

In judging of miracles there are certain 
criteria, peculiar to the subject, sufficient 
to conduct our inquiries, and warrant our 
determination. Assuredly they do not ap- 
peal to our ignorance, for they pre-sup- 
pose not only the existence of a general 
order of things, but our actual knowledge 
688 



of the appearance that order exhibits, and 
of the secondary material causes, from 
which it, in most cases, proceeds. If a 
miraculous event were effected by the im- 
mediate hand of God, and ye.t bore no 
mark of distinction from the ordinary 
effects of his agency, it would impress no 
conviction, and probably awaken no at- 
tention. Our knowledge of the ordinary 
course of things, though limited, is real; 
and therefore it is essential to a miracle, 
both that it differ from that course, and be 
accompanied with peculiar and unequivocal 
signs of such difference. We have been 
told, that the course of nature is fixed and 
unalterable ; and, therefore, it is not con- 
sistent with the immutability of God to 
perform miracles. But, surely, they who 
reason in this manner, beg the point in 
question. We have no right to assume, 
that the Deity has ordained such general 
laws as will exclude his interposition ; and 
we cannot suppose that he would forbear 
to interfere, where any important end could 
be answered. This interposition, though 
it controls, in particular cases, the energy, 
does not diminish the utility of those laws. 
It leaves them to fulfil their own proper 
purposes, and effects only a distinct pur- 
pose for which they were not calculated. 
If the course of nature implies the general 
laws of matter and motion, into which the 
most opposite phenomena may be resolved, 
it is certain, that we do not yet know 
them in their full extent; and, therefore, 
that events, which are related by judicious 
and disinterested persons, and at the same 
time imply no gross contradiction, are 
possible in themselves, and capable of a 
certain degree of proof. If the course of 
nature implies the whole order of events, 
which God has ordained for the govern- 
ment of the world, it includes both his 
ordinary and extraordinary dispensations, 
and among them miracles may have their 
place, as a part of the universal plan. It 
is, indeed, consistent with sound philosophy, 
and not inconsistent with pure religion, to 
acknowledge that they were disposed by 
the Supreme Being at the same time with 
the more ordinary effects of his power ; 
that their causes and occasions were ar- 
ranged with the same regularity ; and 
that, in reference chiefly to their con- 
comitant circumstances of person and 
times, to the specific ends for which they 
were employed, and to our idea of the 
immediate necessity there is for a divine 
Agent, miracles differ from common events, 
in which the hand of God acts as effica- 
ciously, though less visibly. On this con- 
sideration of the subject, miracles, instead 
of contradicting nature, form a part of it. 
All I object to is, that what our limited 
reason, and scanty experience may com- 
prehend, should be represented as a full 
and exact view of the possible or ac- 



MIR 



MIR 



tual varieties which exist in the works of 
God. 

If we be asked, whether miracles are 
credible ? we reply, that, abstractedly con- 
sidered, they are not totally incredible ; 
that they are capable of indirect proof 
from analogy ; and of direct, from testi- 
mony : that in the common and daily 
course of worldly affairs, events, the im- 
probability of which, antecedently to all 
testimony, was very great, are proved to 
have happened by the authority of com- 
petent and honest witnesses ; that the 
Christian miracles were objects of real 
and proper experience to those who saw 
them ; and that whatsoever the senses of 
mankind can perceive, their report may 
substantiate. Should it be asked, whether 
miracles were necessary ? and whether the 
end proposed to be effected by them could 
warrant so immediate and extraordinary 
an interference of the Almighty, as such 
extraordinary operations suppose ? to 
this we might answer, that, if the fact be 
established, all reasonings a priori con- 
cerning their necessity must be frivolous, 
and may be false. We are not capable of 
deciding on a question, which, however 
simple in appearance, is yet too complex 
in its parts, and too extensive in its object, 
to be fully comprehended by the human 
understanding. Whether God could, or 
could not, have effected all the ends de- 
signed to be promoted by the Gospel, 
without deviating from the common course 
of his Providence, and interfering with its 
general laws, is a speculation that a modest 
inquirer would carefully avoid ; for it car- 
ries on the very face of it a degree of 
presumption, totally unbecoming the state 
of a mortal being. Infinitely safer is it 
for us to acquiesce in what the Almighty 
has done, than to embarrass our minds with 
speculations about what he might have 
done. Inquiries of this kind are generally 
inconclusive, and always useless. They 
rest on no solid principles, are conducted 
by no fixed rules, and lead to no clear 
conviction. They begin from curiosity or 
vanity ; they are prosecuted amidst igno- 
rance and error ; and they frequently ter- 
minate in impious presumption, or uni- 
versal scepticism. God is the best, and, 
indeed, the only judge, how far miracles 
are proper to promote any particular de- 
sign of his Providence ; and how far that 
design would have been left unaccom- 
plished, if common and ordinary methods 
only had been pursued. So from the 
absence of miracles we may conclude, in 
any supposed case, that they were hoi 
necessary ; from their existence, supported 
by fair testimony, in any given case, we 
may infer with confidence that they are 
proper. A view of the state of tbe world 
m general, and of the Jewish nation in par- 
ticular, and an examination of the nature 
G89 



and tendency of the Christian religion, will 
point out very clearly the great expediency 
of a miraculous interposition: and when v,c 
reflect on the gracious and important ends 
that were to be effected by it, we shall be 
convinced that it was not an idle and use- 
less display of divine power ; but that while 
the means effected and confirmed the end, 
the end fully justified and illustrated the 
means. If we reflect on the almost irre- 
sistible force of prejudice, and the strong 
opposition it universally made to the es- 
tablishment of a new religion, on the de- 
molition of rites and ceremonies, which 
authority had made sacred, and custom had 
familiarized j if we reflect on the extent 
and importance, as well as the singularity, 
of the Christian plan ; what was its avowed 
purpose to effect, and what difficulties it 
was necessarily called to struggle with 
before that purpose could be effected ; how 
much it was opposed by the opinions and 
the practice of the generality of mankind ; 
by philosophy ; by superstition ; by corrupt 
passions, and inveterate habits ; by pride, 
and sensuality ; in short, by every engine 
of human influence, — whether formed by 
craft, or aided by power; if we seriously 
reflect on these things, and give them 
their due force, (and experience shows 
us that we can scarcely give them too 
much,) we shall be induced to admit even 
the necessity of a miraculous interposition, 
at a time when common means must in- 
evitably, in our apprehensions, have failed 
of success. 

The revelation of the divine will by 
inspired persons is, as such, miraculous ; 
and, therefore, before the adversaries of 
the Gospel can employ, with propriety, 
their objections to the particular miracles 
on which its credibility is rested, they 
should show the impossibility of any reve- 
lation. In whatever age the revelation is 
given, succeeding ages can know it only 
from testimony ; and if they admit, on the 
report of their fellow-creatures, that God 
had inspired any being with the preter- 
natural knowledge of his will, why should 
they deny that he had enabled tbe same 
being to heal the sick, or to cleanse the 
leprous? How, may it be asked, should 
the divine Teacher give a more direct and 
consistent proof of his preternatural com- 
mission, than by displaying those signs and 
wonder*, which mark the (inner of God ' 
That the apostles eould not be deceived, 
and that they had no temptation to deceive, 
has bflen repeatedly demonstrated. So pow- 
erful, indeed, is the proof adduced in sup 
port of their testimony, that the intid. la 
Of these latter days have been obliged to 
abandon the ground on which their pre 

decessors' itood i to disclaim all 
evidences Arising from tin character nil 
relation of eye-witness* * i and to m 
upon metaphysical, rather than hii 

> J 



MIR 



MIS 



principles, that miracles are utterly in- 
capable, in their own nature, of existing 
in any circumstances, or of being sup- 
ported by any evidence. Dr. White's Sermons, 
Sermon vii. pp. 284, &c, Notes pp. 1. li. &c. 

MIR'IAM, ona, Mapia.fi, signifies ex- 
alted ; otherwise, bitterness of the sea ; other- 
wise, myrrh of the sea; otherwise, lady, 
or mistress of the sea. Miriam, sister of 
Moses and Aaron, and daughter of Amram 
and Jochebed, was born about the year of 
the world 2424. She might be ten or 
twelve years old when her brother Moses 
was exposed on the banks of the Nile, 
since Miriam was watching there, and 
offered herself to Pharaoh's daughter to 
fetch her a nurse. The princess accepting 
the offer, Miriam fetched her own mother, 
to whom the young Moses was given to 
nurse. (Exod. ii. 4, 5, &c.) It is thought 
that Miriam married Hur, of the tribe of 
Judah ; but it does not appear that she had 
any children by him. 

Miriam had the gift of prophecy, as she 
insinuates, (Exod. xv. 20. Numb. xii. 2). 
" Hath the Lord indeed spoken only by 
Moses? hath he not spoken also by us?" 
After the passage of the Red Sea, Miriam 
led the choirs and dances of the women, 
and sung with them the canticle, Sing 
ye to the Lord, &c. whilst Moses sung it in 
another choir of men. (Exod. xv. 21.) 
When Zipporah, the wife of Moses, arrived 
in the camp of Israel, Miriam and Aaron 
disputed with her, speaking against Moses 
on her account. (Numb. xii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 
This conduct the Lord punished by visit- 
ing Miriam with a leprosy. Aaron inter- 
ceded with Moses for her recovery, and 
besought the Lord, who ordered her to be 
shut out of the camp seven days. 

We are acquainted with no subsequent 
particulars of the life of Miriam. Her 
death happened in the first month of the 
fortieth year after the Exodus, at the en- 
campment of Kadesh in the wilderness of 
Zin. (Numb. xx. 1.) The people mourned 
for her, and she was there buried. 

MISHNA, or Misna, natf/a, signifies 
repetition, and is properly the code of the 
Jewish civil law. The Mishna contains 
the text; and the Gemara, which is the 
second part of the Talmud, contains the 
commentaries : so that the Gemara is, as it 
were, a glossary on the Mishna. The 
Mishna consists of various traditions of the 
Jews, and of explanations of several pas- 
sages of Scripture. These traditions serv- 
ing as an explication of the written law, 
and supplementary to it, are said to have 
been delivered to Moses during the time 
of his abode upon the Mount ; which he 
afterwards communicated to Aaron, Ele- 
azar, and his servant Joshua. By these 
they were transmitted to the seventy elders ; 
by them to the prophets, who communi- 
cated them to the men of the Great San- 



hedrim, from whom the wise men of Je- 
rusalem and Babylon received them. Ac- 
cording to Dr. Prideaux, they passed from 
Jeremiah to Baruch, from him to Ezra, and 
from Ezra to the men of the Great Syna- 
gogue, the last of whom was Simon the 
Just, who delivered them to Antigonus of 
Socho. From him they came down in 
regular succession to Simeon, who took our 
Saviour in his arms ; to Gamaliel, at whose 
feet Paul was brought up ; and last of all, to 
Rabbi Judah the Holy, who committed them 
to writing in the Mishna. 

Dr. Prideaux, rejecting this Jewish fic- 
tion, observes, that after the death of Simon 
the Just, about 299 years before Christ, 
arose the Tannaim or Mishnical doctors, 
who, by their comments and conclusions, 
added to the number of those traditions 
which had been received and allowed by 
Ezra and the men of the Great Synagogue. 
Hence, towards the middle of the second 
century after Christ, under the reign of the 
Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, it was 
found necessary to commit these traditions 
to writing. This was requisite, because 
the traditions had been so much increased, 
that they could no longer be preserved by 
the memory of man ; and also because their 
country had suffered considerably in the 
reign of the emperor Adrian, and many of 
their schools being dissolved, and their 
learned men cut off, the usual method of 
preserving their traditions had failed. Lest, 
therefore, the traditions should be forgotten 
and lost, it was resolved that they should be 
collected and committed to writing. Rabbi 
Judah, who was at that time rector of the 
school at Tiberias in Galilee, and president 
of the Sanhedrim at that place, undertook 
the work. He compiled it in six books, 
each consisting of several tracts, which al- 
together form the number of sixty-three. 
Doctor Prideaux computes that the Mishna 
was composed about the year 150 of our 
Lord. Dr. Lightfoot, however, says, that 
Rabbi Judah compiled the Mishna about 
the year of Christ 190, in the latter end 
of the reign of Commodus, or, as some 
compute, in the year of Christ 220. Dr. 
Lardner is of opinion, that this work could 
not have been finished before the year 190, 
or later. 

Thus the book called the Mishna was 
formed ; a book which was received by 
the Jews with great veneration, and which 
has been always held in high esteem among 
them. Their opinion of it is, that all the 
particulars which it contains were dictated 
by God himself to Moses upon Mount Si- 
nai, as well as the written word itself; and, 
consequently, that it must be of the same 
divine authority, and ought to be as reli- 
giously observed. See Gemara, Talmud. 
Prideaux 's Connection, vol. ii. p. 46*8, &c. 
edit. 1749 ; Lardner' 's Collection of Jewish and 
Heathen Testimonies, vol. i. p. 178. 



MIS 



MIZ 



MISREPRESENTATION, the act of 

wilfully representing a thing otherwise than 
it is. We ought to be careful not to mis- 
represent the actions of others ; and we 
should, with equal solicitude, avoid any 
misrepresentations of their words. Verbal 
misrepresentations may be productive of 
the greatest injury, and are indicative of 
radical malevolence. Words in themselves, 
and taken in their insulated state, are cap- 
able of diverse meanings ; and he who re- 
ports any impressions without noticing what 
went before, or what followed after, may 
easily pervert the most harmless into the 
most criminal expressions; or cause the 
foulest inferences to be drawn from the 
most innocent discourse. What confusion 
and inquietude in society, what suspensions 
of confidence, what interruptions of good 
neighbourhood, what bitterness and ani- 
mosity, are occasioned by verbal misrepre- 
sentations ! How often has the fondest 
love been thus blighted, and the warmest 
friendship turned cold ! The perverse con- 
struction, the imperfect repetition, or the 
mutilated statement, of what others have 
said, is one of the common expedients 
which the artful and treacherous know so 
well how to employ to serve their own sin- 
ister ends, to promote their own interested 
views, and to produce endless feuds, inex- 
tinguishable jealousies, and irreconcilable 
animosities. As the words of men may 
thus be misrepresented to serve the most 
mischievous purposes, it earnestly behoves 
us, on all occasions, when we repeat the 
discourse of others, to adhere as closely as 
possible to the words, and never wilfully to 
deviate from the sense. We ought to be- 
ware of stating that to have been designed 
as a positive declaration, which was intended 
only as a casual supposition ; we are not to 
represent that as a literal affirmation, which 
was meant only as an incidental illustration, 
or a figurative ornament ; for it is possible 
in this way to render an exact copy of the 
words, and yet a malicious perversion of 
the sense. But when we report what 
others have said, and particularly when the 
interest of the individual is in the least 
degree concerned in the fidelity of the re- 
presentation, we are not only to repeat the 
expressions that were used, but the sense 
which they were at the time designed to 
bear, and which was evident either from the 
context of the discourse, or from the man- 
ner of the speaker. 

By subtle queries, invidious remarks, and 
treacherous insinuations, the slanderer in- 
fuses doubt into the mind of one, respect- 
ing the integrity or the conduct of another ; 
and thus he often effects his purpose with 
more safety than he could by a more open 
and direct attack. Thus he gradually, but 
surely, undermines the reputation of his 
neighbour, or supplants those who seem 
to stand in the way of his own advancement. 
691 



As secret is more dangerous than open 
hostility, so the characters of men are often 
more irreparably injured by calumnious 
suggestions, than by unreserved and un- 
qualified calumnies. Sometimes slander is 
covered in the garb of praise ; but then the 
praise is never bestowed except where it is 
likely to prove injurious to the person, by 
the aversions which it occasions, or the jea- 
lousy which it inflames. We have all many 
faults, but the slanderer aggravates them 
by his description. Regardless of an ad- 
herence to truth, he distorts and magni- 
fies whatever he relates. Where the habit 
of falsehood, as in the base calumniator, 
is joined with a malevolent disposition, 
venial defects are magnified into criminal 
atrocities ; and a trivial speck, almost too 
small to be noticed, is spoken of as an in- 
curable ulceration. The malevolence of the 
slanderer is never willing to balance the 
vices with the virtues, the defects with the 
perfections, of the human character; but 
he censures and condemns without mode- 
ration or indulgence. Men cannot insure 
the effect which they intend, the issue of 
their actions, or the success of their exer- 
tions. We may deserve, but we cannot 
command, success. Good endeavours and 
honest efforts are in our power, but the 
ultimate event is in the hands of God. But 
when things go wrong, when good endea- 
vours are frustrated, and pernicious effects 
issue from good principles or meritorious 
attempts, which could neither have been 
prevented nor foreseen, then how apt are 
men to impute the unexpected effect to de- 
liberate contrivance, and to slander the in- 
tention which they ought to praise ! Thus, 
those who are ever ready to calumniate 
what merits praise, impute the good which 
follows any particular course of action 
to chance, and the evil to design. 1 •'«•/- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. p. 324 — 
329. 

MITYLENE, TSUrvXyvrj, signifies purify, 
cleansing, or press. Mitylene was a large 
and beautiful city of the island of Lesbos. 
It claimed the primacy of the other cities; 
and, at length, it has given its name bo the 
island itself. It was celebrated for learn- 
ing and letters, no less than for power. 
Strabo and .Mela describe the island of 
Lesbos as being called Mitylene in their 
time ; ami if it had this name in the days of 
St. Luke, then perhaps that writer may 
mean the island rather than the city, when 
he says, ' We came to Mitylene.' (Acta x\. 
14.) Taylor's Sa pay. 

MtZ'RAIM,OTMISRAIM,crwa,M<tf- 

apttfl, Signifies tribulations, or tefin is >tr t light- 
ened or blocked up. Mi/raim was tin- son 
of Ham, and father of I.udim, Anamim, 
Lehabim. Naphtuhim. I'athrmmn. ami ( 
luhim. (Gen. \. % -13.) RgTpl ' s BOm- 
monly called in Scripture the land of Mi/.- 
raim ; ami it is still denominated b] the 
I y 2 



MOA 



MOA 



Arabians and other nations Misr. The 
name Mizraim is also sometimes used for 
the land of Egypt, sometimes for him 
that first peopled it, and sometimes for 
the inhabitants themselves. The word 
Mizraim, which is in the dual number, may 
express both Egypts, the superior and in- 
ferior, or the two parts of this country, as 
divided by the Nile. The city of Cairo, the 
capital of Egypt, as well as Egypt itself, is 
to this day called Misr by the Arabians. 
But the natives call it Chemi, that is, the 
Land of Cham, or Ham, as it is also some- 
times called by the Hebrews. (Psal. lxxviii. 
12. ; cv. 23. ; cvi. 22.) 

The city of Memphis, in Hebrew Moph 
or Noph, and which was long the capital 
of Egypt, had also the name of Misr. The 
Oriental geographers say, that from the 
time of the conquests of Alexander, it had 
the name of Bablion or Babylon, in memory 
of the ancient Babylon of Chaldaea. But 
the cities of Memphis, Babylon, and Cairo, 
though not far from one another, and built 
from the ruins of each other, are not strictly 
in the same place. Cairo is east of the Nile, 
and old Memphis west. 

MO'AB, nNira, signifies of his father. In- 
stead of Moab, the ancients pronounced 
Meab, the waters of the father, the son of the 
father ; waters representing generation. 

Moab was the son of Lot, and of his 
eldest daughter. (Gen. xix. 31, &c.) He 
was born about the same time as Isaac, in 
the year of the world 2108. He was fa- 
ther of the Moabites, whose habitation 
was beyond Jordan and the Dead Sea, on 
both sides the river Arnon. Their capital 
city was situated on that river ; and was 
called Ar or Areopolis, or Ariol of Moab, 
or Rabbah Moab, that is, the capital of 
Moab, or Kir-haresh, that is, a city with 
brick walls. This country was originally 
possessed by a race of giants called Emim. 
(Deut. ii. 11, 12.) The Moabites conquered 
them, and afterwards the Amorites took a 
part from the Moabites. (Judg. xi. 13.) 
Moses conquered that part which belonged 
to the Amorites, and gave it to the tribe 
of Reuben. The Moabites were spared 
by Moses, for God had restricted him. 
(Deut. ii. 9.) But there always was a great 
antipathy between the Moabites and the 
Israelites, which occasioned many wars 
between them. Balaam seduced the 
Hebrews to idolatry and uncleanness, by 
means of the daughters of Moab, (Numb, 
xxv. 1, 2.) and Balak, king of this people, 
endeavoured to prevail on Balaam to curse 
Israel. God ordained, that the Moabites 
should not enter into the congregation of 
his people, because they had the inhuma- 
nity to refuse the Israelites a passage 
through their country, nor would supply 
them with bread and water in their neces- 



sity. 



Eglon, king of the Moabites, was one of 
692 



the first that oppressed Israel after the 
death of Joshua. Ehud killed Eglon, and 
Israel expelled the Moabites. (Judg. iii. 12, 
&c.) Hanun, king of the Ammonites, 
having insulted David's ambassadors, David 
made war against him, and subdued Moab 
and Ammon : under which subjection they 
continued till the separation of the ten 
tribes. The Ammonites and the Moabites 
continued in subjection to the kings of 
Israel to the death of Ahab. 

Presently after the death of Ahab, the 
Moabites began to revolt. (2 Kings iii. 4, 5.) 
Mesha, king of Moab, refused the tribute of 
an hundred thousand lambs, and as many 
rams, which till then had been customarily 
paid, either yearly, or at the beginning of 
every reign ; which of these two is not 
clearly expressed in Scripture. The reign 
of Ahaziah was too short to make war with 
them; but Jehoram, son of Ahab, and 
brother to Ahaziah, having ascended the 
throne, thought of reducing them to obe- 
dience. He invited Jehoshaphat, king of 
Judah, who with the king of Edom, then 
his vassal, entered Moab, where they were 
near perishing with thirst, but were mira- 
culously relieved. (2 Kings iii. 16, &c.) 

It is not easy to perceive what were the 
circumstances of the Moabites from this 
time ; but Isaiah, at the beginning of the 
reign of king Hezekiah, threatens them 
with a calamity, which was to happen three 
years after his prediction, and which pro- 
bably referred to the war that Shalmaneser 
king of Assyria made with the ten tribes, 
and the other people beyond Jordan. 

Amos (i. 13, &c.) also foretold great 
miseries to them, which, probably, they 
suffered under Uzziah and Jotham, kings of 
Judah, or under Shalmaneser, (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 7> 8. ; xxvii. 5.) or lastly, the war of 
Nebuchadnezzar, five years after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem : we believe this 
prince carried them captive beyond the 
Euphrates, as the prophets had threat- 
ened, (Jerem. ix. 26. ; xii. 14, 15. ; xxv. 
11, 12.; xlviii. 47-; xlix. 3. 6. 39.; 16.) 
and that Cyrus sent them home again, 
as he did the rest of the captives. After 
their return from captivity, they multiplied, 
and fortified themselves, as the Jews and 
other neighbouring people did ; still in 
subjection to the kings of Persia, afterwards 
conquered by Alexander the Great, and in 
obedience to the kings of Syria and Egypt 
successively, and finally to the Romans. 
There is a probability also, that, in the later 
times of the Jewish republic, they obeyed 
the Asmonean kings, and afterwards Herod 
the Great. 

The principal deities of the Moabites 
were Chemosh and Baal-peor. The Scrip- 
ture speaks of Nebo, of Baal-meon, and of 
Baal-dibon, as gods of the Moabites : but it 
is likely these are rather names of places 
where Chemosh and Peor were worshipped ; 



MOD 



MOD 



and that Baal-dibon, Baal-meon, and Nebo, 
are no other than Chemosh adored at 
Dibon, or at Meon, or on Mount Nebo. 

MODERATION imports such proper 
government of our passions and pleasures, 
as shall prevent us from running into ex- 
tremes of any kind, and shall produce a 
calm and temperate frame of mind. Mo- 
deration ought to take place in our wishes, 
pursuits, expectations, pleasures, and pas- 
sions. 

1. We should be moderate in our wishes. 
The active mind of man is seldom or never 
satisfied with its present condition, how 
prosperous soever. Originally formed for 
a wider range of objects, for a higher sphere 
of enjoyments, it finds itself, in every situ- 
ation of fortune, straitened and confined. 
Sensible of deficiency in its state, it is ever 
sending forth the fond desire, the aspiring 
wish, after something beyond what is en- 
joyed at present. Assuredly, there is nothing 
unlawful in our wishing to be freed from 
whatever is disagreeable, and to obtain a 
fuller enjoyment of the comforts of life. 
But when these wishes are not tempered by 
reason, they are in danger of precipitating 
us into extravagance and folly. If we suffer 
our fancy to create to itself worlds of ideal 
happiness ; if we feed our imagination with 
plans of opulence and splendour far beyond 
our rank; if we fix our wishes on certain 
stages of high advancement, or certain de- 
grees of uncommon reputation or distinction, 
as the sole stations of felicity ; the assured 
consequence will be, that we shall become 
unhappy in our present state, unfit for 
acting the part and discharging the duties 
that belong to it ; we shall discompose the 
peace and order of our minds, and foment 
many hurtful passions. Here, then, let mo- 
deration begin its reign, by bringing within 
reasonable bounds the wishes that we form. 
As soon as they become extravagant, let us 
check them by proper reflections on the 
fallacious nature of those objects which the 
world hangs out to allure desire. 

2. We should be moderate in our pursuits. 
When the active pursuits in which we en- 
gage rise beyond moderation, they fill the 
world with great disorders, often with fla- 
grant crimes. Yet, all ambition is not to be 
condemned; nor ought high pursuits, on 
every occasion, to be checked. Some men are 
formed by nature, for rising into conspicuous 
stations of life. In following the impulse of 
their minds, and properly exerting the 
talents with which God has blessed them, 
there is room for ambition to act in a lau- 
dable sphere, and to become the instrument 
of much public good. But this may safely 
be pronounced, that the bulk of men are 
ready to over-rate their own abilities) ami 
to imagine themselves equal to higher 
things than they were ever designed for by 
nature. We should, therefore, he sober in 
fixing our aims, and planning oui 
C93 



pursuits. We should beware of being led 
aside from the plain path of sound and 
moderate conduct, by those false lights 
which self-flattery is always ready to hang 
out. By aiming at a mark too high, we 
may fall short of what it was in our power 
to have reached. Instead of attaining to 
eminence, we may not only expose our- 
selves to derision, but bring upon our heads 
manifold disasters. 

3. We should be moderate in our expec- 
tations. When our state is flourishing, and 
the course of events proceeds according to 
our wish, we ought not to suffer our minds 
to be vainly lifted up. We ought not to 
flatter ourselves with high prospects of the 
increasing favours of the world, and the 
continuing applause of men. By want of 
moderation in our hopes, we not only in- 
crease dejection when disappointment comes, 
but we accelerate disappointment ; we bring 
forward, with greater speed, disagreeable 
changes in our state. For the natural con- 
sequence of presumptuous expectation, is 
rashness in conduct. He, who indulges con- 
fident security, of course neglects due pre- 
cautions against the dangers that threaten 
him ; and his fall will be foreseen and pre- 
dicted. He not only exposes himself un- 
guarded to dangers ; but he multiplies them 
against himself. By presumption and 
vanity, he either provokes enmity or incurs 
contempt. A temperate spirit, and mode- 
rate expectations, are the best safeguard of 
the mind in this uncertain and changing 
state. They enable us to pass through the 
world with most comfort. When we rise in 
the world, they contribute to our elevation ; 
and if we fall, they render our fall the 
lighter. 

4. We should be moderate in our plea- 
sures. It is an invariable law of our pre- 
sent condition, that every pleasure which is 
pursued to excess converts itself into poison. 
What was intended for the cordial and re- 
freshment of human life, through want of 
moderation, we turn to its bane. No sooner 
do we pass the line which temperance has 
drawn, than pernicious effects succeed. 
Could the monuments of death be laid open 
to our view, they would read a lectuii' in 
favour of moderation, much more powerful 
than any that the most eloquent preacher 
tan give. We should behold the gHLVefl 
peopled with the victims of intemperanc e , 
we should behold those chambers of dark- 
ness hung round, on every side, with the 
trophies of luxury, drunkenness, and sen- 
suality. So numerous should in find those 
martyrs of iniquity, that il may safely he 
asserted, where war or pestilence has slain 

its thousands, intemperate pleasure has 

slain its ten thousands. 

.">. We should be moderate in all our 

possums. This exercise of moderation is the 

more requisite, heeause e\nv paSftioa in 
human Ratll 



MOL 



MOL 



run into excess. All passion implies a 
violent emotion of mind. Of course it is 
apt to derange the regular course of our 
ideas, and to produce confusion within. 
Of some passions, such as anger and resent- 
ment, the excess is so obviously dangerous, 
as loudly to call for moderation. He who 
gives himself up to the impetuosity of such 
passions, without restraint, is universally 
condemned. Of the insidious growth of 
passion, therefore, we have great reason 
to beware. Let us be persuaded, that 
moments of passion are always moments 
of delusion ; that nothing truly is what it 
then seems to be ; that all the opinions 
which we then form are erroneous; and 
that all the judgments which we then pass 
are extravagant. Let moderation accustom 
us to wait till the fumes of passion be 
spent ; till the mist which it has raised 
begin to be dissipated. On no occasion 
let us imagine that strength of mind is 
shown by violence of passion. It is the 
strength of one who is in the delirium 
of a fever, or under the disease of mad- 
ness. True strength of mind is shown 
in governing and resisting passion, and 
acting, on the most trying occasions, ac- 
cording to the dictates of conscience and 
right reason. Blair's Sermons, vol. iii. serm. 
xii. 

MOLINISTS, a sect in the Romish 
church, who follow the doctrine and sen- 
timents of the Jesuit Molina, relating to 
sufficient and efficacious grace. In the 
year 1588, he published a book to show 
that the operations of divine grace are 
entirely consistent with the freedom of 
human will ; and he introduced a new 
kind of hypothesis to remove the diffi- 
culties attending the doctrines of predes- 
tination and liberty, and to reconcile the 
jarring opinions of Augustinians, Thomists; 
Semi - Pelagians, and other contentious 
divines. He affirmed that the decree of 
predestination to eternal glory was founded 
on a previous knowledge and consideration 
of the merits of the elect ; that the grace, 
from whose operation these merits are 
derived, is not efficacious by its own in- 
trinsic power only, but also by the consent 
of our own will, and because it is adminis- 
tered in those circumstances in which the 
Deity, by that branch of his knowledge 
which is called seientia media, foresees 
that it will be efficacious. The kind of 
prescience, denominated in the schools 
seientia media, is that foreknowledge of 
future contingents that arises from an 
acquaintance with the nature and facul- 
ties of rational beings, of the circumstances 
in which they shall be placed, of the ob- 
jects that shall be presented to them, and 
of the influence which these circumstances 
and objects must have on their actions. 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist, vol iii. pp. 475, 
426. 



MO'LOCH, *jb», signifies king. Mo- 
loch, Molech, Milcom, or Melchom, was 
a god of the Ammonites. The word Mo- 
loch, signifies Icing, and Melchom, signifies 
their king. Moses in several places forbids 
the Israelites, under the penalty of death, 
to dedicate their children to Moloch, by 
making them pass through the fire, in 
honour of that god. (Lev. xviii. 21. ; xx. 2, 
3, 4, 5.) God himself threatens to pour out 
his wrath against such a man. There is 
great probability that the Hebrews were 
addicted to the worship of this deity, even 
before their coming out of Egypt, since 
Amos, (v. 26.) and after him St. Stephen, 
(Acts vii. 43.) reproaches them with having 
carried in the wilderness the tabernacle 
of their god Moloch. Solomon built a 
temple to Moloch, upon the Mount of 
Olives, (1 Kings xi. 7-) ; and Manasseh, a 
long time after, imitated his impiety, 
making his son pass through the fire in 
honour of Moloch. (2 Kings xxi. 3, 4.) It 
was chiefly in the valley of Tophet and 
Hinnom, east of Jerusalem, that such 
idolatrous worship was paid. (Jerem. xix. 
5, 6, &c.) 

Some are of opinion that they contented 
themselves with making their children 
leap over a fire sacred to Moloch ; by 
this they consecrated them to some false 
deity; and, by this lustration, they puri- 
fied them; this being an usual ceremony 
among the heathens on other occasions. 
Some believe that they made them pass 
through two fires opposite each other, for 
the same purpose. Others maintain that 
they rarely burnt their children as sacri- 
fices to Moloch, (Psalm cvi. 37- Isaiah lvii. 
5. Ezek. xvi. 20, 21. ; xxiii. 37. 39.) ; it is 
said, (2 Kings xvii. 31.) that the inhabit- 
ants of Sepharvaim burnt their children in 
the fire to Anammelech and Adrammelech, 
their gods. It is, however, supposed that 
the Scripture expression, " causing the chil- 
dren to pass through the fire," may signify 
carrying them over the fire, as Sonnerat 
mentions to have been customary in India. 
By this means they were not destroyed, nor 
injured, except by being profaned. Mr. 
Bellamy observes, that the custom of pass- 
ing the children through fire to Moloch, 
was similar to that of passing children 
through water at this day in baptism, as 
a sign that they are received into the 
church. The Ammonites being worship- 
pers of the solar fire represented by this 
idol, this passing them before the fire which 
was burning at his altar, was an outward 
sign that these children were considered 
as belonging to that religion It may, 
however, be doubted, whether the ex- 
pression " burned," which occurs in some 
parts of Scripture, should be taken in a 
milder sense than that of slaying by fire. 

When David conquered the Ammonites, 
(1 Chron. xx. 2.) he took the crown of 



MON 



MON 



their god Milcom, which weighed a talent 
of gold, and made a crown of* it for him- 
self. The great weight of this crown 
renders it probable, that David did not 
wear it upon his head, but caused it to be 
hung upon his throne, over his head. See 
Crown. 

Some believe that Moloch was the same 
as Saturn, to whom it is well known that 
human sacrifices were offered. Some think 
he was Mercury, some Venus, some Mars 
or Mithra; but the most probable opinion 
is, that Moloch signified the sun, or the 
king of heaven. Calraet's Diet. ; Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Diet. No. li. 
p. 99 ; Bellamy's History of all Religions, 
p. 32. 

MONASTERY, a convent or house built 
for the reception of religious orders ; whether 
it be abbey, priory, nunnery, or the like. 
Monastery is only properly applied to the 
houses of monks, mendicant friars, and 
nuns; the rest are more properly called 
religious houses. The houses belonging to 
the several religious orders which obtained 
in England and Wales, were cathedrals, 
colleges, abbeys, priories, preceptories, 
commanderies, hospitals, friaries, hermi- 
tages, chantries, and free chapels. These 
were under the direction and management 
of various officers. When William the 
Conqueror came over into England, he 
found about a third part of the lands in the 
possession of the clergy. Upwards of three 
thousand one hundred and eighty religious 
houses were suppressed by Henry VIII. 
and his predecessors. It is computed that 
fifty thousand persons were contained in 
these several religious houses. The sum 
total of the clear yearly revenue of the 
several religious houses, at the time of 
their dissolution, of which we have any 
accounts, seems to have been, 140,785/. (is. 
3fd. As the value of money is now seven 
or eight times what it was in the days of 
Henry VIII., we cannot reckon the whole 
at less than a million sterling a year. Be- 
sides this, there were many other religious 
foundations dissolved, of which we have no 
account. The plate and goods of different 
kinds, which came into the hands of the 
king at the same time, were of immense 
value. 

As to the merits of these institutions, 
authors are much divided. While some 
have considered them as beneficial to 
learning, piety, and benevolence, others 
have thought them very injurious. Mr. 
Gilpin, speaking of Glastonbury Abbey, 
observes, ' Its fraternity is said to have 
consisted of five hundred established monks, 
besides nearly as many retainers on the 
abbey. Above four hundred children were 
not only educated in it, but entirely main- 
tained. Strangers from all parts of Eu- 
rope were liberally received, classed ac- 
cording to their sex and nation, and might 
695 



consider the hospitable roof under which 
they lodged as their own. Five hundred 
travellers, with their horses, have been 
lodged at once within its walls ; while 
the poor, from every side of the country, 
waited the ringing of the alms-bell ; when 
they flocked in crowds, young and old, to 
the gate of the monastery, where they re- 
ceived, every morning, a plentiful pro- 
vision for themselves and their families : — 
all this appears great and noble. On the 
other hand, when we consider five hundred 
persons bred up in indolence, and lost to 
the commonwealth ; when we consider that 
these houses were the great nurseries of 
superstition, bigotry, and ignorance ; the 
stews of sloth, stupidity, and perhaps in- 
temperance ; when we consider that the 
education received in them had not the 
least tincture of useful learning, good 
manners, or true religion, hut tended rather 
to vilify and disgrace the human mind ; 
when we consider that the pilgrims and 
strangers who resorted thither were idle 
vagabonds, who got nothing abroad that 
was equivalent to the occupations they 
left at home ; and when we consider, lastly, 
that indiscriminate alms-giving is not real 
charity, but an avocation from labour and 
industry, checking every idea of exertion, 
and filling the mind with abject notions, 
we are led to acquiesce in the fate of these 
foundations, and view their ruins, not only 
with a picturesque eye, but with moral and 
religious satisfaction.' See Monk. (iil- 
pin's Observations on the Western Parts of 
England, p. 138, 139; Btirn's Eccles. Law, 
vol. ii. pp. 69, &c. ; Buck's Theolog. Diet. 
vol. ii. p. 152. 

MONEY. The Scripture often speaks 
of gold, silver, brass, or certain sums of 
money, of purchases made with money, or 
of current money, oi' money of a certain 
weight; but we do not observe coined or 
stamped money till late: which has induced 
a belief, that the ancient Hebrews took gold 
and silver only by weight. They considered 
only the purity of the metal, and not the 
stamp. 

The most ancient manner of commerce 
was by way of barter, or exchanging one 
sort of merchandise for another. One 
man gave what he could spare to another, 
who gave bin) in return what he also did 
not want. Afterwards, the more precious 
metals were used in traffic, as things w hose 
values are more generally known and 

stated. Lastly, they contrived to give 
this metal a certain mark, a certain 
and a certain degree of, alloy, to ti\ its 
value, anil to save buyers and sellers tin- 
trouble of weighing and ix.nnii. 
metal. 

Abraham weighs oul four hundred she- 
kids of silver to purchase Sarah's tomb, 

((ien. xxiii. lo, Hi. ); and thi Scripture 
observes, that he paid this in CUXTttkl 



MON 



MON 



money to the merchant. Joseph was sold 
by his brethren to the Midianites for 
twenty pieces of silver. (Gen. xxxvii. 28.) 
The brethren of Joseph bring back with 
them into Egypt the money they found in 
their sacks, in the same weight as they had 
given. (Gen. xliii. 21.) Isaiah describes 
the wicked weighing silver, in a balance, to 
make an idol of it, (Isaiah xlvi. 6.) ; and 
Jeremiah (xxxii. 10.) weighs seventeen 
pieces of silver in a pair of scales, to pay 
for a field he had bought. In these and 
many other passages, there are only these 
three things mentioned : 1. The metal is 
gold or silver, and never copper, which 
was not used in traffic as money. 2. The 
weight, a talent, a shekel, a gerah or 
obolus, of the weight of the sanctuary, and 
of the king's weight. 3. The alloy, of 
pure or fine gold and silver, and of good 
alloy, as received by the merchant. It is 
nowhere spoken of the impression or of 
the coinage ; but it is said, they weighed 
the silver or other commodities, by the 
shekel and the talent. This shekel, there- 
fore, and this talent, were not fixed and 
determined pieces of money, but weights 
that were applied to all things used in 
commerce. 

It is generally thought that Darius, son 
of Hystaspes, first began to coin gold ; yet 
the inference that the money which Abra- 
ham paid for the sepulchre of Machpelah, 
was not coined because it was weighed, 
does not appear to be quite conclusive. 
Ezekiel (xlv. 12.) reduces the gerah and 
maneh or mina, which were originally 
foreign money, and probably Persian, to 
the weight of that of the Hebrews. Under 
the dominion of the Persians, the Hebrews 
were scarcely at liberty to coin money of 
their own, being under the obedience of 
these princes, and very low in their own' 
country. They were still less able under 
the Chaldseans during the Babylonish cap- 
tivity: nor did they afterwards under the 
Grecians, to whom they were subject till 
the time of Maccabeus, to whom Antiochus 
Sidetes granted the privilege of coining 
money in Judea. (1 Mac. xv. 6.) This is 
the first Hebrew money, properly so called, 
of which we know. There were shekels 
and demi-shekels of silver. 

MONK, anciently denoted a person who 
retired from the world to give himself up 
entirely to God, and to live in solitude and 
abstinence. The word is derived from the 
Latin monachus, and that from the Greek 
fiovaxog, ' solitary.' 

Amongst the innumerable corruptions of 
Christianity which have prevailed in the 
Catholic church, there is none that makes 
a more conspicuous figure than the institu- 
tion of, monachism or monkery ; and, if 
traced to its origin, it will be found strik- 
ingly to exemplify the truth of the maxim, 
that, as some of the largest and loftiest trees 
696 



spring from very small seeds, so the most 
extensive and wonderful effects sometimes 
arise from very inconsiderable causes. In 
times of persecution, during the first ages 
of the church, whilst 'the heathen raged, 
and the rulers took counsel together against 
the Lord, and against his anointed,' many 
pious Christians, male and female, mairied 
and unmarried, justly accounting that no 
human felicity ought to come in competi- 
tion with their fidelity to Christ, and diffi- 
dent of their own ability to persevere in 
resisting the temptations with which they 
were incessantly harassed by their persecu- 
tors, took the resolution to abandon their 
professions, and worldly prospects, and, 
whilst the storm lasted, to retire to unfre- 
quented places, far from the haunts of men, 
the married with or without their wives, as 
agreed between them, that they might enjoy 
in quietness their faith and hope, and, ex- 
empt from the temptations to apostacy, 
employ themselves principally in the wor- 
ship and service of their Maker. The cause 
was reasonable, and the motive praise- 
worthy ; but the reasonableness arose solely 
from the circumstances. When the latter 
were changed, the former vanished, and 
the motive could no longer be the same. 
When there was not the same danger in 
society, there was not the same occasion to 
seek security in solitude. Accordingly, 
when persecution ceased, and the profession 
of Christianity was rendered perfectly safe, 
many returned without blame from their 
retirement, and resumed their stations in 
society. Some, indeed, familiarized by 
time to a solitary life, at length preferred, 
through habit, what they had originally 
adopted through necessity. They did not, 
however, waste their time in idleness ; they 
supported themselves by their labour, and 
gave the surplus in charity. But they 
never thought of flattering themselves by 
vows or engagements, because, by so do- 
ing, they must have exposed their souls to 
new temptations, and perhaps greater dan- 
gers. It was, therefore, a very different 
thing from that system of monkery which 
afterwards became so prevalent, though, in 
all probability, it suggested the idea of it, 
and may be considered as the first step 
towards it. 

Egypt, the fruitful parent of superstition, 
afforded the first example, strictly speak- 
ing, of the monastic life. Anthony, an illi- 
terate youth of that country, in the times 
of Athanasius, distributed his patrimony, 
deserted his family and house, and took up 
his residence among the tombs, and in a 
ruined tower, and, after a long and painful 
noviciate, at length advanced three days' 
journey into the desert, to the eastward of 
the Nile, where discovering a lonely spot 
which possessed the advantages of shade 
and water, he fixed his last abode. His ex- 
ample and his lessons infected others, whose 



MON 



MON 



curiosity pursued him to the desert; and 
before he quitted life, which was prolonged 
to the term of one hundred and five years, 
he beheld a numerous progeny imitating his 
original. The prolific colonies of monks 
multipled with rapid increase on the sands 
of Libya, upon the rocks of Thebais, and 
the cities of the Nile. Even to the present 
day the traveller may explore the ruins of 
fifty monasteries, which were planted to the 
south of Alexandria, by the disciples of 
Anthony. Inflamed by the example of 
Anthony, a Syrian youth, whose name was 
Hilarion, fixed his dreary abode on a sandy 
beach, between the sea and a morass, about 
seven miles from Gaza. The austere pe- 
nance in which he persisted forty-eight 
years, diffused a similar enthusiasm, and 
innumerable monasteries were soon distri- 
buted over all Palestine. In the west, 
Martin of Tours, ' a soldier, a hermit, a bi- 
shop, and a saint,' established the monas- 
teries of Gaul ; and the progress of mon- 
kery is said not to have been less rapid, or 
less universal, than that of Christianity it- 
self. Every province, and, at last, every 
city of the empire, was filled with their in- 
creasing multitudes. The disciples of An- 
thony spread themselves beyond the tropic, 
over the Christian empire of Ethiopia. The 
monastery of Bangor, in Flintshire, a few 
miles south of Wrexham, contained above 
two thousand monks, and from thence a 
numerous colony was dispersed amongst the 
barbarians of Ireland ; and lona, one of the 
western isles of Scotland, which was planted 
by the Irish monks, diffused over the north- 
ern regions a ray of science and supersti- 
tion. 

These unhappy exiles from social life 
were impelled by the dark genius of super- 
stition to persuade themselves that every 
proselyte who entered the gate of a monas- 
tery trod the steep and thorny path of 
eternal happiness. The popular monks, 
whose reputation was connected with the 
fame and success of the order, assiduously 
laboured to multiply the number of their 
fellow captives. They insinuated them- 
selves into noble and opulent families, and 
the specious arts of flattery and seduction 
were employed to secure those proselytes 
who might bestow wealth or dignity on the 
monastic profession. The lives of the monks 
were consumed in penance and solitude ; 
undisturbed by various occupations which 
fill the time, and exercise the faculties, of 
reasonable, active, and social beings. They 
passed their lives, without personal attach- 
ments, among a crowd which had been 
formed by accident, and were detained in 
the same prison by force or prejudice. 
Their days were professedly employed in 
vocal or mental prayer ; they assembled in 
the evening, and were awakened in the 
night for the public worship of the monas- 
tery ; and to such a pitch was absurdity at 
C97 



length carried, that one class of them came 
ultimately to sink under the painful weight 
of crosses and chains, and their emaciated 
limbs were confined by collars, bracelets, 
gauntlets, and greaves of massy iron. 

The ethics of monks is a mere caricature 
of virtue, in which every feature is exagge- 
rated, distorted, or out of place ; and, as 
hath often happened in other matters, though 
the likeness is preserved, what is beautiful 
in the original, is hideous in the copy. The 
doctrines of Christianity are divinely adapted 
to the state of man in this world, considered 
as a fallen and corrupted being. They ex- 
hibit a remedy for his moral depravity in 
the grand and interesting truths which the 
Gospel proclaims as the objects of his faith, 
the ground of his hope, and the motives of 
his love and joy. But he is called to the 
exercise of a self-denial, the mortification 
of his fleshly appetites, disconformity to 
the course of this world, patience under 
sufferings of various kinds, and in the way 
of well-doing, to seek for glory, honour, and 
immortality, in the world to come. In the 
system of monkery all these Christian vir- 
tues are carried to the most ridiculous ex- 
treme. How grossly must men's notions 
of truth and rectitude be perverted, who 
can think that the all-wise Creator gave 
hands to any man to be kept in a position 
which unfitted them for being of use to 
himself or others ; that he gave the faculty 
of speech, but not to be employed in com- 
municating knowledge ! Yet these things 
are the subject of panegyric even from the 
pen of Gregory Nazianzen, a person of un- 
questionable talents and virtue. ' To go 
into a convent,' said Dr. Johnson, ' for fear 
of being immoral, is as if a man should cut 
off his hands for fear he should steal.' To 
suffer with patience and fortitude, when 
called to it, for the cause of truth, is both 
virtuous and heroic ; but the self-inflicted 
penances of the miserable hermit serve as 
a testimony of nothing so much as the 
idiocy or insanity of the sufferer ; for with 
regard to God, they are derogatory from 
his perfections; they exhibit him as an ob- 
ject rather of terror than of love, as a tyrant 
rather than the parent of the universe. 
Jones's History of (lie ffaldcnsrs, pp. 228 — 
233. 

MOXOTHELITES, a denomination in 
the seventh century. They received their 
name from /iovoe, 'single,' and .$t.\;//m, 
' will ;' because they allowed only of one 
will in Jesus Christ. 

The orthodox belief, that Jesus ChriM 
was possessed of the wills ami operations 

peculiar both to his divinity and humanity, 
was first opposed by Theodore. Bishop o\ 
Pharon, who contended thai the humanity 
was so united to the divinity, that, tfiOU h 
it fully po SSS BS cd its own faculties. \.' 
operation must he ascribed to tin' di\init\. 
Cyrus, Bishop of Thasis, adopted the Opl 



MON 



MON 



nions of Theodore ; and the sect of which 
they were the leaders were termed Mono- 
thelites, from their affirming that the two 
natures in Christ were so constituted, that 
he possessed only one will and one opera- 
tion, which they termed Theandric. Pro- 
tected and nurtured by imperial approba- 
tion, the Monothelites became a very con- 
siderable sect. The decisions of the sixth 
general council at Constantinople deter- 
mined that their opinions were not con- 
sistent with the purity of the Christian faith. 
The Monothelites were formally condemned ; 
and, though sometimes the objects of royal 
favour, yet they were in general contemned 
and depressed. Thus persecuted, they re- 
tired to the neighbourhood of Mount Li- 
banus : but in the twelfth century they ab- 
jured their schismatical opinions, and were 
admitted into communion with the Romish 
church. Our concern for the difficulties 
they sustained after their condemnation 
cannot but be lessened by the consideration 
of the cruelties which in the day of their 
power they were tempted to commit against 
their orthodox brethren. The Abyssinian 
church appears still to retain the opinions 
of the Monothelites. Gregory's Hist, of the 
Christian Church, vol. i. pp. 397> 398 ; Mo- 
sheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. ii: p. 36. 

MONTANISTS, a denomination that 
arose in the second century, and derived 
their name from Montanus, their leader. 
Montanus, a native of Ardaba, in Mysia, 
affected to believe himself the Paraclete or 
Comforter, and that he was sent to perfect 
the moral doctrines of Christ. He made 
a distinction between the Comforter pro- 
mised by Christ to his apostles, and the 
Holy Spirit which was shed upon them on 
the day of Pentecost, and considered the 
former as a Divine teacher, which character 
he himself assumed. He and his followers 
pretended to the gift of prophecy, and ex- 
traordinary illumination, and were distin- 
guished by their extreme austerity. Not 
less averse to the arts which improve, than 
to the innocent enjoyments which embel- 
lish, human life, Montanus anathematized all 
those Sciences which have polished or en- 
tertained mankind. Not only the male, 
but even the female disciples of this here- 
tic pretended to the gifts of inspiration ; 
amongst whom two ladies of distinguished 
quality resigned their husbands, and every 
delightful domestic connexion, to preach 
in public according to the dictates of their 
prophetic spirit, which was generally ex- 
erted in denunciations of woe to the world, 
particularly to the Roman empire. 

The following observations of Dr. Priest- 
ley respecting the Montanists must be re- 
ceived with some allowance, as a particular 
Providence forms an essential article of the 
Christian faith, and consequently the di- 
vine influence occasionally exerted upon 
the human mind. In the main, however, 
698 



they are judicious and sensible. 'That 
persons of Montanus's turn of thinking 
should mistake the natural emotions of their 
own minds for divine impulses, is not at all 
extraordinary. This we see to have been 
the case with persons of all religions — Hea- 
thens, Mahometans, and Christians. We 
find even at this day how unwilling men of 
•good sense in other respects are to give up 
all idea of supernatural assistance, or of 
invisible miracles, such as are incapable of 
any proper proof, especially upon extraor- 
dinary occasions. When they see men make 
great exertions either in doing or suffering, 
they are apt to imagine that they have the 
aid of more power than their own. They 
are apt to think so with respect to them- 
selves. The early Christians had this idea 
with respect to the power of bearing tor- 
ture in martyrdom ; whereas the natural 
powers of man, and the principles of 
Christianity, will appear to those who con- 
sider the force of them, abundantly suffi- 
cient for all that we read of men having 
borne or done in those circumstances.' 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. i. 
pp. 99, 100. 

MONTH. The ancient Hebrews had 
no particular names for their months. 
They said, the first, second, third, &c. In 
Exodus (xiii. 4,) Moses mentions the month 
Abib, or the month of the young ears of 
corn, or of the new fruits. This is proba- 
bly the Egyptian name of the month, which 
the Hebrews afterwards called Nisan, and 
which was the first of the holy year. Every 
where else Moses marks out the months by 
their order of succession : and the same 
method is observed in the books of Joshua, 
Judges, and Samuel. Under Solomon we 
read of the month Ziph, which is the se- 
cond month of the holy year, and which an- 
swers to that afterwards called Jiar. In the 
same chapter we read of the month Bui, which 
is the eighth of the holy year, and answers to 
Marschevan, or October. Lastly, in chapter 
viii. 2, of the same book, we read of the month 
Ethanim, or the month of the valiant, which 
answers to Tisri, the seventh of the holy year. 

Critics are not agreed about the origin 
of these names of the months. Scaliger 
thought Solomon borrowed them from the 
Phoenicians, with whom he had much in- 
tercourse. Grotius believes they came 
from the Chaldaeans, and F. Hardouin 
fetches them from the Egyptians. How- 
ever this be, we see nothing of them, either 
before or after Solomon. But after the cap- 
tivity of Babylon, they continued the names 
of the months as they had found them among 
the Chaldaeans and Persians. 

The names of the Hebrew months, ac- 
cording to the order of the holy year : 

1. Nisan, answering to part of our March 

and April. 

2. Jiar April and May. 

3. Sivan May and June. 



MON 



MOO 



4. Thammuz.. . June and July. 

5. Ab July and August. 

6. Elul August and September. 

7- Tisri September and October. 

8. Marschevan. October and November. 

9. Casleu November and December. 

10. Thebet December and January. 

11. Sebat January and February. 

12. Adar February and March. 

The names of the Hebrew months, ac- 
cording to the order of the civil year : — 

1. Tisri, answering to part of our Septem- 

ber and October. 

2. Marschevan, October and November. 

3. Casleu November and December. 

4. Thebet December and January. 

5. Sebat January and February. 

6. Adar February and March. 

7- Nisan March and April. 

8. Jiar. . „ April and May. 

9. Sivan May and June. 

10. Thammuz. . June and July. 

11. Ab July and August 

1 2. Elul August and September. 

At first the Hebrews followed the same 

distribution of their year and months, as 
Egypt. Their year consisted of 365 days, 
and of twelve months, each of thirty days. 
This appears by the enumeration of the 
days of the year of the Deluge. (Gen. vii.) 
The twelfth month was to have thirty-five 
days ; and they have no intercalary month, 
but at the end of one hundred and twenty 
years, when the beginning of the year fol- 
lowing was out of its place thirty whole days. 

After the coming out of Egypt, which 
happened in the month of March, God 
ordained that the holy year, that is the 
calendar of religious feasts and ceremo- 
nies, should begin at Nisan, the seventh 
month of the civil year, which the Hebrews 
have always continued to begin at the 
month Tisri, answering to our September. 
After the Babylonish captivity, the Jews, 
being but an handful of people in the 
midst of others surrounding them, com- 
plied with such customs and manners of 
dividing times and seasons, as were used 
by the people that ruled over them ; first 
of the Chaldaeans, afterwards of the Per- 
sians, and, lastly, of the Grecians. They 
took the names of the months from the 
Chaldaeans and Persians, and perhaps their 
manner of dividing years and months. 
However, we cannot be sure of this, not 
exactly knowing the form of the Chaldaean 
months. But we see plainly by Ecclesiasticus 
(xliii.6.), by theMaccabees, by Josephus, and 
by Philo, that in their time they followed the 
custom of the Grecians : that is, that their 
months were lunar, and their years solar. 

These lunar months were each of twenty- 
nine days and a half, or, rather, one was 
of thirty days, the following of twenty-nine, 
and so on alternately : that which had thirty 
days was called a full or complete month ; 
that which had but twenty-nine days was 
699 



called incomplete. The new moon was al- 
ways the beginning of the month, and this 
day they called Neomenia, new moon day, 
or new month. They did not begin it from 
that point of time in which the moon is in 
conjunction with the sun, but from the time 
at which she becomes visible after that con- 
junction. And to determine this moment, 
it is said, they had people posted on ele- 
vated places, to inform the Sanhedrim as 
soon as possible. Proclamation was then 
made, t The feast of the new moon, the 
feast of the new moon ;' and the beginning 
of the month was proclaimed by sound of 
trumpet. For fear of any failing in the ob- 
servance of that command which directed 
certain ceremonies at the beginning of each 
month, they continued the Neomenia two 
days ; the first was called the day of the 
moon's appearance, the other of the moon's 
disappearance. So say the Rabbins: but 
there is great probability, that, if this was 
ever practised, it was only in provinces 
distant from Jerusalem. For in the temple, 
and in the capital city, there was always a 
fixed calendar, or at least a fixed decision 
for festival days, determined by the house 
of judgment. 

We said that the months of the Jews an- 
swered to ours, Nisan to March and April, 
Jiar to April and May, &c. ; for the lunar 
months cannot be reduced exactly to the 
solar ones. The vernal equinox falls be- 
tween the twentieth and twenty-first of 
March, according to the course of the solar 
year ; but in the lunar year the new moon 
will fall in the month of March, and the 
full moon in the month of April. So that 
the Hebrew months will commonly answer to 
two of our months, the end of one, and the 
beginning of the other. 

Twelve lunar months making only three 
hundred and fifty- four days and six hours, 
the Jewish year was short of the Roman 
by twelve days. To recover the equinoc- 
tial points from which this difference of the 
solar and lunar year would separate tin- 
new moon of the first month, the .lews 
every three years intercalated a thirteenth 
month, which they called i'c-adar, the se- 
cond Adar. By this means the lunar year 
equalled the solar; because in thirty-six 
solar months there would he thirty-seven 
lunar months. The Sanhedrim regulated 
this intercalation, ami this thirteenth month 
was placed hetween Adar and Nisan; so 
that the passover was always celebrated the 
first full moon alter the equinox. 

MOON. Luna. The Lord created the 
sun anil the moon on the fourth day of the 
world, to preside over day and night, and 
to distinguish times and seasons, fflea.ii 
16, Hi.) As the sun piesnli s OV( 
the moon presides over night ; the sun i 
lates the course oi a year, the mOOB the 
course of a month ; the sun is. as u ■ 
king of the host oi heaven, thf 



MOR 



MOR 



queen. Moses speaks of the moon as of 
a luminous body not much inferior to the 
sun ; yet it is certain that the moon, when 
compared to the sun, is only a very small 
body. But the sacred author speaks in a 
popular manner. They call that a great 
light which appears great to us ; not mean- 
ing to determine its absolute magnitude. 
The moon was appointed for the distinction 
of seasons, of festival days, and days of as- 
sembling. (Ps. civ. 19.) 

We do not know whether the Hebrews 
understood the cause of lunar eclipses ; but 
they always speak of them in terms which 
intimate that they considered them as won- 
ders, and as effects of the power and wrath 
of God. When the prophets speak of the 
destruction of empires, they often say that 
the sun shall be covered with darkness ; the 
moon withdraw her light; and the stars fall 
from heaven. (Isai. xiii. 10.; xxiv. 23. 
Ezek. xxxii. 7> 8. Joel ii. 10. ; iii. 15.) 
But we cannot perceive that there is any 
direct mention of an eclipse. 

Among the Orientals in general, and the 
Hebrews in particular, the worship of the 
moon was more extensive, and more famous, 
than that of the sun. (Deut. iv. 19.; xvii. 
3.) Moses bids the Israelites take care, 
when they see the sun, the moon, the 
stars, and the host of heaven, not to pay 
them any superstitious worship, because 
they were only creatures appointed for the 
service of all nations that are under heaven. 
Job (xxxi. 26, 27.) also speaks of the 
same worship : ' If I beheld the sun when it 
shined, or the moon walking in brightness, 
and my heart has been secretly enticed, or 
my mouth hath kissed my hand,' in token 
of adoration. The Hebrews worshipped the 
moon by the name of Meni, of Astarte, of 
the goddess of the groves, of the queen of 
heaven, &c. The Syrians adored her as 
Astarte, Urania, or Coelestis ; the Arabians, 
as Alilat ; the Egyptians, as Isis ; the 
Greeks, as Diana, Venus, Juno, Hecate, 
Bellona, Minerva, &c. 

MORALITY is the relation or propor- 
tion which actions bear to a given rule, and 
is generally used in reference to a good life. 
If this life be considered as preparatory to 
another, that other must be regarded as 
retrospective to this ; and to what else can 
it be retrospective, but to the moral good or 
evil of our actions, or, in other words, to 
our conduct as beings accountable for our 
conduct ? As the morality or immorality of 
our present conduct is usually found, even 
in this life, to have some degree of connex- 
ion with our happiness, we cannot but sup- 
pose that, in a future life, that connexion 
will be found still closer ; and that the 
actions of men in a probationary state will 
regulate their appropriate portion of hap- 
piness or misery in a state of retribution. 
Thus we see that the light of nature, or the 
inferences of reason, reflecting on the dif- 
700 



ferent tendencies of good and evil, and the 
moral constitution of the world, concur to 
support the authoritative declarations of re- 
vealed religion, that God will, in a future 
life, render to every man according to his 
works. 

Let us notice the effect of Christianity 
upon one who was long a hater of it, and 
yet became its illustrious defender ; I mean 
the apostle Paul. What was his character 
before his conversion to Christianity ? That 
of a furious bigot, an unrelenting persecutor 
of those whose religious opinions were dif- 
ferent from his own ; a man who * breathed 
threatenings and slaughter' against others, 
whose only crime was sublime virtue ; a 
man who delighted in sanguinary scenes, 
who held the clothes of those that stoned 
martyrs, gnashing his teeth for vexation all 
the time, that he was too young to be more 
actively engaged in the brutal scene ; a man 
whose principal delight was in making 
'havoc of the church,' disturbing domestic 
privacy, ' entering into houses, and haling 
men and women to prison ;' who ' punished 
them oft in every synagogue, and compelled 
them to blaspheme, and, being exceedingly 
mad against them, persecuted them unto 
strange cities.' (Acts vii. 58. ; viii. 1 — 3. ; ix. 
1. ; xxvi. 10, 11. 19.) How different were 
his actions and his sentiments after he had 
been converted on his way to Damascus, 
and became f obedient unto the heavenly 
vision !' Observe how pure, how elevated, 
how benevolent, how peculiarly fitted to the 
wants of universal society, are the ethics 
become of the man who had just before 
found his greatest pleasure and glory in 
persecuting and torturing his fellow-crea- 
tures ! ' Let love be without dissimulation. 
Abhor that which is evil, cleave to that 
which is good. Be kindly-affectioned one 
to another with brotherly love ; in honour 
preferring one another; not slothful in 
business ; fervent in spirit ; serving the 
Lord ; rejoicing in hope ; patient in tribu- 
lation ; continuing instant in prayer; dis- 
tributing to the necessity of saints; given 
to hospitality. Bless them which persecute 
you ; bless, and curse not. Rejoice with 
them that do rejoice, and weep with them 
that weep. Mind not high things. Be not 
wise in your own conceits. Live peaceably 
with all men. Avenge not yourselves, but 
rather give place unto wrath. If thine 
enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give 
him drink. Be not overcome of evil, but 
overcome evil with good.' (Rom. xii. 9 — 21.) 
Where, except in the Bible, or in books 
which inculcate the sentiments of the Bible, 
will you find such a group of admirable 
peace-inspiring precepts ? Observe, again, 
how this apostle depicts the sublime import- 
ance of charity, or love. ' Though I speak 
with the tongues of men and of angels, and 
have not charity, I am become as sounding 
brass, or a tinkling cymbal. And though I 



MOR 



MOR 



have the gift of prophecy, and understand 
all mysteries, and all knowledge ; and 
though I have all faith, so that I could re- 
move mountains, and have not charity, I 
am nothing. And though I give my body 
to be burned, and have not charity, it pro- 
fiteth me nothing.' (1 Cor. xiii. 1 — 3.) 
Surely this was not always the language of 
the fanatical persecutor Saul ! Whence then 
did he derive these elevated sentiments, this 
preference of universal benevolence to the 
most splendid and miraculous endowments ? 
Are these the notions of a vile impostor, or 
of a poor deluded enthusiast, or of one 
whom ' much learninghas made mad?' No : 
they are the genuine productions of the 
religion of Jesus, invariably manifested in a 
greater or less degree wherever that religion 
is efficacious ; and proving clearly that that 
religion proceeds from Him who wills the 
harmony and the happiness of the physical 
and rational world. Gregory's Letters on 
the Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the 
Christian Religion, vol. i. pp. 251 — 254. 

MORAVIANS, or United Brethren. 
Names. — The name of Moravians, or Mora- 
vian Brethren, was in England given to the 
members of a foreign Protestant church, 
calling itself the Unitas Fratrum, or United 
Brethren. This church formerly consisted 
of three branches — the Bohemian, Moravian, 
and Polish. After its renovation, in the 
year 1722, some of its members came to 
England in 1728, who, being of the Moravian 
branch, became known by that appellation ; 
and all those who joined them, and adopted 
their doctrines and discipline, have ever 
since been called Moravians. Strictly 
speaking, however, that name is not appli- 
cable to them, nor generally admitted, 
either by themselves, or in any public do- 
cuments, in which they are called by their 
proper names, the Unitas Fratrum, or 
United Brethren. 

The few remaining members of the an- 
cient church of the United Brethren in Bo- 
hemia, Moravia, and Poland, being much 
persecuted by the Popish clergy, many of 
them left all their possessions, and fled with 
their families into Silesia and Saxony. In 
Saxony they found protection from a Saxon 
nobleman, Nicholas Lewis, Count of Zin- 
zendorfF, who gave them some waste land 
on one of his estates, on which, in 1722, 
they built a village at the foot of a hill, 
called the Hut-Berg, or Watch-hill. This 
occasioned them to call their settlement 
Herrnhut, the watch of the Lord. Hence 
their enemies designated them in derision 
by the name of Herrnhuters, which is 
altogether improper, but by which they are 
known in some countries abroad. 

Rise, Progress, and History. — By their 
own account, this community derive their 
origin from the ancient Bohemian ami 
Moravian Brethren, who existed as a dis- 
tinct people ever since the year 1457, win n, 
701 



separating from those who took up arms in 
defence of their protestations against Popish 
errors, they formed a plan for church fellow- 
ship and discipline, agreeable to their in- 
sight into the Scriptures, and called them* 
selves at first, Fratres Legis Christi, or 
Brethren after the Law of Christ, and after- 
wards, on being joined by others of the same 
persuasion in other places, Unitas Fratrum, 
or Fratres Unitatis. By degrees they esta- 
blished congregations in various places, and 
spread themselves into Moravia and other 
neighbouring states. Being anxious to pre- 
serve among themselves regular episcopal 
ordination, and, at a synod held at Lhota in 
1467, taking into consideration the scarcity 
of ministers regularly ordained among them, 
they chose three of their priests ordained by 
Calixtine bishops, and sent them to Stephen, 
Bishop of the Waldenses, then residing in 
Austria, by whom they were consecrated 
bishops ; co-bishops, and con-seniores, 
being appointed from the rest of their pres- 
byters. In 1468, a great persecution arose 
against them, and many were put to death. 
In 1481, they were banished from Moravia, 
when many of them fled as far as Mount 
Caucasus, and established themselves there, 
till driven away by subsequent troubles. 

In the mean time, disputes respecting 
points of doctrine, the enmity of the Papists, 
and other causes, raised continual disturb- 
ances and great persecutions at various 
periods, till the reformation by Luther, 
when they opened a correspondence with 
that eminent reformer and his associates, 
and entered into several negociations, both 
with him and Calvin, concerning the exten- 
sion of the Protestant cause. But their 
strict adherence to the discipline of their 
own church, founded, in their view, on that 
of the primitive churches, and the acknow- 
ledged impossibility of its application among 
the mixed multitude, of which the Lutheran 
and Calvinist churches consisted, occasioned 
a cessation of co-operation ; and, in tin* 
sequel, the brethren were again left to the 
mercy of their persecutors, by whom their 
churches were destroyed, and their ministers 
banished, till the year lf>7">, when they ob- 
tained an edict from the Kmperor of Ger- 
many, for the public exercise of their reli- 
gion. This toleration was renewed in 1009, 
and liberty granted them to erec: new 
churches. But a civil war, which broke out 
in Bohemia in 1612, and a violent persecu- 
tion which followed it in I681 f aMHi occa- 
sioned die dispersion of their ministers, and 
brought great distress upon the brethren 
in general. Some fled into Kngland. others 
to Saxony and Rrandenburg ; whilst many, 
overcome by the severity ol 'the pi tm cution. 
conformed to the rites of the church of 
Rome. 

About the year 16-10, by incessant perse- 
cution, and thfl most oppre»i\e measures, 
thifl ancient church was brought M M b>w 



MOR 



MOR 



an ebb, that it appeared nearly extinct. The 
persecutions which took place at the be- 
ginning of the eighteenth century were the 
occasion that many of the scattered descend- 
ants of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren 
at length resolved to quit their native land, 
and seek liberty of conscience in foreign 
countries. Some emigrated into Silesia, 
and others into Upper Lusatia, a province 
of Saxony, adjoining to Bohemia. The 
latter, as before observed, found a pro- 
tector in Nicholas count Zinzendorff, a 
pious, zealous man, and a Lutheran by 
education. He hoped that the religious 
state of the Lutherans in his neighbour- 
hood would be greatly improved by the 
conversation and example of these devout 
emigrants ; and he, therefore, sought to 
prevail upon the latter to join the Lu- 
theran church altogether. To this the 
brethren objected, being unwilling to give 
up their ancient discipline, and would 
rather proceed to seek an asylum in 
another place ; when the count, struck 
with their stedfast adherence to the tenets 
of their forefathers, began more maturely 
to examine their pretensions ; and, being 
convinced of the justness of them, he pro- 
cured for the brethren the renovation of 
their ancient constitution, and ever after 
proved a most zealous promoter of their 
cause. He is, therefore, very justly es- 
teemed by them as the chief instrument 
in the hand of God in restoring the sinking 
church, and, in general, gratefully remem- 
bered for his disinterested and indefatigable 
labours in promoting the interests of re- 
ligion, both at home and abroad. In 1735, 
having been examined and received into 
the clerical order, by the theological faculty 
at Tubingen, in the duchy of Wurtem- 
burg, he was consecrated a bishop of the 
brethren's church. Dr. Potter, then arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, congratulated him on 
this event, and promised his assistance to a 
church of confessors, of whom he wrote in 
terms of the highest respect, for their hav- 
ing maintained the pure and primitive 
faith and discipline, in the midst of the 
most tedious and cruel persecutions. His 
Grace, who was well versed in the prin- 
ciples of church government, admitted the 
Moravian episcopal succession, and, in 
conformity with his sentiments, the Par- 
liament of Great Britain, after mature in- 
vestigation, acknowledged the Unitas Fra- 
trum to be an ancient Protestant episcopal 
church, and passed an act in their favour 
in 1749. 

After the establishment of a regular con- 
gregation of the United Brethren at Herrn- 
hut, multitudes of pious persons from 
various parts flocked to it, many of whom 
had private opinions in religious matters, 
to which they were strongly attached. 
This occasioned great disputes, which even 
threatened the destruction of the society; 
702 



but, by the indefatigable exertions of count 
Zinzendorff, these disputes were allayed, 
and the statutes being drawn up, and agreed 
to in 1727, for better regulation, brotherly 
love and union were re-established, and 
no schism whatever, in point of doctrine, 
has, since that period, disturbed the peace 
of the church. 

Distinguishing Tenets. — The doctrine of 
the United Brethren does not differ in 
essentials from that of other Protestant 
churches. It has, however, been much 
misrepresented by various authors. Though 
they themselves admit that they were 
joined by some persons who had pre- 
viously imbibed extravagant notions, and 
who propagated these notions with zeal 
among their new friends, in a phraseology 
unscriptural and extremely reprehensible, 
yet opinions and practices have been at- 
tributed to them of an exceptionable na- 
ture, which they totally disavow. Much 
also of the extravagance and absurdity 
which has been laid to the charge of count 
Zinzendorff, is not to be attributed to him, 
but to those persons who, taking down in 
short hand his extempore sermons, and 
other discourses, in which he made use 
of very bold expressions, printed and pub- 
lished them without his knowledge and 
consent. The synods of the Brethren, how- 
ever, have protested against and cancelled 
several collections of hymns and other 
writings, which contained improper and 
unscriptural expressions, though at a cer- 
tain period suffered to be published without 
sufficient revision ; but their resolutions 
and apologies are of course less known to 
the public, than the invectives of their 
enemies. 

Though the Brethren acknowledge no 
other standard of truth than the sacred 
Scriptures, they in general profess to ad- 
here to the Augsburg confession of Faith. 
Both in their summary of Christian doc- 
trine (which is used for the instruction 
of their children,) and in their general 
instructions and sermons they teach the 
doctrine of the Trinity ; and in their 
prayers, hymns, and litanies, address the 
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, in the same 
manner as is done in other Christian 
churches. Yet they chiefly direct their 
hearers to Jesus Christ, as the appointed 
channel of the Deity, in whom God is 
known and made manifest to man. They 
dwell on what he has done and suffered, 
and on the glorious descriptions given of 
him as an Almighty Saviour. They re- 
commend love to him, as the constraining 
principle of the Christian's conduct ; and 
their general manner is more by beseech- 
ing men to be reconciled to God, than by 
alarming them by the terrors of the law, 
and the threatenings against the impeni- 
tent, which they, however, do not fail 
occasionally to set before their hearers. 



MOR 



MOR 



They avoid, as much as possible, every 
thing that would lead to controversy ; and 
though they strongly insist upon, salvation 
by grace alone through faith, yet they will 
not enter into any explanation, or give 
any decided opinion, concerning particular 
election. They have, therefore, been 
considered by high Calvinists as leaning 
to Arminianism, and by others, as Cal- 
vinists; But they themselves decline the 
adoption of either name. They profess 
to believe that the kingdom of Christ is 
not confined to any party, community, or 
church ; and they consider themselves, 
though closely united in one body, or 
visible church, as spiritually joined in the 
bond of Christian love to all who are 
taught of God, and belong to the universal 
church of Christ, however much they may 
differ in forms, which they deem non-es- 
sentials. 

Worship, Government, and Discipline. — 
The worship of the Moravians is chiefly 
directed to God, in the person of our Lord 
Jesus Christ ; though in doctrine they 
are strict Trinitarians. All the great festi- 
vals celebrated in other Protestant churches 
are attended to by them with due solemnity ; 
and, during the whole of the Passion -week, 
they have daily services for the contem- 
plation of our Lord's last discourses and 
sufferings. On Maunday Thursday they 
celebrate the Lord's Supper, and also on 
every fourth Sunday throughout the year. 
They have prescribed forms of prayer for 
baptisms, both of children and adults, and 
for burials ; a litany which is read every 
Sunday morning, and one for early service 
on Easter morning, besides others which 
they call liturgies, and which are chiefly 
sung and chaunted. 

Though all profane songs and drama- 
tic music are prohibited throughout their 
church by the synods, yet they value and 
carefully cultivate music, both vocal and 
instrumental, as a science ; and, where they 
have the means, they use it in their re- 
ligious worship, with peculiar effect Some 
of their services consist entirely in singing, 
(the whole congregation joining,) when a 
succession of verses forms a connected 
contemplation of some Scripture subject. 
Two texts of Scripture are appointed for 
every day in the year. Their ordination 
services, their manner of celebrating the 
Lord's Supper, and other church trans- 
actions, peculiar to themselves, are very 
solemn and impressive. Their chapels 
are without pews, but have moveable 
benches. Plainness, neatness, and con- 
venience, are their chief study in their 
construction. Persecutions originally, and 
afterward inclination, caused the Moravian 
Brethren to have a predilection for forming 
settlements, where they may live without 
disturbance, and in which their children 
and young people are not exposed to the 
703 



allurements of vice, nor obliged to see and 
hear the conduct and language of the pro- 
fane and dissolute. In these settlements 
they have separate houses for single men, 
single women, and widows. In these 
houses, all persons who are able, and have 
not an independent support, labour in 
their own occupation, and contribute a 
stipulated sum for board and lodging. 
Community of goods does not, nor ever 
did, exist among them, though it has been 
often reported, and very generally believed. 
Even the contributions towards their cha- 
ritable establishments and missions are per- 
fectly voluntary. 

Their schools are numerous, and con- 
ducted upon a plan which has recom- 
mended them to great numbers of persons 
not belonging to the community, as the 
best seminaries for moral education. 

Their church is episcopal ; but, though 
they consider episcopal ordination as neces- 
sary to qualify the servants of the church for 
their respective functions, they allow to their 
bishops no elevation of rank, or pre-emi- 
nent authority. The Moravian church, from 
its first establishment, has been governed 
by Synods, consisting of deputies from all 
the congregations, and by other subordinate 
bodies, which they call Conferences. Ac- 
cording to their regulations, episcopal or- 
dination, of itself, does not confer any 
power to preside over one or more con- 
gregations ; and a bishop can discharge no 
office except by the appointment of a 
Synod, or of its delegate, the elders' con- 
ference of the unity. Presbyters among 
them can perform every function of the 
bishop, except ordination. Deacons are 
assistants to Presbyters, much in the same 
way as in the church of England. Dea- 
conesses are retained, for the purpose of 
privately admonishing their own sex. and 
visiting them in their sickness ; but they 
are not permitted to teach in public, anil 
far less to administer the sacraments. They 
have also Senior cs Ciriles, or lay elders, in 
contradistinction to spiritual elders or 
bishops, who are appointed to watch over 
the constitution and discipline of the unity 
of the brethren, fee. The Synods are >:>'- 
nerally held once in seven wars ; and. he- 
sides all the bishops, and the deput: 
by each congregation, those women who 
have appointments, as ;i!nnv described, if 
on the spot, are also admitted as hearers, 
and may be called upon to give their ad- 
vice in what lvlatis to tin* ministerial 
labour among their own --ex ; hut tin y ha\e 
DO decisive vote in the Synod. The votes 
of all the other members are equal In 
questions of importanee, or of which the 
consequence cannot DC tores, en, neither 
the majority of votes, nor the un miliums 

consent o( all pr es e nt) esn decide : but 

t e uuurs e ■ had to the bit, which, however, 
is nevSf made use of BOD mature 



MOR 



MOR 



deliberation and prayer ; nor is any thing 
submitted to its decision which does not, 
after being thoroughly weighed, appear to 
the assembly eligible in itself. 

The Synod takes into consideration the 
inward and outward state of the unity, and 
the concerns of the congregations and mis- 
sions, and takes cognizance of errors in 
doctrine, or deviations in practice, &c. 
Towards the conclusion of every Synod, a 
kind of executive board is chosen, which is 
called the Elders' Conference of the Unity. 
At present it consists of thirteen elders, and 
is divided into four committees, or depart- 
ments. 1. The Missions' department, which 
superintends all the concerns of the mission 
into heathen countries. 2. The Helpers' 
department, which watches over the purity 
of doctrine, and the moral conduct of the 
different congregations. 3. The Servants' 
department, to which the economical con- 
cerns of the unity are committed. 4. The 
Overseers' 1 department, of which the business 
is to see that the constitution and disci- 
pline of the brethren be every where main- 
tained. Each department meets, as a com- 
mittee, to consider the particular subjects 
committed to it ; but no resolution has the 
least force till it be laid before the whole 
assembly of the Elders' Conference of the 
Unity, and have the approbation of that 
body, whose powers are very extensive. 

Besides this general Conference of Elders, 
which superintends the affairs of the whole 
unity, there is a conference of elders be- 
longing to each congregration, which di- 
rects its affairs, and to which all the mem- 
bers of the congregation are subject. This 
body, which is called the ' Elders' Confer- 
ence of the Congregation,' consists, 1. of the 
Minister, as president, to whom the ordi- 
nary care of the congregation is committed, 
except when it is very numerous, and then 
the general inspection of it is entrusted 
to a separate person, called ' Congregation 
Helper ;' 2. of the Warden, whose office it 
is to superintend, with the aid of his coun- 
cil, all outward concerns of the congrega- 
tion, and to assist every individual with his 
advice ; 3. of a Married Pair, who care par- 
ticularly for the spiritual welfare of the 
married people ; 4. of a Single Clergyman, 
to whose care the single men and boys are 
more particularly committed; and 5. of 
those women who assist in caring for the 
spiritual and temporal welfare of their own 
sex, and who, in this conference, have 
equal votes with the men. The Elders' 
Conference of each Congregation is answerable 
for its proceedings to the Elders' Conference 
of the Unity ; and visitations from the latter 
to the former are held from time to time, 
that the affairs of each congregation, and 
the conduct of its immediate governors, may 
be intimately known to the supreme exe- 
cutive government of the whole church. 
In every country they have superintendents 
704 



of their congregations in it, whom they 
called Provincials. These are generally 
bishops, but a priest is likewise eligible 
to that office. 

In marriage they may form a connexion 
with those only who are of their own com- 
munion. The brother who marries a 
person not of their congregation, is con- 
sidered as having quitted their church fel- 
lowship. There is, however, no objection 
to a sister's marrying a person of approved 
piety in another communion ; and some, 
by express licence, are permitted still to 
join in their church ordinances, as before. 
A brother may make his own choice of a part- 
ner in the society, and both parties may re- 
ject the proposals made to them ; but as all 
intercourse between the different sexes is 
less frequent among them than elsewhere, 
and few opportunities of forming particular 
attachments are found, they usually rather 
refer the choice to their friends and inti- 
mates, than decide for themselves. As the 
lot must be cast to sanction their union, 
each receives his partner as a divine ap- 
pointment ; and, however strange this 
method may appear, there are perhaps 
no where fewer unhappy marriages to 
be found than among the brethren. In 
their settlements, at all hours, whether 
day or night, some persons of both, sexes 
are appointed by rotation to pray for the 
society. 

Missions. What chiefly characterizes the 
Moravians, and holds them up to the atten- 
tion and admiration, and for the example 
of all others, is their missionary zeal. In 
this they are superior to every other body 
of Christians whatever. Their missionaries 
are all of them volunteers ; for it is an in- 
violable maxim with them to persuade no 
man to engage in missions. They are all 
of one mind as to the doctrines they teach, 
and seldom make an attempt where there 
are not several of them in the mission. 
Their zeal is calm, steady, and persevering. 
They would reform the world, but are care- 
ful how they quarrel with it. They carry 
their point by address, and the insinuations 
of modesty and mildness which commend 
them to all men, and give offence to none. 
The habits of silence, quietness, and decent 
reserve, mark their character. ' When 
brethren or sisters find themselves disposed 
to serve God among the heathen, they com- 
municate their wishes and views to the 
committee appointed by the synods of the 
brethren to superintend the missions, in a 
confidential letter. If, on particular in- 
quiry into their circumstances and con- 
nexions, no objection is found, they are 
considered as candidates. As to mental 
qualifications, much erudition is not re- 
quired by the brethren. To be well versed 
in the sacred Scriptures, and to have an 
experimental knowledge of the truths they 
contain, is judged indispensably necessary. 



MOR 



MOR 



It has been found, by experience, that a 
good understanding, joined to a friendly 
disposition, and, above all, a heart filled 
with the love of God, are the best and the 
only essential qualifications of a missionary. 
Nor are, in general, the habits of a student 
so well calculated to form his body for a 
laborious life as those of a mechanic. Yet 
men of learning are not excluded, and their 
gifts have been made useful in various 
ways. When vacancies occur, or new mis- 
sions are to be begun, the list of candi- 
dates is examined, and those who appear 
suitable are called upon, and accept or 
decline the call as they find themselves 
disposed.' 

The number of missionaries, male and 
female, employed in their missions in various 
parts of the world, towards the close of the 
year 1802, was as follows: Danish West 
India Islands, in six settlements, 32; Green- 
land, in three settlements, 16; Antigua, in 
three settlements, 17; St. Kitts, 4; Jamaica, 
in three settlements, 8 ; Barbadoes, 2 ; To- 
bago, 2; South America, in four settle- 
ments, 24 ; Labrador, three settlements, 25 ; 
Indians in North America, three settle- 
ments, 19 ; Hottentots at the Cape of Good 
Hope, 10 ; near Tranquebar, in the East 
Indies, 2 ; in all 161. The most flourish- 
ing missions at present are those in Green- 
land, Antigua, St. Kitts, the Danish West 
India Islands, the Cape of Good Hope, 
among the negroes in South America, and 
the Esquimaux on the coast of Labrador. 
The mission in Antigua first began in 1757, 
and during the ten years preceding 1802, 
the number baptized in that island by the 
bretln*en, was 5424. In August, 1803, the 
number of negroes belonging to the bre- 
thren's church there, was upwards of 10,000 ; 
and as great a number belonged to it in the 
Danish islands, St. Thomas, St. Croix, and 
St. Jan. In St. Kitts their congregation 
numbers about 2000. The settlement of 
Bavians- Kloof, at the Cape of Good Hope, 
begun in 1736, was soon after suspended 
till 1792 ; and the society under the five 
married missionaries there, consists now of 
about 1000 Hottentots, nearly 600 of whom 
are baptized. A society for the further- 
ance of the Gospel among the heathens was 
instituted by the brethren in London, a.s 
early as the year 1741, for the more effec- 
tual co-operation with, and assistance of, 
the said missions' department, in the eldera 1 
conference of the unity, in caring for those 
missionaries who might pass through Lon- 
don to their several posts. The society was, 
after some interruption in their meetings, 
renewed in 1766, and took the whole 
charge of the mission on the coast of Lab- 
rador upon themselves, besides continuing 
to assist the other missions as much as lay 
in their power, especially those in the 
British dominions. In Amsterdam, a similar 
society was established by the brethren in 
705 



1746, and revived in 1793, at Zekt, Dear 

Utrecht. This society took particular 
charge of the mission at the Cape of Good 
Hope; but the subsequent troubles in Hol- 
land rendered them unable to lend much 
assistance during that period. The bre- 
thren in North America established a so- 
ciety for propagating the Gospel among the 
heathens, in the year 1787, which was in- 
corporated by the state of Pennsylvania, and 
has been very active in assisting the mis- 
sions among the American Indians. These 
three societies render all the assistance in 
their power to support the great and ac- 
cumulated burthens of the above-men- 
tioned missions' department, and God has 
blessed their exertions ; but they have no 
power to begin new missions, or to send out 
missionaries, which, by the synods of the 
brethren's church, is vested solely in the 
elders' conference of the unity. 

Countries where found. — The Moravians 
are in considerable numbers in some parts 
of Germany, Holland, England, Ireland, 
and America. They have also a small 
society at Ayr, in Scotland. There is a 
regular settlement of the brethren at Ful- 
neck, near Leeds, Yorkshire ; another at 
Fairfield, near Manchester; and a small 
one at Okbrook, near Derby, which ex- 
cite the curiosity of the traveller. In 1749 
an act of parliament was passed in their 
favour, to relieve them from taking oaths, 
about which some had conscientious scru- 
ples ; yet they made declarations ' in the 
presence of God,' considering God as ' a 
witness,' which amounts to nearly the same 
thing. The public has yet felt no incon- 
venience, but rather benefit, from their ex- 
istence or toleration in this country, as they 
are, in general, a sober, industrious, inof- 
fensive, and loyal people. 

Their principal settlement in America 
is Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania, which was 
begun in 1741. Mr. Weld, in hi> "Travels 
through the United States,' gives an ac- 
count of the Moravians in that country, 
honourable to their virtue and piety, and 
expressive of the good they have done. ' The 
Moravian missionaries, ' be Bays, ' I 

wrought a greater change on the mindi i f 

the Indians than any others.' After tie- 
scribing this settlement at Bethlehem, be 

■observes, that 'wherever the society has 
extended itself in America, the most bappy 
consequences have resulted from it; 
order and regularity have been conspicuous 
in the behaviour of the people of the neigh- 
bourhood, and arts ami manufacture - I 

in en introduced into the country. 1 ( 

Ili.stt>n/ of (la- UnittU l'rtitnnr. : 

Religious World, rol. iii. pp. 288 Sift 

MOR'DECAI, *3~- - :. trition, 

or, bit/cr bruiting ; or, vu/nl I who 

teaches to bruise ; otherwise, very 
according to the Hebrew andSyri I 

name is net Hebrew but Chald 

Z /. 



MOR 



MOS 



posed of Merodach, or Mordak, a deity of 
the Babylonians. 

Mordecai was the son of Jair, of the race 
of Saul, and a chief of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin. He was carried captive to Babylon 
by Nebuchadnezzar, with Jehoiachin (or 
Jeconiah) king of Judah, in the year of the 
world 3405. (Esther ii. 5, 6.) He settled 
at Shushan, and there lived to the first year 
of Cyrus, when it is thought he returned to 
Jerusalem, with several other captives ; but 
he afterwards returned to Shushan. There 
is great probability that Mordecai was very 
young when taken into captivity. 

Mordecai had a niece called Edessa, or 
Esther, the daughter of his brother, whom 
he had adopted and brought up as his own 
daughter, after the death of his brother. 
Esther became the spouse of King Aha- 
suerus. Mordecai was very assiduous at 
the palace gate to learn news of the queen. 
During his attendance there he discovered 
the conspiracy of two eunuchs to kill the 
king. This service was registered, but not 
rewarded. The king Ahasuerus raising 
Haman to be his favourite, Mordecai re- 
fused to honour him. Haman resented this 
indignity by endeavouring to exterminate 
the whole Jewish people, for which pur- 
pose he obtained a decree from the king. 
Mordecai acquainted Esther with this de- 
cree, and urged her to prevail with the king 
to revoke it. In the mean time, the king, 
not being able to sleep one night, caused 
the annals of the preceding years to be read 
to him. In them was read the conspiracy 
of the two eunuchs against the king, dis- 
covered by Mordecai. The king asked, if 
this man had been rewarded ? Being told 
he had not, he asked who was in the anti- 
chamber 1 He was answered Haman ; who 
was then coming to the king, to solicit that 
Mordecai might be hanged on a gallows he 
had provided for him. Ahasuerus asked 
him, what should be done to the man whom 
the king delighteth to honour? Haman, 
believing himself whom the king intended 
by this description, answered, Let him be 
clothed in a royal habit, be set upon the 
king's horse, have a royal diadem on his 
head ; and be it proclaimed before him in 
the public places of the city, Thus shall it 
be done to the man whom the king delight- 
eth to honour. The king replied, Haste 
then, and do thus to Mordecai. Haman, 
therefore, was obliged to do this. 

Esther, having prepared herself by fasting, 
and prayer, presented herself before the 
king, in hopes of averting that danger from 
her people, to which Haman had exposed 
them. She discovered to him the wicked 
design of Haman, that Mordecai was her 
uncle, that she was a Jewess by birth, and 
that her people were condemned to the 
slaughter. Ahasuerus moderated his decree 
against the Jews, condemned Haman to be 
hanged on the gallows he had set up for 
706 



Mordecai, gave his goods to the queen, and 
raised Mordecai to the honours that Haman 
had enjoyed. Many are of opinion, that 
Mordecai was author of the book of Esther. 
See Esther. 

MOSES, nu>Q, signifies taken out of the 
water. Moses, son of Amram and Jochebed, 
was born in Egypt, in the year of the world 
2433. His father and mother were of the 
tribe of Levi. He had a brother called 
Aaron, and a sister named Miriam; Aaron 
was three years older than Moses, and 
Miriam might be seven or eight years older 
than Aaron. Some time before the birth of 
Moses, the king of Egypt decreed that all 
the male children of the Hebrews should be 
put to death as soon as born. The parents 
of Moses could not obey this severe law ; 
they concealed the child in their house three 
months. But, despairing of hiding him any 
longer, they resolved on exposing him to 
the wide world, committing his preservation 
to Providence. They put him into a kind 
of little vessel made of rushes, and laid him 
on the banks of the Nile. His sister Miriam 
stood to watch at a distance. The daughter 
of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, happening to 
come that way, to bathe in the river, per- 
ceived the basket; and ordering it to be 
fetched to her, she opened it. 

Miriam, the sister of little Moses, asked 
her if she would please to have her fetch an 
Hebrew nurse ? She went and brought 
Jochebed, her own and Moses's mother. 
The princess named the infant Moses, which 
in the Egyptian language signifies ' one saved 
out of the water,' and adopted him as her 
own son. Whilst Moses was instructed ' in 
all the wisdom of the Egyptians,' and bred 
up in the midst of a luxurious court, he ac- 
quired at home the knowledge of the pro- 
mised redemption of Israel. By faith in the 
redeemer Christ, he refused to be called the 
son of Pharaoh's daughter, preferring afflic- 
tion with the people of God, to the enjoy- 
ment of sinful pleasures for a season, and 
esteeming the reproach of Christ (or perse- 
cution for Christ's sake) greater wealth than 
the treasures of Egypt ; for he had respect 
to the future recompence of reward, (Exod. 
ii. 1— 10. Acts vii. 20—22. Heb. xi. 23 
— 26.) or looked forward to a future state. 

When Moses was forty years old, he vi- 
sited his brethren, and beheld the hardships 
they suffered from the Egyptian task-mas- 
ters. (Exod. ii. 11, 12, &c. Acts vii. 23.) 
Seeing an Egytian oppressing an Hebrew, 
he vindicated his cause, slew the Egyptian, 
and hid his body in the sand. The next day 
he found two Hebrews at variance, and 
being willing to reconcile them, he asked the 
offender, why he struck his brother 1 He 
was answered with another question, Who 
made you a ruler and judge over us ? Will 
you kill me as you did the Egyptian yester- 
day ? Moses, hearing this, was afraid, and 
wondered how it was discovered. Pharaoh, 



MOS 



MOS 



being informed of it, sought for Moses to 
put him to death. He fled, however, into 
the country of Midian, beyond the Red Sea, 
in Arabia Petraea, towards Mount Sinai ; 
where he sat down near a well. Whilst he 
was sitting there, the seven daughters of 
Jethro, priest of Midian, came thither, ac- 
cording to custom, to draw water for their 
flocks ; but shepherds coming with the same 
intention, drove them away. Moses assisted 
the damsels, drove off the shepherds, and 
himself watered Jethro's flocks. 

Moses living for some time with Jethro, 
Jethro gave him his daughter Zipporah in 
marriage, who bore Moses two sons, Ger- 
sbom and Eleazar. After this, the king of 
Egypt died ; and the children of Israel, 
groaning under the weight of oppressions, 
sent their cries to Heaven, and the Lord 
heard them. 

Moses was employed in feeding the sheep 
of Jethro his father-in-law ; and one day 
came to the mountain of Horeb, where he 
observed a busn that burned without being 
consumed. Moses, astonished at this sight, 
says within himself, I must go and examine 
how it is that this bush is not consumed. 
The Lord seeing him advance, spake to him 
out of the bush, saying, Moses, approach no 
nearer, but put off your shoes, for the place 
on which you stand is holy ground. Then 
he commissioned him, notwithstanding the 
reluctance and hesitation of Moses, to de- 
liver his people Israel, foretelling the ob- 
stinacy of Pharaoh, the intervention of 
miracles, &c. 

Moses still entreating to be excused, the 
Lord commanded him to throw his rod on 
the ground, which was immediately changed 
into a serpent. God bade him take it up ; 
it became a rod again. Then he bade him 
put his hand into bis bosom, and when he 
drew it out, it was all over leprous. He 
bid him put it in again, and it returned to 
its former health. These two miracles, says 
he, you shall perform before Israel. If 
after this they shall not believe you, take 
water out of the Nile, and pour it on the 
land ; it shall be changed into blood. But 
Moses not yet entirely acquiescing, the 
Lord referred him to his brother Aaron as a 
man of ready utterance. 

Moses returning to Jethro, told him he 
must po and see his brethren in Egvpt ; he 
took his wife and children with him, and 
set forward. But when he was arrived at 
an inn, the angel of the Lord sought to kill 
his son, the occasion of which was, as some 
think, because he was not circumcised. 
Zipporah, therefore, took a sharp stone, and 
cutting off the foreskin of her son, cast it at 
his feet (according to our English transla- 
tion,) and said, Surely a bloody husband art 
thou to me. The Hebrew text of Exodus 
iv. 24, 25, 26, is very obscure. Some para- 
phrase the words as follows : ' And it came 
to pass by the way in the inn [when Moses 
707 



was on his journey to Egypt], that Jehovah 
met him, and sought [threatened] to kill him 
[Gershom]. Then Zipporah took a sharp 
stone, and cut away the foreskin of her son, and 
caused it to touch his feet, [Jehovah's, who 
probably appeared in a bodily shape ; the 
Septuagint call him the angel of the Lord,] 
and said unto him, A spouse by blood art thou 
unto me. Then he [Jehovah] ceased from him 
[Gershom]. Then she said, A spouse by 
blood art thou unto me, because of this cir- 
cumcision ;' that is, I who am alien, have 
entered as fully into covenant with thee, by 
doing this act, as my son has, on whom this 
act has been performed. The meaning of 
the whole passage seems to be this : It 
would seem that God had ordered Moses to 
circumcise his sons, but that he had not 
circumcised one of them, whether Gershom 
or Eleazar does not appear. As he had 
neglected to do this, Jehovah was about to 
slay the child, because not in covenant w r ith 
him by circumcision ; and thus he intended 
to have punished the disobedience of the 
father by the natural death of his son. Zip- 
porah, getting acquainted with the nature of 
the case, and the danger to which her first- 
born was exposed, took a sharp stone, and 
cut off the foreskin of her son. By this act 
the displeasure of the Lord was turned aside, 
and Zipporah considered herself as now 
allied to God because of this circumcision. 
After this, Moses and Zipporah separated 
from each other; and she returned to her 
father Jethro, and took her sons with her. 

Being returned to Egypt, Moses and 
Aaron went to Pharaoh, and told him that 
the God of the Hebrews ordered them to go 
three days' journey into the desert of Arabia, 
to offer sacrifices to him. Pharaoh refused, 
and gave orders that the children of Israel 
should no longer be allowed straw, as before, 
for making bricks. The people on this 
made their complaint to Moses, and he to 
the Lord, who told him, You shall see the 
plagues which shall smite the Egyptians. 
Moses and Aaron coming to Pharaoh, with 
the orders of the Lord, Aaron threw down 
his rod, which immediately w r as changed 
into a serpent. Pharaoh then sent for his 
magicians, who by enchantments changed 
also their rods into serpents; but Moses's 
rod now changed into a serpent, and de- 
voured those of the magicians. 

After this, the Lord smote Egypt with 
ten different sorts of plagues. According 
to Archbishop Usher, these ten plagues 
took place in the course of one month, and 
in the following order; 1. the plague of 
blood, Moses changing the waters of the 
Nile into blood, on the 18th day of the 
sixth month, afterwards called Adar ; 2. the 
plague of frogs, about the twenty-fifth of 
the sixth month ; 3. the plague of lice, on the 
twenty-seventh of the sixth month ; 1. the 
plague of flies, on the twenty-ninth of the 
sixth month ; 5. the grievous murrain, on 
z z 2 



MOS 



MOS 



the second day of the seventh month, af- 
terwards called Nisan ; 6. the plague of 
boils and blains, on the third day of the 
seventh month ; 7- the grievous hail, on the 
fifth day of the seventh month ; 8. the 
plague of locusts, on the eighth day of the 
seventh month ; 9. the thick darkness, on 
the tenth day of the seventh month ; 10. 
the slaying of the first-born, on the fifteenth 
day of the seventh month. It is, however, 
observable, that most of these dates are 
destitute of proof. 

The fourteenth day of Abib, or Nisan, 
at evening, the Hebrews killed the lamb 
of the passover, or of the passage of the 
Lord, and with the blood they sprinkled 
the two posts and upper parts of their 
doors ; that the destroying angel, passing 
over their houses, might not enter to kill 
their first-born. About the middle of the 
night, the Lord smote all the first-born of 
the Egyptians, from the first-born of Pha- 
raoh, to the first-born of the meanest of 
his slaves ; and there was a great outcry 
throughout Egypt. Pharaoh sent in haste 
to call Moses and Aaron, and bade them 
go quickly and sacrifice to their God, with 
their wives, children, cattle, and all that 
they had ; and when they went, to pray 
for him also. The Egyptians also urged 
them to be gone. 

Moses took with him the bones of the 
patriarch Joseph, who had laid this in- 
junction on the Israelites before his death. 
(Exod. xiii. 10. Gen. 1. 25.) The Hebrews, 
departing from Rameses, came first to 
Succoth, and thence to Etham. From 
Etham they turned towards Pi-hahiroth, 
which is between the sea and Migdol, 
over against Baal-zephon. No sooner 
were they arrived there, than Pharaoh 
advanced with a powerful army, thinking 
to force them back into Egypt. But the 
Lord put between the camp of Israel and 
that of the Egyptians a miraculous cloud, 
which was luminous on the side towards 
the Israelites, and dark towards the Egyp- 
tians. The Egyptians, perceiving that 
the Hebrews had fled through the sepa- 
rated waters of the Red Sea, pursued 
them ; but the Lord, by a wind, brought 
back the waters, so that the whole army 
of the Egyptians was drowned. Then 
Moses and the Israelites sang a song of 
thanksgiving to the Lord. Hence, they 
went on toward Sinai. At Marah they 
found water, but very bitter. Moses crying 
to the Lord, he showed him a certain kind 
of wood, which, being thrown into the 
water, took away the bitterness, and made 
it potable. 

On the fifteenth day of the second 
month, after they came out of Egypt, 
the Hebrews came into the wilderness of 
Sin or Zin, between Elim and Sinai. Here 
the multitude, tired with the length of 
their journey, began to murmur against 
708 



Moses, saying, Would to God we had died 
in Egypt, where we sat at the flesh-pots ; 
and where we ate bread in abundance ! 
The Lord spake to Moses, and promised 
to rain food from heaven. Of this Moses 
informed the people. That very evening 
the camp of Israel was covered with quails, 
brought thither by the wind ; and the next 
morning they saw all around the camp a 
kind of hoar-frost, like little grains, of 
the colour of bdellium, and of the shape of 
coriander-seeds : this was the manna. See 
Manna. Moses commanded Aaron to fill 
an omer with manna, and lay it before the 
Lord, to remain as a monument to future 
generations. 

From the desert of Sin, the Hebrews 
proceeded to Alush, and to Rephidim, 
where the people, in want of water, mur- 
mured against Moses. But the Lord, by 
the ministry of Moses, drew them water 
out of the rock of Horeb. At this time 
the Amalekites attacking Israel, Moses 
sent Joshua against them ; he himself, at 
the same time, with Aaron and Hur, was 
upon an eminence, whence he could see 
the engagement. While Moses held up 
his hands toward heaven, Joshua had the 
advantage over the enemy ; but no sooner 
did he hold them down when weary, than 
the Amalekites prevailed. Wherefore Aaron 
and Hur put stones under him, that he 
might sit down, while each of them sup- 
ported his arms, that he might not be tired. 
So the Amalekites were entirely defeated. 
The Lord said to Moses, Write an ac- 
count of this action in a book, and instruct 
Joshua in it ; for I will utterly destroy the 
memory of Amalek from under heaven. 

The third day of the third month from 
their coming out of Egypt, they arrived at. 
the foot of Mount Sinai, where they con- 
tinued one whole year. God had told 
Moses, that here they should offer sacrifices 
to him after they came forth out of Egypt ; 
and here Moses was the mediator of a 
covenant between God and this people. 
See Decalogue. 

Then coming down from the mountain, 
Moses declared to the people the laws he 
had received, and the articles of the cove- 
nant the Lord would make with them. 
The people answered, that they would 
perform whatever the Lord should en- 
join them. Moses erected an altar of un- 
hewn stone at the foot of the mountain, 
and twelve monuments, or twelve other 
altars, in the name of the twelve tribes of 
Israel. He offered sacrifices and peace- 
offerings ; and, taking the blood of the 
victims, he poured half upon the altar, 
and the other half into cups ; and having 
read to the people the ordinances which 
he had received from the Lord, and which 
he had written in a book, he sprinkled all 
the people with the blood that was in the 
cups. Thus was concluded this solemn and 




t'l.lhxh.J X,H ' ■:<>. 1,%-i /./., .s/i./m,;;/. OUhfit J' fiper.Lotuion . 



MOS 



MOS 



celebrated covenant between the Lord and 
the children of Israel. 

Then the Lord ordered Moses to come 
up again into the mountain, and bring with 
him Joshua his servant, that he might in- 
struct him in all the particulars of those 
laws and regulations, which he would have 
observed by the priests and people, in the 
public exercise of religion ; all the parts of 
which he distinctly appointed him. After 
this, God informed him that the people 
whom he had brought out of Egypt had 
soon forgotten all their promises and en- 
gagements ; for at that very time they had 
made a molten image, and were worship- 
ping a golden calf. He added, that he had 
an intention utterly to exterminate this 
headstrong and untractable people, and 
would make Moses the father and chief 
of a great nation. Moses, however, inter- 
ceded for the people. 

Descending from the mount, Joshua 
heard the shouts and rejoicings of the 
people. He said to Moses, that he heard 
a noise in the camp, as if of an engage- 
ment with an enemy. But Moses told him, 
that it was not the sound of an alarm, but 
cries of joy. When they approached the 
camp, they saw the golden calf, and the 
people singing and dancing about it : 
Moses, through indignation, threw down 
the tables of stone he held in his hands, 
and broke them. Taking the calf they had 
made, he reduced it to powder, and scat- 
tered the powder into the water, and so 
made ail the congregation drink of it. See 
Calf. Moses severely rebuked Aaron : 
Aaron excused himself as well as he could : 
and Moses, standing at the entrance of the 
camp, proclaimed, Whoever is for the 
Lord, let him join himself to me. All 
the children of Levi assembling about him, 
he said, Thus saith the Lord, let every one 
of you take his sword, and let him go from 
gate to gate across the camp, and slay even 
to his brother, his friend, or his kinsman. 
That day there were slain about three 
thousand people. 

The next day Moses remonstrated with 
the people on the heinousness of their sin, 
and told them he would go up again to 
the mountain, and endeavour to obtain 
forgiveness for them. He went up, and 
entreated the Lord to pardon them ; or, 
otherwise, he begged that he himself might 
be blotted out of the book of the Lord. 
The Lord answered, that only he who 
offended should be blotted out of his book ; 
but that he would chastise the criminals in 
the day of his vengeance : and that as to 
himself, he would not go along with them, 
but would send his angel before them. — 
Farther, to show the displeasure of the 
Lord, Moses carried the tabernacle out of 
the camp, where the Lord had been used 
to give his orders. But Moses not desist- 
ing to pray the Lord to continue his con- 
701) 



duct of his people to the Land of Promise, 
he at length promised not to forsake them. 
Moses desired another favour from the 
Lord, which was, that he might see his 
glory. The Lord answered him, that he 
could not see his face, for no man could 
support that sight ; but that he would pass 
before the opening of the rock, where Mo- 
ses might hear his name, and see his hinder 
parts (train) as he passed along. 

Afterwards, Moses went up into the 
mountain, and carried new tables of stone. 
There God gave him the Decalogue anew, 
and several other commandments : after 
forty days and forty nights he came down, 
bringing the two tables of testimony with 
him. He was not aware that his face 
emitted rays of light, which remained upon 
it after his communication with the Lord: 
so that Moses, while he spake to Aaron 
and Israel, put a veil over his face. 

Then he caused proclamation to be 
made, that whoever had any valuable 
metals, or precious stones, thread, wool, 
furs, or fine wood fit for the tabernacle, 
might offer them to the Lord. The Is- 
raelites, inflamed by a holy zeal, brought 
with great alacrity more than was neces- 
sary. 

The Lord commanded also, that each 
Israelite should contribute half a shekel, 
about thirteen pence half- penny of our 
money. That this contribution might be 
regularly raised, he took an account of 
the people, from twenty years old and 
upwards ; and there were found 603,550, 
each of whom paying a bekah or half she- 
kel, the sum amounted to 100 talents of 
silver, about 34,2197., and 1775 shekels, 
about 202/. 9s. Six whole months they 
worked at the tabernacle, that is, from 
the sixth month of the holy year, after 
their coming out of Egypt, in the year of 
the world 2513, to the first day of the first 
month of the following year, 2514. On 
the first day of Nisan, April 21, according 
to Usher, the tabernacle of the covenant 
was set up, and filled with the glory of the 
Lord. The fourteenth of Nisan the Is- 
raelites celebrated the second passover 
from their coming out of Egypt ; and 
about this time Moses published the laws 
contained in the first seven chapters of 
Leviticus ; he consecrated Aaron and his 
sons, and dedicated the tabernacle, and all 
its vessels. 

The first day of the second month of 
this year, Moses took a second account 
of the people, in which the Levites were 
reckoned apart, and appointed to the ser- 
vice of the tabernacle. Moses regulated 
their functions, and the offices of each} and 
the order of every tribe in their marches 
and encampments, to prevent confusion. 
The princes of the tribes made their offer- 
ings to the tabernacle, each according to 
his rank, and upon his day. during the 



MOS 



MOS 



twelve days of the dedication and conse- 
cration of this holy place. Lastly, about 
this time Moses made several ordinances, 
relating to the purity to be observed in 
holy things, the uncleannesses to be avoided, 
and the manner of approaching the taber- 
nacle. 

About the end of the year, Jethro, the 
father-in-law of Moses, brought him his wife 
Zipporah, and his two sons, Gershom and 
Eleazer. Moses received him with all re- 
spect, and by his persuasion commissioned 
judges to assist in accommodating differ- 
ences, and causes of lesser consequence. 
Soon after, the pillar of clouds rising, the 
Israelites decamped from Sinai, to go 
towards Paran. On account of the arrival 
of Zipporah in the camp, Aaron, and Mi- 
riam his sister, spoke against Moses, be- 
cause his wife was an Ethiopian : the par- 
ticulars of this dispute we do not know ; 
but the Scripture tells us, that the Lord 
interposed in behalf of Moses, who was the 
meekest man on earth. See Aaron and 
Miriam. 

It is not easy to determine whether the 
sedition of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, 
happened after the arrival of the Hebrews 
at Kadesh-barnea, or before ; but the gene- 
ral opinion is, that it took place after their 
arrival there. Korah was of the tribe of 
Levi, as well as Moses and Aaron ; Dathan, 
Abiram, and On, were of Reuben. Being 
disgusted at Moses and Aaron, they raised 
a mutiny against them, supported by two 
hundred and fifty others of the chief of the 
people. They said, Ye take too much upon 
you, seeing all the congregation are holy 
every one of them, and the Lord is among 
them : wherefore then lift ye up yourselves 
above the congregation of the Lord ? Mo- 
ses fell upon his face, and told them, Let 
every one of you take his censer, and pre- 
sent himself to-morrow before the Lord; 
and the Lord will then cause it to he known 
whom he hath chosen. Moses in the mean 
time having sent for Dathan and Abiram, 
they informed him they would not come to 
him. Wilt thou put out the eyes of these men? 
"We will not come up. The day following, 
Moses having assembled all the people at 
the door of the tabernacle, the glory of the 
Lord appeared; and in the issue the re- 
volters were swallowed up by the earth. 
Yet the very next day the people began 
again to murmur against Moses and Aaron 
on the same occasion, saying, Ye have killed 
the people of the Lord. The Lord caused 
a sudden fire or plague to go forth in the 
camp ; but Aaron with his censer, placing 
himself between the living and the dead, 
offered his incense, and intreated the Lord ; 
upon which the plague ceased. 

From the encampment called the Graves 
of Lust, the people went to Hazeroth, and 
thence to Kadesh-barnea, where they con- 
tinued for some time. Thence Moses sent 
710 



twelve chosen men to take a view of the 
land of Canaan. These men were forty 
days on their search, and at their return 
they brought back some of the fruits of the 
country, of an extraordinary size and fair- 
ness. They very much commended the 
land for its beauty and fertility ; but they 
added, that the inhabitants were of gigantic 
stature, and had many strong and populous 
cities, so that there were but little hopes 
that this country could be conquered by 
them. This report put all the camp into 
a mutiny. Nothing would satisfy them, but 
they would return into Egypt. Then the 
Lord in his anger threatened to destroy all 
the people ; but Moses interposed by his 
prayers. However, sentence was passed 
against these murmurers, that all from the 
age of twenty years and upwards should die 
in the desert. The ten spies were punished 
by a sudden death. Only Joshua and Caleb 
were preserved ; and God declared that 
they alone of the whole multitude should 
enter into the Land of Promise. 

Being come to Kadesh, Miriam, the 
sister of Moses, died there. In this en- 
campment the people murmured for want 
of water, with which Moses and Aaron sup- 
plied them, by causing it to gush out of a 
rock. But as they showed some distrust 
in the Lord, he condemned them to die in 
the wilderness, without entering the Land 
of Promise. This made them give this en- 
campment the name of Meribah, or the waters 
of strife. 

They went then to Mount Hor, where 
Aaron died. From hence they went to Zal- 
monah, where it is thought Moses erected 
the brazen serpent, to heal those who had 
been bitten by the fiery serpents in the 
camp. (Numb. xxi. 6.) Being come to 
Mount Pisgah in the desert of Kedemoth, 
they dispatched ambassadors to Sihon, king 
of the Amorites, to demand a passage through 
his country; which being refused, Moses 
gave him battle, overcame him, and took 
all his territories. Some time after, Og, 
king of Bashan, marched against Moses, 
and fought with him ; but Moses conquered 
him, and made himself master of his 
country. 

After this, Moses encamped in the plains 
of Moab, at Shittim, where the Israelites 
continued till they passed over Jordan, 
under Joshua. While they abode in this 
encampment, Balak, king of Moab, invited 
Balaam to come and curse Israel. But 
Balaam having rather blessed than cursed 
them, he sent the daughters of Moab into 
the camp, to tempt the Israelites to idolatry 
and fornication. This wicked counsel had 
the desired effect ; but Moses put to death 
all those who had given themselves to the 
worship of Baal-peor, to the amount of 
23,000, besides a thousand others executed 
by the judges. 
After this the Lord commanded Moses to 



MOS 



MOU 



make war against the Midianites, who had 
sent their daughters along with those of 
Moab, to debauch Israel. Phinehas was 
appointed captain of this expedition, for 
which Moses gave him twelve thousand 
chosen men. He routed the Midianites. 

The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half 
tribe of Manasseh, having asked of Moses 
for their inheritance the country they had 
conquered from the Amorites, Moses con- 
sented, on condition that they would go 
along with their brethren over Jordan, to 
assist them in the conquest of the country 
possessed by the Canaanites. 

The first day of the eleventh month of 
the fortieth year after the coming out of 
Egypt, Moses being in the fields of Moab, 
and knowing that he was not to pass over 
Jordan, and that his last hour was not far 
off, made a long discourse to the people, 
and recapitulated all he had done, and all 
that had happened from the coming out of 
Egypt. He set before them the happiness 
that would attend their constancy and 
fidelity, and the calamities which would 
punish their prevarication. He put into 
the hands of the priests and elders a copy 
of the law, with an injunction to have it 
read solemnly every seventh year in a gene- 
ral assembly of the nation. He composed 
an excellent canticle or poem, in which he 
exclaims against their future infidelities, 
and threatens them with all the evils that 
in after ages came upon them. Lastly, 
a little before his death, he gave to each 
of the tribes a particular blessing, in which 
he mingles several prophecies and pre- 
dictions. 

The Lord commanded Moses at the be- 
ginning of the twelfth month to ascend 
Mount Nebo, where he gave him a view of 
the country both on this side and beyond 
Jordan ; saying to him, ' This is the land 
which I sware unto Abraham, and unto 
Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I will give 
it unto thy seed : I have caused thee to 
see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt not 
go over thither. So Moses the servant of 
the Lord died there in the land of Moab, 
according to the word of the Lord. And 
he buried him in a valley in the land of 
Moab, over against Beth-peor: but no man 
knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day. 
And Moses was an hundred and twenty 
years old when he died : his eye was not 
dim, nor his natural force abated. And 
the children of Israel wept for Moses in 
the plains of Moab thirty days.' It is added, 
' There arose not a prophet since like unto 
Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face, 
in all the signs and the wonders which the 
Lord sent him to do in the land of Egypt, 
to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to 
all his land, and in all that mighty hand, 
and in all the great terror which Moses 
showed in the sight of all Israel.' 

The Scripture is full of the praises of this 
711 



great man. Jesus, son of Sirach, author of 
Ecclesiasticus, applauds him. (Ecclus. xlv. 
1, 2, 3.) 

Moses is the most ancient writer, of 
whom there remains any authentic works. 
He has left us the Pentateuch, or the five 
books of the Old Testament, Genesis, Exo- 
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. 
Probably these books were not originally 
separate works, as we find them now. Moses 
composed only one single work, of which the 
law was, as it were, the body, and Genesis was 
the preface. Afterwards, they were divided 
for convenience in reading. These books are 
acknowledged as authentic and inspired, by 
general consent both of Jews and Christians. 
Some difficulties have been started about 
the author of these books, because some 
passages have been observed in them that 
seem not to agree to Moses. Indeed it 
must be owned that some small additions 
have been made. These additions, how- 
ever, make no alterations in the sense, but 
are by way of illustration only. Besides 
the Pentateuch, the Jews ascribe to Moses 
eleven Psalms, from Psalm xc. to c. ; but 
there is no sufficient proof that these Psalms 
had Moses for their author. The title of 
the ninetieth Psalm, A prayer of Moses the 
man of God, which they pretend must be 
applied also to the ten following Psalms, is 
not sufficient. The greater part of the 
titles of the Psalms are not original, nor 
indeed very ancient ; and some of them are 
wrong placed. Besides, in these Psalms we 
find the names of persons, and other marks, 
that by no means can agree with Moses. 
Some ancients thought that Moses was the 
author of the book of Job. Origen on Job 
pretends that he translated it out of Sy- 
riac into Hebrew. But this opinion is re- 
jected both by Jews and Christians ; and if 
this book had truly belonged to Moses, 
would the Jews have separated it from the 
Pentateuch ? 

As to the death and burial of Moses, 
many difficulties have been raised. The 
Scripture tells us expressly, that Moses died, 
according to the word of the Lord. (Deut. 
ult. 5, 6.) But as the Hebrew words lite- 
rally import upon the mouth of the Lord, the 
Rabbins have imagined, that the Lord took 
away his soul by a kiss. Some have main- 
tained that he did not die ; and others have 
pretended that he was transported into 
heaven. 

MOURNING. The Hebrews, at the 
death of their friends and relations, gave 
all possible demonstrations of grief and 
mourning. They wept, tore their clothes, 
smote their breasts, fasted, and lay upon 
the ground, went bare-footed, pulled off 
their hair and beards, or cut them, and 
made incisions on their breasts, or tore them 
with their nails. (Levit xix. 28.; xxi. f». ; 

Jer. xvi. (J.) The lime of mourning was 

commonly seen days ; hut this was length- 



MttR 



MUS 



ened or shortened according to circum- 
stances. The Rabbins admit of several de- 
grees in their grief and mourning. For 
the first three days it was allowed to give 
up themselves to tears, and to the most 
sensible grief; which in the seven days fol- 
lowing was more moderate. But if the time 
of mourning was extended to a whole month, 
it was managed with moderation. The 
mournings for Saul, Judith, and Herod the 
Great, continued only seven days. Those 
for Moses and Aaron were prolonged to 
thirty days. Josephus says, that a thirty 
days' mourning ought to be sufficient for 
any wise man, in the loss of his nearest re- 
lation, or his dearest friend. 

During the whole time of their mourn- 
ing, the near relations of the deceased, as 
of father, mother, husband, brother, sister, 
or children, continued sitting in their 
houses, and ate on the ground. The food 
they took was thought unclean, and even 
themselves were judged impure. ' Their 
sacrifices shall be unto them as the bread 
of mourners; all that eat thereof shall be 
polluted,' says Hosea, (ix. 4.) Their faces 
were covered, and in that time they could 
not apply themselves to any labour, nor 
read the book of the law, nor say their 
usual prayers. They did not dress them- 
selves, nor make their beds, nor uncover 
their heads, nor shave themselves, nor cut 
their nails, nor go into the bath, nor salute 
any one. 

MURDER. Murder among the He- 
brews was always punished with death, but 
involuntary homicide only by banishment. 
Cities of refuge were appointed for invo- 
luntary manslaughter, whither the slayer 
might retire, and continue in safety, till the 
death of the high-priest. (Numb. xxxv. 
28.) Then the offender was at liberty to 
return to his own house, if he pleased. A 
murderer was put to death without remis- 
sion, and the kinsman of the murdered per- 
son might kill him with impunity. Money 
could not redeem his life ; he was dragged 
away from the altar, if he had there taken 
refuge. 

When a dead body was found in the 
fields of a person slain by a murderer un- 
known, Moses commanded that the elders 
and judges of the neighbouring places 
should resort to the spot. (Deut. xxi. 
1 — 8.) The elders of the city nearest to it 
were to take an heifer, which had never yet 
bore the yoke, and were to lead it into some 
rude and uncultivated place, which had not 
been ploughed or sowed, where they were 
to cut its throat. The priests of the Lord, 
with the elders and magistrates of the city, 
were to come near the dead body, and, 
washing their hands over the heifer that 
had been slain, were to say: 'Our hands 
have not shed this blood, nor have our eyes 
seen it shed. Lord, be favourable to thy 
people Israel, and impute not to us this 
712 



blood, which has been shed in the midst of 
our country.' This ceremony may inform 
us, what idea they had of the heinousness of 
murder, and how much horror they con- 
ceived at this crime ; their fear that God 
might avenge it on the whole country; and 
the pollution that the country was sup- 
posed to contract, by the blood spilt in it, 
unless it were expiated, or avenged on him 
who had occasioned it, if he could be disco- 
vered. 

Sir John Shore mentions a custom among 
the Brahmins of India, of sitting at a per- 
son's door, with some implement of suicide 
in their hands, and threatening to destroy 
themselves, unless something which they 
demanded should be granted to them. This, 
when their demand is not excessive, is 
usually complied with, through fear of their 
self-murder, and of their imbittered spirits 
afterwards haunting and pursuing to death 
the person who should refuse the demand. 
Of this we seem to have an instance in the 
Old Testament : the king of Moab made a 
desperate attempt, and risked his own per- 
son, to attack the king of Edom, then 
united with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah ; 
but foiling in his attempt, ' he took his 
eldest son that should have reigned in his 
stead, and offered him for a burnt-offering 
[ascension-offering] upon the wall. And 
there was a great indignation against Israel : 
and they departed from him, and returned 
to their own land.' (2 Kings iii. 27-) It 
is probable, that the anger against Israel 
arose not only from Moab, thus deprived of 
her prince, but also from Edom, who sym- 
pathized with the distressed king, respected 
this custom, and was indignant that Israel 
should consider it as impious and supersti- 
tious. Fragments annexed to Calmet's Die- 
tionary, No. clvi. pp. 144, 145. 

MUSIC. The ancient Hebrews had a 
strong inclination to music and musical in- 
struments. They used it in their religious 
services, in their public and private rejoic- 
ings, at their feasts, and even in their mourn- 
ings. We have in Scripture songs or can- 
ticles of joy, of thanksgiving, of praise, of 
mourning ; epithalamiums, or songs com- 
posed on occasion of marriages. 

Music is very ancient. Moses says of 
Jubal, who lived before the Deluge, that he 
was the father of those who played on the 
Jcinnor and the hugab. (Gen. iv. 21.) Now 
kinnor manifestly signifies the harp, and 
hugab the ancient organ, that is, a kind of 
flute composed of several pipes of different 
sizes, joined together. Laban complains 
that his son-in-law Jacob had left him, 
without bidding him farewell, and without 
giving him an opportunity of sending him 
away with mirth and with songs, with tabret 
and with harp. Moses having passed over 
the Red Sea, composed a song, and sang it 
with the Israelite men, while Miriam, his 
sister, sang it with dancing, and playing on 



MUS 



MYS 



instruments, at the head of the women. 
This legislator caused silver trumpets to be 
made to be sounded upon solemn sacrifices, 
and on religious festivals. David, who had 
a great taste for music, seeing that the Le- 
vites were numerous, and not employed, as 
formerly, in carrying the boards, veils, and 
vessels of the tabernacle, its abode being 
fixed at Jerusalem, appointed a great part 
of them to sing and play on instruments in 
the temple. 

Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun, were chiefs 
of the music of the tabernacle, under Da- 
vid, and of the temple, under Solomon. 
Asaph had four sons, Jeduthun six, and 
Heman fourteen. These twenty-four Le- 
vites, sons of the three great masters of the 
temple music, were at the head of twenty- 
four bands of musicians, which served in 
the temple by turns. Their number there 
was always great, but especially at the great 
solemnities. They were ranged in order 
about the altar of burnt sacrifices. Those 
of the family of Kohath were in the middle, 
those of Merari at the left, and those of 
Gershon at the right hand. As the whole 
business of their lives was to learn and 
practise music, it must be supposed that 
they understood it well ; whether it were 
vocal or instrumental music. The Lord 
had abundantly provided for their mainte- 
nance, and nothing could hinder them from 
being perfect in their art. 

The kings also had their particular music. 
Asaph was chief master of music to king 
David Barzillai said to David, Can 1 hear 
any more the voice of singing men and 
singing women ? Even in the temple, and 
in the ceremonies of religion, female musi- 
cians were admitted as well as male, who 
generally were the daughters of the Levites. 
Heman had fourteen sons and three daugh- 
ters, who understood music. The ninth 
Psalm is addressed to Benaiah, chief of the 
band of young women who sang in the tem- 
ple. Ezra, in his enumeration of those whom 
he brought back with him from the capti- 
vity, reckons up two hundred singing men 
and singing women. The Chaldee para- 
phrast on chap. ii. 8. of Ecclesiastes, where 
Solomon says that he gat singing men and 
singing women, understands it of singing 
women of the temple. In 1 Chron. xv. 20. 
it is said, in the Hebrew, that Zechariah, 
Aziel, and Shemiramoth, presided over the 
seventh band of music, which was that of 
the young women. 

Dr. Burney remarks, that ' neither the 
ancient Jews, nor the modern, have ever 
had characters peculiar to music ; neither 
the Egyptians nor Phoenicians, nor the 
Persians, nor Chinese, so that the melodies 
used in their religious ceremonies have at 
all times been traditional, and at the mercy 
of the singers. The Canonico Cavalca is, 
however, of opinion, that the points of the 
Hebrew language were at first musical cha- 
713 



racters ; and this conjecture has been con- 
firmed to me by a learned Jew, whom I 
have consulted on that subject, who says, 
that the points still serve two purposes ; in 
reading the prophets they merely mark ac- 
centuation, in singing them they regulate 
the melody, not only as to long and short, 
but high and low notes.' This is a common 
opinion among the Jews, and is perhaps not 
entirely without foundation. Burners His- 
tory of Music, vol. i. p. 251. Fragments an- 
nexed to Calmet's Dictionary, No. cexxxiii. 
p. 132. 

MYSTERY. This word is derived from 
the Greek mysterion, which in that language 
properly signifies a secret. Some think it 
to refer to the old English term maisteries, 
masteries, as the maisterie of the Merchant 
Tailors, of the Cordonniers [Cordwainers] 
and of other arts and trades. The term is 
still used in the city of London. ' The art 
and mystery of,' occurs in the indentures of 
apprenticeship, as used in most branches of 
business ; and it means, that which may be 
a difficulty, or even an impossibility, to be 
understood, by a novice, by a person only 
beginning to consider the subject, but which 
is perfectly easy, and intelligible to a mas- 
ter of the business, whose practice and un- 
derstanding have been long cultivated by 
use in it. 

Or, mystery, as before observed, may be 
defined a secret. A secret will always re- 
main so to a person who uses no endeavours 
to discover it. Oftentimes we say, such a 
person holds such a mode of accomplishing 
such a business a secret. Imagine one who 
wishes to know this secret; he labours, 
strives, &c. but, unless he proceed in the 
right mode, the process desired continues 
still a secret. Suppose the possessor of 
this secret shows him the process, teaches 
him, gives him information, &c, then this 
secret [mystery] is no longer mysterious to 
him; but he enjoys the discovery, and pro- 
fits accordingly : whilst another person, not 
so favoured, is as much in the dark respect- 
ing this secret, as he ever was. 

Secrets may be considered as of various 
kinds : some are known to a few, but are 
unknown to the many; some are kept 
closely a long time, but are revealed 
in proper season ; some are kept en- 
tirely, totally, and never are revealed ; 
some are of a nature not to be investigated 
by us ; and some so far surpass our 
powers, that, however familiar their effects 
may be to our observation, their princi- 
ples, acting causes, progresses, and dis- 
tributions, exceedingly perplex our un- 
derstandings, and reduce us to the neces- 
sity of inference, supposition, and con- 
jecture. This illustration of the word 
mystery may not be despised because of 
its familiarity; as it is probably not far 
from a Scriptural acceptation of the term. 
Thus, ' Great is the mystery,' secret, 



MYS 



MYS 



'. of godliness,' (1 Tim. iii. 16.) ; that is, 
a thing not to be comprehended at first 
sight, nor till after many reflections and 
considerations. ' I would not have you 
ignorant of this mystery,' secret, 'that 
blindness in part has happened to Israel.' 
(Rom. xi. 25.) It would be strange, in- 
deed, if mystery denoted something utterly 
incomprehensible and inexplicable, that the 
apostle should wish them not to be igno- 
rant of it! that he should instantly open 
to them what this mystery is ! To the Jews, 
indeed, it was still a secret ; and they did 
not believe the fact that they laboured 
under any blindness at all : but to the 
apostle, and to his fellow Christians, the 
mystery was clear, and was well understood 
by them. — ' Behold I show you a mystery, 
we shall not all sleep,' (1 Cor. xv. 51.) ; 
that is, behold I tell you a secret, we shall 
not all sleep ; for the apostle could not in- 
tend to show a thing utterly incomprehen- 
sible. — The apostle (1 Cor. xiii. 2.) speaks 
of a man's understanding all mysteries, that 
is, they were easy to him, though not to 
others; and (1 Cor. xiv. 2.) he alludes to a 
man, who, discoursing in a language foreign 
to his auditors, may in the spirit speak 
mysteries : he may tell all manner of 
secrets, in a foreign language, but whilst he 
himself understands perfectly well his own 
meaning, and what he says, his subjects of 
discourse will continue secrets to those who 
are ignorant of the language he uses. — The 
apostle says, ' We speak the wisdom of God 
in a mystery,' (1 Cor. ii. 7-) that is, the wis- 
dom hitherto kept secret: but now the 
secret is explained, is opened, is let out ; 
not, indeed, to the princes of the world, to 
whom it is as much a secret as ever ; but 
God by his Spirit hath given us information 
respecting it, and by that we know and un- 
derstand it. — ' Stewards of the mysteries of 
God,' (1 Cor. iv. 1.) are persons entrusted 
with some of the secrets of God, for the 
benefit of his church. — Thus, the calling of 
the Gentiles separately from the Jews was 
a mystery, a secret, which no Jew would 
have thought of, or have believed, had not 
God opened, and explained, and enforced 
it, by his Spirit, &c. (Eph. iii. 3. 6.) 

Mystery signifies also an allegory, that is, 
a mode of information under which there is 
a partial instruction given, a partial dis- 
covery made ; but there is still a cover of 
some kind ; which preserves something of 
secrecy : but this, the person who desires to 
know the secret thoroughly, must endeavour 
to remove. So the mystery of the seven 
stars, (Rev. i. 20.) is an allegory represent- 
ing the seven Asiatic churches under the 
figure or symbol of seven burning lamps. 
So the mystery, Babylon the Great, is an 
allegorical representation of a spiritual 
Babylon, spiritual idolatry, spiritual forni- 
cation, &c. ; and to this agrees the expres- 
sion afterwards, ' I will tell thee the mystery 
714 



of the woman,' that is, I will explain to thee 
the allegory of this figure. (Rev. xvii. 5. 7-) 
It would seem that, originally, the fathers 
understood the word in this sense. Thus 
the mystery of the sacrament of the Lord's 
body and blood, is the figurative represen- 
tation of the Lord's body. But the mys- 
teries among the heathens in time perverted 
this, and the true idea of the word mystery; 
into sentiments not merely unscriptural, but 
unwarrantable and unwise. 

Yet, it is not to be denied, that there are 
mysteries, in the highest sense of the word, 
in Nature, Providence, and Grace. The 
union of the human soul and body is a pro- 
found secret ; the origin of life is a profound 
secret ; the cause, manner, &c. of thought 
is a deep secret. So are many dispensa- 
tions of Providence : why goodness should 
suffer, and evil prosper, is a secret ; and, 
why one is called, and another left, is a 
secret of secrets, a mystery of Grace ! 

If the ways and works of God are mys- 
teries, we may justly expect to find his at- 
tributes, his essence, his perfections, his 
nature, are mysteries to us ! Could we sup- 
pose that God was inclined to instruct us in 
this, it would be (as we are constituted, at 
present) teaching us a maisterie, which we 
have no faculties capable of learning; it 
would be speaking to us in a language of 
which we should never be able to compre- 
hend a word ; it would be overwhelming us 
with too mighty, too extensive, too profound, 
too exalted discoveries for us to receive, or 
conceive ; unless we were previously endued 
with the attributes and qualities of the di- 
vine nature ; with immensity, infinity, ubi- 
quity, omniscience, eternity, and, in short, 
with Deity. Since no one denies the ex- 
istence of God, because he cannot compre- 
hend his nature and essence, which is a 
mystery ; so no one ought to deny exertions 
of his power, goodness, wisdom, &c. because 
they imply the exercise of what is secret to 
mankind in general. This principle, which 
is undeniable in nature, ought to be equally 
undeniable in religion. In short, what re- 
lates to God may, rather must, always have 
something of mystery in it. Even the most 
direct and profound intercourse between the 
human powers, and their ineffable Creator, 
prayer and praise, may be secrets, that is, 
mysterious services, but not therefore less 
devout, or less acceptable. Additions to 
Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible. 

MYSTICS, who have also been some- 
times called Quietists, are those who profess 
a pure and sublime devotion, accompanied 
with a disinterested love of God, free from 
all selfish considerations ; and who believe 
that the Scriptures have a mystic and hidden 
sense, which must be sought after, in order 
to understand their true import. Under 
this name some comprehend all those who 
profess to know how they are inwardly 
taught of God. 



MYS 



MYS 



The authors of Mysticism, which sprang 
up so early as the second century, or, at 
latest, towards the close of the third, are not 
known ; but the principles from which it 
was formed may readily be ascertained. Its 
first promoters proceeded upon the known 
doctrine of the Platonic School, which was 
also adopted by Origen and his disciples, 
that ' the divine nature was diffused through 
all human souls ;' or • that the faculty of 
reason, from which proceed the health and 
vigour of the mind, was an emanation from 
God into the human soul, and comprehended 
in it the principles and elements of all 
truth, human and divine.' They denied 
that men could, by labour or study, excite 
this celestial flame in their breasts ; and, 
therefore, they disapproved highly of the 
attempts of those who, by definitions, ab- 
stract theorems, and profound speculations, 
endeavoured to form distinct notions of 
truth, and discover its hidden nature. On 
the contrary, they maintained that silence, 
tranquillity, repose, and solitude, accom- 
panied with such acts as might tend to at- 
tenuate and exhaust the body, were the 
means by which the hidden and internal 
word was excited to produce its latent 
virtues, and to instruct men in the know- 
ledge of divine things. They reasoned as 
follows : — Those ' who behold, with a noble 
contempt, all human affairs, who turn away 
their eyes from terrestrial vanities, and 
shut all the avenues uf the outward senses 
against the contagious influences of a 
material world, must necessarily return to 
God, when the spirit is thus disengaged 
from the impediments that prevented that 
happy union. And, in this blessed frame, 
they not only enjoy inexpressible raptures 
from that communion with the Supreme 
Being, but also are invested with the ines- 
timable privilege of contemplating truth 
undisguised and uncorrupted in its native 
purity, while others behold it in a vitiated 
and delusive form.' 

The number of the Mystics increased in 
the fourth century, under the influence of 
the Grecian fanatic who gave himself out 
for Dionysius the Areopagite, disciple of 
St. Paul, and who probably lived about this 
period ; and, by pretending to higher de- 
grees of perfection than other Christians, 
and practising great austerities, their cause 
gained ground, especially in the eastern 
provinces, in the fifth century. A copy of 
the pretended works of Dionysius was sent 
by Balbus to Lewis the Meek, in the year 
824, which kindled the holy flame of Mys- 
ticism in the western provinces, and filled 
the Latins with the most enthusiastic admi- 
ration of this new religion. In the twelfth 
century, these Mystics took the lead in 
their method of expounding the Scriptures. 
In the thirteenth, they were the most formi- 
dable antagonists of the Schoolmen ; ami, 
towards the close of the fourteenth, many of 
715 



them resided and propagated their tenets in 
almost every part of Europe. They had, in 
the fifteenth century, many persons of dis- 
tinguished merit in their number ; in the 
sixteenth, previously to the Reformation, if 
any sparks of real piety subsisted under the 
despotic empire of superstition, they were 
chiefly to be found among the Mystics; and 
in the seventeenth, the radical principle of 
Mysticism was adopted by the Boehmists, 
Bourignonists. and Quietists. 

The Mystics propose a disinterestedness 
of love, without other motives, and profess 
to feel, in the enjoyment of the temper itself, 
an abundant reward ; and passive contem- 
plation is the state of perfection to which 
they aspire. They lay little or no stress 
upon the outward ceremonies and ordi- 
nances of religion, but dwell chiefly upon 
the inward operations of the mind. It is not 
uncommon for them to allegorize certain 
passages of Scripture : at the same time, 
they do not deny the literal sense, as having 
an allusion to the inward experience of 
believers. Thus ' according to them, the 
word Jerusalem, which is the name of the 
capital of Judea, signifies, allegorically, the 
church militant, morally, a believer, and mys- 
teriously, heaven.' That sublime passage 
also in Genesis, ' Let there be light, and 
there was light,' which is according to the 
letter, corporeal light, signifies, allegorically, 
the Messiah, morally, grace, and mysteriously, 
beatitude, or the light of glory. 

All this appears to be harmless ; yet we 
must be careful not to give way to the 
sallies of a lively imagination in interpreting 
Scripture. Woolston is said to have been 
led to reject the Old Testament, by spiri- 
tualizing and allegorizing the New. 

The Mystics are not confined to any par- 
ticular denomination of Christians, but may 
be found in most countries, and among 
many descriptions of religionists ; especially 
among the adherents to the Church of Rome, 
the Quakers, the Moravians, the Methodists, 
the Swedenborgians, &c. & r c. Among the 
number of Mystics may be ranked many 
singular characters, especially Behmen, 
originally a shoemaker at Gorlitz, in Ger- 
many; Molinos, a Spanish priest, in the 
seventeenth century; Madame Guyon, a 
French lady, who made a great noise in the 
religious world ; and the celebrated Madame 
Bourignon, who wrote a work, entitled, 
' The Light of the World,' which is full of 
Mystic extravagances. Fenelon also, the 
learned and amiable archbishop of Cambray, 
favoured the same sentiments, for which he 
was reprimanded by the Pope. His work, 
entitled 'An Explication of the Maxims of 
the Saints,' which abounded with Mystical 
sentiments, was condemned ; and to the 
Pope's sentence against him the good arch- 
bishop (juietly submitted, and BV0H read it 
publicly hinreelfin the cathedral oi'Camhr.iy. 
In this whole affair, his chief opponent is 



MYS. 



MYS 



said to have been the famous Bossuet, 
Bishop of Meaux. Mr, William Law, au- 
thor of the ' Serious Call,' &c, and the very 
able opponent of Bishop Hoadly, degene- 
rated, in the latter part of his life, into all 



the singularities of Mysticism ; and some 
suppose, that his extravagant notions were 
one means of driving the celebrated Gibbon 
into a state of infidelity. Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 423 — 428. 



N. 



NAA 

NA'AMAN, )D]/3, signifies beautiful; 
otherwise, who prepares himself to mo- 
tion. Naaman, general of the army of Ben- 
hadad, king of Syria, was in great credit 
with the king his master, because by his 
means the Lord had saved Syria ; but he 
was a leper. Naaman had in his house a 
young Israelitish girl, a captive, who said, 
there was a prophet in Israel, that could 
cure any disorder. Naaman having heard 
these words went immediately to Benha- 
dad, and desired leave to go to Samaria, to 
the prophet Elisha. The king wrote to the 
king of Israel, that he should cure Naa- 
man ; and the king of Israel exclaimed in 
astonishment, ' Am I God, to kill and to 
make alive?' (2 Kings v. 1, 2, &c.) But 
Elisha sent word to Jehoram, ' Let him 
come now to me, and he shall know that 
there is a prophet in Israel.' Naaman 
came, therefore, with his chariot and horses, 
and stopped at the door of Elisha's house, 
whether out of respect to him, or, that hav- 
ing the leprosy, he was impure. Elisha 
sent to tell him to wash himself seven times 
in Jordan. Naaman being very angry at 
this mode of cure, and at the prophet's ap- 
parent stiffness, was turning away in great 
wrath, when his servants said to him, ' If 
the prophet had bid thee do some great 
thing, wouldest thou not have done it? 
How much rather, then, when he saith to 
thee, Wash, and be clean ?' Naaman was 
persuaded, went to Jordan, washed seven 
times, and was perfectly cured. 

He came back again to the man of God, 
and told him, ' Now I know that there is no 
God in all the earth, but in Israel ; now, 
therefore, I pray thee, take a blessing of 
thy servant' But Elisha would receive no 
present. Naaman, seeing that he could not 
prevail with him, said, I beseech thee, then, 
to permit me to carry home with me two 
mules' lading of the earth of this country ; 
for henceforward I shall offer sacrifice to no 
God, but the God of Israel. Elisha readily 
permitted him, seeing his regard for the 
Lord, which made him think that he could 
not offer any sacrifices agreeable to God, 
716 



NAA 

but upon earth that was holy, and taken 
out of the land of Israel. The prevailing 
opinion is, that Naaman intended to erect 
an altar of this earth, or that he intended 
to spread this earth for a floor, on which to 
pray, as if he was always in the holy coun- 
try, whence he had brought it. Some, 
however, think, that this earth was in- 
tended for the purpose of ablution ; as if 
Naaman had said, ' I cannot carry away 
with me sufficient water from this holy 
stream of Jordan, to supply the quantity 
necessary for sacred cleanliness ; but earth, 
or sand, may be used repeatedly for cere- 
monial purifications, and is not soiled so 
readily as water.' We are told, that if the 
Arab Algerines cannot procure water, they 
must wipe themselves as clean as they can 
till water may conveniently be had ; or else 
it suffices to smooth their hands over a stone, 
twice or thrice, and rub them one with the 
other, as if they were washing with water, 

Naaman, speaking to Elisha, added, ' In 
this thing the Lord pardon thy servant, 
that when my master goeth into the house 
of Rimmon, to worship there, and he lean- 
eth upon my hand, and I bow myself in the 
house of Rimmon ; when I bow down myself 
in the house of Rimmon, the Lord pardon 
thy servant in this thing. And he said unto 
him, Go in peace.' This passage has given 
rise to many scruples. The greater part of 
commentators think, that Naaman only asks 
leave from Elisha to continue those exter- 
nal services to his master Benhadad, which 
he had been used to render him when he 
entered the temple of Rimmon, but not to 
adore Rimmon ; and that Elisha suffered 
him to accompany the king his master into 
the temple of this idol, provided that he 
paid it no worship. Others, in great num- 
bers, translate the Hebrew by the time 
past ; ' In this thing the Lord pardon thy 
servant, that when my master went into the 
house of Rimmon, to worship there, and he 
leaned on my hand, and I bowed myself in 
the house of Rimmon ; when I bowed down 
myself in the house of Rimmon, the Lord 
pardon thy servant in this thing. And he 



NAB 



NAB 



said unto him, Go in peace.' Naaman men- 
tions only this past sin, and asks pardon for 
it, because idolatry, in some measure, in- 
cludes all other crimes ; and he chiefly in- 
sists on this, in his declaration to the pro- 
phet, that henceforward he would worship 
only the God of Israel. 

Naaman was returning into his own 
country, very joyful, but had scarcely gone 
fifty yards when Gehazi, displeased that 
Elisha his master took nothing from Naa- 
man, runs after him to ask for something ; 
and, in the name of his master, by a lie, 
begged a talent and two changes of raiment. 
The talent (of silver) is worth of our money 
about 342/. Naaman answered him, ' Take 
two talents,' and constrained him to receive 
them, and also sent two of his servants to 
carry them for him. The leprosy of Naa- 
man was inflicted as a punishment on Ge- 
hazi. The Scripture after this makes no 
mention of Naaman. See Gehazi. — Har- 
mer's Observations, vol. iv. pp. 420, 421. 
Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary of 
the Bible, No. ciii. p. 5. 

NA'BAL, bns, signifies fool, or senseless. 
Nabal was a very rich, but very churlish 
man, of little understanding, of the tribe of 
Judah, and the race of Caleb. His ordinary 
dwelling was probably at Maon, one of the 
most southern cities of Judah, and he had a 
great number of flocks upon Mount Carmel, 
not far from Maon. This Carmel is very 
different from the Mount Carmel on the 
coast of the Mediterranean Sea, between 
Dora and Ptolemais. While David, fear- 
ing Saul, was obliged to hide in the wilder- 
ness of Paran, and near to Carmel, he al- 
ways took care that none of his followers 
should injure Nabal, but rather assist his 
shepherds and herdsmen. Being therefore 
informed that Nabal was come thither to 
shear his sheep, he sent ten young men of 
his company to make his compliments to 
him, and to ask him civilly for something 
to refresh himself and followers. But Nabal 
answered them, Who is David, and who is 
the son of Jesse? We are pestered every 
day with servants that run away from their 
masters. Shall I take the flesh of my sheep, 
and the provisions I have brought for my 
own servants, and give them to strangers ? 
The men whom David had sent went back, 
and acquainted him with Nabal's churlish 
answer. 

Then David, in his anger, caused four 
hundred of his people to arm themselves, 
and went with a resolution to put Nabal and 
all his family to the sword. But in the mean 
time, one of Nabal's servants, having ac- 
quainted his wife Abigail with what had 
passed, who was a wise and prudent woman, 
and having justified also David's people, 
she presently prepared provisions and re- 
freshments, with which she met and ap- 
peased David. Abigail then returned to 
Nabal, and found him in his house, making 
717 



a feast; as it were for a prince. His heart 
swelled with joy, and he was quite drunk. 
Abigail said nothing to him till morning; 
but after he had slept, she told him of the 
danger in which he had been. This account 
had such effect upon him, that he became 
as immoveable as a stone ; and his heart 
was so struck with fear, that he died in ten 
days. Nabal, in the original, signifies a fool, 
or madman. (1 Sam. xxv. 25, &c.) 

NABA'THEANS, or Na'bathites, Na- 
/SaraTot, signifies that prophesy, that speak, 
or, bring forth fruit. The Nabatheans, or 
Nabathites, inhabited Nabathea, which ex- 
tends from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, 
and the chief cities of which are Petra, the 
capital of Arabia Deserta, Medaba, and 
some others. The Nabatheans are scarcely 
known in Scripture till the time of the 
Maccabees. During the wars of the Jews 
against the Syrians, and whilst almost all 
other nations about them were against the 
Hebrews, the Nabatheans alone showed 
them friendship. (1 Mace. v. 24, 25, 
&c.) 

NA'BOTH, ma, signifies words, or pro- 
phecies, or fruits. Naboth was an Israel- 
ite of Jezreel, who lived under Ahab, 
king of Israel, and had a fine vineyard in 
Jezreel, near the king's palace. This 
prince required of him either to sell him 
his vineyard, in order to make a kitchen- 
garden of it, or to exchange it for a bet- 
ter. But Naboth declined the offer. Ahab, 
returning into his house, threw himself on 
his bed, and refused to eat. Jezebel, his 
wife, took on herself to procure this vine- 
yard. She wrote letters in Ahab's name, 
and sealed them with the king's seal, and 
sent them to the elders of Jezreel, directing 
them to publish a fast, make Naboth sit 
among the chief of the people, suborn 
against him two sons of Belial, or two 
false witnesses, who might depose that 
Naboth had blasphemed God and the king. 
Accordingly Naboth was condemned, and 
stoned for the supposed crime. (1 Kings 
xxi.) 

Jezebel immediately went to the king, 
and bid him take and enjoy Naboth's vine- 
yard. Ahab instantly departed from Sa- 
maria, and came to Jezreel to take posses- 
sion of Naboth's estate. But the Lord 
commanded the prophet Elijah to threaten 
him and Jezebel with the most ignominious 
deaths, and treatment after death. See 
Ahab and Jezebel. 

NA'HASH, irm, signifies snake, or ser- 
pent, or that foretells, or brass. N abash, 
king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh- 
Gilead, a month after the election of Saul 
as king of Israel. The Hebrews of Jabesh, 
finding themselves not strong enough to 
resist Nahash, offered to capitulate. Na- 
hash proposed to pull out every one's right 
eye, and to make it a reproach in Israel. 
The elders of Jabesh desired a truce for 



NAH 



NAO 



seven days. They sent, therefore, to Gibeah, 
where Saul resided; and their messengers 
declared their distress. Saul happening to 
return just at that time out of the field, and 
seeing the people weep, inquired the reason. 
They acquainted him with the message they 
had received from the inhabitants of Jabesh ; 
at which, being moved by the Spirit of God, 
he cut two of his oxen in pieces, and sent 
them express throughout Israel, proclaim- 
ing that so should the cattle of all those be 
treated, who did not come presently to fol- 
low Saul and Samuel. 

The people, struck with consternation, 
appeared all at the place appointed. Saul 
sent back the messengers to Jabesh-Gilead, 
and bid them expect relief on the morrow. 
As soon as it was evening, Saul took all 
his army over Jordan ; and marching all 
night, by break of day he attacked the 
camp of the Ammonites with so much 
fury, that he entirely routed them. Thus 
was this war finished at once ; and Josephus 
says that Nahash himself was killed in the 
battle. (1 Sam. xi.) 

Nahash, king of the Ammonites, and 
a friend to David, was probably son to 
the above. We know nothing of the cir- 
cumstances of his life, nor on what occa- 
sion a friendship commenced between him 
and David. It is likely, however, that this 
might happen during Saul's persecution of 
David, when he was forced to abscond on 
the other side Jordan. Probably, Shobi, 
son of Nahash, of Rabbah, capital of the 
Ammonites, is a son of the same Nahash. 
(2 Sam. xvii. 27-) See Hanun. 

Nahash, father of Abigail and Zeruiah, 
is thought to be the same as Jesse, father of 
David. (2 Sam. xvii. 25. 1 Chron. ii. 13. 
15, 16.) Nahash, or Nachash, signifies a 
serpent, a crafty fellow. This might per- 
haps be the surname of Jesse, father of Da- 
vid. Others, however, think that Nahash 
is the name of Jesse's wife. 

N A'HUM,mro, Nttot>/j,signifies comforter, 
penitent, or their guide. Nahum, the seventh 
of the twelve minor prophets, is supposed 
to have been a native of Elcosh or Elcosha, 
a village in Galilee, and to have been of the 
tribe of Simeon. There is great uncer- 
tainty respecting the exact period in which 
he lived ; but it is generally allowed, that he 
delivered his predictions between the As- 
syrian and Babylonian captivities, and pro- 
bably about the year 715 before Christ. 
They relate solely to the destruction of 
Nineveh by the Babylonians and Medes, 
and are introduced by an animated display 
of the attributes of God. Archbishop Usher 
places the destruction of Nineveh in the 
year of the world 3378, that is, according 
to Dean Prideaux, in the 29th year of king 
Josiah, and twenty-four years before the 
destruction of Jerusalem, which time ex- 
actly agrees with the account given by 
Herodotus and other heathen historians. 
718 



Of all the minor prophets, says Bishop 
Lowth, none seem to equal Nahum in sub- 
limity, ardour, and boldness. His prophecy 
forms an entire and regular poem. The 
exordium is magnificent and truly august. 
The preparation for the destruction of Nine- 
veh, and the description of that destruction, 
are expressed in the most glowing colours ; 
and at the same time the prophet writes 
with a perspicuity and elegance, which have 
a just claim to our highest admiration. 
Lowth' s Lectures, vol. ii. p. 99 ; Tomline's 
Elem. of Christ. Theology, vol. i. p. 126. 

NA'IN, Nai/i, signifies beauty, or youth- 
ful ; otherwise, commotion, or their move- 
ment. Nain or Nairn, was a city of Pa- 
lestine, where Jesus Christ restored the 
widow's son to life, as they were carrying 
him out to be buried. Eusebius says, this 
city was in the neighbourhood of Endor 
and Scythopolis. In another place he ob- 
serves, it was two miles from Tabor, south. 
The brook Kishon ran between Tabor and 
Nain. 

NA'OMI, "Dj», signifies beautiful, agree- 
able. Naomi was the wife of Elimelech, 
who retired into the land of Moab, on oc- 
casion of a famine in Judea ; where Elime- 
lech dying, Naomi settled her two sons in 
marriage, Mahlon to Ruth, and Chilion to 
Orpah. These two young men dying also 
without children, Naomi resolved to return 
into Judea. Her two daughters-in-law 
were desirous of returning with her; but 
she dissuaded them. Orpah remained be- 
hind, but Ruth would accompany Naomi to 
Bethlehem. (Ruth i. 1, 2, 3, &c.) When 
they came thither, the report was soon 
spread in the neighbourhood, and the people 
came to welcome her. She told them that 
they must no longer call her Naomi, that is 
fair ; but Mara, that is bitterness. ' For the 
Lord,' says she, ' has heaped trouble upon 
me. I went away full, but the Lord has 
brought me back empty and desolate.' 

One day as Ruth went out to glean in 
the fields, she happened to enter that of 
Boaz, who encouraged her to follow his 
reapers, and made her eat among his har- 
vesters. At her return home, Naomi in- 
formed her, that Boaz was her near kins- 
man, and she advised the proceedings of 
Ruth so warily, that she brought it about at 
last, that Boaz married Ruth. See Boaz 
and Ruth. 

By this marriage Ruth had a son called 
Obed ; on which the women of Bethlehem 
congratulated Naomi. The exact time is 
not known in which this history of Ruth 
and Naomi happened ; but we know that 
between the time of the marriage of Sal- 
mon with Rahab of Jericho, and the birth 
of David, are three hundred and sixty- 
six years, which are filled up only with 
four persons, Salmon, Boaz, Obed, and 
Jesse. So that each of these must have 
lived long. 



NAP 



NAT 



NAPH'TALT, -briBJ, signifies compari- 
son, likeness; otherwise, that struggles, or 
fights; to twine, wrench. Naphtali was the 
sixth son of Jacob, by Bilhah, Rachel's 
handmaid. Rachel said, ' With great wrest- 
lings have I wrestled with my sister, and I 
have prevailed.' (Gen. xxx. 8.) We know 
very few particulars of the life of Naphtali. 
His sons were Jahzeel, Guni, Jezer, and 
Shillem. (Gen. xlvi. 24) The patriarch 
Jacob, when he gave his blessing to his son 
Naphtali, said to him, ' Naphtali is a hind 
let loose ; he giveth goodly words.' (Gen. 
xlix. 21.) Most of the Rabbins and com- 
mentators apply this to Barak, who was of 
the tribe of Naphtali, and who at first 
showed the fear of a hind, by refusing to 
march against the Canaanites, unless the 
prophetess Deborah would go with him; 
but he afterwards showed that he imitated 
the swiftness of a hind in pursuit of the 
enemy. (Judges iv. 6.) He also signalized 
his eloquence in that sublime canticle, which 
he composed with Deborah, to give thanks 
to God for their victory. 

The Septuagint give another rendering 
of this text : ' Naphtali is a tree that puts 
forth young branches, the shoots of which 
are fine.' This sense seems as good at least, 
as the former. Jacob commends the fer- 
tility of Naphtali, and the beauty of his 
race. Naphtali had only four sons, yet at 
the Exodus his tribe made up 53,400 men 
able to bear arms. Moses, in blessing the 
same tribe, says, (Deut. xxxiii. 23.) 'O 
Naphtali, satisfied with favour, and full with 
the blessing of the Lord, possess thou the 
west and the south.' The Vulgate reads, 
1 The sea and the south,' which the Hebrew 
will admit, and which denotes the sea of 
Gennesareth, which was south of the in- 
heritance of this tribe. His soil was very 
fruitful in corn and oil. His limits were 
extended into Upper and Lower Galilee, 
having Jordan east, Asher and Zebu- 
lun west, Libanus north, and Issachar 
south. 

The tribe of Naphtali encamped in the 
wilderness on the north side of the taber- 
nacle, between Dan and Manasseh. (Numb. 
ii. 25, 26, 27, &c.) After the division, 
by Joshua, of the Land of Promise, the 
children of Naphtali did not destroy all 
the Canaanites in their country, but con- 
tented themselves with making them tribu- 
tary. ( Judg. i. 33.) The Naphtalites, being 
on the frontiers to the north, were first in- 
vaded, and first made captives by the kings 
of Assyria. (2 Kings xv. 29.) Isaiah (ix. 1.) 
foretold to them that they should see the 
light of the Messiah, and should be first 
illuminated by the light of the Gospel. In- 
deed, our Saviour preached oftener and 
longer in Galilee, and particularly in the 
tribe of Naphtali, than in any other part of 
Jordan. (Matt. iv. 13. 15.) 

NARCIS'SUS, TfctpKiaaoQ, signifies as- 
719 



tonishment, stupidity, surprise. St. Paul 
says, (Rom. xvi. 11.) 'Greet them that be 
of the household of Narcissus, which are in 
the Lord.' This passage cannot prove that 
Narcissus was a Christian, any more than 
that in the Epistle to the Philippians, (iv. 
22.) in which the apostle salutes all those of 
Caesar's household, that is, probably those of 
Nero's family, proves that the emperor was 
a Christian. Origen pretends that this ex- 
pression ' the household of Narcissus,' 
proves that this family was not all Christ- 
ians. Grotius thinks that Narcissus was a 
Pagan ; but some are of opinion that he was 
a Christian. As these, however, maintain 
him to have been Narcissus, the famous 
freed-man of the emperor Claudius, they 
must, in the opinion of Calmet, be mis- 
taken, since this Narcissus never was a 
Christian, and, besides, he had been dead 
some years before St. Paul wrote this 
Epistle. 

NATHAN, jna, signifies who gives, or 
is given. Nathan was a famous prophet of 
the Lord, who lived under king David, and 
had a great share in the confidence of that 
prince. His country is unknown, as also 
the time in which he began to prophesy. 
The first time the Scripture speaks of him, 
is on occasion of the design of David to 
build a temple to the Lord. That prince 
discovered his intention to Nathan, who, 
not questioning but so pious a resolution 
must proceed from God, bid him execute 
what his heart prompted him to. But the 
night following, the Lord ordered Nathan 
to acquaint David, that this honour did not 
belong to David, but was reserved for his 
son and successor. 

Several years after, when David had 
transgressed with Bathsheba, and had 
slain Uriah by the sword of the children 
of Ammon, the Lord sent Nathan to re- 
prove him. Nathan acquitted himself of 
this duty in a very prudent manner, by 
a parabolical story of a rich man, who, 
having many flocks and herds of his own, 
yet, for the entertainment of a friend who 
was come to visit him, would force a lamb 
from a poor man, which was the only one 
he had. David had scarcely heard Na- 
than's story, before he exclaimed, the man 
is worthy of death ! he shall restore the 
lamb four-fold. Then Nathan applied his 
parable to David himself, Thou art the 
man, &c Thou hast taken by force the 
wife of Uriah, the Hittite, ami him hast 
thou slain by the sword of the Ammonites. 
Therefore the sword shall not depart from 
thy house, &c. (2 Sam. xi. xii.) 

David acknowledged his sin to the 
prophet, crying out, I have sinned against 
the Lord. Nathan, to comfort him, as- 
sured him that the Lord had mitigated his 
punishment, and that he himself should 
not die. But, because he had given oc- 
casion to the enemies of the Lord to bias- 



NAT 



NAT 



pheme, his son, that was horn of Bath- 
sheba, should surely die. Bathsheba had 
a second son, called Solomon, and the Lord 
sent Nathan again to David, ordering him 
to call the name of the child Jedidiah, that 
is, beloved of the Lord. Probably on this 
occasion God declared to David, that Solo- 
mon should be his successor ; that he should 
build him a temple, and should be the heir 
of the promises made to him. (2 Sam. vii. 
xii. &c.) 

David being arrived at a great age, 
Adonijah, his son, began to take upon 
him the state and equipage of a king, in 
opposition to the interest of his brother 
Solomon. But neither the high-priest 
Zadok, nor the prophet Nathan, were in 
his interest. Adonijah gave a splendid 
entertainment to those of his own faction, 
at which Nathan, conceiving some jealousy, 
immediately repaired to Bathsheba, the 
mother of Solomon, and bid her, at the 
peril of her own life, and that of her son, 
to follow his counsel. Go presently to 
king David, and say to him, O my lord 
the king, have you not sworn to me, that 
Solomon my son should succeed to the 
crown ? Why, then, does Adonijah reign ? 
While you are saying this, I will come in 
and confirm what you say. Bathsheba 
adopted this advice ; and while she was 
yet speaking to the king, Nathan comes, 
and, being admitted, said to him, my 
lord the king, have you appointed Ado- 
nijah to be your successor ? Have you 
not often declared to me, that Solomon 
should be your successor ? Then David 
caused Zadok the high-priest, and Benaiah 
the son of Jehoiada, to be sent for, and 
commanded them, with the prophet Nathan, 
to anoint Solomon king of Israel. 

The time and manner of Nathan's death 
are not known. It is said, (1 Chron. xxix. 
29.) that Gad and Nathan wrote the his- 
tory of David. The same prophets had 
also regulated with David the order and 
disposition of the ministers of the temple. 
Lastly, that Nathan and Ahijah of Shilo 
had written the history of Solomon. 
(2 Chron. ix. 29.) Under the reign of 
Solomon we find mention made of Aza- 
riah and Zabud, sons of Nathan, who had 
considerable employments at court ; but 
whether this was Nathan the prophet, is 
not said. (1 Kings iv. 5.) 

NATHAN'AEL, bxDHD, signifies gift of 
God. Nathanael was a disciple of our 
Lord Jesus Christ. Philip, meeting Na- 
thanael, told him, We have found the 
Messiah, described by Moses and the 
prophets, in Jesus of Nazareth, son of 
Joseph. Nathanael asked him, Can any 
good thing come out of Nazareth ? Philip 
bid him come and see. Jesus, seeing Na- 
thanael coming towards him, says, Behold 
an Israelite indeed, without artifice or dis- 
guise. Nathanael asked him, How canst 
720 



thou know me ? Jesus answered, Before 
Philip called thee, I saw thee under the 
fig-tree. Nathanael then said to him, 
Master, thou art the Son of God, and the 
King of Israel. Jesus answered him, Dost 
thou believe because I saw thee under 
the fig-tree ? Thou shalt see much greater 
things than these. (John i. 46, &c. ; xxi. 2.) 

Many have thought that Nathanael was 
the same as Bartholomew. The evan- 
gelists who mention Bartholomew, say 
nothing of Nathanael ; and St. John, who 
mentions Nathanael, takes no notice of 
Bartholomew. We read at the end of 
St. John's Gospel, that our Saviour, after 
his resurrection, manifested himself to 
Peter, Thomas, Nathanael, and the sons 
of Zebedee, as they were fishing in the 
lake of Gennesareth. We know no other 
circumstances of the life of this holy man. 
Some believe he was the bridegroom at the 
marriage of Cana in Galilee. 

NATIVITY OF CHRIST. The vulgar 
day of our Lord's nativity, December 25, 
though an early tradition, as appears from 
the Apostolical Constitutions, was not es- 
tablished till the time of the emperor Con- 
stantine, who died a.d. 337, and it was 
enacted, probably, about the council of 
Nice, a.d. 325, by the Roman church, 
and adopted by the Greek church ten years 
after, at Constantinople. At that time it 
was separated from the Epiphany, held on 
the 6th of January ; but the Greek church 
had hitherto celebrated the Nativity and 
the Epiphany on the same day, supposing, 
as was natural, that the birth of Christ, 
and the first appearance of the star, hap- 
pened on the same day. The church of 
Rome separated them, under the pretext, 
that the second appearance of the star to 
the Magi, in the way to Bethlehem, was 
holier than the first ; but in reality to mul- 
tiply holidays. This occasioned great dis- 
contents at Constantinople, when intro- 
duced there by Gregory, the theologian, 
from Rome, the citizens murmuring at the 
separation, and saying to him, ' you have 
divided the feast, and involved us in poly- 
theism !' This was an early objection 
against the church of Rome. 

The true cause of their fixing on the 25th 
of December is thus, perhaps, best ex- 
plained by Sir Isaac Newton : ' The times 
of the birth and passion of Christ, with 
such like niceties, being not material to 
religion, were little regarded by the Chris- 
tians of the first age. They who began 
first to celebrate them, placed them in the 
cardinal points of the year; as the annun- 
ciation of the Virgin Mary on the 25th 
of March, which, when Julius Caesar cor- 
rected the calendar, was the vernal equi- 
nox; the feast of John the Baptist on the 
24th of June, which was the summer sol- 
stice ; the feast of St. Michael on Septem- 
ber 29th, which was the autumnal equinox ; 



NAT 



NAZ 



and the birth of Christ on the winter sol- 
stice, December 25th ; with the feasts of 
St. Stephen, St. John, and the Innocents, 
as near it as they could place them : and 
because the solstice, in time, removed 
from the 25th of December to the 24th, 
the 23d, and the 22d, and so on backwards ; 
hence some, in the following centuries, 
placed the birth of Christ on December 
20th, and at length on December 2oth ; 
and, for the same reason, they seem to 
have set the feast of St. Thomas on De- 
cember 21st, and that of St. Matthew on 
September 21st. So, also, at the entrance 
of the sun into all the signs of the Julian 
calendar, they placed the days of other 
saints ; as the conversion of St. Paul, on Ja- 
nuary 25th, when the sun entered Aqua- 
rius ; St. Matthias, on February 25th, when 
he entered Pisces ; St. Mark, on April 25th, 
when he entered Taurus; Corpus Christi, 
on May 26th, when he entered Gemini ; 
St. James, on July 25th, when he entered 
Cancer ; St. Bartholomew, on August 24th, 
when he entered Virgo ; Simon and Jude, 
on October 28th, when he entered Scorpio ; 
and if there were any other remarkable 
days in the Julian calendar, they placed 
the saints upon them ; as St. Barnabas on 
June 11th, where Ovid seems to place the 
feast of Vesta and Fortuna, and the goddess 
Matuta; and St. Philip and St. James on 
the 1st of May, a day dedicated both to 
the Bona Dea, or Magna Mater, and to 
the goddess Flora, and still celebrated 
with her rites. All which shows that 
these days were first fixed in the Christian 
churches by mathematicians, at pleasure, 
without any ground in tradition ; and that 
the Christians afterwards took up with what 
they found in the calendars.' 

Hospinian, a learned German antiquary, 
is of opinion, that the Christians at Rome 
did not celebrate the 25th of December, 
as thinking Christ was then born, but to 
make amends for the Heathen Saturnalia ; 
which was a season of great festivity, be- 
ginning December 16th, and continuing 
three days, but usually pi'olonged to the 
end of the week, on account of the suc- 
ceeding feast of the Sigillarii. 

To determine the true day of Christ's 
birth, as Scaliger says, belongs to God 
alone, not man. Of all the various con- 
jectures that have been proposed, the most 
probable are, either, 1. that 'Christ, our 
passover,' was born about the time of the 
vernal equinox, when the Passover was cele- 
brated ; or, 2. about the autumnal equinox, 
at the celebration of the feast of taber- 
nacles, when the Word became flesh, and 
tabernacled among us (John i. 14.); or, 
3. on the great day of atonement, the 10th 
day of the seventh month, as 'a faithful 
high- priest, in things pertaining to God, 
to make atonement for the sins of the 
people, (Heb. ii. 17-) to be himself a pro- 
721 



pitiation for our sins, and not for our's 
only, but also for those of the whole world.' 
(1 John ii. 2.) Dr. Hales observes, that 
if this last, which is adopted by Usher, 
should be preferred, it gives a peculiar 
emphasis to the declaration of the angel 
to the shepherds on the night of the na- 
tivity (Lukeii. 10 — 14.) ; and that either of 
the two last epochs agrees better than the 
first, with the prevailing traditions re- 
specting the duration of Christ's ministry. 
See Christmas. Hales's New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. i. pp. 196 — 199. 

NAZARENES', Christians converted 
from Judaism, whose chief error consisted 
in defending the necessity or expediency 
of the works of the law, and who obsti- 
nately adhered to the practice of the Jewish 
ceremonies. The name of Nazarenes, at 
first, had nothing odious in it, and it was 
often given to the first Christians. The 
fathers frequently mention the Gospel of 
the Nazarenes, which differs in nothing 
from that of St. Matthew, but was after- 
wards corrupted by the Ebionites. These 
Nazarenes preserved this first Gospel in 
its primitive purity. Some of them were 
still in being in the time of Jerome, who 
does not reproach them with any errors. 
They were very zealous observers of the 
law of Moses, but held the traditions of 
the Pharisees in the greatest contempt. 

The word Nazarene was given to Jesus 
Christ and his disciples ; and it is com- 
monly taken in a sense of derision and 
contempt in such authors as have written 
against Christianity. 

NAZ'ARETH, mw, Na?ap*r, signifies 
guarded, or flourishing. Nazareth was a 
little city of Zebulun, in Lower Galilee, 
west of Tabor, and east of Ptolemais. Eu- 
sebius places it fifteen miles from Legio, 
east. This city is celebrated for having 
been the residence of Jesus Christ, during 
the first thirty years of his life. (Luke ii. 
51.) Here our Saviour became incarnate, 
here he lived in obedience to Joseph and 
Mary, and from hence he took the name 
of a Nazarene. After he had begun his mis- 
sion, he preached here sometimes in the 
synagogue. (Luke iv. 16.) But because 
his countrymen had no faith in him, and 
were offended at the meanness of his origin, 
he did not many miracles there, nor would 
he dwell in it. (Matt. xiii. 54. 58.) He, 
therefore, fixed his habitation at Caper- 
naum during the latter part of his life. 
(Matt iv. 13.) The city of Nazareth was 
situated upon an eminence, and on one side 
was a precipice, whence the Nazarenes one 
day had a design of throwing down our 
Saviour, because he upbraided them with 
their unbelief. (Luke iv. 2!).) 

Nazareth, says D'Arvieux, is about eight 

leagues from Acre. It is situated at the 

foot of a mountain, and is surrounded on 

all sides bv hills and mountains, leaving a 

3 A 



NAZ 



NAZ 



little valley between them, full of thistles 
and pebbles. This town is inhabited only 
by a few religious of the Holy Land, and 
by some poor Christians in their service, or 
dependent on them. The place is shown 
where stood the house of the Holy Virgin ; 
but the house itself, say the Catholics, is at 
Loretto. Both Turks and Christians have 
a great veneration for the sacred precincts, 
and pray to the Virgin. The place where 
the synagogue stood, in which our Saviour 
preached, is shown. 

Nazareth, says Dr. E. D. Clarke, who 
visited it in 1801, is a small town or village, 
situated upon the side of a barren rocky 
elevation, facing the east, and commanding 
a long valley. Its inhabitants, unable to 
sustain the burdens imposed on them by 
Djezzar Pasha, were continually emigrating 
to other territories. The few who remained 
were soon to be stripped of their posses- 
sions ; and when no longer able to pay tlie 
tribute exacted from them, no alternative 
remained, but that of going to Acre, either 
to work in the fortifications, or to flee their 
country. The town was in the most wretched 
state of indigence and misery ; the soil 
around might bid defiance to agriculture ; 
and to the prospect of starvation were added 
the horrors of the plague. 

In 1823, the population amounted to about 
1200 persons, principally Christians. 

Here are numerous reputed holy places 
to which pilgrims are conducted. There is 
a grotto which is said to have been the 
house of Joseph and Mary. The other ob- 
jects of superstition at Nazareth, at every 
one of which indulgences are sold to 
travellers, are the following : 1. The Work- 
shop of Joseph, which is near the convent, 
and was formerly included within its walls, 
and which is now a small chapel, perfectly 
modern. 2. The Synagogue, mentioned by 
D'Arvieux, in which Christ is said to have 
read the Scriptures to the Jews, (Luke iv. 
16.) and which is at present a church. 
3. A Precipice without the town, where they 
say the Messiah leaped down, to escape the 
rage of the Jews, after the offence which his 
speech in the Synagogue had occasioned. 
(Luke iv. 28, 29, 30.) Here they show 
the impression of his hand made as he 
sprang from the rock. From the descrip- 
tion given by St. Luke, the monks affirm, 
that, anciently, Nazareth stood eastward of 
its present situation, upon a more elevated 
spot. The words of the Evangelist, how- 
ever, are remarkably explicit, and prove 
the situation of the ancient city to have 
been precisely that which is now occupied 
by the modern town. Induced, by the 
words of the Gospel, to examine the place 
more attentively, Dr. E. D. Clarke, and 
those with him, went, as it is written, ' out 
of the city, unto the brow of the hill whereon 
the city is built,' and came to a precipice 
corresponding with the words of the Evan- 
722 



gelist. It is above the Maronite church, 
and probably the precise spot alluded to by 
the text of St. Luke's Gospel. Clarke's 
Travels, vol. iv. pp. 164 — 179 ; Home's In- 
troduction, vol. iii. p. 605; Taylor's Sacred 
Geography. 

NAZ'ARITES, those under the ancient 
law who engaged by a vow to abstain from 
wine and all intoxicating liquors, to let their 
hair grow, not to enter any house polluted 
by having a dead corpse in it, nor to be 
present at any funeral. If by accident any 
one should have died in their presence, 
they recommenced the whole of their con- 
secration and Nazariteship. This vow gene- 
rally lasted eight days, sometimes a month, 
and sometimes their whole lives. When 
the time of their Nazariteship was expired, 
the priest brought the person to the door 
of the temple, who there offered to the 
Lord a he-lamb for a burnt- offering, a she- 
lamb for an expiatory sacrifice, and a ram 
for a peace-offering. They offered likewise 
loaves and cakes, with wine for libations. 
After all was sacrificed and offered, the 
priest, or some other, shaved the head of 
the Nazarite at the door of the tabernacle, 
and burnt his hair on the fire of the altar. 
Then the priest put into the hands of the 
Nazarite the shoulder of the ram roasted, 
with a loaf and a cake, which the Nazarite 
returning into the hands of the priest, he 
offered them to the Lord, lifting them up 
in the presence of the Nazarite. And from 
this time he might again drink wine, his 
Nazariteship being accomplished. 

Perpetual Nazarites, as Samson and 
John the Baptist, were consecrated to their 
Nazariteship by their parents, and con- 
tinued all their lives in this state, without 
drinking wine, or cutting their hair. 

Those who made a vow of Nazariteship 
out of Palestine, and could not come to 
the temple when their vow was expired, 
contented themselves with observing the 
abstinence required by the law, and cut- 
ting off their hair in the place where they 
were ; the offerings and sacrifices pre- 
scribed by Moses to be offered at the tem- 
ple, by themselves, or by others for them, 
they deferred till a convenient opportunity. 
Hence it was that St. Paul being at Corinth, 
and having made the vow of a Nazarite, he 
had his hair cut off at Cenchrea, a port 
of Corinth, and deferred the rest of his 
vow till he came to Jerusalem. (Acts 
xviii. 18.) 

When a person found he was not in 
condition to make a vow of Nazariteship, 
or had not leisure fully to perform it, he 
contented himself with contributing to the 
expence of the sacrifices and offerings of 
those who had made, and were fulfilling, 
this vow ; and by this means he became a 
partaker in such Nazariteship. When St 
Paul came to Jerusalem, A.D. 58. (Acts 
xxi. 23, 24.) ; St. James, with other bre- 



NAZ 



NEB 



thren, said to him, That, to quiet the minds 
of the converted Jews, he should join him- 
self to four persons, who had a vow of 
Nazariteship, and contribute to their charges 
and ceremonies ; by which the new converts 
would perceive that he did not totally dis- 
regard the law, as they had been led to 
suppose. 

However, most of those who think the 
vow (Acts xviii. 18.) applicable to St. Paul, 
admit that this vow was not one of Naza- 
riteship, since the obligation of it could be 
fulfilled only in Jerusalem, and it is not 
probable that Paul would have bound him- 
self voluntarily by any such ritual cere- 
mony. And as to Acts xxi. 23. the subject of 
the passage is a vow not undertaken volun- 
tarily, but by the advice of the apostles. It 
would seem, therefore, rather to have been a 
civil vow ; and this is the opinion of Salma- 
sius, who observes, that such vows were often 
undertaken by the Jews ; as, for instance, 
when travelling, not to shave their heads 
before they arrived at a certain place. Such 
also were the vows, or anathemas, by which 
they bound themselves not to take food or 
drink till they had effected something 
which they purposed. (Acts xxiii. 14.) Such 
too were undertaken after recovery from 
a disorder, or being delivered from any 
other peril or calamity. 

Several interpreters appear more rightly 
to follow the Vulgate and St. Chrysostom 
(Acts xviii. 18.) ; and by removing the stop 
after 'AicvXag, to refer the word Keipdfievog, 
&c. to Aquila, who seems to be the person 
bound by the vow. This mode of interpre- 
tation is favoured by the construction ; and 
by it, moreover, all the difficulties attendant 
on the hypothesis, which supposes Paul to 
be the subject of these words, are removed. 
We are not, however, with Grotius, Ham- 
mond, Schleusner, and others, to under- 
stand a vow of Nazariteship ; but, as Al- 
berti, Heumann, and Heinricks, maintain, 
a civil vow, undertaken by Aquila, either on 
account of deliverance from sickness or 
other peril, or on account of something good 
which happened to him. 

The Hebrew word Nazir, or Nazarite, is 
used to designate a man exalted to great 
dignity, as it is said of the patriarch Joseph 
(Gen. xlix. 26. Deut. xxxiii. 16.) ; that lie 
1 was separate from his brethren.' The 
Vulgate and others understand the Hebrew, 
1 that he was as a Nazarite among his breth- 
ren.' This is variously interpreted. Some 
think that the Hebrew word signifies one 
who is crowned, chosen, separated, distin- 
guished. Nezer in Hebrew signifies a crown. 
The Septuagint translate, a chief, or Aim 
that is honoured. Calmet thinks that this 
was a term of dignity in the courts of east- 
ern princes ; that at this day, in the court of 
Persia, the word Nezir signifies the super- 
intendent general of the king's household, 
the chief officer of the crown, the high 
723 



steward of his family treasures and reve- 
nues ; and that in this sense Joseph was the 
Nazir of the court of Pharaoh. Le Clerc 
translates the Nazir, a prince, and calls Jo- 
seph the ' prince of his brethren ;' and Mr. 
Poole declares in favour of this translation. 
Bloomfield's Recensio Synoptica, vol. iv. pp. 
605, 606. 

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR, -1*1**031 sig- 
nifies tears and groans of judgment ; other- 
wise, trouble or sorrow of judgment. This 
word is foreign from the Hebrew, and in- 
cludes the name of the Babylonian god 
Nabo, or Nebo. 

Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar, 
Nebuchadonosor, &c. king of Assyria, 
otherwise called Saosduchinus, began to 
reign at Nineveh in the year of the world 
3335. In the twelfth year of his reign, in 
a set battle, he overcame Arphaxad, king of 
the Medes, in the plains of Ragau. Nebu- 
chadnezzar sent to Cilicia, Damascus, 
Mount Libanus, Phoenicia, Judea, and the 
other nations adjoining, even to Ethiopia, 
to require them to acknowledge him as 
king, and to submit to his empire. But 
these people sent back his ambassadors with 
disdain, and slighted his menaces. Nebu- 
chadnezzar, enraged, swore by his throne 
that he would be revenged ; and in the 
thirteenth year of his reign he assembled 
his chief officers, and acquainted them with 
his resolution of bringing the whole earth 
under his government. He appointed Holo- 
fernes his generalissimo, gave him his 
instructions, put large sums of money 
into his hands, and sent him with a great 
army to reduce all those nations. See 
Judith. Nebuchadnezzar, otherwise Saos- 
duchinus, had Saracus or Chynaladan for 
his successor, in the year of the world 
3356. 

Nebuchadnezzar, otherwise Nabopo- 
lassar, was father of Nebuchadnezzar the 
Great, so much celebrated in Scripture. 
Nabopolassar was a Babylonian, and Sara- 
cus, king of Assyria, gave him the com- 
mand of his army. He made a league with 
Astyages, otherwise called Ahasuerus, who 
gave his daughter Amvitis in marriage to 
Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabopolassar. Aha- 
suerus and Nabopolassar, joining their 
forces, revolted against Saracus, king of 
Nineveh, besieged him in his capital, took 
him prisoner, and upon the destruction of 
the Assyrian monarchy raised two king- 
doms ; that of the Medes possessed by 
Astyages or Ahasuerus, and that of the 
Chalda?ans, or of Babylon, founded by 
Nabopolassar, in the year of the world 
3378. 

Nebuchadnezzar the Great, son and 
successor of Nabopolassar, succeeded to the 
kingdom of Chaldaea, in the year of the 
world 3399. Some time previously to this, 
Nabopolassar had associated him in the 
kingdom, and sent him to recover Carche- 
3 a 2 



NEB 



NEB 



mish, which had been conquered from him 
four years before, by Necho king of Egypt. 
Nebuchadnezzar having been successful, 
marched against the governor of Phoenicia, 
and Jehoiakim king of Judah, who was tri- 
butary to Necho king of Egypt. He took 
Jehoiakim, and put him in chains, in order 
to carry him captive to Babylon ; but after- 
wards he left him in Judea, on condition of 
paying a large tribute. He took away se- 
veral persons from Jerusalem ; among 
others, Daniel, Annaniah, Mishael, and 
Azariah, all of the royal family, whom the 
king of Babylon caused to be carefully in- 
structed in the language and in the learn- 
ing of the Chaldaeans, that they might be 
employed at court. (Dan. i. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 

Nabopolassar dying about the end of the 
year of the world 3399, Nebuchadnezzar, 
who was then either in Egypt or in Judea, 
hastened to Babylon, leaving to his generals 
the care of bringing to Chaldaea the captives 
whom he had taken in Syria, Judea, Phoe- 
nicia, and Egypt ; for, according to Bero- 
sus, he had subdued all these countries. He 
distributed these captives into several colo- 
nies, and in the temple of Belus he depo- 
sited the sacred vessels of the temple of 
Jerusalem, and other rich spoils. 

Jehoiakim, king of Judah, continued 
three years in fealty to king Nebuchad- 
nezzar ; but, being then weary of paying 
tribute, he threw off the yoke. The king of 
Chaldsea sent troops of Chaldaeans, Syrians, 
Moabites, and Ammonites, who harassed 
Judea during three or four years ; at last 
Jehoiakim was besieged, and taken in Je- 
rusalem, put to death, and his body thrown 
to the birds of the air, according to the pre- 
dictions of Jeremiah. See Jehoiakim. 

In the mean time, Nebuchadnezzar being 
at Babylon, in the second year of his reign, 
had a mysterious dream, in which he saw a 
statue composed of several metals, a head 
of gold, a breast of silver, belly and thighs 
of brass, legs of iron, and feet half of iron, 
and half clay ; and a little stone, rolling by 
its own impulse from the mountain, struck 
the statue, and broke it. This dream gave 
him great uneasiness ; yet afterwards he for- 
got it, and could not recover the least no- 
tion of it. He ordered all his diviners and 
interpreters of dreams to be sent for, but 
none could tell him the dream, or the in- 
terpretation. Nebuchadnezzar, in wrath, or- 
dered them all to be put to death, which was 
about to be put in execution, when Daniel 
was informed of it. He went immediately to 
the king, and desired him to respite the 
sentence a little ; and he would endeavour 
to satisfy the king's desire. God in the 
night revealed to him the king's dream, and 
also the interpretation, to the following 
effect : — Yourself, said Daniel, are repre- 
sented by the golden head of the statue. 
After you, will arise a kingdom inferior to 
yours, represented by the breast of silver ; 
724 



and after this another still inferior, denoted 
by the belly and thighs of brass. After these 
three empires (the Chaldaeans, Persians, 
and Greeks) will arise a fourth denoted by 
the legs of iron (the Romans). Under this 
last empire God will raise a new one, of 
greater strength, power, and extent, than all 
the others. This last is that of the Mes- 
siah, represented by the little stone coming 
from the mountain, and overthrowing the 
statue. 

Then the king raised Daniel to great 
honour, set him over all the wise men of 
Babylon, and gave him the government of 
that province. At his request, he granted 
to Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, the 
oversight of the works of the same province 
of Babylon. 

Jehoiachin king of Judah, having revolted 
against Nebuchadnezzar, this prince be- 
sieged him in Jerusalem, and forced him 
to surrender. Nebuchadnezzar took him, 
with his chief officers, captive to Babylon, 
with his mother, his wives, and the best 
workmen of Jerusalem, to the number of 
ten thousand men. Among the captives 
were Mordecai, the uncle of Esther, and 
Ezekiel the prophet. He took also all the 
vessels of gold which Solomon made for the 
temple, and the king's treasury ; and he set 
up Mattaniah, Jehoiachin's uncle by the 
father's side, whom he named Zedekiah. 

Zedekiah continued faithful to Nebu- 
chadnezzar nine years ; being then weary of 
subjection, he revolted, and confederated 
with the neighbouring princes. The king of 
Babylon came into Judea, reduced the chief 
places of the country, and besieged Jerusa- 
lem ; but Pharaoh Hophra coming out of 
Egypt to assist Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar 
overcame him in battle, and forced him to 
retire into his own country. After this he 
returned to the siege of Jerusalem, and was 
three hundred and ninety days before the 
place, before he could take it. But in the 
eleventh year of Zedekiah, in the year of 
the world 3416, the city was taken. Zede- 
kiah attempted to escape, but was taken 
and brought to Nebuchadnezzar, who was 
then at Riblah in Syria. The king of Ba- 
bylon condemned him to die, caused his 
children to be put to death in his presence, 
and then bored out his eyes, loaded him 
with chains, and sent him to Babylon. 

Three years after the Jewish war, Nebu- 
chadnezzar besieged the city of Tyre, which 
siege lasted thirteen years. But during this 
interval, he made war also on the Sidonians, 
Moabites, Ammonites, and Idumaeans ; and 
these he treated in nearly the same manner 
as the Jews. Josephus says, these wars 
happened five years after the destruction of 
Jerusalem, consequently in the year of the 
world 3421. The city of Tyre was taken in 
the year of the world 3432. Ithobaal, who 
was then king, was put to death ; and Baal 
succeeded him. The Lord, as a reward to 



NEB 



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the army of Nebuchadnezzar, which had 
Iain so long before Tyre, gave up to them 
Egypt and its spoils. Nebuchadnezzar 
made an easy conquest of it, because the 
Egyptians were divided by civil wars among 
themselves ; he enriched himself with booty, 
and returned in triumph to Babylon, with a 
great number of captives. 

Nebuchadnezzar, being at peace, applied 
himself to the adorning, aggrandizing, and 
enriching of Babylon with magnificent 
buildings. To him some ascribe those fa- 
mous gardens, supported by arches, reck- 
oned among the wonders of the world ; and 
also the walls of Babylon, though many give 
the honour of this work to Semiramis. 

About this time Nebuchadnezzar had a 
dream of a great tree, loaded with fruit. 
Suddenly an angel, descending from heaven, 
commanded that the tree should be cut 
down, and the branches, leaves, and fruit be 
shaken off, yet the trunk and the root should 
be preserved in the earth ; that it should be 
bound with chains of iron and brass, &c. 
among the beasts of the field for seven years. 
The king sent for all the diviners in the 
country ; but none could explain his dream, 
till Daniel informed him that this dream 
regarded himself. You, says Daniel, are 
represented by the great tree ; you are to be 
brought low, to be reduced to the condition 
of a brute, &c. but you shall afterwards be 
restored to your first situation. 

A year after, as Nebuchadnezzar was 
walking on his palace at Babylon, he began 
to say, • Is not this great Babylon, which I 
have built for the house of the kingdom, by 
the might of my power, and for the honour 
of my majesty V Scarcely had he pronounced 
these words, when he fell into a distemper 
or distraction, which so altered his imagi- 
nation, that he thought himself to be meta- 
morphosed into an ox, and assumed the 
manners of that creature. After having 
been seven years in this state, God opened 
his eyes, his understanding was restored to 
him, and he recovered his royal dignity. 

Nebuchadnezzar's repentance was neither 
solid nor sincere. For in the year of his 
restoration, according to Calmet, he erected 
a golden statue, whose height was sixty 
cubits, and breadth six cubits, in the plains 
of Dura, in the province of Babylon. Hav- 
ing appointed a day for the dedication of 
this statue, he assembled the principal offi- 
cers of his kingdom ; and published by an 
herald, that all should adore this image, at 
the sound of music, on penalty of being cast 
into a burning fiery furnace. The three 
Jews, companions of Daniel, would not 
bend the knee to the image. Daniel pro- 
bably was absent. Nebuchadnezzar com- 
manded Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, 
to be called ; and he asked them, why they 
presumed to disobey his orders? They re- 
plied, that they neither feared the flames, 
nor any other penalty ; that the God, whom 
725 



only they would worship, knew how to pre- 
serve them : but if the Lord should not 
think fit to deliver them out of his hands, 
yet they would obey the laws of God rather 
than men. At these words the king caused 
them to be bound, and to be thrown into 
the furnace, which being vehemently heated, 
the flame consumed the men that cast them 
in ; but it spared Shadrach, Meshach, and 
Abednego. An angel of the Lord abated 
the flames, so that the fire did not touch 
them. Nebuchadnezzar, seeing this miracle, 
was much astonished, and said to his nobles, 
From whence is it, that I see four men 
walking in the midst of the flames ? And 
the fourth is like the Son of God. Nebu- 
chadnezzar, approaching the mouth of the 
furnace, called the three Hebrews, who 
came out of the furnace in perfect health, 
to the great astonishment of the whole court. 
Then Nebuchadnezzar gave glory to the 
God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego; 
and he exalted the three Hebrews to great 
dignitv in the province of Babylon. (Dan. 
iv. 1, 2, &c.) 

It is observable, that Dr. Hales states the 
erection of the golden image, by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, to have taken place after the dream, 
which it follows in detail, and about the 
end of the same year in which the first 
dream happened. This, indeed, appears to 
be more agreeable to the order of Daniel's 
narrative. 

Nebuchadnezzar died in the year of the 
world 3442, after having reigned forty-three 
years. Megasthenes, quoted by Eusebius, 
says, that this prince, having ascended to 
the top of his palace, was there seized with 
a fit of Divine enthusiasm, and cried out, 
1 O Babylonians, I declare to you a misfor- 
tune, that neither our father Belus, nor 
queen Baltis, have been able to prevent. A 
Persian mule shall one day come into this 
country, who, supported by the power of 
your gods, shall bring you into slavery. He 
shall be assisted by the Mede, the glory of 
the Assyrians.' This Persian mule is Cyrus, 
who was born of a mother that was a Mede, 
and a Persian father. The Mede who as- 
sisted Cyrus, was Cyaxares, or Darius the 
Mede. 

It may not be amiss to add a word here, 
concerning the metamorphosis of this prince. 
The most received opinion is, that, by the 
effect of Divine power, Nebuchadnezzar fell 
into a black melancholy, and in his frenzy 
imagined that he was become an ox, as in 
the disease called a Lycanthropy, a man is 
persuaded he is changed into a well', a dog, 
a eat ; which arises solely from his distem- 
pered brain, and heated imagination, sinee 
those about him perceive no such change in 
his outward figure, but only in his inclina- 
tions and behaviour: hence he howls and 
bites like a wolf, eats raw meat, runs into 
the fields, and avoids the society of men. &c. 
Thus Nebuchadnezzar, imagining himself an 



NEC 



NEC 



ox, imitated the actions of an ox. His peo- 
ple, astonished at such a change, bound him 
as madmen or idiots are bound ; but he fled 
into the fields, park, or garden of his palace, 
living there naked, exposed to the dew of 
heaven, and the other inclemencies of the 
weather, so that his hair grew like the 
feathers of an eagle, and his nails like the 
claws of a lion. Nothing more is required, 
to account for all that the Scripture says of 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

A question is moved, concerning the du- 
ration of this disease. Some maintain, that 
the Persians distinguishing their years into 
two seasons, winter and summer, the seven 
years of Nebuchadnezzar must be reckoned 
in this manner, which will reduce it to three 
years and a half. The word time, (Dan. iv. 
25.) by which is generally understood a year, 
denotes, according to others, the space of a 
month only ; and hence the king's disorder 
continued no longer than seven months. 
But a year was a common measure of time 
among the Chaldaeans, especially in the 
chronicles of their kings. Besides, we need 
no other interpreter for Daniel, than Daniel 
himself. It is certain that this prophet by 
'a time' means a year ; and that by a time, 
and times, and half-a-time, is denoted the 
space of three years and a-half. 

NEBUZAR'-ADAN, pNinns, signifies 
fruits or prophecies of judgment ; or winnowed, 
or spread. Nebuzar-adan was general of 
Nebuchadnezzar's armies, and chief officer 
of his household. He conducted the 
siege of Jerusalem, and took the city, 
while Nebuchadnezzar was at Riblah in 
Syria. Having plundered the city and the 
temple, he set them on fire. Afterwards, he 
assembled the captives at Ramah, and 
suffered Jeremiah and Baruch to go where 
they pleased, according to the king's order. 
(Jer. xxxix. 11—14.; xl. 1—6.) The 
other captives he carried to Babylon, leav- 
ing Gedaliah to govern the miserable re- 
mains of Judah. Some have thought that 
Nebuzar-adan gave Jeremiah the ark of the 
covenant, the golden candlestick, the tables 
of incense, and of the shew-bread; and 
that this prophet hid them in a cave of 
Mount Nebo, in the land of Moab. But 
this opinion is very uncertain. 

Four years after Jerusalem was taken, 
while Nebuchadnezzar was engaged at the 
siege of Tyre, Nebuzar-adan brought to 
Babylon seven hundred and forty-five cap- 
tives more. He afterwards marched against 
the Ammonites, wasted their country, and 
brought their king and princes captives to 
Babylon. The Scripture makes no farther 
mention of Nebuzar-adan. See Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

NECESSITARIANS. The doctrine of 
necessity regards the origin of human ac- 
tions, and the specific mode of the Divine 
government; and it seems to be the imme- 
diate result of the materiality of man, for 
726 



mechanism is the undoubted consequence of 
materialism. Hence all Materialists are of 
course Necessitarians ; but it does not follow 
that all Necessitarians are, or must be, 
Materialists. Whatever is done by a cause 
or power that is irresistible, is by necessity, 
in which sense this term is opposed to free- 
dom. Man is, therefore, a necessary agent, 
if all his actions be so determined by the 
causes preceding each action, that not one 
past action could possibly not have come to 
pass, or have been otherwise than it hath 
been ; and not one future action can pos- 
sibly not come to pass, or be otherwise than 
it shall be. But man is a free agent, if he 
be able, at any time, in the circumstances in 
which he is placed, to do different things ; 
or in other words, if he be not unavoidably 
determined in every point of time by the 
circumstances he is in, and the causes he is 
under, to do that one thing he does, and not 
possibly to do any other thing. 

This abstruse subject has occasioned much 
controversy, and has been debated by wri- 
ters of the first eminence, from Hobbes and 
Clarke, to Priestley and Gregory. The 
Anti- necessitarians suppose, that the doctrine 
of necessity charges God as the author of 
sin ; that it takes away the freedom of the 
will ; renders man unaccountable to his 
Maker ; makes sin to be no evil, and moral- 
ity or virtue to be no good ; and that it pre- 
cludes the use of means, and is of the most 
gloomy tendency. The Necessitarians, on 
the other hand, deny these to be legitimate 
consequences of their doctrine, which they 
declare to be the most consistent mode of 
explaining the Divine government ; and they 
observe that the Deity acts no more immo- 
rally in decreeing vicious actions, than in 
permitting all those irregularities which he 
could so easily have prevented. All neces- 
sity, say they, doth not take away freedom. 
The actions of a man may be at one and the 
same time both free and necessary. Thus, 
it was infallibly certain that Judas would 
betray Christ, yet he did it voluntarily; 
Jesus Christ necessarily became man, and 
died, yet he acted freely. A good man doth 
naturally and necessarily love his children, 
yet voluntarily. They insist that necessity 
doth not render actions less morally good ; 
for, ' if necessary virtue be neither moral 
nor praiseworthy, it will follow, that God 
himself is not a moral being, because he is 
a necessary one ; and the obedience of 
Christ cannot be good, because it was 
necessary.' Farther, say they, necessity 
does not preclude the use of means ; for 
means are no less appointed than the end. 
It was ordained that Christ should be de- 
livered up to death ; but he could not have 
been betrayed without a betrayer, nor cru- 
cified without crucifiers. That it is not a 
gloomy doctrine they allege, because nothing 
can be more consolatory than to believe, 
that all things are under the direction of an 



NEC 



NEC 



All-wise Being; that his kingdom ruleth 
over all, and that he doeth all things well. 
It is also observed, that to deny necessity, 
is to deny the fore- knowledge of God, and 
to wrest the sceptre from the hand of the 
Creator, and to place that capricious and 
undefinable principle, the self-determining 
power of man, upon the throne of the uni- 
verse. Besides, say they, the Scripture 
places the doctrine beyond all doubt; and 
they quote in their favour Job xxiii. 13, 
14. ; xxxiv. 29. Prov. xvi. 4. Isa. xlv. 
7. Matt. x. 29, 30. Luke xxiv. 26. John vi. 
37. Acts xiii. 48. &c. 

The doctrine of Necessity is nearly con- 
nected with that of Predestination, which, of 
late years, has assumed a form very differ- 
ent from that which it formerly possessed ; 
for, instead of being considered as a point 
to be determined almost entirely by the 
sacred writings, in the hands of a num- 
ber of able writers, it has in a great mea- 
sure resolved itself into a question of natu- 
ral religion, under the head of the philoso- 
phical liberty or necessity of the will ; or, 
whether all human actions are, or are not, 
necessarily determined by motives arising 
from the character which God has impressed 
on our minds, and the train of circumstances 
amidst which his providence has placed us ? 
The Calvinistic doctrine of predestination 
is, that ' God, for his own glory, hath fore- 
ordained whatsoever comes to pass.' The 
scheme of Philosophical Necessity, as stated 
by the most celebrated Necessitarian of the 
age, is, ' That every thing is predetermined by 
the Divine Being ; that whatever has been, 
must have been ; and that whatever will be, 
must be ; that all events are pre-ordained by 
infinite wisdom and unlimited goodness ; 
that the will, in all its determinations, is 
governed by the state of mind ; that the 
state of mind is, in every instance, deter- 
mined by the Deity ; and that there is a con- 
tinued chain of causes and effects, of mo- 
tives and actions, inseparably connected, 
and originating from the condition in which 
we are brought into existence by the Author 
of our being.' 

On the other hand, Dr. Doddridge very 
justly remarks, that ' those who believe the 
being and perfections of God, and a state of 
retribution, in which he will reward and 
punish mankind according to the diversity 
of their actions, will find it difficult to re- 
concile the justice of punishment with the 
necessity of crimes punished. And they 
that believe all that the Scripture says, on 
the one hand, of the eternity of future 
punishments, and, on the other, of God's 
compassion to sinners, and his solemn as- 
surance that he desires not their death, 
will find the difficulty greatly increased.' 
It is doubtless an article of the Christian 
faith, that God will reward or punish every 
man hereafter according to his actions in 
this life. But we cannot maintain his 
727 



justice in this particular, if men's actions be 
necessary either in their own nature, or by 
the Divine decrees. Activity, and self de- 
termining powers, are the foundation of all 
morality ; and to prove that such powers 
belong to man, it is urged that we ourselves 
are conscious of possessing them. We 
blame and condemn ourselves when we do 
amiss ; but an inward sense of shame, guilt, 
and remorse of conscience, are feelings 
which are inconsistent with the scheme of 
necessity. It is also agreed, that some ac- 
tions deserve praise, and afford an inward 
satisfaction ; but for this, there would be no 
foundation, if we were invincibly determined 
in every volition : so that approbation and 
blame are consequent on free actions only. 

The principal writers on the side of Ne- 
cessity are Hobbes, Collins, Leibnitz, Hume, 
Hutcheson, Kaimes, Hartley, Edwards, 
Priestley, Crombie, Toplady, T. and W. 
Belsham, and perhaps Locke. Of these, 
Hartley, Hume, and Priestley, are, perhaps, 
the most profound reasoners, and Lord 
Kaimes, the most perspicuous writer on the 
subject. On the other side are Clarke, 
King, Law, Reid, Butler, Price, Bryant, 
Wollaston, Beattie, Horsley, Gregory, But- 
terworth, &c. See Predestination and 
Materialists. Doddridge 's Lectures, vol. 
i. edit. 1799 ; Adam's Religious World Dis- 
played, vol. ii. pp. 21 4 — 219. 

NE'CHO, rca, signifies lame, or who was 
beaten. N echo, king of Egypt, carried his 
arms to the Euphrates, where he conquered 
the city of Carchemish. He is known not 
only in Scripture, but by Herodotus, who 
says, that Necho was son of Psammetichus, 
king of Egypt ; and, having succeeded him in 
the kingdom, he raised great armies, and 
sent out great fleets, as well on the Medi- 
terranean Sea, as the Red Sea ; that he 
fought the Syrians near the city of Migdol, 
obtained the victory, and took the city of 
Cadytis. The learned are not agreed about 
this city Cadytis. Some will have it to be 
Cades in Arabia Petraea ; some, Jerusalem, 
which they say is called Cadyta or Cadytis, 
that is, the Holy City, because of its temple ; 
others, the city Cedes in Galilee, of Naph- 
tali. (2 Chr. xxv. 2 Kings xxiii.) Josiah, 
king of Judah, who was tributary to the 
king of Babylon, opposed Necho, who sent 
to tell him, What have I to do with thee, 
king of Judah ? The Lord has commanded 
me to make war against another people. It 
is thought that Necho had received an ad- 
monition from Jeremiah to march against 
Carchemish. Josiah would not hear the 
remonstrances of Necho, but gave him bat- 
tle at Megiddo, where he received the 
wound of which he died. The people of 
Jerusalem setup Jehoahaz as king of Judah, 
and Necho passed forwards, without making 
any long stay in Judea. 

At his return from this expedition, which 
was verv successful, he halted at Riblah in 



NEC 



NEH 



Syria; and sending for Jehoahaz king of 
the Jews, he deposed him, loaded him with 
chains, and sent him into Egypt. Then 
coming to Jerusalem, he set up Eliakim, or 
Jehoiakim, in his place, and exacted the 
payment of one hundred talents of silver, 
and one talent of gold, from the country. 
Jeremiah (xlvi. 2.) acquaints us, that the 
city of Carchemish was taken from Necho 
by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the 
fourth year of Jehoiakim king of Judah ; so 
that Necho did not enjoy his conquest above 
four years. Josephus adds, that the king 
of Babylon pursuing his victory, brought 
under his dominion the whole country be- 
tween the river Euphrates and Egypt, ex- 
cepting Judea. Thus Necho was again re- 
duced within the limits of his own country. 

NECROMANCY consists in raising up 
the ghosts of those who are deceased. (1 
Sam. xxviii. 7-) This practice the Israel- 
ites brought with them out of Egypt, which 
affected to be the mother of the most occult 
sciences ; and whence it spread into the 
neighbouring countries, and soon infested 
all the East. The injunction of the law is 
very express against it, (Deut. xviii. 11.) ; 
and the punishment against such as prac- 
tised it was, to be stoned to death. (Lev. xx. 
27.) What forms of enchantment were 
used in the practice of Necromancy, we are 
at a loss to know, because we read of none 
that the pythoness of Endor employed : 
however, that there were several rites, 
spells, and invocations, used upon those 
occasions, we may learn from almost every 
ancient author, but from none more parti- 
cularly than from Lucan. (Pharsal. lib. vi.) 

NEHEMI'AH, n-on:, signifies consola- 
tion, or repentance of the Lord ; otherwise, 
rest of the Lord ; otherwise, conduct of the 
Lord. Nehemiah, or Neemias, son of 
Hachaliah, was born at Babylon during the 
captivity. He was, according to some, of 
the race of the priests ; according to others, 
of the tribe of Judah, and of the royal 
family. Those who maintain the first opi- 
nion, support it by Ezra, (x. 20.) where he 
is reckoned in the number of the priests. 
But those who believe that he was of the 
race of the kings of Judah say, first, that 
Nehemiah having governed the republic of 
the Jews for a considerable time, there is 
great probability he was of that tribe of 
which the kings always were. Secondly, 
Nehemiah mentions his brethren Hanani, 
and other Jews, who, coming to Babylon 
during the captivity, acquainted him with 
the sad condition of their country. Thirdly, 
the office of cup-bearer to the king of 
Persia, to which Nehemiah was promoted, 
is a proof that he was of an illustrious 
family. Fourthly, he excuses himself from 
entering into the inner part of the temple, 
probably because he was only a layman. 
' Should such a man as I flee ? And who 
is there that, being as I am, would go 
728 



into the temple to save his life V (Neb. 
vi. 11.) 

The Scripture gives him the name, or 
title, of tirshatha, that is, cup-bearer; 
which office he had at the court of Ar- 
taxerxes Longimanus. He bad a great 
affection for the country of his fathers, 
though he had never seen it ; and one day, 
as some Jews lately come from Jerusalem 
acquainted him with the miserable state 
of that city, in its destruction, he fasted, 
prayed, and humbled himself before the 
Lord, entreating that he would be favour- 
able to the design he conceived, of asking 
the king's permission to rebuild Jerusalem. 
The course of his attendance at court 
being come, he presented the cup to the 
king, according to his duty, but with a 
dejected countenance. The king enter- 
tained some suspicion at this, thinking 
he might have some evil design. But Ne- 
hemiah discovering the occasion of his dis- 
quietude, Artaxerxes gave him leave to 
go to Jerusalem, and to repair its walls 
and gates ; but appointed him a time to 
return. 

Nehemiah arrived at Jerusalem with 
letters and full powers ; but was there 
three days before he opened the occasion 
of his journey. On the night of the third 
day, he went round the city, and viewed 
the walls. After this, he assembled the 
chief of the people, produced his com- 
mission and letters, exhorted them to un- 
dertake the repairing of the gates and 
walls of the city ; and immediately all be- 
gan the work. The enemies of the Jews 
only scoffed at them at first ; but after- 
wards, seeing the chief breaches repaired, 
they used stratagems and threats to deter 
Nehemiah. He therefore ordered part 
of his people to stand to their arms be- 
hind the walls, while others worked, hav- 
ing also their arms near them. His 
enemies then had recourse to craft and 
stratagem, endeavouring to draw him into 
an ambuscade in the fields, where they 
proposed to finish their dispute at an ami- 
cable conference. But Nehemiah gave 
them to understand, that the work he 
had begun required his close personal 
attendance, and, therefore, he could not 
come out to them. 

About the same time he discovered 
that a false prophet, called Shemaiah, 
had been corrupted by his enemies, and 
that some of the chief of the city were 
secretly in confederacy with them. All 
this did not discourage him. He continued 
his work, and happily completed it in fifty- 
two days. 

Then he dedicated the walls, the towers, 
and the gates of Jerusalem, with solemnity 
and magnificence. He separated the priests, 
the Levites, and the princes of the people, 
into two companies, one of which walked 
to the south, and the other to the north, 



NEC) 



NEO 



upon the top of the walls. These two 
companies were to meet at the temple. 
The procession was accompanied with mu- 
sic, both vocal and instrumental. When 
all were come to the temple, they there 
read the law, offered sacrifices, and made 
great rejoicings ; and the feast of taber- 
nacles happening at the same time, it was 
celebrated with great solemnity. Nehe- 
miah, observing that the city was too large 
for its present inhabitants, ordered that 
the chief of the nation should there fix 
their dwelling ; and he caused them to 
draw lots, by which a tenth part of the 
whole people of Judah were obliged to 
dwell at Jerusalem. 

He then applied himself to the reforming 
of such corruptions as had crept into pub- 
lic affairs. He restrained the inhumanity 
of the great, who held in slavery and sub- 
jection the sons and daughters of the poor 
or unfortunate, keeping also the lands, 
which the poor had mortgaged or sold 
to them. Nehemiah undertook to dissolve 
the marriages with strange and idolatrous 
women, whom he sent away. He obliged 
the people punctually to pay the ministers 
of the Lord their due, and enjoined the 
priests and Levites to strict attendance 
on their respective duties and functions. 
He enforced the observance of the sabbath, 
and would not permit strangers to come in 
to buy and sell, but kept the gates of the 
city shut all that day. To perpetuate as 
much as possible these good regulations, 
he engaged the chief men of the nation 
solemnly to renew their covenant with the 
Lord ; and an instrument to this effect was 
drawn up, and signed by the principal men, 
both priests and people. 

Nehemiah professes himself the author 
of the book which bears his name, in the 
very beginning of it ; and he uniformly 
writes in the first person. He who wrote 
this book was a different person from the 
Nehemiah who returned from the Baby- 
lonian captivity with Zerubbabel. This 
book, which, in the Hebrew canon was 
joined to that of Ezra, gives an account of 
his appointment and administration through 
a space of about thirty-six years, to the 
year of the world 3595, at which time 
the Scripture history closes ; and, con- 
sequently, these historical books, from 
Joshua to Nehemiah inclusive, contain 
the history of the Jewish people from the 
death of Moses, in the year of the world 
2553, to the reformation established by 
Nehemiah, after the return from captivity, 
being a period of 1042 years. Bishop Tom- 
line's Elem. of Christian Theolvgy, vol. i. p. 9 1 ; 
Le Clerc's and Poole's Annot. on Nehem. i. 

NEONOMIANS, so called from the 
Greek vkog, new, and vofxog, law ; signify- 
ing a new law, the condition of which is 
imperfect, though sincere and persevering, 
obedience. 
729 



Neonomianism seems to be an essential 
part of the Arminian system. 'The new 
covenant of grace, which, through the me- 
dium of Christ's death the Father made 
with men, consists, according to this sys- 
tem, not in our being justified by faith, as 
it apprehends the righteousness of Christ ; 
but in this, that God, abrogating the ex- 
action of perfect legal obedience, reputes 
or accepts of faith itself, and the imperfect 
obedience of faith, instead of the perfect 
obedience of the law, and graciously ac- 
counts them worthy of the reward of eternal 
life.' This opinion was examined at the 
synod of Dort, and has been canvassed be- 
tween the Calvinists and Arminians on 
various occasions. 

Towards the close of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, a controversy was agitated amongst 
the English Dissenters, in which the one 
side, who were partial to the writings of 
Dr. Crisp, were charged with Antinomian- 
ism ; and the other, who favoured those of 
Mr. Baxter, were accused of Neonomianism. 
Mr. Daniel Williams, who was a principal 
writer on what was called the Neonomian 
side, after many things had been said, gives 
the following, as a summary of his faith 
in reference to those subjects. — ' 1. God 
has eternally elected a certain definite 
number of men whom he will infallibly 
save by Christ, in that way prescribed by 
the Gospel. 2. These very elect are not 
personally justified until they receive 
Christ, and yield up themselves to him ; 
but they remain condemned whilst uncon- 
verted to Christ. 3. By the ministry of 
the Gospel there is a serious offer of par- 
don and glory, upon the terms of the Gos- 
pel, to all that hear it ; and God thereby 
requires them to comply with the said 
terms. 4. Ministers ought to use these 
and other Gospel benefits as motives, 
assuring men that if they believe they 
shall be justified ; if they turn to God, 
they shall live ; if they repent, their sins 
shall be blotted out ; and whilst they neg- 
lect these duties, they cannot have a per- 
sonal interest in these respective benefits. 
5. It is by the power of the Spirit of Christ 
freely exerted, and not by the power of 
free will, that the Gospel becomes effectual 
for the conversion of any soul to the 
obedience of faith. C. When a man be- 
lieves, yet is not that very faith, and much 
less any other work, the matter of that 
righteousness for which a sinner is justified, 
that is, entitled to pardon, acceptance as 
righteous, and eternal glory before God; 
and it is the imputed righteousness of 
Christ alone, for which the Gospel gives 
the believer a right to these and all saving 
blessings, who, in this respect, is justified 
by Christ's righteousness alone. By both 
this and the fifth head it appears that all 
boasting is excluded, and we are saved by 
free grace. 7- Faith ulone receives our 



NEO 



NEO 



Lord Jesus and his righteousness, and the 
subject of this faith is a convinced penitent 
soul; hence we are justified by faith alone, 
and yet the impenitent are not forgiven. 
8. God has freely promised, that all whom 
he predestinated to salvation shall not 
only savingly believe, but that he by his 
power shall preserve them from a total or 
final apostacy. 9. Yet the believer, whilst 
he lives in this world, is to pass the time 
of his sojourning here with fear, because 
his warfare is not accomplished, and that it 
is true, that, if he draw back, God will have 
no pleasure in him. Which, with the like 
cautions, God blesseth as means to the 
saints' perseverance, and these, by minis- 
ters, should be so urged. 10. The law of 
innocence, or moral law, is so in force 
still, as that every precept thereof, con- 
stitutes duty, even to the believer; every 
breach thereof is a sin deserving of 
death : this law binds death by its course 
on every unbeliever, and the righteous- 
ness for or by which we are justified be- 
fore God, is a righteousness (at least) ade- 
quate to that law which is Christ's alone 
righteousness ; and this so imputed to the 
believer, as that God deals judicially with 
him according thereto. 11. Yet, such is 
the grace of the Gospel, that it promiseth 
in and by Christ, a freedom from the curse, 
forgiveness of sin, and eternal life, to every 
sincere believer ; which promise God will 
certainly perform, notwithstanding the 
threatening of the law.' Dr. Williams 
maintains the conditionality of the cove- 
nant of grace ; but admits with Dr. Owen, 
who also uses the term condition, that 
' Christ undertook that those who were to 
be taken into this covenant should receive 
grace, enabling them to comply with the 
terms of it, fulfil its conditions, and yield 
the obedience which God required therein.' 
On this subject, Dr. Williams further says, 
' The question is not whether the first 
(namely, regenerating) grace, by which we 
are enabled to perform the condition, be 
absolutely given. This I affirm, though 
that be dispensed ordinarily in a due use 
of means, and in a way discountenancing 
idleness, and fit encouragement given to 
the use of means.' 

The following objection, amongst others, 
was made by several ministers, in 1692, 
against Dr. Williams's Gospel Truth Stated, 
$c. ' To supply the room of the moral 
law, vacated by him, he turns the Gospel 
into a new law, in keeping of which we 
shall be justified for the sake of Christ's 
righteousness, making qualifications and 
acts of our's a disposing subordinate 
righteousness, whereby we become capa- 
ble of being justified by Christ's right- 
eousness.' 

To this, amongst other things, he answers, 
* The difference is not, 1. Whether the 
Gospel be a new law, in the Socinian, 
730 



Popish, or Arminian sense ? This I deny. 
Nor, 2. Is faith, or any other grace, or act 
of ours, any atonement for sin, satisfaction 
to justice, meriting qualification, or any 
part of that righteousness, for which we are 
justified at God our Creator's bar. This I 
deny in places innumerable. Nor, 3. Whe- 
ther the Gospel be a law more new than is 
implied in the first promise to fallen Adam, 
proposed to Cain, and obeyed by Abel, to 
the differencing him from his unbelieving 
brother? This I deny. 4. Nor whether 
the Gospel be a law that allows sin, when it 
accepts such graces as true, though short of 
perfection, to be the conditions of our per- 
sonal interest in the benefits purchased by 
Christ 1 This I deny. 5. Nor whether the 
Gospel be a law, the promises whereof en- 
title the performers of its conditions to the 
benefits as of debt ? This I deny. 

' The difference is, 1. Is the Gospel a law 
in this sense ; namely, God in Christ thereby 
commandeth sinners to repent of sin, and 
receive Christ by a true operative faith, 
promising that thereupon they shall be 
united to him, justified by his righteousness, 
pardoned, and adopted ; and that, persever- 
ing in faith and true holiness, they shall be 
finally saved ; also threatening that if any 
shall die impenitent, unbelieving, ungodly, 
rejecters of his grace, they shall perish with- 
out relief, and endure sorer punishments 
than if these offers had not been made to 
them 1 2. Hath the Gospel a sanction, that 
is, doth Christ therein enforce his com- 
mands of faith, repentance, and persever- 
ance, by the aforesaid promises and threaten - 
ings, as motives to our obedience ? Both 
these I affirm, and they deny ; saying the 
Gospel in the largest sense is an absolute 
promise without precepts and conditions, 
and a Gospel threat is a bull. 3. Do the 
Gospel promises of benefits to certain graces, 
and its threats that those benefits shall be 
withheld, and the contrary evils inflicted 
for the neglect of such graces, render these 
graces the condition of our personal title to 
those benefits ? This they deny, and I 
affirm,' &c. 

It does not appear to have been a ques- 
tion in this controversy, whether God in his 
word commandeth sinners to repent and 
believe in Christ, nor whether he promises 
life to believers, and threatens death to un- 
believers ; but whether it be the Gospel 
under the form of a new law that thus com- 
mands, or threatens, or the moral law on its 
behalf, and whether its promises to be- 
lieving render such believing a condition of 
the things promised. In another con- 
troversy, however, which arose about forty 
years afterwards amongst the same descrip- 
tion of people, it became a question whether 
God did by Ms word (call it Law or Gospel) 
command unregenerate sinners to repent and 
believe in Christ, or do any thing also which is 
spiritually good? Of those who took the 



NER 



NES 



affirmative side of this question, one party 
maintained it on the ground of the Gospel 
being a new law, consisting of commands, 
promises, and threatenings, the terms or 
conditions of which were repentance, faith, 
and sincere obedience. But those who first 
engaged in the controversy, though they 
allowed the encouragement to repent and 
believe to arise merely from the grace of 
the Gospel, yet considered the formal obli- 
gation to do so as arising merely from the 
moral law, which, requiring supreme love to 
God, requires acquiescence in any revelation 
which he shall at any time make known. 
Witsius's Irenicum ; Adams's View of Reli- 
gions, pp. 238-242. 

NE'RO. The emperor Nero is not 
named in Scripture ; but he is indicated by 
his title of emperor, and by his surname 
Caesar. To him St. Paul appealed after his 
imprisonment by Felix, and his examination 
by Festus, who was swayed by the Jews. 
St. Paul was therefore carried to Rome, 
where he arrived A.D. 01. Here he con- 
tinued two years, preaching the Gospel 
with freedom, till he became famous even in 
the emperor's court, in which were many 
Christians ; for he salutes the Philippians in 
the name of the brethren who were of the 
household of Caesar, that is, of Nero's court. 
(Philippians iv. 22. ; i. 12, 13.) We have no 
particular information how he cleared him- 
self from the accusations of the Jews ; whe- 
ther by answering before Nero | or whether 
his enemies dropped their prosecutions, which 
seems probable. (Actsxxviii. 21.) However, 
it appears that he was liberated in the year 03. 

Nero is reckoned the first persecutor of 
the Christian church : his persecution was 
A.D. 04. Nero, the most cruel and savage 
of all men, and also the most wicked and 
depraved, began his persecution against the 
Christian church, A.D. 04, on pretence 
of the burning of Rome, of which some 
thought himself to be the author. He en- 
deavoured to throw all the odium on the 
Christians ; those were seized first that 
were known publicly as such, and by their 
means many others were discovered. They 
were condemned to death, and were even 
insulted at their sufferings. Some were 
sewed up in skins of beasts, and then ex- 
posed to dogs to be torn in pieces ; some 
were nailed to crosses, others perished by 
flames; they were sewed up in pitched 
coverings, which being set on fire, they 
served as torches to the people, and were 
lighted up in the night. Nero gave leave to 
use his own gardens, as the scene of all these 
cruelties. From this time edicts were pub- 
lished against the Christians, and many mar- 
tyrs suffered, especially in Italy. Peter and 
Paul are thought to have suffered martyrdom. 
consequenton this persecution, in the year 63. 

The revolt of the Jews from the Romans 
happened about A.D. 0o and (JO, the twelfth 
and thirteenth of Nero. The city of Jerusalem 
731 



making an insurrection A.D. 00, Florus there 
slew 3,000 persons, and thus began the war. 
A little while afterwards, those of Jerusalem 
killed the Roman garrison. Cestius on this 
came to Jerusalem, to suppress the sedition ; 
but he was forced to retire, after having be- 
sieged it about six weeks, and was routed in 
his retreat, A.D. 00. About the end of the 
same year, Nero gave Vespasian the command 
of his troops against the Jews. This general 
carried on the war in Galilee, and Judea, 
during A.D. 00 and 0*7, the thirteenth and 
fourteenth of Nero. But Nero killing himself 
the fourteenth year of his reign, Jerusalem 
was not besieged till after his death, A. D. 
70, the first and second of Vespasian. 

NESTORIANS. These Christians, who 
are frequently called Chaldaeans, from the 
country where they long principally resided, 
derive the name of Nestorians, by which 
they are principally known, from Nestorius, 
a Syrian, and patriarch of Constantinople, in 
the beginning of the fifth century. He 
was ' a man,' says Dr. Mosheim, ' remark- 
able for his learning and eloquence, which 
were, however, accompanied with much 
levity, and with intolerable arrogance,' and, 
it may be added, with violent enmity to all 
sectaries. Anastasius, in a public discourse, 
delivered in 424, warmly declaimed against 
the title of BeoYokoc, or Mother of God, 
which was then frequently attributed to the 
Virgin Mary in the controversy with the 
Arians, and gave it as his opinion that the 
holy Virgin was rather to be called Xpicro- 
tokoq, or Mother of Christ, since the Deity 
can neither be born nor die, and, of conse- 
quence, the Son of Man alone could derive 
his birth from an earthly parent. These 
sentiments were applauded by Nestorius, 
who explained and defended them in several 
discourses. But both he and his friends 
were strongly opposed by certain monks at 
Constantinople, who maintained that the 
Son of Mary was God incarnate, and ex- 
cited the zeal and fury of the populace 
against him, from an idea that he had re- 
vived the error of Paulus Samosatenus and 
Photinus, that Jesus Christ was a mere 
man. His discourses, however, were well 
received in many places, and had the ma- 
jority on their side, particularly among the 
monks of Egypt, though in opposition to the 
wishes and sentiments of Cyril, bishop of 
Alexandria, ' a man of a haughty, turbulent, 
and imperious temper.' The consequence 
was, that Cyril and Nestorius reciprocally 
anathematized each other. 'When there 
was no prospect of an amicable issue to this 
dispute, Theodosius the Younger called a 
council at Ephesus, A.D. 431, which was 
the third general council in the annals of 
the church. In this council Cyril presided; 
though he was a party concerned, and the 
avowed enemy of Nestorius; and, in the 
absence of John, bishop of Antioch, and the 
other eastern bishops, pushed on matters 



NES 



NES 



with a lawless violence. Nestorius, who 
refused to obey the summons which called 
him to appear before a council where every- 
thing was carried on in so irregular and un- 
fair a manner, was judged and condemned 
without being heard, deprived of his epis- 
copal dignity, and banished to Petra in 
Arabia, and afterwards to Oasis, in the 
deserts of Egypt, where he died in 435, or, 
according to others, not till after 439. 

John of Antioch, and the other eastern 
bishops, for whose arrival Cyril had refused 
to wait, met at Ephesus, and pronounced 
against him and Memnon, bishop of that 
city, as severe a sentence as they had thun- 
dered against Nestorius. Hence arose a 
new and obstinate dissension between Cyril 
and the Orientals, with John at their head. 
This, however, was soon allayed through 
the interference of the emperor, who per- 
suaded John to conform to the decrees of 
the Ephesian council : but the commotions 
which arose from this fatal controversy were 
more durable in the East, where nothing 
could oppose the progress of Nestorianism. 
The friends of the persecuted prelate car- 
ried his doctrine through all the Oriental 
provinces, and every where erected congre- 
gations which professed an invincible oppo- 
sition to the decrees of the council of Ephe- 
sus. Among others, the Persians opposed 
Cyril in the most vigorous manner, main- 
tained that Nestorius had been unjustly 
condemned at Ephesus, and charged Cyril 
with removing that distinction which sub- 
sists between the two natures in Christ. The 
famous Barsumas, who was consecrated bi- 
shop of Nisibis in 435, laboured with incre- 
dible zeal and dexterity to procure for the 
Nestorians a solid and permanent footing in 
Persia, in which he was warmly seconded 
by Maanes, bishop of Ardascira. So re- 
markable was the success which crowned 
the labours of Barsumas, that his fame ex- 
tended throughout the East ; and the Nes- 
torians, who still remain in Chaldsea, Per- 
sia, Assyria, and the adjacent countries, 
consider him alone as their parent and 
founder. Nor did his zeal and activity 
here terminate. He erected a famous school 
at Nisibis, whence issued those Nestorian 
doctors, who, in that and the following cen- 
turies, spread abroad their tenets through 
Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary, and 
China. In the tenth century, the Nesto- 
rians extended their spiritual conquests be- 
yond Mount Imaus, and introduced the 
Christian religion into Tartary, properly so 
called, and especially into the country 
called Karit, bordering on the northern part 
of China. The prince of that country, 
whom they converted to the Christian faith, 
assumed, according to the vulgar tradition, 
the name of John after his baptism, to which 
he added the surname of Presbyter, from a 
principle of modesty ; whence it is said, his 
successors were each of them called Presbyter, 
732 



or Prester John, till the time of Gengis, or 
Genchiz Khan. According to Dr. Mosheim, 
Prester John, whose kingly name was 
Ungchan, was a Nestorian priest, who in- 
vaded that countxy about the end of thfc 
eleventh century ; and it was his immediate 
successor that was deposed by Genchiz Khan, 
towards the end of the following century. 

The Nestorians formed so considerable 
a body of Christians, that the Romanists 
were industrious in their endeavours to re- 
duce them under the papal yoke, and, 
with this view Innocent IV., in 1246, and 
Nicholas III., in 1278, used their utmost 
efforts by means of Franciscan and Domi- 
nican missionaries ; but without success. 
However, about the middle of the fifteenth 
century, these missionaries gained over to 
their communion a small number of Nesto- 
rians, whom they formed into a congregation 
or church; the patriarchs or bishops of which 
reside in the city of Amida or Diarbekir, 
and successively assume the name of Joseph. 

In the earliest ages of Nestorianism, the 
various branches of that numerous and 
powerful sect were under the spiritual juris- 
diction of the Catholic or patriarch of Baby- 
lon, a vague appellation, which has been 
successively applied to the sees of Seleu- 
cia, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad, but who now 
resides at Mousol. In the sixteenth cen- 
tury the Nestorians were divided into two 
sects; for in 1551, a warm dispute arose 
among them about the creation of a new 
patriarch, Simeon Barmamas or Barmana, 
being proposed by one party, and Sulaka, 
otherwise named Siud, earnestly desired 
by the other ; when the latter, to support 
his pretensions the more effectually, re- 
paired to Rome, and was consecrated pa- 
triarch in 1553, by pope Julius III., whose 
jurisdiction he had acknowledged, and to 
whose commands he had promised un- 
limited submission and obedience. Upon 
this new Chaldsean patriarch's return to his 
own country, Julius sent with him several 
persons skilled in the Syriac language, to 
assist him in establishing and extending 
the papal empire among the Nestorians : 
and from that time, that unhappy people 
have been divided into two factions, and 
have often been involved in the greatest 
dangers and difficulties, by the jarring sen- 
timents and perpetual quarrels of their pa- 
triarchs. In 1555, Simeon Denha, arch- 
bishop of Gelu, adopted the party of the 
fugitive patriarch, who had embraced the 
communion of the Latin church ; and 
being afterwards chosen patriarch himself, 
he fixed his residence in the city of Van, 
or Ormia, in the mountainous parts of Per- 
sia, where his successors still continue, and 
are all distinguished by the name of Simeon; 
but they seem of late to have withdrawn 
themselves from their communion with the 
church of Rome. 

The great Nestorian pontiffs, who form 



NES 



NET 



the opposite party, and who have, since 
1559, been distinguished by the general de- 
nomination of Elias, and reside constantly 
at Mousul, look with an hostile eye on this 
little patriarch : but since 1617, the bishops 
of Ormus have been in so low and declin- 
ing a state, both in opulence and credit, 
that they are no longer in a condition 
to excite the envy of their brethren at 
Mousul, whose spiritual dominion is very 
extensive, taking in great part of Asia, and 
comprehending within its circuit the Ara- 
bian Nestorians, as also the Christians of 
St. Thomas, who dwell along the coast of 
Malabar. 

In the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, Elias II. bishop of Mousul, disco- 
vered a desire to bring about a reconcili- 
ation between the Nestorians and the church 
of Rome ; and, with that view, sent two 
private embassies to the Pope in 1607 and 
1610. Elias III., likewise, in 1657, ad- 
dressed a letter to the congregation Be 
propaganda Fide, in which he intimated his 
readiness to join with the church of Rome, 
• on condition that the pope would allow 
the Nestorians a place of public worship in 
that city, and would abstain from all at- 
tempts to alter the doctrine and discipline 
of that sect.' But it does not appear that 
the Nestorians were received, on these 
terms, into the communion of the Romish 
church, or that the bishops of Mousul have 
been, since that period, at all solicitous 
about the friendship or good-will of the 
Roman pontiff; on the contrary, they seem 
to persist in their refusal to enter into the 
communion of the church of Rome. 

The Nestorian bishops of Ormus like- 
wise, since their withdrawing from the ju- 
risdiction of the Roman church, have sent 
the pope a confession of their faith, giving 
a clear idea of their religious tenets and 
institutions ; and have made repeated pro- 
posals of reconciliation. ' But these pro- 
posals were little attended to by the court 
of Rome ; which was either owing to its dis- 
like of the doctrine of these Nestorians, or 
to that contempt which their poverty and 
want of influence excited in the pontiffs, 
whose ambition and avidity aimed at acqui- 
sitions of more consequence.' 

The Nestorians have several doctrines, 
as well as some religious ceremonies and 
institutions, which are peculiar to them- 
selves. But the main points that distin- 
guish them from all other Christian soci- 
eties, besides their believing that the Virgin 
Mary was not the mother of our Lord as 
God, but only as man, are, their persuasion 
that Nestorius was unjustly condemned by 
the council of Ephesus, and their firm at- 
tachment to the doctrine of that prelate, 
who maintained that there were not only 
two natures, but also two distinct persons in 
the Son of God. * In the earlier ages of 
the church, this error was considered as of 
733 



the most momentous and pernicious kind ; 
but in our times it is esteemed of less con- 
sequence, by persons of the greatest weight 
and authority in theological matters even 
among the Roman Catholic doctors. They 
consider this whole controversy as a dispute 
about words, and the opinion of Nestorius 
as a nominal rather than a real heresy, that 
is, as an error arising rather from the words 
he employed, than from his intention in the 
use of them. It is true indeed that the 
Chaldaeans attribute to Christ two natures, 
and even persons; but they correct what 
may seem rash in this expression, by adding, 
that these natures and persons are so 
closely and intimately united, that they have 
only one aspect. Now, the word barsopa, 
by which they express this aspect, is pre- 
cisely of the same signification with the 
Greek word 7rp6ah)7rov, which signifies a 
person ; and hence it is evident that they 
attached to the word aspect the same idea 
that we attach to the word person ; and that 
they understood by the word person, pre- 
cisely what we understand by the term 
nature. However that be, we must ob- 
serve here, to the lasting honour of the 
Nestorians, that, of all the Christian so- 
cieties established in the East, they have 
been the most careful and successful in 
avoiding a multitude of superstitious opi- 
nions and practices that have infected the 
Greek and Latin churches.' Adam's Re- 
ligious World Displayed, vol. i. pp. 426 — 
436. 

NETH'INIM, is derived from the He- 
brew nathan, to give. The nethinim were 
servants given and dedicated to the service 
of the tabernacle and temple, to perform 
the most laborious offices in them ; as the 
carrying of wood and water thither. At 
first the Gibeonites were destined to this 
station ; and afterwards the Canaanites who 
surrendered themselves, and whose lives 
were spared. We read (Ezra viii. 20.) 
that the nethinim were slaves devoted by 
David, and other princes, to the ministry of 
the temple; and (Ezra ii. 58.) that they 
were slaves given by Solomon, the children 
of Solomon's servants. We see (I Kings 
ix. 20, 21.) that that prince had subdued 
the remains of the Canaanites. It is very 
probable he gave a pretty large number of 
them to the priests and Levites, for the 
tetnple service. The nethinim were car- 
ried into captivity with the tribe of Judah ; 
and great numbers of them were placed on 
the coasts of the Caspian Sea, whence 
Ezra brought some of them. (Ezra viii. 17-) 
At the return from the captivity, they 
dwelt in cities appointed for them. There 
were some of them also at Jerusalem, who 
inhabited that part of the city called Ophel. 
Two hundred and twenty returned with 

Ezra : and those that followed Zerubhabel 
made Up three hundred and ninety-two. 
(Nehem. iii 26.) This number was small 



NIC 



NIC 



in regard to their offices ; so that we find, 
afterwards, a solemnity called Xylophoria, 
in which the people carried wood to the 
temple with great ceremony, to keep up 
the fire of the altar of burnt sacrifices. 

NICE, or NICENE, CREED is so de- 
nominated, because the greater part of it, 
namely, as far as the words, l Holy Ghost,' 
was drawn up and agreed to at the council 
of Nice, or Niccea, in Bithynia, A.D. 325 : 
the rest of this Creed was added at the 
council of Constantinople, A.D. 381, except 
the words ' and the Son,' which follow the 
words ' who proceedeth from the Father,' 
and they were inserted A.D. 447- The ad- 
dition made at Constantinople was caused 
by the denial of the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost by Macedonius and his followers; 
and the Creed, thus enlarged, was imme- 
diately received by all orthodox Christ- 
ians. The insertion of the words, ' and 
the Son,' was made by the Spanish bishops ; 
and they were soon after adopted by the 
Christians in France. The bishops of Rome 
for some time refused to admit these words 
into the Creed ; but at last, in the year 883, 
when Nicholas the First was pope, they 
were allowed; and from that time they have 
stood in the Nicene Creed, in all the West- 
ern churches ; but the Greek church has 
never received them. Bishop Tomline's 
Elem. of Christian Theology, vol. ii. p. 218. 

NICODE'MUS, Ni/co^/xoc, signifies, in- 
nocent blood ; according to the Greek, vic- 
tory of the people. Nicodemus, a disciple of 
Jesus Christ, was by nation a Jew ; by sect 
a Pharisee. (John iii. 1.) The Gospel calls 
him a ruler of the Jews, and our Saviour 
entitles him master in Israel. When our 
Saviour began to manifest himself by his 
miracles at Jerusalem, at the first passover 
after his baptism, Nicodemus came to him 
by night, for further information. Jesus 
told him, that no one could see the king- 
dom of heaven, except he should be born 
again. Nicodemus taking this in a literal 
sense answered, How can a man that is 
old be born again ? Can he enter a second 
time into his mother's womb ? Jesus 
proceeded to explain the nature of this 
new birth ; alluded to the history of the 
brazen serpent in the wilderness; and 
hinted plainly at his salutary mission to 
redeem mankind. 

After this conversation, Nicodemus be- 
came a disciple of Jesus Christ, and, no 
doubt, he came to hear him as often as our 
Saviour visited Jerusalem. When the 
priests and Pharisees had sent officers to 
seize Jesus, who returning to them, re- 
ported, that never man spake as he did ; 
the Pharisees replied, ' Are ye also de- 
ceived ? Have any of the rulers or of the 
Pharisees believed on him V Then Nico- 
demus thought himself obliged to answer, 
saying, Does the law permit us to con- 
demn any one before he is heard ? To this 
734 



they replied, Are you also a Galilean 1 
Read the Scriptures, and you will find 
that never any prophet came out of Ga- 
lilee. The council broke up suddenly. 
Nicodemus declared himself openly a dis- 
ciple of Jesus Christ, when he came with 
Joseph of Arimathea to pay the last duties 
to the body of Christ crucified, which they 
took down from the cross, embalmed, and 
laid in the sepulchre. 

There is extant an apocryphal Gospel, 
under the name of Nicodemus, which, 
in some MSS. is intituled the Acts of Pi- 
late. 

NICOLA'ITANS. The Nicolaitans were 
frequent in Asia from the end of the first 
century ; since Jesus Christ expressly con- 
demns them himself, in the Revelation. 
Irenaeus says, that adulteries, and the use 
of meats offered to idols, were held as in- 
different things among them. Victorinus 
Petaviensis says, that they ate these meats 
after having exorcised them, and forgave 
fornicators eight days after their offence. 
Theodoret says, that the two distinguishing 
characters of this heresy were libertinism 
and folly. Epiphanius gives a long ac- 
count both of their infamous actions, and of 
their extravagant opinions concerning God 
and the creation. Austin says, that they 
have women in common, and make no 
scruple to conform to all the Pagan su- 
perstitions. They tell a number of fables 
about the creation and disposition of the 
world, intermingling many barbarous names 
of angels and princes, to amaze their 
auditors ; though, to people of under- 
standing, they are rather subjects of mirth 
than of terror. Through all their dis- 
guises it is easy to perceive that they hold 
the world was not created by God ; but was 
the work of certain powers whom they 
feign with an insupportable temerity, or 
whom they take for granted, from the 
credit of others, with a credulity not less 
blamable. 

Irenaeus calls them a branch of the 
Gnostics, and says, it was against them 
St. John wrote his Gospel. Clemens Alex- 
andrinus says, they had a certain book on 
the authority of which they relied, and by 
which they imputed to God himself the 
infamous actions they committed. 

A more correct opinion seems to be, that 
the term Nicolaitans (Rev. ii. 6. 15.) here 
is not a proper name, but symbolical ; and 
that it refers to the same persons who are 
mentioned (Rev. ii. 14.) as holding the 
doctrine of Balaam : since the Greek name 
TXiKoXaoe, corresponds with the Hebrew 
Oybn, which is formed from ybn, that is, 
vik&u), to conquer, and D)7, that is, Xabg, the 
people. The allusion, according to this 
interpretation, is to false and seducing 
teachers like Balaam, and perhaps refers 
more particularly to such as opposed the 
decree of the apostles. The Nicolaitans 



NIC 



NIL 



are conjectured to have been alluded to in 
2 Pet. ii., and in Jude 7 — 19. Robinson's 
Greek and English Lexicon to the New 
Testament ; Home's Introduction, vol. iii. 
p. 606. 

NICOP'OLIS, NifcoVoXtg, signifies the 
city of victory, or the victorious city. Ni- 
copolis was a city of Epirus, on the Gulf 
of Ambracia, whither, as some think, St. 
Paul wrote to Titus, thgn in Crete, to come 
to him, (Tit. iii. 12.); but others, with 
greater probability, are of opinion, that the 
city of Nicopolis, where St. Paul was, was 
not that of Epirus, but that of Thrace, on 
the borders of Macedonia, near the river 
Nessus. 

NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began 
their artificial day in the evening, and 
ended it the next evening ; so that the 
night preceded the day : whence it is said, 
(Gen. i. 5.) ' the evening and the morning 
were the first day.' They allowed twelve 
hours to the night, and twelve to the day. 
The hours of the day and those of the night 
were not equal, except at the equinox. 
At other times, when the hours of the 
night were long, those of the day were 
short, as in winter ; and, contrariwise, when 
the hours of the night were short, as at 
Midsummer, the hours of the day were long 
in proportion. 

The night was originally divided into 
three parts or watches, (Ps. lxiii. 6. ; xc. 4.) 
although the division of twelve hours, like 
those of the day, afterwards obtained. The 
first, or beginning of ivatches, is mentioned 
in Lam. ii. 19. ; the middle watch, in Judg. 
vii. 19. ; and the morning watch, or watch of 
day-break, in Exod. xiv. 24. It is probable 
that these watches varied in length ac- 
cording to the seasons of the year; conse- 
quently, those who had a long and incle- 
ment winter watch to encounter, would 
ardently desire the approach of morning 
light, to terminate their watch. This cir- 
cumstance would beautifully illustrate the 
fervour of the Psalmist's devotion, (Ps. exxx. 
6.) as well as serve to explain other pas- 
sages of the Old Testament. These three 
watches are also mentioned by various pro- 
fane writers. 

During the time of our Saviour, the 
night was divided into four watches ; a 
fourth watch having been introduced among 
the Jews from the Romans, who derived it 
from the Greeks. The second and third 
watches are mentioned in Luke xii. 38 ; 
the fourth in Matt. xiv. 25. ; and all the 
four are distinctly mentioned in Mark xiii. 
35 : ' Watch ye, therefore ; for ye know not 
when the master of the house cometh ; at 
even, (6\pk, or the late watch,) or at mid' 
night, (fifo-ovvKTiov,) or at the cock-crowing, 
(d^tKTopo(pu)viag,) or in the morning, (irpwt, 
the early watch.)' Here, the jirst watch 
was at even, and continued from six till 
nine; the second commenced at nine, and 
735 



ended at twelve, or midnight ; the third 
watch, called by the Romans gallicinium, 
lasted from twelve to three ; and the morn- 
ing watch closed at six. A double cock- 
crowing, indeed, is noticed by St. Mark, 
(xiv. 30.) where the other evangelists men- 
tion only one. (Matt. xxvi. 34. Luke xxii. 
34. John xiii. 38.) But this may be easily 
reconciled. The Jewish doctors divided 
the cock-crowing into the first, second, and 
third ; the Heathen nations in general ob- 
served only two. As the cock crew the 
second time after Peter's third denial, it 
was this second or principal cock-crowing 
(for the Jews seem in many respects to 
have accommodated themselves to the Ro- 
man computation of time) to which the 
evangelists, Matthew, Luke, and John, refer. 
Or, what is perhaps more probable, the 
second crowing of the Jews might coincide 
with the second of the Romans. See Cock. 
Home's Introduction, vol. iii. pp. 168, 169; 
Hales's Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. pp. 
111,112. 

NILE, -nnw, signifies black, or turbid; 
otherwise, early in the morning. The Nile 
is a river of Egypt, whose fountain is in 
the Upper Ethiopia. The learned and 
ingenious Mr. Bruce travelled into Abys- 
synia, for the purpose of discovering the 
sources of this river. He found that the 
Nile has its rise in the country of the 
Agows, the spring of which is twelve feet 
in diameter, and apparently surrounded 
with sods by the neighbouring people, 
who worship the river. In the midst of 
this eminence is the first fountain of the 
Nile, in which the water is clear and lim- 
pid, and which is about three feet in dia- 
meter, and six feet in depth. The second 
fountain is less in diameter, but deeper 
than the first, and about ten feet distant. 
The third is about twenty feet west from 
the first. These several fountains, which 
are consecrated as altars by the natives, 
and from the foot of each of which issues 
a brisk rill, unite, and form one stream. 
The streams thus united run eastward, and 
after varying their direction due north, 
and receiving many subsidiary rivulets, 
which add to their strength and size, the 
river arrives at a mountainous country 
westward, where it descends a cataract of 
fifteen feet in height, and sixty yards in 
breadth. Proceeding forward, it joins the 
Jemma, about its own size, and passes 
through the lake Tzana or Dembea, where 
it still preserves its stream in all its native 
colour and brightness. After a progress of 
various, and often contrary, directions, it 
arrives at a confined situation, between the 
mountains of Begemder, and soon after 
reaches the famous cataract near Alata. 
This affords one of the grandest and most 
magnificent spectacles in the world. The 
noise of the Nile, precipitated over this 
dreadful cataract, resembles the loudest 



NIL 



NIL 



thunder, and may be heard at almost an in- 
credible distance. ' This was a sight,' says 
Mr. Bruce, 'so astonishing, so truly grand, 
that ages adduced to the greatest length of 
human life would not efface or eradicate it 
from my memory. It struck me with a kind 
of stupor, and a total oblivion of where I 
was, and of every other sublunary concern.' 
The Nile, however, is supposed to have 
other sources more west, besides those dis- 
covered by Mr. Bruce. 

After having watered several kingdoms, 
the Nile continues its course far into the 
kingdom of Goiam. Then it winds about 
again, from the east to the north. Having 
crossed several kingdoms and provinces, 
it falls into Egypt at the cataracts, which 
are water-falls made by meeting with 
steep rocks of the length of two hundred 
feet. 

At the bottom of these rocks the Nile 
returns to its usual pace, with which it 
flows through the valley of Egypt. Its 
channel, according to Villamont, is about 
a league broad. At eight miles below 
Grand Cairo, it is divided into two arms, 
which make a triangle, whose base is at 
the Mediterranean Sea, and which the 
Greeks call the Delta, because of its fi- 
gure A. These two arms are divided into 
others, which discharge themselves into 
the Mediterranean, whose distance from 
the top of the Delta is about twenty 
leagues. These branches of the Nile the 
ancients commonly reckoned to be seven. 
Ptolemy makes them nine, some only 
four, some eleven, some fourteen. Others 
maintain that there are no more than the 
mouths of Damietta, of Rozetta, and of 
the two canals, one of which passes by 
Alexandria, and the other is very small. 
Several have thought that the Nile was the 
Gihon, one of the four rivers mentioned by 
Moses ; but this opinion cannot be sup- 
ported. 

Homer, Xenophon, and Diodorus Siculus 
testify, that the ancient name of this river 
was Egyptus ; and the last of these 
writers says, that it took the name Nilus 
only since the time of a king of Egypt 
called by that name. In the Scripture, the 
river Nile has seldom any other name than 
the river of Egypt. Joshua, (xiii. 3.) and 
Jeremiah, (ii. 18.) express it by the name 
of Sihor, and when the Scriptures point out 
the limits of the Land of Promise, they often 
put the river of Egypt for its southerly 
limits. 

The Greeks gave it the name of Melas; 
and Diodorus Siculus observes, that the 
most ancient name by which the Grecians 
have known the Nile was Oceanus. The 
Egyptians paid divine honours to this river, 
and called it Jupiter Nilus ; for which rea- 
son some interpreters think that the Lord 
sometimes threatens in the prophets to 
smite the river of Egypt, to dry up, and 
736 



kill its fishes, as it were to show the Egyp- 
tians the vanity of their worship, and the 
impotence of their pretended deity. (Isaiah 
xi. 15. Ezek. xxix. 3, 4, &c.) 

The Nile overflows regularly every year 
in the month of August, in the Higher and 
Middle Egypt, where this overflowing is 
necessary, because it scarcely ever rains 
there. But in the Lower Egypt the flood is 
less sensible and less necessary, because it 
frequently rains there, and the country is 
sufficiently watered, It is less sensible, be- 
cause they make fewer dikes there, or recep- 
tacles for the water, and the inundation 
spreading itself equally through all the 
country, does not rise higher than a cubit 
through the whole Delta. But in Higher 
and Middle Egypt, where it rains very sel- 
dom, they have made high banks at a league 
distance, in the midst of which there are 
deep canals, to receive the waters of the 
river. They make a breach in these dikes 
by the authority of the pacha, and when a 
country is sufficiently watered, the dike is 
stopped there, and opened in another place ; 
and thus the whole land of Egypt is suc- 
cessively watered, as it were a garden. The 
Egyptians have often contentions among 
one another, village against village, to strive 
which shall have the first distribution of the 
waters ; and when the overflowing comes as 
they desire, they celebrate a great festival 
in all parts of the country. 

When the Nile overflows only to the 
perpendicular height of twelve cubits, a 
famine generally follows in Egypt ; nor is 
the famine less certain if it should exceed 
sixteen cubits, as Pliny says ; so that the 
just height of the inundation is between 
twelve and sixteen cubits. The Nilometer 
is a pillar erected in the middle of the Nile, 
upon which are marked the degrees of the 
ascent of the water. There were several 
of these in different places of the Nile. At 
this day there is one in the island which 
divides the Nile into two arms, one of 
which passes to Cairo, and the other to 
Gizah. 

There has been a great variety of opinions 
concerning the cause of the overflowing of 
the Nile. But at present it is ascertained 
that it is occasioned by the great rains which 
fall in Ethiopia in the months of June, 
July, and August, which are the winter 
months in that country. The soil there is 
extremely dry and spongy, and at first soaks 
up the rain ; but when it is glutted, the 
streams and rains supply the Nile with all 
that water which it distributes throughout 
Egypt. These w r aters carry with them much 
mud, which, by settling, contributes to fatten 
and enrich the land. When the waters are 
withdrawn, the culture of the land is easy. 
The seed is cast on the mud, and, with little 
tillage, produces great plenty. 

' There are,' says Mr. Bruce, ' three re- 
markable appearances attending the inun- 



NIL 



NIM 



elation of tlie Nile. Every morning in 
Abyssinia is clear, and the sun shines : about 
nine, a small cloud, not above four feet 
broad, appears in the east, whirling vio- 
lently round, as upon an axis ; but, arriving 
near the zenith, it first abates its motion, 
then loses its form, and extends itself greatly, 
and seems to call up vapours from all op- 
posite quarters. These clouds having at- 
tained nearly the same height, rush against 
each other with great violence, and put me 
always in mind of Elisha foretelling rain on 
Mount Carmel. The air, impelled before 
the heaviest mass, or swiftest mover, makes 
an impression of its own form in the collec- 
tion of clouds opposite, and the moment it 
has taken possession of the space made to 
receive it, the most violent thunder possible 
to be conceived, instantly follows, with rain ; 
after some hours, the sky again clears, with 
a wind at north, and is always disagreeably 
cold when the thermometer is below 63 de- 
grees.' 

Some descriptions of Egypt would lead 
us to think that the Nile, when it swells, 
lays the whole province under water. The 
lands adjoining immediately to the banks of 
the river are, indeed, laid under water ; but 
the natural inequality of the ground hinders 
it from overflowing the interior country. A 
great part of the lands would, therefore, re- 
main barren, were not canals and reser- 
voirs formed to receive water from the river 
when at its greatest height, which is thus 
conveyed every where through the fields, 
and reserved for watering them when occa- 
sion requires. 

' It is to be remarked,' observes the Ba- 
ron du Tott, • that though this water be- 
comes thick, by washing the clayey soil over 
which it passes, it appears, when drunk, as 
light and limpid as the clearest. The Egyp- 
tians themselves believe it nourishing, and 
say, whoever drinks of their river will ne- 
ver remove to any great distance from its 
banks. The Divine honours which the an- 
cient Egyptians paid to the Nile, and for 
which the plenty it occasions may be some 
justification, are, in a manner, still pre- 
served under the Mahometans. They give 
this river the title of Most Holy ; they like- 
wise honour its increase with all the cere- 
monies practised by Pagan antiquity. This 
mud, likewise, is only washed off* by the 
Nile from its two banks, with the clayey 
part of which it becomes loaded. Its light- 
ness, together with the motion of the wa- 
ters, keeps the particles suspended, till, at 
length, the sandy part sinks down, and ap- 
pears in heaps after a decrease of the inun- 
dation. These the industry of the husband- 
man turns to his advantage, tempering the 
dryness of the sand with pigeons' dung, 
and the seeds of water melons, which he 
sows in it, and gathers an abundant harvest 
before the returning floods again destroy 
these fields, and form others in their ste;id.' 
737 



' The Egyptians,' says Volney, ' still re- 
tain a religious veneration for the Nile. 
They call it holy, blessed, sacred ; and, on 
the appearance of the new waters, that is, 
on the opening of the canals, mothers are 
seen plunging their children into the 
stream, from a belief that these waters 
have a purifying and divine virtue, such 
as the ancients attributed to every river. 
For six months of the year the water of 
this river is so thick, that it must have 
time to settle before it can be drunk ; and 
during the three months which precede 
the inundation, reduced to an inconsidera- 
ble depth, it grows heated, becomes green, 
fetid, and full of worms ; and it is ne- 
cessary to have recourse to that which 
has been before drawn, and preserved in 
cisterns. At all times, people of delicacy 
take care to perfume it, and cool it by 
evaporation. Bitter almonds are made use 
of to purify the water, with which the 
vessel is rubbed, and the water then be- 
comes really light and good. Earthen 
vessels, unglazed, are kept carefully in 
every apartment, from whence the water 
continually transpires. This transpiration 
produces the more coolness in proportion 
as it is more considerable ; for which rea- 
son those vessels are often suspended in 
passages where there are currents of air, 
and under the shade of trees. In several 
parts of Syria they drink the water which 
has transpired ; in Egypt they drink that 
which remains ; besides, in no country is 
so much water used. The first thing an 
Egyptian does on entering a house, is to 
lay hold of the holla (the pitcher of water) 
and take a hearty draught of it, and, thanks 
to their perpetual perspiration, they feel no 
inconvenience from the practice.' Volney s 
Travels, vol. i. p. 19. Baron du Tott, vol. ii. 
pp. 24. 31. Niebuhr's Travels, vol. i. p. 87. 
Supplement. Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 
Dr. Mavor's Universal History, vol. xiii. pp. 
233, 234. 

NIM'ROD, -ntt), Ne/i/3pu;5, signifies re- 
bellion, or sleep of descent, or of him that 
rules; or dominion. Nimrod, the son of 
Cush, was a mighty hunter before the 
Lord. (Gen. x. 8, 9.) He began to mono- 
polize power on the earth, and gave occa- 
sion to the proverb, 'like Nimrod, the great 
hunter before the Lord.' His hunting was 
not only of wild beasts, but also to subdue 
men, to reduce them under his dominion. 
The foundation of the empire of Nimrod 
was at Babylon ; and, very probably, he 
was among the most eager undertakers 
of the Tower of Babel, and built Baby- 
lon at, or near, that famous Tower. 
Thence he extended his dominion over 
the neighbouring countries, and reigned at 
Erech, Accad, ;uul C'alneh, in the land of 
Shinar. 

Moses says, * Out of that laud went 
forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and 
3 B 



NIN 



NIN 



the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen, 
between Nineveh and Calah : the same is 
a great city.' This Bochart understands 
still of Nimrod, and translates the Hebrew 
as follows : From this place he went out to 
go into Assyria, where he built Nineveh, 
Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen; that is, 
when Nimrod had established the begin- 
ning of his empire at Babylon, and in the 
land of Shinar, he advanced towards Assy- 
ria, where he built powerful cities, as so 
many fortresses, to keep the people in sub- 
jection. 

Nimrod, who first subverted the patri- 
archal government, introduced also the Sa- 
bian idolatry, or worship of the heavenly 
host. After his death he was deified by his 
subjects, and supposed to be translated into 
the constellation of Orion, attended by his 
hounds, Sirius and Canicula, and still pur- 
suing his favourite game, the great bear, 
supposed also to be translated into Ursa 
Major, near the north pole. The Grecian 
name of this 'mighty hunter' may furnish 
a satisfactory clue to the name given 
him by the impious adulation of the Ba- 
bylonians and Assyrians. 'Qpiwv, nearly 
resembles Ovpiav, the oblique case of 
Ovpiag, which is the Septuagint render- 
ing of Uriah, a proper name in Scripture. 
(2 Sam. xi. 6—21.) Uriah, signifying ' the 
light of the Lord,' was an appropriate ap- 
pellation of that most brilliant constella- 
tion. 

Some think he was also called Baal, 
Beel, Bel, or Belus, signifying ' Lord,' 
or ' Master,' by the Phoenicians, Assy- 
rians, and Greeks, and Bala Rama, by 
the Hindus, or Bala, the son of Rama, 
the Raamah of Scripture. At a village 
called Bala Deva, or Baldeo, in the vul- 
gar dialect, thirteen miles east by south 
from Muttra, in Hindustan, there is ■ a 
very ancient statue of Bala Rama, in 
which he is represented with a plough- 
share in his left hand, and a thick cudgel 
in his right, and his shoulders covered 
with the skin of a tiger !' Captain Wil- 
ford supposes that ' the ploughshare was 
designed to hook his enemies;' but may 
it not more naturally denote the con- 
stellation of the great bear 1 Which 
strikingly represents the figure of a 
plough in its seven bright stars, and 
was probably so denominated by the ear- 
liest astronomers, before the introduction 
of the Sabian idolatry, as a celestial sym- 
bol of agriculture. The 'thick cudgel' 
corresponds to the ' brazen mace' of Ho- 
mer. It is highly probable that the As- 
syrian Nimrod, or Hindu Bala, was also 
the prototype of the Grecian Hercules, 
with his club and lion's skin. Hales's New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. pp. 
50, 51. 

NIN'EVEH, TVQ% Ttfivevrj, signifies fair, 
or well-looking ; otherwise, a small habita- 
738 



tion. Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, 
was founded by Asshur, son of Shem ; 
or by Nimrod, son of Cush. (Gen. x. 11.) 
It was one of the most ancient, the 
most famous, the most potent, and the 
largest cities of the world. It is very 
difficult to assign the time of its founda- 
tion ; but it could not be long after the 
building of Babel. It stood on the banks 
of the Tigris ; and in the time of the pro- 
phet Jonah, who was sent thither under 
Jeroboam the Second, king of Israel, 
and, as Calmet thinks, under the reign of 
Pul, father of Sardanapalus, king of As- 
syria, Nineveh was a very great city, its 
circuit being three days' journey. Dio- 
dorus Siculus says, it was one hundred and 
fifty stadia in length, fourscore and ten 
stadia in breadth, and four hundred and 
fourscore stadia in circuit; that is, about 
seven leagues long, three leagues broad, 
and eighteen leagues round. Its walls were 
an hundred feet high, and so broad, that 
three chariots could drive abreast upon 
them. Its towers, of which there were fif- 
teen hundred, were each two hundred feet 
high. 

Some place it to the west, others to the 
east of the river Tigris. At the time of 
Jonah's mission thither, (Jonah iv. 11.) it 
was reckoned to contain more than six score 
thousand persons, who could not distinguish 
their right hand from their left ; which is 
generally explained of young children, that 
had,.not yet attained the use of reason. By 
this reckoning, there ought to have been 
then in Nineveh more than six hundred 
thousand persons. 

Nineveh was taken by Arbaces and 
Belesis, in the year of the world 3257, 
under the reign of king Sardanapalus, in 
the time of Ahaz, king of Judah, about the 
time of the foundation of Rome. It was 
taken a second time by Astyages and Nabo- 
polassar, from Chinaladan, king of Assy- 
ria, in the year of the world 3378. Nine- 
veh no more recovered its former splendour. 
It was entirely ruined in the time of Lu- 
cianus Samosatensis, who lived under the 
emperor Adrian. However, it was rebuilt 
under the Persians, but was destroyed by 
the Saracens about the seventh century. 

Niebuhr mentions the site of the ancient 
Nineveh, now called Nunia, as opposite, 
across the river, to the present Mosul ; and 
here he was shown, upon a hill, a mosque, 
in which the prophet Jonah is said to be 
interred. The Tigris is about 300 feet in 
width : it sometimes rises very rapidly. 
The number of houses in Nineveh is cal- 
culated from 20,000 to 24,000. It has fif- 
teen chans, or places of public resort, where 
strangers may lodge. The number of 
Christians may amount to 1200 families: 
about one fourth of whom are Nestorians, 
the rest are Jacobites. Few of those born 
in the city speak the Syriac language ; but 



NIS 



NOA 



it is still used in the country villages. 
The books of devotion are written in the 
ancient dialect. The Christians and Turks 
live in remarkable harmony together. The 
Jews are about 150 families: they are de- 
spised and ill treated. In general the 
country around is fertile ; yet the miseries 
of famine have been severely felt. The 
terrible winter of 1756, when the Tigris 
was frozen over for many days, and the 
locusts of 1757) reduced this district to a 
deplorable condition. Niebuhr's Travels, 
vol. ii. p. 286, &c, French edition ; Sacred 
Geography. 

NISAN, a Hebrew month, wmch cor- 
responds with our March, and which some- 
times takes from February or April, ac- 
cording to the course of the moon. It was 
made the first month of the sacred year, at 
the coming out of Egypt. (Exod. xii. 2.) 
It was the seventh month of the civil year. 
By Moses it is called Abib. The name 
Nisan is only since the time of Ezra, 
and the return from the captivity of Ba- 
bylon. 

The first day of this month is a fast for 
the children of Aaron. (Lev. x. 1, 2, 3.) 
On the tenth day is a fast for the death of 
Miriam, the sister of Moses ; and every 
one provided himself with 'a lamb for the 
passover. On this day the Israelites passed 
over Jordan under the conduct of Joshua. 
(Josh. iv. 19.) On the fourteenth day, in 
the evening, they sacrificed the paschal 
lamb, and the day following, being the fif- 
teenth, was held the solemn passover. (Exod. 
xii. 18, &c.) The sixteenth they offered 
the sheaf of the ears of barley, as the first 
fruits of the harvest of that year. (Levit. 
xxiii. 9, &c.) The twenty-first was the oc- 
tave of the passover, which was solemnized 
with particular ceremonies. The twenty- 
sixth the Jews fasted in memory of the 
death of Joshua. On this day they began 
their prayers to obtain the rains of the 
spring. On the 29th they call to mind the 
fall of the walls of Jericho. 

NIS'ROCH, a god of the Assyrians. 
Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons, 
whilst in adoration to this god, Nisroch, in 
his temple. (2 Kings xix. 37-) It is not 
known who this god Nisroch was. The 
Septuagint call him Mesrach. Josephus 
calls him Araskes. The Hebrew of Tobit, 
published by Munster, calls him Dagon. 
Some think the word signifies a dove ; and 
others understand by it an eagle, which has 
given occasion to an opinion that Jupiter 
Belus, from whom the Assyrian kings pre- 
tended to be derived, was worshipped by 
them under the form of an eagle, and called 
Nisroch. Our poet Milton gives this name 
to one of the rebel angels. 

NO, No-Amon, or No-Amoun, the 
Thebes of the ancient geographers, was 
the metropolis of Upper Egypt. Its Egyp- 
tian name was No, (Ezek. xxx. 14.); to 
739 



which was added Amon, or Amoun, a title 
of Jupiter among the Egpptians, according 
to Herodotus. Whence HDD pnN should not 
be rendered ' the multitude of No,' (Jer. 
xlvi. 25.) ; but Amon [the god] of No ; and 
which accordingly is rendered Diospolis, 
' the city of Jupiter,' by the Septuagint 
version of Ezekiel. In Nahum (iii. 8.) 
the Hebrew is reversed, poK N3D [the god] 
of No, Amon ; and then it is variously 
rendered by the Septuagint ' the portion 
of Ammon.' The latter appears to be an 
etymological explanation of the word after 
the Coptic. In that language Noh signi- 
fies a cord, or measuring line, hence a por- 
tion measured out ; and No-amon, portio, 
possessio Amonis, that is, the seat of the god 
Amon, or the place where he was princi- 
pally worshipped. 

It has been mistakenly supposed that 
the term Amon denoted Ham, the young- 
est son of Noah, and the father of Mizraim. 
Its real signification is truth or veracity, 
whence the Lord is styled Ael Amunah, 
1 God of truth.' (Deut. xxxii. 4.) Accord- 
ing to Plato, ' the secret, invisible, creative 
power supreme, among the Egyptians, was 
called Ammon ;' and Plutarch agrees that 
it signified ' hidden.' This also was an epi- 
thet of the true God : ' Why askest thou 
my name, seeing it is secret?' (Judg. xiii. 
18.) Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, 
vol. i. p. 378; Jablonskii Opuscula, torn. i. 
pp. 163—168; Gibbs's Heb. Lex. p. 406; 
Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 607. 

NO'AH, nj?3, Naif, signifies that quavers 
or totters; or, repose, or rest ; otherwise con- 
solation. Noah or Noe, son of Lamech, 
was born in the year of the world 1056. 
Amidst the general corruption of mankind, 
Noah found favour in the eyes of the Lord. 
God, seeing that all men had corrupted 
their ways, said to Noah, The end of all 
flesh is come before me, for the earth is 
filled with violence through them ; and, 
behold, I will destroy them with the earth. 
Make thee an ark of gopher wood, &c. for 
thy preservation, and that of animals, 
plants, &c. 

Noah performed what the Lord had com- 
manded him ; and in the year of the world 
1656, God caused all the animals to come 
to Noah into the ark ; after which he or- 
dered him to go in himself, with his wife, 
his three sons, and their wives. Noah 
was then six hundred years old. Presently 
the waters of the Deluge began to fall, in- 
somuch that whatever had life on the earth, 
or in the air, was destroyed, except 
such animals as were with Noah in the 
ark. 

The Lord, remembering Noah, caused 
the waters to diminish ; so that the ark 
rested on the mountains of Ararat. The 
tenth day of the tenth month, the tops 
of the mountains began to appear. After 
forty days Noah let go the raven, who went 
3 b 2 



NOA 



NOP 



out of the ark, and returned according to 
the Hebrew, or returned not, according to 
the Septuagint and the Vulgate ; or he 
went out, and went and came, flying about 
the ark, and alighting upon its roof. Af- 
terwards Noah sent forth the dove, which 
not finding a place to set his foot, returned 
into the ark again. Seven days after, he 
sent it out again, and it returned in the 
evening, bringing in its mouth a branch of 
the olive tree, having green leaves upon it, 
which the tree had produced since the as- 
suaging of the waters. He stayed yet 
seven days longer ; then he uncovered the 
roof of the ark ; and observing the whole 
surface of the earth was dry, he received 
orders from the Lord to go out of the ark, 
with all the animals. He therefore came 
out in the six hundred and first year of his 
age, and the twenty-seventh day of the 
second month. 

Then he offered as a burnt sacrifice to 
the Lord one of all the pure animals that 
were in the ark ; and the Lord accepted 
his sacrifice, and promised to bring no 
more a deluge over the earth, of which 
promise the sign he gave to Noah was the 
rainbow. 

Noah being an husbandman cultivated 
the vine ; having made wine and drunk 
of it, he unwarily became inebriated, and, 
falling asleep in his tent, happened to un- 
cover himself indecently. Ham, the father 
of Canaan, discovering him in this con- 
dition, made sport of him, and jeered with 
his two brothers ; but they, instead of 
sporting, going backwards, covered their 
father's nakedness, by throwing a mantle 
over him. Noah awaking, and knowing 
what Ham had done, foretold the doom of 
slavery to Ham and his posterity ; but he 
blessed his other sons. 

Noah lived after the Deluge three hun- 
dred and fifty years; his whole life was 
nine hundred and fifty years. He died 
in the year of the world 2006. He left 
three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; and 
according to the common opinion, he di- 
vided the whole world among them. To 
Shem he gave Asia ; to Ham Africa ; and 
to Japheth Europe. Some say, that, be- 
sides these three sons, he had several others. 
The spurious Berosus gives him thirty, cal- 
led Titans, from the name of their mother 
Titsea. They pretend that the Teutons or 
Germans are derived from a son of Noah 
called Thuiscon. The false Methodius also 
makes mention of Jonithus, or Jonicus, a 
pretended son of Noah. 

St. Peter called Noah a preacher of right- 
eousness, (2 Pet. ii. 5.) ; because before the 
Deluge he was incessantly declaring to men, 
not only by his discourses, but by his un- 
blamable life, and by the building of the 
ark, in which he was employed six-score 
years, the coming of the wrath of God. 
'Matt. xxiv. 37.) • 
740 



Several learned men have observed that 
the Pagans confounded Saturn, Deucalion, 
Ogyges, the god Ccelus, or Ouranus, Janus, 
Proteus, Prometheus, Vertumnus, Bac- 
chus, Osiris, Vadimon, and Xisuthrus, with 
Noah. The fable of Deucalion and his 
wife Pyrrha is manifestly derived from the 
history of Noah. 

NOD, TO, signifies vagabond. Nod, or 
the land of Nod, whither Cain retired 
after the murder of his brother, cannot 
easily be ascertained ; but it is generally 
reckoned by the Oriental geographers to 
have been the low country of Susiana, 
or Chusistan. Jerome and the Chaldee 
understand the word Nod, in the sense of 
an appellative, a vagabond, or fugitive, that 
is, a wanderer on the earth. Hales's New 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
p. 33. 

NOETIANS, a denomination that arose 
in the third century, and were the followers 
of Noetus, who pretended that he was 
another Moses sent by God, and that his 
brother was a new Aaron. He affirmed 
that the Supreme God, whom he called 
the Father, and considered as absolutely 
indivisible, united himself to the man 
Christ, whom he called the Son, and was 
born and crucified with him. From this 
opinion Noetus and his followers were 
distinguished by the title of Patripassians ; 
that is, persons who believe that the Su- 
preme Father of the universe, and not 
any other divine person, had expiated the 
guilt of the human race. Mosheim's Ec- 
cles. History, vol. i. pp. 246, 247 ; Brough- 
ton's Dictionary of all Religions, vol. ii. 
p. 172. 

NOPH, tp, signifies distillation, or honey- 
comb, or sieve, or elevation. Noph, or Mem- 
phis, was a very famous city of Egypt, and 
was long the residence of the kings of Egypt, 
till the times of the Ptolemies, who removed 
the seat of government to Alexandria. It 
was situated about fifteen thousand paces 
above the parting of the Nile, or where the 
Delta begins. Above Memphis, south, 
were the famous pyramids. In this city 
they fed the ox Apis. The kings of Egypt 
took great pleasure in adorning Memphis. 
It continued in its beauty till the Arabians 
conquered Egypt under Caliph Omar, in the 
eighteenth or nineteenth year of the Hegira, 
A.D. 640. Amron Ben-as, who took it, 
built another city near it, which he called 
Fusthat, because of the tent of this general, 
which was long set up in this place. The 
Fatimite caliphs, who became masters of 
Egypt, added another city near it, which is 
known at this day by the name of Grand 
Cairo. But it must be observed, that the 
ancient Memphis stood on the western 
shore of the Nile, and that which the Ara- 
bians have built is on the eastern shore. 

Noph is called by the Arabs at the present 
day Menoph, whence Memphis, which is the 



NOV 



NUM 



Septuagint rendering of Noph, in Jer. xlvi. 
14. and other places. Abenephius, quoted 
by Kircher, (CEdip. torn. i. p. 27.) reports 
that Memphis is by the Coptis called 
Monphta, that is, water of God, or, as Kircher 
explains it, God or Deity of the water, that is, 
perhaps, issuing from the water. Plutarch, 
in Iside, however, informs us, that Mem- 
phin denotes the entrance or gate of good. 
The explication of the Coptic name for this 
city, as given by Jablonski, agrees very 
well with this representation of Plutarch ; 
for he translates, meh full, nouph good : 
whence 'full of good' seems to be the import 
of the name. For the same name we have 
in Kircher Menouph, or, without the article, 
Nouph, agreeing with the Hebrew Noph. 

Noph, Menoph, or Memphis, was situated 
somewhat above the vertex of the Delta, 
or parting of the channels of the Nile, on 
quitting Upper Egypt. The founder of 
Memphis, according to Herodotus, was 
Menes, the first king of Egypt, who turned 
the channel of the river, and built the city 
in the ancient bed, where the screight be- 
tween the Arabian and Libyan mountains 
is narrowest. It was probably, therefore, 
the most ancient city of Lower Egypt. 

The prophets often mention this city, and 
predict the calamities which it was to suffer 
from the kings of Chaldsea and Persia. (Isai. 
xix. 13. Jer. xliv. 1. Hosea ix. 6. Ezek. 
xxx. 13. 1C.) It is now completely de- 
stroyed ; and the spot on which it stood is 
not certainly known. Jeremiah had foretold 
ages before, that Noph should ' be waste and 
desolate, without an inhabitant,' (xlvi. 19.) ; 
and not a family or cottage is said to re- 
main. Hales' s Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. 
p. 376. Taylor's Sacred Geography. 

NOVATIANS, the followers of Nova- 
tian, a priest of Rome, and of Novatus, a 
priest of Carthage, in the third century. 
They were distinguished merely by their 
discipline ; for their religious and doc- 
trinal tenets do not appear to be at all dif- 
ferent from those of the church. They 
condemned second marriages, and for ever 
excluded from their communion all those 
who after baptism had fallen into sin. 
They affected very superior purity; and, 
though they conceived a sinner might pos- 
sibly hope for eternal life, they absolutely 
refused to re-admit into their communion 
any who had lapsed into sin. They sepa- 
rated from the church of Home, because 
the members of it admitted into their com- 
munion many who had during a season 
of persecution rejected the Christian faith. 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. i. 
p. 136. 

NUMBERS, the fourth book of the 
Pentateuch, and is denominated Numbers 
from the numbering of the families of Israel 
by Muses and Aaron. The Hebrews call it 
"OT1 Vajedabber, and he spoke, because 
iu the Hebrew it begins with these words. 
711 



The book of Numbers contains an ac- 
count of the numbering of the people 
of Israel, both in the beginning of the 
second year after their departure out of 
Egypt, and at the conclusion of their jour- 
ney in the wilderness. It comprehends a 
period of about thirty-eight years, but most of 
the events related in it happened in the first 
and last of those years. The dates of the 
facts recorded in the middle of the book 
cannot be precisely ascertained. The prin- 
cipal contents of this book, besides the 
numbering of the people already noticed, 
are, the consecration of the tabernacle ; the 
encampments of the Israelites, with a rela- 
tion of the circumstances which attended 
their wandering in the wilderness ; a repe- 
tition of several of the principal laws which 
had been before given to the Israelites, with 
an addition of some new precepts, both 
civil and religious ; an enumeration of the 
twelve tribes, and directions for the divi- 
sion of the land of Canaan, of which they 
were about to take possession. 

This book contains only one prediction 
concerning the Messiah, (Numb. xxiv. 17- 
19.) which Rosenmiiller and some other 
eminent biblical critics have contended, 
cannot apply to Jesus Christ. This passage, 
it is true, in its primary and literal mean- 
ing, intimates that from the people of Israel 
should arise a mighty prince, who would 
obtain an entire conquest, and bear rule 
over the kingdoms of Moab and Edom ; and 
it was fulfilled in David, for it is expressly 
recorded of him, that he finally subdued 
those nations. (2 Sam. viii. 2. 14.) But, 
in its full import, it has invariably been 
considered as referring to that illustrious 
Personage, of whom David was a type and a 
progenitor ; and, in fact, it is a splendid 
prediction of the final and universal sway of 
the Messiah, when the middle wall of parti- 
tion shall be broken down, and both Jews 
and Gentiles shall become one fold under 
one Shepherd. Rabbi Moses ben Maimon 
has, in my opinion, says Dr. Adam Clarke, 
perfectly hit the meaning of the prophecy in 
the following paraphrase : ' I shall see him, 
but not now ;' this is David. ' I shall be- 
hold him, but not nigh ;' this is the King 
Messiah. ' A star shall come out of Jacob ;' 
this is David. ' And a sceptre shall rise 
out of Israel ;' this is the King Messiah. 
' And shall smite the corners of Moab ;' 
this is David, as it is written, ' He smote 
Moab ; casting them down to the ground.' 
(2 Sam. viii. 2.) ' And shall destroy 
all the children of Sheth ;' this is the Kino 
Messiah, of whom it is written, • He shall 
have dominion from sea to sea.' (Psal. 
lxxii. 8.) Dr. Hales observes, that Balaam 
here, in prophetic vision, descries the re- 
mote coming of Shiloh, under the imager] 
of a star and a sceptre, or an illustrious 
prince. Though it was foretold that ' t Ik- 
sceptre should depart from Judah' at his 



NUM 



NUM 



coming, yet this prophecy confirms to him 
a proper sceptre of his own ; and our Lord 
claimed it when he avowed himself S a King' 
to Pilate, hut declared that 'his kingdom 
was not of this world.' (John xviii. 36, 37-) 
This branch of the prophecy was fulfilled 
about 1600 years after, when, at the birth 
of Christ, \ the Magi from the East' (who 
are supposed by Theophylact to have been 



the posterity of Balaam) came to Jerusalem, 
saying, ' Where is the [true] born King of 
the Jews ? for we have seen his star, at its 
rising, and are come to worship him.' (Matt, 
ii. 2.) Hales' s Analysis of Chronology, vol. 
ii. book i. p. 229. ; Dr. J dam Clarke's Com- 
mentary on Numb. xxiv. 17- ; Home's Intro- 
duction, vol. iv. p. 17. ; Bishop Tomline's Ele- 
ments of Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 79, 80. 



o. 



OAT 



OAT 



OATH, a solemn invocation of a Supe- 
rior Power, supposed to be acquainted 
with all the secrets of our hearts, with our 
inward thoughts as well as our outward ac- 
tions, to witness the truth of what we assert, 
and to inflict his vengeance upon us if we 
assert what is not true, or promise what we 
do not mean to perform. Almost all nations, 
whether savage or civilized, whether enjoy- 
ing the light of revelation, or led only by 
the light of reason, knowing the importance 
of truth, and willing to obtain a barrier 
against falsehood, have had recourse to 
oaths, by which they have endeavoured to 
make men fearful of uttering lies under the 
dread of an avenging Deity. Among 
Christians, an oath is a solemn appeal for 
the truth of our assertions, the sincerity of 
our promises, and the fidelity of our engage- 
ments, to the one only God, the maker of 
heaven and earth, who is every where pre- 
sent, and sees, and hears, and knows, what- 
ever is said, or done, or thought, in any 
part of the world. Such is that Being 
whom Christians, when they take an oath, 
invoke to bear testimony to the truth of 
their words, and the integrity of their 
hearts. Surely, then, if oaths be a matter 
of so much moment, it well behoves us not 
to treat them with levity, nor ever to take 
them without due consideration. Hence 
we ought, with the utmost vigilance, to ab- 
stain from mingling oaths in our ordinary 
discourse, and from associating the name of 
God with low or disgusting images, or using 
it on trivial occasions. 

In the present corrupt state of society, 
oaths, which are intended as corroborants of 
virtue, are rendered necessary by vice. If 
all men were habitually to sp'eak truth, 
there would be no need of oaths to deter 
them from speaking falsehood. Oaths were 
designed to operate as a restraint on false- 
hood; for they forcibly impress on men's 
minds the inviolable sanctity of truth, and 
742 



remind them of the punishment which 
awaits them if they speak lies. But then 
the familiar use of oaths must inevitably di- 
minish their solemnity, and invalidate their 
force. Hence the Scripture requires us to 
let our conversation be Yes, yes, and No, 
no ; and never to have recourse to oaths, 
except on great occasions, when they are 
required by the laws of our country, or men 
are not willing on any other terms to give 
credit to our testimony, or to attach validity 
to our promises. An oath does not of itseh 
constitute the truth of our assertions, or the 
sincerity of our promises. Its use is to give 
us a solemn premonition against falsehood 
and insincerity, and to prevent us from 
making false assertions and false promises, 
from want of due consideration ; and thus it 
affords the strongest pledge which we can 
give, of our truth and sincerity. The 
Scriptures, though they forbid us to swear 
falsely, and to swear at all on trifling occa- 
sions, do not forbid the use of oaths in cases 
when they can be made subservient to the 
support of truth, and the interest of justice. 
Moses says, 'Thou shalt fear the Lord thy 
God, and shalt serve him, and shalt swear 
by his name.' (Deut. vi. 13.) 'Thou shalt 
swear the Lord liveth,' says Jeremiah, ' in 
truth, and in judgment, and in righteous- 
ness.' (Jerem. iv. 2.) Our Saviour himself, 
when ' adjured by the living God,' to say 
whether he were the Christ, the Son of God, 
did not refuse to answer the question thus 
solemnly and judicially put to him by the 
high-priest ; but he certainly would have re- 
mained silent, if he had disapproved all 
asseverations upon oath, or all such solemn 
invocations of, and appeals to, the name of 
God, in cases where the truth is doubtful, or 
the testimony is suspected. The author of 
the Epistle to the Hebrews says, that 'an 
oath is intended as a confirmation of the 
truth, and to put an end to all strife.' (Heb. 
vi. 16.) 



OAT 



OBE 



Whenever we are required to take an 
oath, we ought not to do it without due 
eaution and deliberation. We ought so- 
berly to reflect on the infinite perfections of 
Him by whose name we swear, on his love of 
truth, and his utter abhorrence of falsehood. 
To swear falsely, is to be guilty of treason 
against God ; to deny his knowledge, or to 
defy his powei\ As false-swearing is a 
crime of such magnitude, which provokes 
God's wrath, and brings down his heaviest 
judgments upon us, we ought to be very 
wary that we do not swear what is not con- 
formable to truth; that we do not assert 
that which is not, nor deny that which is ; 
that we do not declare what we do not 
know, nor promise what we do not mean to 
perform. Hence, when we take an oath, 
we ought to take it in the plain sense of the 
words, without any secret subterfuges, or 
mental reservations, without any insidious 
ambiguities or sly prevarications, which 
tend to defeat the obvious intent of an oath, 
or to elude the force of its obligations. 
When we take an oath, we should be scru- 
pulously attentive that it be not done with- 
out necessity, but only when some important 
interest of truth, justice, or charity, requires 
it ; and, consequently, no oath ought to be 
taken, of which the matter is contrary to 
good morals, or which he, who takes it, can- 
not take with the full approbation of his 
conscience. 

Let us consider how unseemly and super- 
fluous oaths are in common conversation, in 
which they so much abound. Let me ask 
those who are so lavish in their application, 
do they add any beauty to their discourse ? 
Are they, like figures of rhetoric, ornaments 
of speech ? Do they give splendour or dig- 
nity to our expressions, and thus operate on 
the mind by interesting the imagination ? 
Are they in the least necessary in our ra- 
tional conversation? Do they serve to illus- 
trate what is obscure, or unravel what is in- 
tricate, to fathom what is profound? Do 
they give clearness to our explanations, or 
cogency to our arguments ? If we were re- 
lating any matter of fact, except in cases 
where we are obliged to submit to judicial 
forms, may we not be believed on our sim- 
ple affirmation ? Can oaths make our asser- 
tions more credible ? Do they not rather, 
when interposed without necessity, and 
sworn without being exacted, tend to im- 
peach that credibility, and to render our 
veracity suspected? For how can we help 
distrusting his veracity, who is continually 
seeking such props for his assertions ? The 
affirmation of a Christian ought to be as 
sacred as his oath. For what man, who 
believes in a judgment to come, when he 
will have to render up a strict account of 
every thought, word, and deed, will dare, 
wilfully and knowingly, to utter that which 
is false, and to pollute his tongue with lies? 

Let me ask, what is it that men ;;ain by 
743 



interlarding their speech with oaths, and 
profaning the name of God with their lips? 
Is there any pleasure or any profit in the 
practice ? Some transient pleasure or profit 
may result from other transgressions, but 
surely this is without any ? For it gratifies 
none of the perverse, the vain, or sensual 
propensities of our nature. It may add 
strength to our malevolence, but it affords 
no gratification to our sensuality. It does 
not produce a single pleasurable sensation ; 
but if it produces no pleasure, it will, in its 
consequences, be found to generate much 
pain. If other sinners derive, in this world, 
any emolument from their unrighteousness, 
surely the swearer is the most improvident 
of all transgressors, for he parteth with 
eternity, without obtaining any thing like a 
temporal satisfaction? With our lips we 
ought to glorify God, to confess our admi- 
ration of his wonderful perfections, and to 
express our gratitude for his infinite good- 
ness. But instead of this employment, 
which is worthy of a rational nature, shall 
we make our tongue the organ of blasphemy, 
and, instead of making it vocal with adora- 
tion, use it to revile the Maker of the uni- 
verse ? Let us endeavour to apply the good 
gifts of God to their right uses and their 
proper ends. Let us cherish the love of 
God in our hearts, and then we shall not 
readily utter his name unadvisedly with our 
lips. Fellowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 
282—297- 

OBADI'AH, nnay, 'Ofidiag, signifies a 
slave, or labourer of the Lord. Obadiah, the 
prophet, is thought, by some, to have been 
the same as the governor of Ahab's house ; 
(1 Kings xviii. 3, &c.) and some are of 
opinion, he was that Obediah whom Josiah 
made overseer of the works of the temple. 
(2 Chron. xxxiv. 12.) Indeed, the age in 
which this prophet lived is very uncertain. 
Some think that he was contemporary with 
Hosea, Amos, and Joel ; whilst others are 
of opinion, that he lived in the time of Jere- 
miah and Ezekiel, and that he delivered his 
prophecy about the year 585 before Christ, 
soon after the destruction of Jerusalem by 
Nebuchadnezzar. This book, which con- 
sists of a single chapter, is written with 
great beauty and elegance, and contains 
predictions of the utter destruction of the 
Edomites, and of the future restoration and 
prosperity of the Jews. Bishop Tomline's 
Elements of Christian Theology, vol. i. p. 
123. 

OB'ED-E'DOM, mN"oy, signifies the 
Have of Edom, or the Idunuran ; or, labourer 
of the man of red, or cartliy. Obed-edom, 
was son of .leduthun, a Levite, (1 Chron. xvi. 
38.) and lather of Shemaiah, Jeho/.abad, 
Joab, Sacar, N'ethanocl, Aminiel, Issaehar, 
and Peulthai. He had a numerous family, 
(1 Chron. xxvi. 4.) because the Lord blessed 
him. Alter the death o( I'/./nh, David, 
terrified at that accident, durst not remove 



ODE 



OFF 



the ark into the place he had provided for 
it in his own house, but left it in the house 
of Obed-edom, near the place where Uzzah 
was struck dead. The presence of the 
ark became a blessing to Obed-edom, which 
encouraged David some months after to 
remove it to the place he had appointed 
for it. Afterwards, Obed-edom and his 
sons were assigned to the keeping of the 
doors of the temple. (1 Chron. xv. 18. 21.) 
In the second book of Samuel, (vi. 10.) Obed- 
edom is called the Gittite, probably be- 
cause he was of Gathrimmon, a city of 
the Levites beyond Jordan. (Josh. xxi. 
24, 25.) 

O'DED, -my, signifies to sustain, to hold, 
to lift up. Oded was a prophet of the 
Lord, (2 Chron. xxviii. 9.) who being at Sa- 
maria when the Israelites returned from 
the war against Judah, with their king 
Pekah, and brought 200,000 captives, 
went to meet them, and remonstrated ef- 
fectually with them, so that they sent back 
their captives. The principal men of Sa- 
maria took care of them, gave them clothes, 
food, and other assistances ; after which, 
they furnished them with horses, because 
the greater part of them were exhausted 
and unable to walk. Thus they conducted 
them to Jericho, which was in the confines 
of Judah. 

OFFERINGS. The Hebrews had se- 
veral kinds of offerings, which they pre- 
sented at the temple. Some were free- 
will offerings ; others were of obligation. 
The first fruits, the tenths, the sin-offer- 
ings, were of obligation; the peace offer- 
ings, vows, offerings of wine, oil, bread, 
salt, and other things, made to the temple, 
or to the ministers of the Lord, were offer- 
ings of devotion. The Hebrews called offer- 
ings, in general, Corban. But the offerings 
of bread, salt, fruits, and liquors, as wine 
and oil, presented to the temple, they called 
Mincha. Sacrifices are not properly offer- 
ings ; nor are they commonly included under 
this name. 

Offerings of grain, meal, bread, cakes, 
fruits, wine, salt, oil, were common in the 
temple. Sometimes these offerings were 
alone ; sometimes they accompanied the 
sacrifices. Honey was never offered with 
the sacrifices, but it might be offered alone, 
as first fruits. (Lev. ii. 11, 12.) These were 
the rules observed in the presenting of 
those offerings called Mincha, or Korban 
Mincha ; in the Septuagint, offerings of 
sacrifice, and the same by Jerome, obla- 
tionem sacrificii ; but by our translators, 
* meat offerings.' (Lev. ii. 1, &c.) There 
were five sorts of these offerings: 1. fine 
flour or meal ; 2. cakes of several sorts, 
baked in an oven ; 3. cakes baked upon 
a plate ; 4. another sort of cakes baked 
upon a plate with holes in it ; 5. the first 
fruits of the new corn, which were of- 
fered either pure and without mixture, or 
744 



roasted, or parched, in the ear, or out of 
the ear. 

The cakes were kneaded with olive-oil, 
or fried in oil in a pan, or only dipped in 
oil after they were baked. The bread of- 
fered on the altar was to be without lea- 
ven ; for leaven was never offered on the 
altar, nor with the sacrifices. (Lev. ii. II, 
12.) But they might make presents of 
common bread to the priests and minis- 
ters of the temple. 

These offerings were appointed in favour 
of the poor, who could not afford the charge 
of sacrificing animals. Those also who of- 
fered living victims were not excused from 
giving meal, wine, and salt, which were to 
accompany the greater sacrifices. Those 
who offered only oblations of bread or of 
meal, offered also oil, incense, salt, and 
wine, which were in a manner their sea- 
soning. The priest in waiting received 
the offerings from the hand of him who 
offered them; laid a part upon the altar; 
and reserved the rest for his own subsist- 
ence, as a minister of the Lord. Nothing 
was wholly burnt up but the incense, of 
which the priest retained none. (Lev. ii. 2. 
13. Numb. xv. 4, 5.) 

When an Israelite offered a loaf to the 
priest, or a whole cake, the priest broke 
it into two parts, setting aside that part he 
reserved to himself, and broke the other 
into crumbs, poured upon it oil, salt, wine, 
and incense, and spread the whole upon 
the fire of the altar. If these offerings were 
accompanied by an animal for a sacrifice, 
the whole was thrown upon the victim, to 
be consumed with it. 

If these offerings were ears of new corn, 
(wheat or barley,) these ears were parched 
at the fire, or in the flame, and rubbed 
in the hand, and then offered to the priest 
in a vessel ; over which he put oil, incense, 
wine, and salt, and then burnt it upon the 
altar, having first taken his own portion. 
(Lev. ii. 14, 15.) 

The greater part of these offerings were 
voluntary, and of pure devotion. But when 
an animal was offered in sacrifice, they 
were not at liberty to omit these offer- 
ings. Every thing proper was to accom- 
pany the sacrifice, and what served as 
seasoning to the victim. In some cases 
the law required offerings only of corn, 
or bread; as, when they offered the first 
fruits of their harvest, whether offered 
solemnly by the nation, or as the devotion 
of private persons. 

As to the quantity of meal, oil, wine, or 
salt, to accompany the sacrifices, the law 
does not appear to determine it. Gene- 
rally, the priest threw a handful of meal, 
or crumbs, on the fire of the altar, with 
wine, oil, and salt in proportion, and all the 
incense. The rest belonged to himself ; 
the quantity depended on the liberality of 
the offerer. Moses appoints an assaron, 



OLI 



OMR 



or the tenth part of an ephah of meal, for 
those who were unable to offer the ap- 
pointed sin-offerings. (Lev. v. II. j xiv. 21.) 
In the solemn offerings of the first fruits 
for the whole nation, they offered an entire 
sheaf of corn, a lamb of a year old, two 
tenths or two assarons of fine meal mixed 
with oil, and a quarter of an hin of wine 
for the libation. (Lev. xxiii. 10, 11, 12, &c. ; 
Numb. v. 15.) 

In the sacrifice of jealousy, when a 
jealous husband accused his wife of infi- 
delity, the husband offered the tenth part 
of a satum of barley-meal, without oil or 
incense, because it was a sacrifice of jea- 
lousy. 

Offerings of fruits of the earth, of bread, 
of wine, oil, and salt, are the most an- 
cient of any that have come to our know- 
ledge. (Gen. iv. 3, 4.) Cain offered to the 
Lord fruits of the earth, the first fruits of 
his labour. Abel offered firstlings of his 
flocks, and of their fat The heathen re- 
ligions have nothing more ancient than 
these sorts of offerings made to their 
gods. They offered clean wheat, flour, and 
bread. 

OG, yy signifies a cake, bread baked in 
the ashes. Og, king of Bashan, was a 
giant, of the race of the Rephaim. We 
may judge of his stature by the length of 
his bed, which was long preserved in 
Rabbath, the capital of the Ammonites. 
(Deut. iii. 11.) It was nine cubits long, 
and four cubits broad ; that is, fifteen feet 
four inches long, and six feet ten inches 
broad. 

Moses says, (Numb. xxi. 33.) that after 
having conquered Sihon, king of the Amo- 
rites, he advanced toward the country of 
Bashan, in which reigned king Og, who 
marched against him to Edrei, with all his 
subjects ; Og was conquered, and slain, with 
his children and all his people. Og and 
Sihon were the only kings that withstood 
Moses. Their countries were given to the 
tribes of Gad, Reuben, and to the half tribe 
of Manasseh. 

OLIVES, the Mount of, is situated 
east of Jerusalem, and separated from the 
city by the brook Kidron, and by the val- 
ley of Jehoshaphat. On this mount So- 
lomon built temples to the gods of the 
Ammonites and Moabites, out of com- 
plaisance to his wives. (1 Kings xi. 7) 
Hence, the Mount of Olives is called the 
mountain of corruption. (2 Kings xxiii. 
13.) J.osephus says, that this mountain is 
livr stadia (or furlongs) from Jerusalem; 
>mctrical paces; a sabbath-day's 
journey, says St. Luke. (Acts i. 12.) The 
Mount of Olives has three summits, rang- 
ing from north to south : from the middle 
summit, our Saviour ascended into heaven ; 
on the south summit, Solomon built tem- 
ples to his idols; the north summit is dis- 

i.uit two furlongs from the middlemost. 
743 



This- is the highest, and is commonly called 
Galilee. 

In the time of king Uzziah, the Mount 
of Olives was so shattered by an earthquake, 
that half of the earth, on the western side, 
fell, and rolled four furlongs, or five hun- 
dred paces, towards the opposite moun- 
tain on the east ; so that the earth blocked 
up the highways, and covered the king's 
gardens. 

The Mount of Olives, says Dr. Wittman, 
is a very steep hill on the east of Jeru- 
salem ; the valley of Jehoshaphat lying be- 
tween the mount and the city. The small 
building, erected over the place of Ascen- 
sion, is contiguous to a Turkish mosque, 
and is in possession of the Turks, who show 
it for profit, and subject the Christians 
to an annual contribution for permission 
to officiate within it on Ascension - day. 
From the mosque we had a fine and com- 
manding view of Jerusalem, Mount Sion, 
and the Dead Sea. 

Mr. Maundrell tells us, that he and his 
company going out of Jerusalem, at St. 
Stephen's gate, and crossing the valley of 
Jehoshaphat, began immediately to as- 
cend the mountain ; that, being got above 
two-thirds of the way up, they came to cer- 
tain grottos, cut with intricate windings 
and caverns under ground, which were 
called the sepulchres of the prophets ; that 
a little higher up were twelve arched vaults 
under ground, standing side by side, and 
built in memory of the apostles, who are 
said to have compiled their creed in this 
place ; that sixty paces higher, they came 
to the place where Christ is said to have 
uttered his prophecy concerning the final 
destruction of Jerusalem ; and a little on 
the right hand, to another, where he is 
said to have dictated a second time the 
Lord's Prayer to his disciples ; that rather 
higher is the cave of a saint called Pelagia ; 
a little above that a pillar, denoting the 
place where an angel gave the blessed Vir- 
gin three days' warning of her death ; and 
at the top of all, the place of our blessed 
Lord's ascension. Wells's Geography of the 
Old and New Testament, vol. ii. p. 190 ; Sa- 
cred Geography. 

OM'RT, noy, a/i,3pi, signifies sheaf, or 
bundle of corn ; or, rebellion; or, bitter. Omri 
was general of the army of Elah, king of 
Israel. Being at the siege of Gibbethon, 
and hearing that his master Elah was assas- 
sinated by Zimri, who had usurped his king- 
dom, he raised the siege of Gibbethon, and, 
being elected king by his army, marched 
against Zimri, attacked him at Tirzah, and 
forced him to burn himself and all his 
family in the palace in which he had shut 
himself up. Zimri reigned only seven days, 
in the vear of the world 3075. v.1 Kings 
xvi. 9.) 

After the death v( Zimri. ball of Israel 
acknowledged Onni for king; the other 



ONA 



OPH 



half adhered to Tibni the son of Ginath. 
This division continued four years. When 
Tibni was dead, the people united again in 
ccknowledging Omri as king of all Israel, 
who reigned twelve years ; six years at 
Tirzah, and six at Samaria. 

Till that time Tirzah had been the chief 
residence of the kings of Israel. But 
when Omri purchased the hill of Shemer, 
(1 Kings xvi. 24.) about the year of the 
world 3080, for two talents of silver, (684/.) 
he there built a new city, which he called 
Samaria, from the name of the first pos- 
sessor Shemer, and in which he fixed his 
royal seat. From this time Samaria was 
the capital of the kingdom of the ten 
tribes. 

Omri did evil before the Lord, and his 
crimes exceeded those of his predeces- 
sors. He walked in all the ways of Jero- 
boam the son of Nebat. He died at Sa- 
maria in the year of the world 3086. His 
successor was Ahab. 

O'NAN, pix, avvav, signifies pain, 
strength, power, iniquity. Onan was son of 
Judah, and grandson of the patriarch Jacob. 
Judah having given a young woman named 
Tamar to his eldest son Er for a wife, Er 
died without children. Judah then caused 
his second son Onan to marry Tamar, that 
he might raise successors to his brother. 
But Onan seeing that the children begot- 
ten by him would be deemed to belong to 
his brother, withheld from Tamar the means 
of becoming a mother. This was so dis- 
pleasing to the Lord, that he caused him to 
die (Gen. xxxviii. 6, 7, &c.) ; probably by 
some extraordinary malady. 

ONES'IMUS, 'OvrjGifiog, signifies useful. 
Onesimus was a Phrygian by nation, a slave 
to Philemon, and a disciple of the apostle 
Paul. Onesimus, having run away from 
his master, and also, probably, having rob- 
bed him, (Philem. 18.) went to Rome while 
St. Paul was there in prison the first time. 
As Onesimus knew him by repute (his 
master Philemon being a Christian), he 
sought him out, acquainted him with what 
he had done, owned his flight, and did 
him all the service Philemon himself could 
have done, had he been at Rome. St. Paul 
brought him to a sense of the greatness of 
his crime, instructed him, converted him, 
baptized him, and sent him back to his 
master Philemon, with a letter inserted 
among St. Paul's Epistles, which is univer- 
sally acknowledged as canonical. 

This letter had all the success he could 
desire. Philemon not only received Onesi- 
mus as a faithful servant, but as a bro- 
ther and a friend ; and, after a little time, 
he sent him back to Rome to St. Paul, 
that he might continue his services to 
him in his prison. After this, Onesimus 
carried such epistles as the Apostle wrote 
at that time ; as that to the Colossians, 
A.D. 62. 
746 



ONESIPH'ORUS, 'Ovrjotyopog, signi- 
fies who brings profit. Onesiphorus, men- 
tioned honourably by St. Paul, (2 Tim. i. 
16.) came to Rome whilst Paul was in 
prison there for the faith, and at a time 
when almost every one had forsaken the 
Apostle. (2 Tim. i. 16, 17.) He arrived 
there from Asia, where he had already been 
very serviceable to the church. Having 
found St. Paul in bonds, after long seeking 
him, he often assisted him to the utmost of 
his power. For this reason the Apostle 
wishes all sort of benedictions on himself 
and his family. 

O'PHIR, 131N, signifies ashes. Ophir 
was the son of Joktan. Moses says, (Gen. 
x. 26—30.) that the dwelling of the sons 
of Joktan extended from Mesha to Sephar, 
a mountain of the East. Calmet thinks 
Mesha to be Mount Masius in Mesopo- 
tamia ; and Sephar the country of the Se- 
pharvaites, or Saspires, which divided 
Media from Colchis. The Scripture does 
not acquaint us who were the descendants of 
Ophir, nor what particular province was 
peopled by him between Mesha and Se- 
phar ; but it cannot be doubted that the 
country of Ophir, whatever country that 
was, was peopled by the posterity of Ophir, 
son of Joktan. 

Ophir, a country which is much cele- 
brated in Scripture, and about which critics 
have proposed a great number of conjec- 
tures. It is agreed, with great reason, that 
this country was peopled by Ophir, son of 
Joktan, just mentioned ; and Moses informs 
us that the thirteen sons of Joktan dwelt 
from Mesha to Sephar, a mountain of the 
east. (Gen. x. 30.) But as Mesha and 
Sephar are as much unknown as Ophir 
itself, we must take another method to dis- 
cover Ophir. All the passages have been 
examined which mention this country, 
(1 Kings xxii. 48. 2 Chron. xx. 36. 1 Kings 
ix. 28. ; x. 22.) ; and it has been observed, 
that the same ships that went to Tarshish, 
went also to Ophir; that these ships set 
out from Ezion-geber, a port of the Red 
Sea (1 Kings xxii. 48. ; ix. 28. ; x. 22.) ; 
that three years were required for Solo- 
mon's fleet to make the voyage of Ophir; 
that this fleet returned freighted with gold, 
peacocks, apes, spices, ivory, and ebony 
(1 Kings ix. 28. ; x. 21, 22. 2 Chron. viii. 
18. ; ix. 10, &c.) ; lastly, that the gold of 
Ophir was in the highest esteem, and 
that the country of Ophir more abounded 
with gold than any then known. By these 
tokens interpreters have undertaken to 
search for Ophir, but almost all have taken 
different ways. 

Josephus says that the country of Ophir 
is in the Indies, and is called the Gold 
Country. It is thought he means Cher- 
sonesus Aurea, known now by the name of 
Malacca, a peninsula opposite to Sumatra. 
Lucas Holstenius, after many inquiries, 



OPH 



ORA 



thinks we must fix on India in general, or 
the city of Supar, in the island of Celebes. 
Some place it in the kingdom of Malabar, 
or of Ceylon, or in the isle of Tapobrana, 
so famous among the ancients. Bochart 
has laboured to support this opinion. Eu- 
polemus has placed Ophir in the island 
Durphe, in the Red Sea. Maffeus believed 
it was Pegu ; and it is said that the Pe- 
guans pretend to be descended from those 
Jews, whom Solomon sent to work the 
mines of this country. Lepinus, who has 
composed a treatise concerning the country 
of Ophir, places it beyond the Ganges, at 
Malacca, Java, Sumatra, Siam, Bengal, 
Pegu, &c. Some have sought for Ophir in 
America, and have placed it in the island 
Hispaniola. Postel and some others have 
placed it in Peru, a country famous for its 
vast quantity of gold. Some have searched 
for it in Africa, on the eastern coast of 
Ethiopia. Some place it at Angola, on the 
western coast of Africa, some at Carthage, 
and others in Spain. 

Grotius guesses, that Solomon's fleet did 
not perhaps go to the Indies, but only to 
a port of Arabia, by Arrian called Aphar, 
by Pliny Saphar, by Ptolemy Sapphera, 
and by Stephanus Saphiniri. This city was 
situated on the coasts of Arabia that were 
washed by the ocean. That the Indians 
brought their merchandises thither, and 
that Solomon's navy went thither to bring 
them home. Huetius, in his Dissertation 
on the navigation of Solomon, says, the 
land of Ophir was on the eastern coast of 
Africa, which the Arabians call Zanguebar ; 
that the name Ophir was given more par- 
ticularly to the small country of Sofala, 
which is on the same coast; that Solomon's 
fleet went out of the Red Sea, and from 
the harbour of Ezion-geber, entered into 
the Mediterranean Sea by a canal of com- 
munication ; that it doubled the Cape of 
Guardafui, and coasted along Africa to So- 
fala ; that there was found in abundance 
whatever was brought to Solomon by this 
voyage. Mr. Bruce has endeavoured to 
support this opinion by a variety of very 
ingenious arguments ; especially the names 
of places on the coast, and the courses of 
the winds ; and it must be allowed that the 
opinion of Huetius seems to be the most 
probable. 

Calmet appears to be singular in his 
opinion on this subject. He places Ophir 
in some part of Armenia, not far from the 
sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. To 
obviate the objections that this country 
does not border on the sea, and is not 
sufficiently distant for a three years' voyage, 
he supposes that Solomon's fleet sailed 
on a trading voyage, and that in no one 
place it obtained all the commodities which 
it brought home : on the coast of Ethiopia 
it procured apes, ebony, and parrots ; in 
Arabia, ivory and spices; and at Ophir, 

747 



gold. Though this Ophir was not a mari- 
time country, yet he thinks that the gold it 
produced might be brought by land to some 
parts of the Tigris and Euphrates. 

Before the reign of David, the Hebrews 
did not apply themselves to trade by sea ; 
but after David had conquered Idumaea, 
and was become master of Elath, and of 
Ezion-geber, upon the Red Sea, he con- 
sidered the advantage their situation af- 
forded for trade on the ocean. Solomon's 
successors, the kings of Judah, who pos- 
sessed Idumaea, carried on this traffic ; they 
used the port of Ezion-geber down to the 
times of Jehoshaphat. 

ORACLE is by some taken for mercy- 
seat, or the cover of the ark of the cove- 
nant ; and by others it is taken for the 
sanctuary, or for the most holy place, in 
which the ark was deposited, and finally, 
it is taken for the oracles of false gods, the 
most famous of which in Palestine was that 
of Baalzebub. There were also teraphim, 
as that of Micah. (Judg. xvii. 1. 5.) 

Among the Jews are distinguished seve- 
ral sorts of oracles: 1. Oracles delivered 
viva voce; as when God spake to Moses 
face to face, and as one friend to another. 
(Numb. xii. 8.) 2. Prophetical dreams 
from God, as the dreams which God sent to 
Joseph, and which foretold his future great- 
ness. (Gen. xxxvii. 5,- 6.) 3. Visions ; as 
when a prophet in an ecstasy had super- 
natural revelations. (Gen. xv. 1. ; xliv. 25.) 
4. The oracle of Urim and Thummim, which 
accompanied the ephod, or the pectoral, 
worn by the high-priest (Numb. xii. 6. 
Joel ii. 28.) : this manner of inquiring 
of the Lord was often used, from Joshua's 
time to the erection of the temple at Jeru- 
salem. (1 Sam. xxiii. 9. ; xxx 7-) 5. After 
the building of the temple they generally 
consulted the prophets, who were frequent 
in the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 
After Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, 
who are the last of the prophets of whom 
any writings remain, the Jews pretend 
that God gave them what they call Bath- 
col, the daughter of the voice, which was 
a supernatural manifestation of the will 
of God, either by a strong inspiration, or 
internal voice, or by a sensible and ex- 
ternal voice, which was heard by a num- 
ber of persons sufficient to bear testimony 
of it. For example, such was the voice 
that was heard at the baptism of Jesus 
Christ, saying, This is my beloved Son, 
&c. 

In the early Christian church the gifts of 
prophecy and inspiration were very com- 
mon ; and since that time God has per- 
mitted the greater part of the heathen 
oracles to fall into contempt ami silenee. 
Much has been written on the subject o( 
oracles, and the learned have been divided 
on this matter. Some have aserihed to 
demons all the oracles of antiquity ; some, 



ORD 



ORD 



to the knavery of the priests ; others have 
pretended that there were several kinds of 
oracles ; some were illusions and tricks of 
the devil ; others, the effects of juggling and 
contrivance. 

ORDINATION, the act of conferring 
holy orders, or of initiating a person into 
the priesthood hy prayer and the imposition 
of hands. It is observable, that the twelve 
apostles, who, except Matthias, had received 
their commission from Christ himself, were 
at first the only preachers of the Gospel ; 
and that their preaching was for some short 
time confined to the city of Jerusalem. 
Their success in making converts caused the 
concerns of the church so to increase, that 
they found it necessary to take from the 
disciples seven persons, to whom they gave 
the name of deacons, (Acts vi. 1, &c.) and 
assigned certain specific duties ; and this 
was done by a regular choice, and subse- 
quent ordination from the apostles them- 
selves, by the imposition of hands. 

The Acts of the Apostles inform us, that 
Paul and Barnabas ordained elders in every 
church, (Acts xiv. 23.) which implies a re- 
gular and formal appointment ; and in the 
case of Timothy, before Paul took him to be 
his companion and assistant in propagating 
the Gospel, not only he himself, but the 
presbytery also, laid their hands upon him. 
(1 Tim. iv. 14.) When Christianity had 
made farther progress, different persons 
were appointed to preside over different 
churches, as Timothy over that at Ephesus, 
and Titus over those in Crete ; and St. Paul 
gives both Timothy and Titus particular di- 
rections concerning the ordination of Bishops 
and Elders within their respective jurisdic- 
tions. He commands Timothy to ' lay 
hands suddenly on no man' (1 Tim. v. 22.) ; 
that is, not to ordain any person till he was 
fully convinced of his fitness for the minis- 
terial office ; and he gives him this farther 
precept, which proves it was intended there 
should be a succession of ministers in the 
church ; ' The things which thou hast heard 
of me among many witnesses, the same com- 
mit thou to faithful men, who shall be able 
to teach others also.' (2 Tim. ii. 2.) And 
as authority and obedience must ever be re- 
ciprocal, we find the strictest injunctions in 
Scripture to Christians to obey their spiri- 
tual guides : ' Remember them which have 
the rule over you, who have spoken unto 
you the word of God : whose faith follow, 
considering the end of their conversation.' 
(Heb. xiii. 7-) ' Obey them that have the 
rule over you, and submit yourselves ; for 
they watch for your souls, as they that must 
give account.' (Heb. xiii. 17.) It is evi- 
dent that these passages relate to the 
ministers of religion, and not to civil magis- 
trates. 

It appears from the writings of the apos- 
tolical fathers, that in the days immediately 
after the apostles, there was an order of 
748 



clergy; and of its existence in following 
ages no doubt has ever been entertained ; 
it is fully proved, not only by Christian 
writers themselves, but by a variety of im- 
perial laws made at different periods con- 
cerning the clergy. Thus we trace a regular 
and continued establishment of persons to 
whom were committed the oracles of God, 
who were invested with authority to instruct 
the congregations entrusted to their care, to 
enforce obedience to their laws, and to 
maintain the unity of faith in the bond of 
peace : ' Hereupon we hold that God's 
clergy are a state, which hath been, and will 
be, as. long as there is a church upon earth, 
necessarily by the plain word of God him- 
self; a state whereunto the rest of God's 
people must be subject as touching things 
that appertain to their souls' health.' 

Such is'the corruption of human nature, 
that the experience of all ages teaches us, 
even without referring to the written word 
of God, that religion cannot subsist in the 
world without public rites, public worship, 
and public teaching ; nor can these offices 
be performed with any degree of propriety 
or effect, but by persons duly appointed and 
set apart for that purpose. ' If any man 
may assume authority to preach and perform 
holy functions, it is certain religion must 
fall into disorder, and under contempt. 
Hot-headed men, of warm fancies and volu- 
ble tongues, with very little knowledge and 
discretion, would be apt to thrust them- 
selves on to the teaching and governing 
others, if they themselves were under no 
government. This would soon make the 
public service of God to be loathed, and 
break and dissolve the whole body.' ' If 
ministers be self- ordained, modest merit 
will never be called forth; presumptuous 
vanity will be ever ready to obtrude itself; 
noisy ignorance will overpower diffident 
wisdom ; and what will hinder vicious men 
from rising into power, especially if any con- 
siderable emoluments are annexed to the 
ministry? Nay, what can hinder doctrines 
opposite to each other from being taught, to 
the utter extirpation of all religious princi- 
ple ? What can hinder different men from 
officiating in such different ways, as to pro- 
duce disturbance and confusion, and put to 
flight all religious affection ? And how can 
it be brought about, that certain appear- 
ances, modes of dress, and behaviour, shall 
be so associated with piety and virtue, as 
instantly to produce good feelings in the 
mind ? Besides, the learning requisite to 
make a man a good minister of religion re- 
quires that the ministry should be made a 
separate profession.' 

As the Scriptures do not prescribe any 
definite form of church government, so they 
contain no directions concerning the esta- 
blishment of a power by which ministers are 
to be admitted to their sacred office. The 
only persons, except the apostles, mentioned 



ORI 



ORI 



in the Acts or Epistles an invested with this 
power, are Timothy and Titus, both of whom 
received it from St. Paul, when they were 
placed hy him at the head of the churches 
of Ephesus and Crete. But though epis- 
copal ordination is not actually commanded 
in the New Testament, yet we know that it 
was invariably practised in every ancient 
church; and thence we infer, that it was 
originally instituted by the apostles them- 
selves. ' Our adversaries have been chal- 
lenged long since to produce an ordination 
during the first fifteen hundred years after 
Christ, which was performed by presbyters, 
and not generally looked upon as invalid ; 
whereas, on the other hand, they who have 
been ordained by mere presbyters, in the 
primitive times, have been stripped of their 
pretended orders, and with derision turned 
down to the laic form. A famous and known 
instance is Ischyras, who was deposed by 
the synod of Alexandria, because Colluthus, 
who ordained him, was supposed to be no 
more than a presbyter, though pretending 
to be a bishop. The council of Sardica, 
and the council of Seville in Spain, acted in 
like manner on the like occasions.' 

Though it is perfectly conformable to 
Scripture, and to the practice of the primi- 
tive church, that certain persons should be 
set apart for the public service of religion, 
that there should be different ranks of these 
persons, and that they should be regularly 
appointed by men who have public author- 
ity given them in the congregation for that 
purpose, yet there is no ground for consi- 
dering ordination as a sacrament. Neither 
Christ nor his apostles prescribed any par- 
ticular form of ordaining ministers, to be 
observed in succeeding ages ; but they left 
this, with other things of a similar nature, to 
be regulated by the church. Prayer, and 
imposition of hands, have been always used 
upon this occasion ; and therefore, as ordi- 
nation wants the essential properties of a 
sacrament, we esteem it only as a solemn 
mode of appointing ministers to their sacred 
office. The Papists use many ceremonies 
in the ordination of their ministers, which 
were unknown in the church for at least ten 
centuries, and during that period Orders 
were never mentioned by any ecclesiastical 
writer as a sacrament. Bishop Tomline's 
Eton, of Christian Theology, vol. ii. pp. 3G9 
370, &c. 398, &c 426, &c. 

ORIGENISTS, a denomination which 
appeared in the third century, who derived 
their opinions from the writings of Origen, 
a presbyter of Alexandria, and a man of 
great and uncommon abilities, who inter- 
preted the divine truths of religion accord- 
ing to the tenor of the Platonic philoso- 
phy. He alleged that the source of 
many evils lies in adhering to the literal 
and external part of Scripture ; and that 
the true meaning of the sacred writers was 
to be sought in a mysterious and hidden 
740 



sense, arising from the nature of things 
themselves. 

The principal tenets ascribed to Origen, 
together with a few of the reasons made use 
of in their defence, are comprehended in the 
following summary : — 

1. That there is a pre-existent state of 
human souls. For the nature of the soul is 
such as to make her capable of existing 
eternally, backward as well as forward ; be- 
cause her spiritual essence, as such, renders 
it impossible that she should, either througn 
age or violence, be dissolved : so that nothing 
is wanting to her existence but the good 
pleasure of him from whom all things pro- 
ceed. And if, according to the Platonic 
scheme, we assign the production of all 
things to the exuberant fulness of life in the 
Deity, which, through the blessed necessity 
of his communicative nature, empties itself 
into all possibilities of being, as into so 
many capable receptacles, we must suppose 
her existence in a sense necessary, and in a 
degree co- eternal with God. 

2. That souls were condemned to animate 
mortal bodies, in order to expiate faults 
they had committed in a pre-existent state: 
for we may be assured, from the infinite 
goodness of their Creator, that they were at 
first joined to the purest matter, and placed 
in those regions of the universe which were 
most suitable to the purity of essence they 
then possessed. That the souls of men are 
an order of essentially incorporate spirits, 
their deep immersion into terrestrial matter, 
the modification of all their operations by 
it, and the heavenly body promised in the 
Gospel, as the highest perfection of our re- 
newed nature, clearly evince. Therefore, if 
our souls existed before they appeared inha- 
bitants of the earth, they were placed in a 
purer element, and enjoyed far greater de- 
grees of happiness. And certainly he, 
whose overflowing goodness brought them 
into existence, would not deprive them of 
their felicity, till, by their mutability, they 
rendered themselves less pure in the whole 
extent of their powers, and became disposed 
for the susception of such a degree of cor- 
poreal life as was exactly answerable to 
their present disposition of spirit. Hence 
it was necessary that they should become 
terrestrial men. 

3. That the soul of Christ was united to 
the Word before the incarnation. For the 
Scriptures teach us that the soul of the 
Messiah was created before the beginning 
of the world. (Phil. ii. 0—7.) This text 
must be understood of Christ's human 
soul, because it is not usual to propose 
the Deity as an example of humility in 
Scripture. Though the humanity of Christ 
was so God-like, he emptied himself of this 
fulness of life and glory, to take upon him 
the form of a servant. It was this Mes- 
siah who conversed with the patriarchs, 
under a human form ; it was lie who ap- 



ORI 



OST 



peared to Moses upon the holy mount ; it 
was he who spake to the prophets under a 
visible appearance ; and it is he who will at 
last come in triumph upon the clouds, to 
restore the universe to its primitive splen- 
dour and felicity. 

4. That at the resurrection we shall be 
clothed with ethereal bodies. For the ele- 
ments of our terrestrial compositions are 
such as almost fatally entangle us in vice, 
passion, and misery. The purer the ve- 
hicle the soul is united with, the more per- 
fect is her life and operations. Besides, 
the Supreme Goodness who made all things, 
assures us he made all things best at first ; 
and, therefore, his recovery of us to our 
lost happiness, (which is the design of the 
Gospel,) must restore us to our better 
bodies and happier habitations, which is 
evident from 1 Cor. xv. 49. 2 Cor. v. 1. 
and other texts of Scripture. 

5. That, after long periods of time, the 
damned shall be released from their tor- 
ments, and restored to a new state of pro- 
bation. For the Deity has such reserves 
in his gracious providence, as will vindi- 
cate his sovereign goodness and wisdom 
from all disparagement. Expiatory pains 
are a part of his adorable plan; for this 
sharper kind of favour has a righteous 
place in such creatures as are by nature 
mutable. Though sin has extinguished, 
or silenced, the divine life, yet it has not 
destroyed the faculties of reason and un- 
derstanding, consideration and memory, 
which will serve the life that is most pow- 
erful. If, therefore, the vigorous attrac- 
tion of the sensual nature be abated by a 
ceaseless pain, these powers may resume 
the seeds of a better life and nature. As 
in the material system there is a gravita- 
tion of the less bodies towards the greater, 
there must of necessity be something 
analogous to this in the intellectual sys- 
tem : and since the spirits created by God 
are emanations and streams from his own 
abyss of being, and, as self-existent Power 
must needs subject all beings to itself, 
the Deity could not but impress upon 
their intimate natures and substances a 
central tendency towards himself, an es- 
sential principle of re-union to their great 
original. 

6. That the earth, after its conflagra- 
tion, shall become habitable again, and be 
the mansion of men and other animals, and 
that in eternal vicissitudes. For it is thus 
expressed in Isaiah : ' Behold, I make new 
heavens, and a new earth,' &c. ; and in 
Heb. i. 10—12. ' Thou, Lord, in the be- 
ginning hast laid the foundations of the 
earth; as a vesture shalt thou change 
them, and they shall be changed,' &c. 
Where there is only a change, the sub- 
stance is not destroyed, this change being 
only as that of a garment worn out and de- 
caying. The fashion of the world passes 

750 



away like a turning scene, to exhibit a 
fresh and new representation of things ; 
and, if only the present dress and appear- 
ance of things go off, the substance is sup- 
posed to remain entire. Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. i. p. 219—225; Adams's View of 
Religions, p. 245, &c. 

OSIANDRIANS, a denomination a- 
mong the Lutherans, which was founded 
in the year 1550, by Andrew Osiander, 
a celebrated German divine, whose doc- 
trine amounted to the following propo- 
sitions : — 

1. That Christ, considered in his human 
nature only, could not, by his obedience 
to the divine law, obtain justification and 
pardon for sinners ; neither can we be 
justified before God, by embracing and 
applying to ourselves, through faith, the 
righteousness and obedience of the man 
Christ. It is only through that eternal 
and essential righteousness which dwells 
in Christ, considered as God, and which 
resides in his divine nature, that is united 
to the human, that mankind can obtain 
complete justification. 

2. That man becomes a partaker of this 
divine righteousness by faith, since it is 
in consequence of this uniting principle 
that Christ dwells in the heart of man 
with his divine righteousness. Now, 
wherever this divine righteousness dwells, 
there God can behold no sin ; therefore, 
when it is present with Christ in the hearts 
of the regenerate, they are, on its account, 
considered by the Deity as righteous, al- 
though they be sinners. Moreover, this 
divine and justifying righteousness of 
Christ excites the faithful to the pursuit 
of holiness, and to the practice of virtue. 
Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. iv. p. 46. 

OSTRICH. This bird is described as 
the daughter of the ostrich, or the daugh- 
ter of the screamer. (Lev. xi. 16. Deut. 
xiv. 15. Isaiah xiii. 21. ; xxxiv. 13. ; xliii. 
20. Jerem. 1. 39. Micah i. 8.) In these 
and some other places, our translators have 
rendered the Hebrew by the word ' owl.' 
The owl, however, is not a desert bird, 
but rather resides in the neighbourhood 
of human labours, whether in the forest, 
or in rustic habitations. Besides, it is not 
the companion of serpents. But in these 
passages, the Hebrew word joneh is asso- 
ciated with deserts ; dry, extensive, thirsty 
deserts, and with serpents, which are their 
natural inhabitants. Our ignorance of the 
natural history of the countries where the 
ostrich inhabits, has undoubtedly perverted 
the import of the above passages; but if 
the reader peruse them again, and exchange 
the 'owl' for ostrich, he will immediately 
discover in them a vigour of description, 
and an imagery, much beyond what he for- 
merly perceived. 

The ostrich lays her eggs on the ground, 
covers them with sand, and the sun hatches 



OTH 



OTH 



them. It is probably on this account, that 
she is made the symbol of cruelty and for- 
getfulness. (Lament, iv. 3. Job xxxix. 13, 
14.) Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dic- 
tionary, No. cxlv. pp. 96, 97- 

OTH'NIEL, bmny, ToQovirjk, signifies 
the time, or the hour of God. Othniel was 
the son of Kenaz, of the tribe of Judah. 
(Josh. xv. 17.) The Scripture says, that 
Othniel was brother to Caleb. (Judg. i. 13.) 
Hence arise some difficulties. 1. If Caleb 
and Othniel had been brothers, Othniel 
could not have married his niece Achsah, 
the daughter of Caleb. 2. The Scripture 
never assigns to Caleb and Othniel the 
same father : it always names Kenaz as 
father of Othniel, and Jephunneh, as 
father of Caleb. 3. Caleb must be much 
older than Othniel, since he gave Othniel 
his daughter Achsah in marriage. Thus 
it seems much better to suppose Kenaz 
and Jephunneh to be brothers, and that 
Othniel and Caleb were cousins-german, 
and in this sense, brothers, according to 
the language of Scripture. Achsah being 
therefore only second cousin in respect 
of Othniel, he might marry her without 
offending the law. Some, however, think 
that Othniel was nephew to Caleb. 

Caleb having received his portion in 
the mountains of Judah, in the midst of 
a country possessed by giants, of the race 
of Anak, having taken the city of Hebron, 
he advances towards Debir, otherwise called 
Kirjath-sepher, and declares, ' I will give 
my daughter Achsah in marriage to him 



that shall take Kirjath-sepher.' Othniel 
took it, and had Achsah to wife. But 
at the time that the bride was bringing 
home to her husband, with the usual so- 
lemnity, Othniel moved his wife Achsah to 
ask of her father Caleb a field of springs, 
that was near and above another dry 
field that Caleb had given him. By the 
Hebrew text, it should seem that it was 
Achsah who desired Othniel to ask this 
of Caleb. 

After the death of Joshua, the Israelites 
not exterminating the Canaanites from the 
land, and not having continued in their 
fidelity to the Lord, he delivered them over 
to Chushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopo- 
tamia, to whom they continued in subjec- 
tion eight years. (Judg. iii. 4, 5, 6, 7. 9, 
&c.) Then they cried to the Lord, who 
raised them up for a deliverer Othniel, 
the son of Kenaz, who was filled with the 
spirit of the Lord, and judged Israel ; and 
the country had rest for forty years. That 
is to say, it was in peace the fortieth year 
after the peace that Joshua had procured 
for it, in the year of the world 2567, ten 
years before his death. The year of Oth- 
niel's death is unknown. ' The spirit of 
the Lord,' by which Othniel was said to 
be inspired, denotes in this and most parts 
of the Old Testament the spirit of forti- 
tude, or extraordinary courage, as opposed 
to ' the spirit of fear,' or faintness of heart. 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book i. p. 302. 



P. 



PAC 



PAC 



PACIFIC DISPOSITION. Peace, in 
the evangelical sense of the word, sup- 
poses the spirit of Peace, or a kind leaning 
of the affections towards those with whom 
we have any intercourse. If we wish to 
live in peace with our fellow-creatures, we 
must follow those things that make for 
peace. We must punctually observe our 
promises, faithfully adhere to our engage- 
ments, and discharge all those duties which 
are necessary in the intercourse of society. 
We must abstain from all malicious whis- 
pers, ill-natured tales, and slanderous as- 
persions. If we could trace the most 
inveterate feuds, and the most virulent 
animosities, to their source, we should 
find that they had their origin in some 
scornful look, some contemptuous gesture, 
some supercilious expression, or some 
751 



trivial neglect. Hence we may learn, that 
even the common forms of civility, which 
some think useless and insipid, from their 
frequent recurrence, are yet, if estimated 
by their effect in the sensations of men, 
and by the degree in which they promote 
a benign and pacific disposition in so- 
ciety, matters of no inconsiderable moment. 
Bvea the outward formalities and cere- 
monials of politeness, which, abstractedly 
considered, may be thought vain and use- 
less show, will be held in greater estimation 
by those who view them in their tendency 
to promote the progress of civilization, 
and to harmonize the different orders o\' 
society. Whatever makes for peaee. bow- 
ever insignificant it may seem in the great 
scale of moral consideration, is one of the 
constituents of righteousness ; nor is the 



PAC 



PAG 



will of God ever more flagrantly opposed, 
than when we violate the sovereign law of 
loving one another. 

If we wish to preserve peace with our 
fellow-creatures, it is necessary that we 
should not only be wary not to give offence, 
but should not be quick in resenting the 
real or imaginary affronts which we may 
receive. In the daily intercourse of so- 
ciety, we must expect to meet with many 
little slights, insults, and neglects, some of 
which perhaps proceed from inadvertence, 
and others from intention, some of which 
are the effusions of* ill-humour, others the 
effect of indifference rather than malevo- 
lence. But whether they originate in 
chance or in design, it will in a great ma- 
jority of instances be found more condu- 
cive to our happiness, and always to the 
peace of our lives, and tranquillity of our 
hearts, to pass them over with a magnani- 
mous forbearance, rather than to resent 
them with furious impatience. 

A peaceable disposition supposes a de- 
sire not only to be at peace with others, but 
to have others at peace among themselves. 
Thus it implies an habitual inclination and 
willingness to compose differences, to allay 
heats, to still the suspicions, mitigate the jea- 
lousies, and calm the animosities of man- 
kind. Such is the frame of heart, on which 
that important blessing is pronounced, 
' Blessed are the peace-makers, for they 
shall be called the children of God' (Matt. 
v. 9.) ; or persons truly religious, lovers of 
God, and the children of his favour. Many 
are the blessings of this amiable disposition, 
not only future, but present ; not only in 
Heaven, but on earth. The beginning of 
strife is like the letting out of waters. It 
is, therefore, in most cases, not more the 
dictate of benevolence than of prudence, to 
endeavour to terminate dissensions in their 
origin ; and, where disputes have begun, 
to lose no opportunity of promoting the 
most speedy reconciliation. To take away 
as far as possible all occasion of strife, to 
prevent the breach of love in families, and 
of amity among neighbours, to compose dif- 
ferences before they inflame into rancour, 
and to heal the wounds of passion before 
they gangrene, is a truly godlike work, 
in which we shall find unspeakable satis- 
faction. The sensation of peace, the con- 
sciousness of not feeling in our own hearts 
one vibration of ill-will to others, is a source 
of pure and exquisite delight ; and to a 
benevolent mind, the aspect of peace abroad 
is almost as pleasurable as the fruition of it 
at home. How delightful is it, says the 
Psalmist, to see brethren dwell together 
in unity ! What joy does it occasion to see 
love and harmony around us, to behold the 
smiles of reciprocal affection and com- 
placency in every countenance ! It is a 
spectacle similar to that in which we shall 
participate in the courts of Heaven, and in 
752 



the company of the blessed ! How superior 
is such a disposition to that malevolent, fac- 
tious, intriguing spirit, which cools friend- 
ships and prolongs enmities, which foments 
quarrels, excites suspicions, increases heats, 
inflames resentments, which fills the human 
breast with fury and indignation, and makes 
the intercourse of men like that of fiends 
and accursed spirits, in whom there it> 
no feeling of charity, and no love of 
peace ! 

We naturally desire the good opinion of 
others ; we feel a joy which it is difficult 
to suppress in the possession of their love, 
their respect, their confidence. Their 
approbation tends powerfully to make us 
self-approved ; their estimation causes us 
to rise in our self-esteem. The ill opinion, 
the contempt, the distrust of others, we 
consider as an injury, and one too, which, 
if it do not inflame revenge, always ex- 
cites sensible concern. This considera- 
tion may well teach us not lightly or has- 
tily to speak ill, nor to judge ill, of others; 
and to be ever willing, as far as we have 
opportunity, to do good unto all men, 
without any narrow limitations or excep- 
tions. This is to walk in the way which 
leads to peace, and which never terminates 
in strife. 

A malevolent and contentious disposi- 
tion, the opposite of that meek and quiet 
spirit, which is so precious in the sight of 
Heaven, is an enemy to the performance 
of all our religious exercises, and more 
especially our devout commerce with our 
Maker. It not only makes our hearts too 
gross, but too bitter, for a work which re- 
quires so much purity of thought and tender- 
ness of affection. All anger and malevo- 
lence prevent the true devotional spirit 
from kindling in our breasts. The devo- 
tional flame derives its lustre and its strength 
from the sensations of charity within us. 
God requires us to address him with a 
forgiving disposition ; the spirit of peace, 
of meekness, of humility, must have its 
abode in our hearts, or he has no pleasure 
in our adoration. We cannot be at peace 
with God, while we are at variance with 
each other. If we go into the sanctuary, 
or fall down on our knees before his throne, 
with any secret rancour in our hearts, 
any thirst of revenge, any desire to inflict 
pain on one sentient being, we only insult 
his omniscience, and become amenable to 
punishment. Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol. ii. pp. 214. 215. 217, 218, &c. 

PAGANISM. During the Jewish eco- 
nomy, and for the first three centuries 
after Christ, such ancient nations as were 
' aliens from the commonwealth of Israel, 
and strangers from the covenants of pro- 
mise,' were styled Gentiles or Heathens ; 
the former word derived from the Latin 
gentes, and the latter from the Greek "E6vr/, 
respectively signifying nations : but ever 



PAG 



PAG 



since the conversion of Constantine, those 
of the Roman empire who opposed the 
religion of Christ, and all idolaters to the 
present day, have been more generally dis- 
tinguished by the name of Pagans ; or, ac- 
cording to others, since the reign of Theo- 
dosius the Younger, when the appellation 
of Pagans was given to the inhabitants of 
the country towns of Italy, — ' Pagorum in- 
cola Pagani,' who retained their ancient 
religion. As the Greeks and Romans looked 
upon all nations except their own as bar- 
barians, so the Jews called all who were 
not of their own nation Heathens or Gen- 
tiles ; and from the giving of the law, 
till the propagation of the Gospel, the 
Jews and Gentiles divided the world be- 
tween them. 

The ancient Pagan religions of Europe 
have been distributed into five classes : 

1. The Polytheism of Greece and Rome ; 

2. The Druidical religions of the Celtic 
nations ; 3. The Polytheism of the Teutonic 
and Gothic nations ; 4. The Paganism of 
the Sclavonian nations ; 5. The low, wretched 
superstitions of the more northern savages, 
the Laplanders, Finns, Greenlanders, &c. 
The first inhabitants of Gaul and Britain, 
being of Celtic race, followed the Druidical 
superstitions ; whilst the ancient Germans, 
Scandinavians, &c. being of Gothic race, 
professed that system of Polytheism, after- 
wards delivered in the Edda, which con- 
tains an authentic epitome of Runic 
mythology, and is a valuable relic of north- 
ern genius, and at the same time one of 
the most portentous monuments of ancient 
superstition. 

1 The Pagan religion,' says Dr. Win- 
der, ' degenerated into greater absurdity 
the further it proceeded ; and it prevailed 
in all its height of absurdity, when the 
Pagan nations were polished to the height. 
Though they set out with the talents of 
reason, and had solid foundations of infor- 
mation to build upon, it in fact proved 
that, with all their strengthened faculties, 
and growing powers of reason, the edifice 
of religion rose in the most absurd defor- 
mities and disproportions, and gradually 
went on in the most irrational, dispropor- 
tioned, incongruous systems, of which the 
most easy dictates of reason would have 
demonstrated the absurdity. They were 
contrary to all just calculations in moral 
mathematics.' 

Greece was partly peopled from Egypt ; 
and the Egyptian colonies brought over 
with them, and introduced into Europe, 
the gross and childish superstitions of the 
country whence they came. Hence from 
the fountain we may form some judgment 
of the stream. The port Ilesiod. who 
flourished about JM4 years before Christ, 
was the first that reduced the Grecian 
idolatry to any appearance of a system ; 
and it would appear that the deities 
753 



amounted, even in his time, to no fewer 
than 30,000 ! Among these he includes 
heaven, earth, ocean, morning, day, night, 
rivers, winds, love, desire, gracefulness, 
&c. &c. in one rank or other, as deities ; 
but most of them are deified men, to whom 
was assigned a local jurisdiction. 

The Roman deities may be distributed 
into three distinct classes. The first in- 
cludes the ancient Celtic or Sabine gods, 
namely Vesta, Janus, &c. 2. The Grecian 
gods, introduced by Tarquin the First. 
3. The Roman state deified the virtues and 
passions of the human mind ; and these 
imaginary deities were adapted to impress 
the people with veneration for their reli- 
gion and government. The Celtic, Greek, 
and Tuscan superstitions, thus combined in 
one establishment, the Roman religion 
made a progress in error and authority, 
commensurate with the growth and gran- 
deur of the republic. It served as a state 
engine, and was well adapted to the genius 
of the Romans, actuating a superstitious 
people to second the ambition of their rulers. 
It was not only protected, but also, in many 
instances, administered by the civil magis- 
trate : it grew with the growth of the re- 
public, and seemed to promise itself a 
duration equal to that of the imperial and 
' eternal city.' 

The dreadful and sanguinary sacrifices, 
of which the Peruvians and Mexicans were 
enormously guilty at the time their country 
was brought under the subjection of the 
Spaniards, form a striking and gloomy 
similitude to the bloody sacrifices of the old 
Scythians, Indians, and Druids, and indeed 
of the ancient heathen world in general ; 
for this horrible practice of human sacrifices 
prevailed throughout every region of it, to 
a degree which is almost incredible, and 
still prevails in many savage countries, on 
which the light of Christianity has not yet 
beamed. We have incontestable proofs of 
its having subsisted among the Egyptians, 
the Syrians, the Persians, the Phoenicians, 
the ancient Hindoos, and all the various 
nations of the East. It was one of the cry- 
ing sins of the Canaanites, — one of the 
causes of their extermination by the hands 
of the Israelites ; who likewise, notwith- 
standing the many peremptory and tremen- 
dous prohibitions of their law, suffered. 
themselves sometimes to be drawn into this 
prevailing and detestable crime, and offered 
up their sons and their daughters unto de- 
vils. The Thraeians, the Cauls, and the 
Germans, were strongly addicted to it j nor 
were the Greeks and Komans untainted with 

it. Nay, no climate, no government, no 
state of civilization, no mode of Pagan su- 
perstition, was tree from it : — even this 
island, where benevolence and humanity 
have now (thanks to the Gospel!) fixed their 
seat; this island was, at one time, (under 
the gloomy an 1 ferocious despotism oi' the 
3C 



PAG 



PAG 



Druids) polluted with the religious murder 
of its wretched inhabitants. The history of 
Paganism is little else than a confirmation 
of the truth of the Fall, or a history of hu- 
man depravity : and what a picture does 
this present to us of human nature unsub- 
dued by Divine grace, and of human rea- 
son unassisted by revelation ! What a deep 
and grateful sense ought it to impress on 
our minds of the infinite obligations which 
we owe to God, for the unspeakable gift of 
the Gospel ! For wherever its Divine light 
has broke forth, this tremendous demon of 
superstition has disappeared; in the Christ- 
ian world human sacrifices are unknown, 
and ' the land is no longer defiled with 
blood.' 

Some of the most remarkable events in 
the history of Paganism are, its rise and 
first appearance in Chaldaea soon after the 
flood ; its establishment in Egypt long be- 
fore the time of Moses; its introduction 
into, and flourishing state in, Greece before 
the era of the war of Troy ; its establish- 
ment in Rome under Romulus, Numa, 
Tar qui n, &c. ; its revival and restoration in 
Italy, by Augustus ; in Greece, by Hadrian; 
its decline, and especially the silence of its 
oracles, soon after the coming of our Sa- 
viour ; the conversion of the emperor Con- 
stantine from Paganism to Christianity, 
about A.D. 320 ; Julian's ineffectual at- 
tempt to restore it ; and its extinction in 
the Christian world, that is, of the Roman 
and Greek idolatry, after a faint resistance, 
about the middle of the sixth century, under 
Theodosius the Great. From the destruc- 
tion of the temple of Jerusalem, heathenism 
was the only established religion in the 
world for nearly 300 years. In later times 
we may remark its decline in America and 
the West Indies, ever since the first settle- 
ment of Europeans there, and especially 
during the first century after the discovery 
of the new world ; together with the efforts 
that have been made of late, to diminish its 
influence, by the various missions that have 
been established in almost all parts of the 
known world, where Paganism still pre- 
vails. 

The wisest and best of the heathens, and, 
according to some, the ancient Pagans in 
general, owned but one supreme God, though 
they had many inferior and subordinate 
ones, as intercessors and mediators. The 
first idolaters, after the knowledge of the 
true God was obscured in their minds, 
looked on the heavenly bodies, and other 
creatures of God, perhaps merely as proper 
emblems of the Deity, and therefore gave 
them the Divine title and attributes by way 
of honour, and to be a perpetual memorial 
of the great and true Benefactor ; but such 
was the reverence which they paid to these, 
that, in process of time, they forgat the hand 
by which these things were framed and pre- 
served, and looked upon the immediate 
754 



means and support of life, as the primary 
efficient cause, to the exclusion of the real 
Creator. It is highly probable that, at first, 
they supposed the creatures which they held 
sacred, to be emblems or representations of 
certain qualities in God, or means of con- 
veying them, as the sun, the light, the ox, 
&c. of benefits, the serpent of vengeance ; and 
that they meant only, through these, to ho- 
nour and worship the Creator. It cannot, 
however, be doubted, that, afterwards, their 
worship terminated in the idol before them. 
Thus was the only true God abridged of the 
honour due to him, and him only, and at 
last banished from the hearts of most of his 
reasonable creatures. 

Pagans of all ages and nations have been 
unanimous in entertaining some notions, 
however imperfect and confused, of the ex- 
istence of the soul after death. With re- 
gard to the ancient heathens, we have the 
testimony of Cicero himself, that there was 
an universal agreement of all people upon 
the earth, in this great point ; and he makes 
this common consent one of his chief proofs 
of the immortality of the soul. From that 
time to the present, amidst all the disco- 
veries that have been made, in every part 
of the globe, there has never yet, I believe, 
been found one single nation, however sa- 
vage or barbarous, that has not had some 
apprehensions, or suspicions, of another 
state of being after this. Yet, if we exa- 
mine the notions, both of the ancient hea- 
thens, and of our modern Pagans, concern- 
ing the length of the soul's duration after 
death, and the nature of a future retribution, 
we shall find so great obscurity, uncertainty, 
and confusion, with such a strange mixture 
of the most absurd and fabulous ideas, that 
we need not be surprised at their producing 
little or no effects upon their hearts and 
lives. 

Though some of the ancient heathen phi- 
losophers believed the existence of the soul 
after death, yet they denied that it would 
exist for ever. Others admitted its eternity, 
but did not allow that it passed into a state 
of rewards and punishments ; and they sup- 
posed that it would be resolved into the 
universal spirit from which it was originally 
detached. Even of those who acknowledged 
a future retribution, many asserted, that the 
punishments only are eternal, and the re- 
wards of a temporary nature. They gene- 
rally placed a future state on a wrong foun- 
dation, as on the pre-existence of the soul, 
&c. ; many of them also believed in its 
transmigration, a doctrine intimately con- 
nected with the former. Though they might 
believe in a future state, yet they could not 
properly be said to hope for it, since hades 
is represented by Homer, and even by Plato, 
as a dismal and gloomy abode ! Justly, 
therefore, does St. Paul give it as the cha- 
racter of the heathens in general, that 
they were ' without hope.' ' Look,' says 



PAG 



PAG 



Bishop Porteus, ' into the writings of the 
ancient philosophers, respecting a future 
retribution, and (with few, if any, excep- 
tions) you see nothing but embarrassment, 
confusion, inconsistence, and contradiction. 
In one page, you will find them expatiating, 
with apparent satisfaction, on the arguments 
then commonly produced for the immor- 
tality of the soul, and a state of recompense 
hereafter ; answering the several objections 
to them with great acuteness ; illustrating 
them with wonderful ingenuity and art ; 
adorning them with all the charms of their 
eloquence ; declaring their entire assent to 
them ; and protesting, that nothing should 
ever wrest from them this delightful per- 
suasion, the very joy and comfort of their 
souls. In another page, the scene is totally 
changed : they unsay almost every thing 
they had said before. They doubt, they 
fluctuate, they despond, they disbelieve. 
They laugh at the popular notions of future 
punishments and rewards ; but they substi- 
tute nothing more rational or satisfactory in 
their room. Nay, what is still more extra- 
ordinary, although they all acknowledged, 
that the belief of a future life, and a future 
recompense, was an universal principle of 
nature, — that it was what all mankind, with 
one voice, concurred and agreed in, — yet, 
notwithstanding this, many of them seem 
even to have taken pains to stifle this voice 
of nature within them ; and considered it as 
a victory of the greatest importance to sub- 
due and extinguish those notices of a future 
judgment, which, in despite of themselves, 
they found springing up within their own 
breasts.' 

' From a survey of the devotions of the 
Gentiles, it will appeal-,' says Dr. Jortin, 
1 that, some instances excepted, there was 
nothing spiritual in their prayers, no thanks- 
giving, no request for Divine assistance in 
the performance of their duty, no pious sor- 
row and acknowledgment of their offences.' 
After the propagation of Christianity, we 
indeed find forms of adoration in some Pa- 
gan writers, that are more rational and spi- 
ritual than the old prayers and hymns of 
their ancestors ; but it is generally sup- 
posed that these improvements arose from 
the Gospel. They seem to have known 
nothing of that sublime and evangelical 
doctrine, the love of God. 'We never hear 
them urging the love of God,' says Bishop 
Porteus, ' as a necessary part of human 
duty, or as a proper ground of moral 
obligation. Tbeir religion, being merelv 
ceremonial and political, never pretended 
to roach the heart, or to inspire it with any 
sincerity or warmth of affection towards the 
Deity. Indeed, how was it possible to have 
any love for such gods as they worshipped ! 
for gods debased with every" human weak- 
ness, ami polluted with every human vice? 
It was enough, surely, to make the people 
u-orship such a crew. To have insisted on 
755 



their loving them too, would have exceeded 
all bounds of modesty and common sense.' 
Dr. White observes, that ' their oracles, 
their auguries, and their sacrifices, their 
public spectacles, and splendid games, yea, 
the whole apparatus of Pagan superstition, 
were the engines of political tyranny, and 
of popular delusion, and barred all access to 
the entrance of truth, freedom, purity, and 
simplicity.' It was not the office of the 
priests to teach men virtue ; they were em- 
ployed in instructing men what gods they 
were to worship, what sacrifices they were 
to offer to their several deities, and in di- 
recting them in what manner they were to 
observe the appointed rites. 

What thanks are due to God for our 
deliverance from that gross idolatry, which 
we have now been considering, and which 
once prevailed among all nations except 
the Jews ! For this deliverance we are 
not indebted to reason, but to revelation. 
Though it be no difficult matter to prove 
that there is only one God that ought to be 
worshipped, yet to demonstrate a truth al- 
ready known, is a much easier task than to 
discover one buried under the rubbish of 
prejudice and superstition. Even the wisest 
and greatest men in the heathen world were 
polytheists, and adored, with the vulgar, the 
gods of their country, whatever idea some 
of them might have had of the Divine unity. 
Nor has this fundamental doctrine of reli- 
gion — the unity of God, been publicly pro- 
fessed by any people, who had not previ- 
ously been enlightened by revelation. The 
Mahometans learned it from our Scriptures ; 
and notwithstanding the ignorant declama- 
tions of infidels concerning the powers of 
reason, and the discoveries which may be 
made by its assistance, experience will jus- 
tify us in affirming, that, without the Gospel 
of Christ, we should have been at this day 
as gross idolaters as were our forefathers, 
the original inhabitants of Britain. Were 
Christianity banished from the earth, as 
some men earnestly wish it to be, the ab- 
surd and barbarous systems of Paganism 
would be restored ; or some modifications 
of folly and absurdity, not less extravagant 
and ridiculous, would be substituted in their 
room. Thus, no sooner had the French 
nation renounced, in their madness, the 
Christian religion, than they began to re- 
vive the antiquated rites of Greece and 
Rome, and publicly adored a prostitute, 
Under the title of the Goddess of Reason ! 

It* then it be the Gospel which has turned 
us from these vanities to 'serve the living 
('od,' as most certainly it is, what gratitude 
is due to II im for this his unspeakable gift ! 
And being thereby delivered from the wor- 
ship of idols, or the powers o( darkness, ami 
translated into the kingdom ol' his Son. how 
much is it our duty to walk as children of 
the light and of the day ! As we profess to 
be the servants of the living God, let us 
3c2 



PAL 



PAP 



remember, that it is a willing and cheerful 
service, as well as a pure and spiritual wor- 
ship, which he requires. He is not to be 
treated like the idols of the Gentiles, to 
whom their votaries presented the empty 
homage of mere ceremonies and oblations. 
Then only do we worship and serve him in 
a manner worthy of his character and attri- 
butes, when we present to him the offering 
of our hearts and affections ; when we love 
him above all things, especially for his ' in- 
estimable love in the redemption of the 
world, by our Lord Jesus Christ, for the 
means of grace and for the hope of glory ;' 
when we confide in his power and promises 
— commit ourselves to the direction of his 
wisdom and providence, — submit to his 
authority, and regulate our thoughts, and 
words, and actions, by his Divine laws. In 
a word, then only do ' we walk worthy of 
the vocation wherewith we are called,' so as 
to worship and serve him acceptably, when 
we offer up prayers expressive of holy de- 
sires, and praises from a grateful heart; 
when we live as becometh the disciples and 
servants of Christ ; and, while we strive to 
serve him in the Gospel of his Son, we have 
confidence towards him, only through the 
great Mediator and Intercessor, the High- 
Priest of our profession. ' For though there 
be that are called gods, whether in heaven 
or in earth (as there be gods many, and 
lords many) to us there is but one God, the 
Father, of whom are all things, and we in 
him ; and one Lord Jesus Christ, by whom 
are all things, and we by him.' (1 Cor. viii. 
5, 6.) See Idolatry. Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. i. pp. 89 — 157. 

PAL'ESTINE, rwbs, d\\6<pv\oi, signi- 
fies which is covered, watered; otherwise, 
to bring or cause ruin ; otherwise, from the 
Sanscrit, shepherd. Palestine, taken in a 
limited sense, stands for the country of the 
Philistines, including that part of the Land 
of Promise which extended along the Medi- 
terranean Sea, from Gaza south to Lydda 
north. In a more general sense, it signifies 
the whole country of Canaan, the whole Land 
of Promise, as well beyond, as on this side 
Jordan. 

The following is Volney's description of 
the present state of this country : — ' Pales- 
tine, in its present state, comprehends the 
whole country included between the Medi- 
terranean to the west, the chain of moun- 
tains to the east, and two lines, one drawn 
to the south, by Kan Younes, and the other 
to the north, between Kaisaria and the ri- 
vulet of Yafa. This whole tract is almost 
entirely a level plain, without either river 
or rivulet in summer, but watered by seve- 
ral torrents in winter. Notwithstanding 
this dryness, the soil is good, and may even 
be termed fertile, for when the winter rains 
do not fail, every thing springs up in abund- 
ance ; and the earth, which is black and fat, 
retains moisture sufficient for the growth 
756 



of grain and vegetables during the summer. 
More dourra, sesamum, water-melons, and 
beans, are sown here than in any other part 
of the country. They also raise cotton, 
barley, and wheat ; but though the latter be 
most esteemed, it is less cultivated, for fear 
of too much inviting the avarice of the 
Turkish governors, and the rapacity of the 
Arabs. This country is, indeed, more fre- 
quently plundered than any other in Syria ; 
for being very proper for cavalry, and ad- 
jacent to the desert, it lies open to the Arabs, 
who are far from satisfied with the moun- 
tains : they have long disputed it with every 
power established in it, and have succeeded 
so far as to obtain the concession of certain 
places, on paying a tribute, from whence 
they infest the roads, so as to render it un- 
safe to travel from Gaza to Acre.' See Ca- 
naan. Sacred Geography. 

PALM-TREE. This tree was very 
common in Palestine. It is a very tall, 
upright, rising, tree, whose leaves are at 
its head, and whose fruit (the dates of the 
shops) hang in clusters from its top. There 
are several kinds ; some rise so high as 
sixty, eighty, or, says Denon, even 100 feet. 
The palm, says Plutarch, is a tree which 
loves water; and Pliny says, it loves to 
drink throughout the whole year. Ecclesi- 
asticus also says, (xxiv. 14.) 'I was ex- 
alted as a palm-tree in Engaddi;' which was 
a very watery spot, and, therefore, fit for 
gardens, &c. 

This tree, of that kind which bears dates, 
is general in the East, though rare in Eu- 
rope. The leaves which crown the top of 
it are brought over as lining to boxes of 
fruit, &c. to our grocers. Scripture Illus- 
trated, Expos. Index, pp. 42. 163. 

PAMPHYL'IA, TlafKpvkia, signifies 
wholly beloved, or lovely. Pamphylia is a 
province of Asia, having Cilicia east, Lycia 
and part of Asia Minor west, Galatia and 
Cappadocia north, and the Mediterranean 
Sea, in these parts, called the Sea of Pam- 
phylia, south. Part of Mount Taurus 
was included in this province. Paul and 
Barnabas preached at Perga in Pamphy- 
lia. (Acts xiii. 13. ; xiv. 24.) Sacred Geo- 
graphy r 

PAPER, papyrus, is a kind of reed which 
grows in the Nile. The Egyptians applied 
it to several uses, as to make baskets, shoes, 
clothes, little boats to swim on the Nile, and 
paper to write on. The following is said 
to be the manner of making the paper used 
for writing on by the ancients : the trunk 
of this plant is composed of several coat- 
ings, lying one on the other, which are 
taken off with a needle : they are afterwards 
spread on a table, so much of which is mois- 
tened, as is equal to the size that it is in- 
tended the leaves of the papyrus shall be. 
This first bed of leaves is covered with a 
layer of fine paste, or with the muddy water 
of the Nile warmed : then a second bed of 



PAP 



PAR 



paper leaves is laid upon this paste, and the 
whole is left to dry in the sun. Such was 
the Egyptian papyrus, whence our paper 
takes its name, though its composition be 
so very different from it. Varro observes, 
and Pliny from him, that the use of the 
papyrus for writing on was discovered in 
Egypt, at the time of Alexander's building 
Alexandria. 

PATHOS, HatpoQ, signifies which boils, 
or is very hot. Paphos was a faaious city in 
the isle of Cyprus, where St. Paul converted 
the proconsul Sergius Paulus, and struck 
with blindness a Jewish sorcerer, called 
Bar-jesus, who would have hindered his 
conversion. Paphos was at the western 
extremity of the island. (Acts xiii. 6.) It 
is now called Baffo. Here the goddess Venus 
was worshipped ; and maidens before their 
marriage gave to her temple gifts procured 
by prostitution. This place was very sub- 
ject to earthquakes, and the old city is now 
in ruins, which mark its site. Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

PARABLE. The parabolical, enigma- 
tical, figurative, and sententious way of 
speaking, was the language of the eastern 
sages and learned men ; and nothing was 
more insupportable than to hear a fool utter 
parables ; ' The legs of the lame are not 
equal ; so is a parable in the mouth of fools.' 
(Frov. xxvi. 7-) 

The prophets use parables, the more 
strongly to impress prince and people with 
their threatenings or promises. Nathan 
reproves David under a parable of a rich 
man who had taken away and killed the 
lamb of a poor man. (2 Sam. xii. 2, 3. &c.) 
The woman of Tekoah, who was hired by 
Joab to reconcile the mind of David to 
Absalom, proposed to him the parable of 
her two sons that fought together, and one 
having killed the other, they were going to 
put the murderer to death, and so to de- 
prive her of both her sons. (2 Sam. xiv. 
2, 3, &c.) Jotham, son of Gideon, proposed 
to the Shechemites the parable of the bram- 
ble of Libanus, whom the trees chose for 
their king. (Judg. ix. 7, 8, &c.) The pro- 
phets often reprove the infidelity of Jerusa- 
lem under the parable of an adulterous 
wife, &c. &c. 

Our Saviour in the Gospel seldom speaks 
to the people but in parables ; thereby ve- 
rifying the prophecy of Isaiah, (vi. 9.) that 
the people should see without knowing, 
and hear without understanding, in the 
midst of instructions. Some parables in 
the New Testament are supposed to be 
true histories. In others our Saviour seems 
to allude to some points of history in those 
times; as that describing a king who went 
into a far country, to receive a kingdom. 
This may hint at the history of Archelaus 
who, after the death, of his father Herod the 
Great, went to Rome, to receive from An- 
ns the confirmation of his father's will, 
757 



by which he had the kingdom of Judea left 
to him. 

PAR'ADISE, ons, irapa8si<T0£, sig- 
nifies a garden planted with trees. The 
Septuagint use the word Paradise, when 
they speak of the garden of Eden, which 
the Lord planted, and in which he placed 
Adam and Eve ; and this famous garden is 
commonly known by the name of the Ter- 
restrial Paradise. There have been many in- 
quiries about its situation. Some have thought 
that it never existed, but that whatever 
is said of it in Scripture ought to be taken 
allegorically. Some believed it was beyond 
the confines of the world ; some, that it was 
only in the beginning, or at the creation. 
It has been placed in the third heaven, in 
the orb of the moon, in the moon itself, in 
the middle region of the air, above the 
earth, under the earth, in a distant place 
concealed from the knowledge of men, in 
the place which is now possessed by the 
Caspian Sea, under the Arctic pole, and to 
the utmost southern regions. 

There is hardly any part of the world in 
which it has not been sought; in Asia, in 
Africa, in Europe, in America ; in Tartary, 
on the banks of the Ganges, in the Indies, 
in China, in the island of Ceylon, in Ar- 
menia, under the equator ; in Mesopota- 
mia, in Syria, in Persia, in Babylonia, in 
Arabia, in Palestine, in Ethiopia, where 
the mountains of the moon are ; near the 
mountains of Libanus, Antilibanus, and 
Damascus. 

Le Clerc placed Paradise in Judea ; 
but this system has had few followers. 
Huetius placed it in Babylonia, where he 
supposed that the Euphrates and Tigris 
joined, and afterwards separated ; con- 
sequently the four rivers of Paradise, de- 
scribed by Moses, were, two below, and 
two above that junction : but this cer- 
tainly does not meet the desmption of the 
sacred writer. 

Reland places it in Armenia, where is- 
sue the heads of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
two of the Paradisaical rivers seemingly 
well ascertained ; and two others, whose 
springs are in the neighbourhood, agree in 
many respects with the third and fourth 
river, mentioned by Moses. 1. The nearest 
or western of the two lower branches, ox- 
rivers, which discharged themselves into the 
Persian Gulf, was called Pison, probably 
from the Hebrew nwH) Pasah, signifying to 
'spread,' or 'overspread,' descriptive of its 
overflowing the flat country or morasses, 
bordering on the Gulf to which the great 
tides on that coast powerfully contribute. 
' The land of Havilah which it compassi d,' 
appears to have been the north-east quarter 
of Arabia Felix, for it is contrasted in 
situation with ' the wilderness of Shur,' 
which lay to the south-west, bordering on 
Egypt, anil the head of the lied Sea. (Gen. 
sxy. IN. 1 Sam. xv. 7) The productions 



PAR 



PAR 



of this land belonged also to Arabia Felix, 
which abounded with ' all kinds of spices, 
precious stones, and gold.' (Ezek. xxvii. 
22, 23.) Its gold was remarkably good, for, 
according to Diodorus, ' in Arabia was 
found native gold of so lively a colour, 
that it much resembled the brightness of 
fire, and so fixed, that it wanted neither 
fire nor refining to purify it.' Hence be- 
dolah in the original, or bdellium, may sig- 
nify either an aromatic gum ; or the precious 
stone called a carbuncle; or pearls, for 
which that coast was famous. 2. Proceed- 
ing eastwards, we meet the second lower 
branch, or river, called Gihon ; which per- 
haps may most naturally be derived from 
N"3 Gia, ' a vale,' and pn, Hon, ' wealth,' or 
4 substance ;' as skirting a rich and fertile 
land, ' the land of Cush,' now Chusistan, or 
Chuzestan, recovering its primitive name, 
formerly called Susiana, or Asiatic Ethiopia. 
3. Crossing the Gihon, and ascending to 
the upper branches, we reach the third 
river, Hiddekel, or ' the Tigris,' resem- 
bling the tiger in rapidity and devasta- 
tion ; for Diglath, in the Syriac and Arabic 
dialects, signifies ' a tiger,' to which was 
prefixed the He emphatic. This river 
skirted ' Assyria' Proper on its western side ; 
but it lay ' eastward' of the fourth and 
last branch, called 4. Phrat, from the He- 
brew m3, Phrah, 'to fructify,' or 'fertilize,' 
as this river does the countries enriched by 
its alluvions. It was called by the Greeks 
Euphrates. This river is simply mentioned 
by Moses, as being sufficiently known and 
determined from the rest. ' The Arme- 
nian mountains,' says Major Rennell, ' rise 
very suddenly from the north, and form the 
elevated level, the highest of western Asia, 
whence the Euphrates, the Araxes, and the 
Cyrus spring, at no great distance from the 
Euxine Sea. The Euphrates and Tigris 
spring from opposite sides of Mount Tau- 
rus, in Armenia ; the former, from its upper 
level, northward, the latter, from its southern 
declivity ; and certain of the sources of the 
two rivers are only separated by the sum- 
mits of Taurus. And yet, notwithstanding 
this vicinity, the sources of the Tigris, by 
being in a southern exposure, where the 
snow melts much earlier than at the back 
of the mountain, and in a more elevated 
situation, occasion the periodical swelling 
of this river to happen many weeks earlier 
than those of the Euphrates.,— Of the two, 
the Tigris seems to be the larger body of 
water.' 

Captain Wilford is of opinion, that Pai*a- 
dise was situated in India, in the province 
of Kedem, the most easterly province of the 
Persian empire ; and around this spot are 
Ai-shur or Ashur, Cush, Chaulon, or Cha- 
vilah, Sephar, a mountain of Kedem, Mash, 
Gedrosia, and other places named in Sacred 
Writ. He supposes, 1. the river Pison to 
be the Nilab, Sindus, or Little Indus ; 2. 
758 



the Gihon, the Hermund ; 3. the Hiddekel, 
the Bahlac ; and 4. the Perath, the Cunduz. 
A late writer on sacred geography, adopting 
for the most part the opinions of Captain 
Wilford on the subject, gives the names of 
the rivers as follows : 1. the Pison is sup- 
posed by him to be the Nilab, Sindus, or 
Little Indus ; 2. the Gihon, the western 
branch of the Oxus ; 3. the Hiddekel, the 
eastern branch of the same, both of which 
unite near Balk ; 4. the Perath, the Her- 
mund. See Eden. Sacred Geography; 
Asiatic Researches, vol. vi. Hates' s New Ana- 
lysis of Chronology, vol. i. pp. 325, 326. 

PA'RAN, )1HB, signifies beauty, glory, 
ornament. Paran, or El-paran, is a desert 
of Arabia Petraea, south of the Land of 
Promise, and north-east of the Gulf Elanitis. 
Chedorlaomer and his allies ravaged the 
country to the plains of Paran. (Gen. xiv. 
6.) Hagar having been sent from Abra- 
ham, retired into the wilderness of Paran, 
where she lived with her son Ishmael. 
(Gen. xxi. 21.) The Israelites having de- 
camped from Sinai, came into the desert of 
Paran. (Numb. x. 12.) Hence Moses sent 
out spies to inspect the Land of Promise, 
(Numb. xiii. 3.) and consequently Kadesh 
is in the wilderness of Paran, since these 
men went from Kadesh. (Numb. xiii. 26.) 
Moses seems to place Mount Sinai in Pa- 
ran when he says, that the Lord appeared 
to the Israelites on the Mount of Paran. 
(Deut. xxxiii. 2.) Habakkuk (hi. 3.) seems 
to say the same thing. When David was 
persecuted by Saul, he withdrew into the 
wilderness of Paran, near Maon and Car- 
mel. (1 Sam. xxv. 1, 2.) Hadad, son of 
the king of Edom, was carried when a child 
into Egypt. (1 Kings xi. 18.) Those who 
conducted him came from the eastern parts 
of Idumaea (or Edom) into the country of 
Midian, thence into the country of Paran, 
and so into Egypt. The greater part of 
the habitations of this country were dug 
in the rocks ; and here Simon of Gerasa 
gathered together all that he took from his 
enemies. 

Paran was also a city of Arabia Petraea, 
three days' journey from the city of Elah, 
or Ailat," east. This city gave name'to the 
desert of Paran. 

The desert of Paran is thus described by 
Dr. Shaw : ' From Mount Sinai, the Israel- 
ites directed their journey northward, to- 
wards the land of Canaan. The next re- 
markable stations therefore were in the 
desert of Paran, which seems not to have 
commenced till after they departed from 
Hazeroth, three stations from Sinai. (Numb, 
xii. 16.) Now as tradition has preserved 
to us the names of Shur, Marah, and Sin, 
so we have also that of Paran, which we 
enter at about the half way betwixt Sinai and 
Corondel, in travelling through the mid- 
land road, along the defiles of what were 
probably the Black Mountains of Ptolemy. 



PAR 



PAR 



In one part of it, ten leagues to the north- 
ward of Tor, there are several ruins, par- 
ticularly of a Greek convent, (called the 
convent of Paran), which was not long ago 
abandoned by reason of the continual 
insults which they suffered from the Arabs. 
Here likewise we should look for the city 
of that name, though according to the cir- 
cumstances of its situation, as they are 
laid down by Ptolemy, Tor, a small maritime 
village, with a castle hard by it, should 
rather be the place.' Sacred Geography, 
p. 73. 

PARENTS. This word is properly said 
of a father and mother, but is extended also 
to others related by blood, especially in a 
direct line upward. The Scripture com- 
mands children to honour their parents, 
(Exod. xx. 12.) that is to obey them, to 
succour them, to have an inward and out- 
ward respect for them, to give them all 
assistance that nature, and their, and our 
circumstances require. Christ in the Gos- 
pel, (Matth. xv. 5, 6.) condemns that cor- 
rupt explication which the doctors of the 
law gave of this precept ; teaching that a 
child was disengaged from the obligation of 
supporting and assisting his parents, when 
he said, ' It is a gift, by whatsoever thou 
mightest be profited by me,' as if he had 
said, 'I am no longer master of my own 
estate, it is consecrated to the Lord.' See 
Corban. 

The duty of parents, says the late Dr. 
Paley, may be explained under the several 
heads of maintenance, education, and a 
reasonable provision for the child's happi- 
ness in respect of outward condition. 1. 
The wants of children make it necessary 
that some person maintain them; and, as 
no one has a right to burden others by his 
act, it follows, that the parents are bound to 
undertake this charge themselves. Besides 
this plain inference, the affection of parents 
to their children, if it be instinctive, and the 
provision which nature has prepared in the 
person of the mother for the support of the 
infant, concerning the existence and design 
of which there can be no doubt, are mani- 
fest indications of the divine will. Hence 
we learn the guilt of those who run away 
from their families, or, in consequence of 
idleness or drunkenness, throw them upon 
a parish; or who leave them destitute at 
their death, when, by diligence and frugality, 
they might have laid up a provision for their 
support. The Christian Scriptures have 
declared in explicit terms their judgment of 
the obligation of this duty:—' If any pro- 
vide not for his own, especially for those of 
his own household, he hath denied the faith, 
and is worse than an infidel' (1 Tim. v. 8.) ; 
lie hath disgraced the Christian profession, 
and fallen short in a duty which even infi- 
dels acknowledge. 

2. Education, in the most extensive sense 
of the word, may comprehend every prepa- 



ration that is made in our youth for the 
sequel of our lives. Some such preparation 
is necessary for children of all conditions, 
because without it they must be miserable, 
and probably will be vicious, when they 
grow up, either from want of the means 
of subsistence, or from want of rational and 
inoffensive occupation. In civilized life, 
every thing is effected by art and skill. 
Hence a person who is provided with 
neither will be useless ; and he who is 
useless, will generally be at the same time 
mischievous to the community. In the 
inferior classes of the community, this 
principle condemns the neglect of parents, 
who do not inure their children betimes 
to labour and restraint, by providing them 
with services, or other regular employment, 
but who suffer them to waste their youth 
in idleness, or to betake themselves to 
some trifling and precarious calling. The 
consequence of having thus tasted the 
sweets of natural liberty, at an age when 
their passion and relish for it are at the 
highest, is, that they become incapable, for 
the remainder of their lives, of continued 
industry, or of preserving attention to any 
thing ; they spend their time in a miserable 
struggle between the importunity of want, 
and the irksomeness of regular application ; 
and they are prepared to embrace every 
expedient w r hich presents a hope of supply- 
ing their necessities without confining them 
to some employment. In the middle orders 
of society, those parents are most reprehen- 
sible, who neither qualify their children for 
a profession, nor enable them to live without 
one ; and those in the highest, who, from 
indolence, iudulgence, or avarice, omit to 
procure their children those liberal attain- 
ments, which are necessary to make them 
useful in the stations to which they are 
destined. 

3. A reasonable provision for the hap- 
piness of a child, in respect of outward 
condition, requires three things : a situation 
suited to his habits and reasonable expecta- 
tions ; a competent provision for the exi- 
gencies of that situation, and a probable 
security for his virtue. The first two ar- 
ticles will vary with the condition of the 
parent. Hence, a peasant satisfies his 
duty, who sends out his children, properly 
instructed for their occupation, to hus- 
bandry, or to any branch of manufacture. 
Clergymen, lawyers, physicians, officers in 
the army or navy, gentlemen possessing 
moderate fortunes of inheritance, or exer- 
cising trade in a large or liberal way, are 
required by the same rule to provide their 
sons with learned professions, commissions 
in the army or navy, places in public 
offices, or reputable branches of merchan- 
dise. Providing a child with a situation, 
includes a competent supply for the ex- 
penses of that situation, until the profits 
of it enable the child to support himself. 



PAR 



PAR 



After the first requisite, namely, a pro- 
vision for the exigencies of his situation, 
is satisfied, a parent may diminish a child's 
portion, in order to punish any flagrant 
crime, or to punish contumacy and want 
of filial duty in instances not otherwise 
criminal ; for a child who is conscious of 
bad behaviour, or of contempt of his pa- 
rent's will and happiness, cannot reason- 
ably expect the same instances of his 
munificence. But let not a father hope 
to excuse an inofficious disposition of his 
fortune, by alleging, that ' every man may 
do what he will with his own.' All the 
truth which this expression contains is, 
that this discretion is under no control of 
law ; and that his will, however capricious, 
will be valid. This by no means absolves 
his conscience from the obligations of a 
parent, or imports that he may neglect, 
without injustice, the several wants and 
expectations of his family, in order to 
gratify a whim or pique, or indulge a 
preference founded in no reasonable dis- 
tinction of merit or situation. We have 
still to notice a principal part of a parent's 
duty, namely, the using of proper precau- 
tions and expedients, in order to form and 
preserve his children's virtue. A good pa- 
rent's first care is, to be virtuous himself ; 
his second, to make his virtues as easy and 
engaging to those about him, as their na- 
ture will admit. Virtue itself offends, when 
coupled with forbidding manners. Some 
virtues may be urged to such excess, or 
brought forward so unseasonably, as to dis- 
courage and repel those who observe, and 
who are acted upon by them, instead of 
exciting an inclination to imitate and adopt 
them. Young minds are particularly liable 
to these unfortunate impressions. Some- 
thing likewise may be effected towards the 
correcting or improving of those early in- 
clinations which children discover, by pla- 
cing them in situations the least dangerous 
to their particular characters. 

If it be the duty of a parent to educate 
his children, to form them for a life of use- 
fulness and virtue, to provide for them 
situations needful for their subsistence, and 
suited to their circumstances, and to pre- 
pare them for those situations ; he has a 
right to such authority, and in support 
of that authority to exercise such disci- 
pline, as may be necessary for these pur- 
poses. The law of nature acknowledges 
no other foundation of a parent's right 
over his children, besides his duty towards 
them. Hence it follows, that parents have 
no natural right over the lives of their 
children, as was absurdly allowed to Roman 
fathers ; nor any to exercise unprofitable 
severities'; nor to command the commission 
of crimes ; for these rights can never be 
wanted for the purpose of a parent's duty. 
Paley's Moral and Political Philosophy, vol. i. 
pp. 343— 363. 
760 



PAR'THIANS, TlapOoi, signifies horse- 
men. The Parthians were the same as the 
ancient Persians. They were called Per- 
sians in the time of the prophets, and Par- 
thians in that of our Saviour. However, 
the name of Parthians is read only in Acts, 
(ii. 9.) where they appear as distinct from 
the Elamites, though originally they formed 
only one people. 

PARTRIDGE. In Jeremiah (xvii. 11.) 
we read as follows : ' As the partridge sit- 
teth on eggs, and hatcheth them not, so he 
that getteth riches, and not by right, shall 
leave them in the midst of his days, and 
at his end shall be a fool.' It is difficult 
to ascertain in what sense the partridge 
justifies this similitude. It seems clear, 
that this bird ' sitteth on eggs not its own,' 
to correspond with the ' getting of riches 
not by right ;' from these eggs it is driven 
away, ' leaves them_in the midst of his 
days,' before the time for hatching them 
is expired. The same bird which does 
this, is also hunted upon the mountains. 
(1 Sam. xxvi. 20.) Mr. Parkhurst ob- 
serves, that the partridge here mentioned 
must be the cock. The hen cannot be 
meant, because both the verbs are mascu- 
line ; neither can ~\b", masculine, signifying 
laying of eggs. But why should it be said 
of the partridge, whether cock or hen, 
rather than of any other bird, that it sit- 
teth, and hatcheth not>? because the par- 
tridge's nest being made on the ground, the 
eggs are frequently broken by men, or other 
animals, and the bird is often obliged to 
quit them for fear of cattle, dogs, or sports- 
men, which chills the eggs, and makes 
them unfruitful. Rain and moisture also 
may spoil them. 

As to the hunting of the partridge, which 
Dr. Shaw observes, is the greater, or red- 
legged kind, the Dr. says, ' The Arabs have 
another, though a more laborious method 
of catching these birds ; for observing they 
become languid and fatigued after they 
have been hastily put up twice or thrice, 
they immediately run in upon them, and 
knock them down with their zerwattys, or 
bludgeons as we should call them.' 

Bochart thought that the bird in the 
prophet was of the snipe, or woodcock 
kind: that kind, however, haunts the 
marshes, not the mountains. As Buffon 
makes a separate species of the Bartavella, 
or Greek partridge, we shall offer that as 
the proper bird meant in these passages: 
' To the red partridges, and principally to 
the Bartavella, must be referred all that 
the ancients have related of the partridge. 
Aristotle must needs know the Greek par- 
tridge better than any other, since this is 
the only kind in Greece, in the isles of the 
Mediterranean ; and, according to all ap- 
pearance, in that part of Asia conquered 
by Alexander.' Belon informs us, ' that 
the bartavella keeps ordinarily among 



PAS 



PAS 



rocks ; but has the instinct to descend 
into the plain to make its nest, in order 
that the young may find at their birth 
a ready subsistence ; lays from eight to 
sixteen eggs ; is capable of connexion 
with the common hen, and has also another 
analogy with the common hen, which is, 
to sit upon (or hatch) the eggs of strangers 
for want of its own. This remark is of 
long standing, since it occurs in the sacred 
books.' Scripture Illustrated, Expos. Index, 
p. 90 ; Parkhurst's Hebrew and English Lex- 
icon, p. 653. 

PASSION, in its general import, sig- 
nifies every feeling of the mind occasioned 
by an extrinsic cause. Among those pas- 
sions, which, though distinct from bene- 
volence, often operate as powerful allies 
in its support, may be reckoned the feeling 
of shame, and the desire of esteem. When 
we have done any thing which is wrong, 
or which conscience disapproves, we can 
hardly help sinking in our own estimation ; 
and the same actions which make us, in 
some measure, forfeit our own esteem, 
must, in all cases in which they are known, 
cause us to lose the esteem of others. 
This apprehension usually enters, as a con- 
stituent, into the sensation of shame, on 
the first reflection of having done what is 
the proper object of that feeling. Thus 
the bitterness of our regret is increased ; 
and thus Providence seems to employ our 
virtuous feelings to check the career of our 
iniquity. The feeling of shame, which is 
of so delicate and sensitive a nature, may 
indeed be easily diminished by neglect, 
till it is at last quite obliterated by per- 
severance in that course of conduct to 
which it had originally so lively a repug- 
nance. But as long as the feeling has 
any hold in our hearts, its operations 
are uniformly in favour of virtue and be- 
neficence. 

Shame is a feeling of self-dissatisfaction ; 
a consciousness of meriting, and a dread of 
incurring, the contempt and aversion of our 
fellow-creatures. We possess not only the 
feeling of shame to deter us from doing 
evil, but the desire of esteem, which pow- 
erfully operates with our feeling of bene- 
volence, to impel us to do good. Though 
the desire of obtaining the good-will of 
others is certainly something very distinct 
from the feeling of good-will to others, 
yet both these passions will often unite 
in urging us to pursue the same course 
of conduct ; for though they have different 
objects, they usually concur in adopting the 
same means for their attainment. As we 
naturally feel a certain sweet complacency 
and satisfaction in receiving the approba- 
tion of our own consciences, and in se- 
eming so sure a testimony to the integrity 
of our conduct, so the approbation of others 
naturally gives pleasure. For, as we are 
not formed to despise or hate others, so 

761 



we arc naturally averse to be the objects 
of hatred and contempt ; as there is in our 
nature a spontaneous tendency to love 
others, so we naturally delight in having 
others love us. The desire of esteem is, 
indeed, only a modification of that prin- 
ciple, which makes our nature so forcibly 
gravitate towards society. And as men 
can really esteem and love others only 
for those actions which are the proper 
objects of esteem and love, and as no ac- 
tions are the proper objects of esteem and 
love, but those which are morally bene- 
ficial, the desire of conciliating the good 
opinion, and attaching the kind affections 
of our fellow-creatures, was certainly de- 
signed by the wise Author of our frame 
as a powerful incentive to virtue and be- 
neficence. The love of praise, which oc- 
casionally mixes itself with the desire, and 
is so often blended with it as not to be 
distinguished from it, is, indeed, often a 
false principle of action ; but it is so only 
when it prevails to such a degree as to ren- 
der us arrogant and self-conceited ; or to 
counteract the growth of humility, meek- 
ness, and other qualities, which are always 
constituent parts of a truly virtuous and 
beneficent disposition. The love of praise, 
if by praise we mean not the vapid, not the 
corrupted, or prostituted applause of the 
multitude, but the partial regard, the fa- 
vourable judgment of the wise and good, 
is very compatible with benevolence. The 
love of praise, in this sense, will be found 
to resolve itself into a desire to obtain the 
good of others by actions which are es- 
sentially good, or of which the results are 
most beneficial to society. 

Friendship, compassion, and other affec- 
tions, forcibly incline us to society ; but, in 
fact, instead of acting in a direction oppo- 
site to our own good, they will be found to 
individuate our good with the good of 
others. Friendship, which originates in 
our more partial sympathies, preferring 
some individuals to others, tends to enlarge 
and diffuse the sensations of self, and to in- 
corporate it in the persons of our friends. 
Compassion is a feeling which, abstractedly 
considered, evidently urges us, as far as we 
have power and opportunity, to the relief of 
every sentient being in distress. At first 
view, therefore, these affections may seem to 
had us in a way very devious from that 
which self-love might prescribe as the 
shortest path to the greatest personal enjoy- 
ment. But reason will not assent to this 
inference, and experience proves it to be 
false. For, what corporeal pleasure can 
equal that which invariably Hows from the 
indulgence of the softer affections of friend- 
ship and compassion .' Do they not generate 

the most heartfelt satisfaction f Hence we 
see that those affections which seem, from 
their nature and operations, to be princi- 
pally designed for, and more exclusively to 



PAS 



PAS 



tend to, the good of the species, do most 
effectually promote the happiness of the 
individual. Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol ii, pp. 134—139. 

PASSOVER, nD9, pascha, signifies leap, 
passage. The passover was a solemn festi- 
val of the Jews, instituted in commemora- 
tion of their coming out of Egypt ; because 
the night before their departure, the destroy- 
ing angel that slew the first-born of the 
Egyptians, passed over the houses of the 
Hebrews without entering them, because 
they were marked with the blood of the 
lamb, which, for this reason, was called the 
paschal lamb. 

The following is what God ordained con- 
cerning the passover. The month of the 
coming out of Egypt was after this to be the 
first month of the sacred or ecclesiastical 
year ; and the fourteenth day of this month, 
between the two evenings, that is, between 
the sun's decline and its setting, or rather, 
according to our reckoning, between three 
o'clock in the afternoon and six in the even- 
ing, at the equinox, they were to kill the 
paschal lamb, and to abstain from leavened 
bread. The day following being the fif- 
teenth, reckoned from six o'clock of the 
preceding evening, was the grand feast of 
the passover, which continued seven days ; 
but only the first and the seventh days were 
peculiarly solemn. The slain lamb was to 
be without defect, a male, and of that year. 
If no lamb could be found, they might take 
a kid. They killed a lamb or a kid in each 
family ; and if the number of the family was 
not sufficient to eat the lamb, they might 
associate two families together. 

With the blood of the lamb they sprinkled 
the door-posts and lintel of every house, 
that the destroying angel at the sight of the 
blood might pass over them. They were to 
eat the lamb, the same night, roasted with 
unleavened bread, and a sallad of wild 
lettuces, or bitter herbs. It was forbidden to 
eat any part of it raw, or boiled, nor were 
they to break a bone ; but it was to be eaten 
entire, even with the head, the feet, and the 
bowels. If any thing remained to the day 
following, it was thrown into the fire. 
(Exod. xii. 46 ; Numb. ix. 12 ; John xix. 
36.) They who ate it were to be in the 
posture of travellers, having their reins girt, 
shoes on their feet, staves in their hands, 
and eating in a hurry. This last part of 
the ceremony was but little observed ; at 
least it was of no obligation after that night 
they came out of Egypt. During the whole 
eight days of the Passover no leavened 
bread was to be used. They kept the first 
and last day of the feast ; yet it was allowed 
to dress victuals, which was forbidden on 
the Sabbath-day. 

The obligation of keeping the Passover 

was so strict, that whoever should neglect it 

was condemned to death. (Numb. ix. J 3.) 

But those who had any lawful impediment, 

762 



as a journey, sickness, or uncleanness, 
voluntary or involuntary ; for example 
those who had been present at a funeral, 
or, &c. were to defer the celebration of the 
Passover till the second month of the 
ecclesiastical year, the fourteenth day of 
the month Jiar, which answers to April 
and May. We see an example of this 
postponed Passover under Hezekiah. (2 
Chron. xxx. 2, 3, &c.) 

The modern Jews observe in general the 
ceremonies practised by their ancestors, in 
the celebration of the Passover. On the 
fourteenth of Nisan the first-born of every 
family fasts, in memory of what happened 
the night when God smote the first-born of 
Egypt. The morning prayers are the same 
as those of other festivals ; but they add the 
Psalms peculiar to this. They take the roll 
of the Pentateuch, and read Exodus xii., 
which contains the institution of the Pass- 
over, and Numbers xxviii., relating to the 
sacrifices proper to this feast. On the 
vigil of the feast the matron of the family 
sets out the table in the neatest manner she 
can ; on which are set two unleavened cakes, 
two pieces of the lamb, one a shoulder 
roasted, to put them in mind that God de- 
livered them with a stretched-out arm. 
The other piece is boiled, in memory of the 
sacrifice. To this they add, as is said, some 
small fishes, because of the Leviathan ; a 
hard egg, because of the bird Ziz ; some 
meat, because of the Behemoth ; and nuts 
and pease for the children, to provoke their 
curiosity to ask reasons for this ceremony. 
It is observable, that the Leviathan, the 
Behemoth, and the Ziz, are three animals 
supposed to be appointed for the feast of 
the elect in the other life. They have a 
kind of mustard that has the appearance of 
mortar, which was heretofore made of dates 
and dried figs, and at present is made of 
chestnuts and apples, to represent the labour 
of making bricks. The father of the family 
sits down to table with his children and 
slaves; because all on this day are free. 
Being sat down, the chief of the family 
takes of the bitter herbs about the bigness 
of an olive, which he dips in the mustard, 
eats it, and distributes to the rest. After- 
wards they eat the paschal lamb, the history 
and institution of which are explained by 
the father of the family. He concludes 
with prayer, and by exhorting to pray for 
the restoration of Jerusalem, and of the 
ancient sacrifices, that they may there eat 
the paschal lamb, and make God propitious 
to them by its blood. The same things are 
repeated the two following days. This fes- 
tival is concluded by the ceremony ofhabdala, 
or distinction. This ceremony is performed 
at the closing of the sabbath day, when the 
master of the house pronounces certain 
words, and benedictions, to desire that every 
thing may succeed the coming week. At 
going out of the synagogue they go to eat 



PAT 



PAT 



unleavened bread for the last time. Whilst 
the temple was in existence, the Jews 
brought their lambs thither, and there 
sacrificed them ; and they offered their blood 
to the priest, who poured it out at the foot 
of the altar. 

The paschal lamb was an illustrious type 
of Christ, who became a sacrifice for the re- 
demption of a lost world from sin and 
misery. It is worthy of observation, 1. that 
the anniversary or annual commemoration 
of the Passover was strictly and religiously 
kept by the Jews on the day, and hour of 
the day, on which the original transaction 
took place, throughout all their succeeding 
generations. 2. That on one of these anni- 
versaries, and, as many suppose, on the 
very day and hour at which the paschal lamb 
was originally offered, our blessed Lord ex- 
pired on the cross for the salvation of the 
world. 3. That after the destruction of 
Jerusalem, the paschal lamb ceased to be 
offered by the Jews throughout the world, 
though they continue to hold the anniver- 
sary of the Passover, but without any sacri- 
fice, notwithstanding their deep-rooted, in- 
veterate antipathy against the Author and 
grace of the gospel. 4. That the sacrament 
of the Lord's Supper was instituted to keep 
this true paschal sacrifice in commemora- 
tion, and that this has been religiously ob- 
served by nearly the whole Christian world, 
from the foundation of Christianity to the 
present day! 5. That the Jews were com- 
manded to eat the paschal lamb ; and our 
Lord commemorating the Passover, com- 
manded his disciples, saying, ' Take, eat, 
This is my body, which is given for you ; 
do this in remembrance of Me.' In the 
communion service of the Church of Eng- 
land, the spirit and design both of the type 
and antitype, are most expressively con- 
densed into one point of view, in the ad- 
dress to the communicant : ' Take and eat 
this in remembrance that Christ died for 
thee ; and feed on him in thy heart by faith 
with thanksgiving.' Thus God continues 
the memorial of that grand transaction 
which he has said should he an ordinance 
for ever; evidently meaning thereby, that 
the paschal lamb should be the significator 
till the passion and death of Christ; and 
that afterwards bread and wine taken sacra- 
mentally, in commemoration of his cruci- 
fixion, should be the continual representa- 
tives of that sacrifice till the end of the 
world. Thus the Passover in itself, and in 
its reference, is an ordinance for ever ; and 
thus the words of the Lord are literally ful- 
filled. Dr. Adam Clarkes Commentary on 
E»d. xii. 27- 

PATH'ROS, ovins, signifies the .shell of 
. otherwise, persuasion, or spreading of 
ruin, or of distillation. It was the name of a 
city and district of Egypt, mentioned by 
the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel. ( Jerem. 
xliv. 1, 15; Ezek. xxix. 14; xxx. 14.) 
763 



Its situation is not well ascertained, though 
Pliny, and Ptolemy the geographer, speak 
of the Phaturitic nome, in the Thebais, in 
Upper Egypt. Isaiah (xi. 11) calls it 
Pathros ; and it is the country of the Path- 
rusim, the posterity of Mizraim, of whom 
Moses speaks. (Gen. x. 14.) Ezekiel 
threatens them with entire ruin. Notwith- 
standing the remonstrances of Jeremiah, 
the Jews retired thither ; and the Lord says 
by Isaiah, that he will bring them back 
from thence. 

PATIENCE is that calm and unruffled 
temper with which a good man bears the 
evils of life. Patience is apt to be ranked 
by many among the more humble and ob- 
scure virtues, belonging chiefly to those 
who groan on a sick bed, or who languish 
in a prison ; but in every circumstance of 
life no virtue is more important both to 
duty and to happiness. It is not confined 
to a situation of continued adversity. It 
principally, indeed, regards the disagree- 
able circumstances which are apt to occur. 
But in our present state the occurrence of 
these is so frequent, that in every condition 
of life, patience is incessantly called forth. 
"Without it, prosperity cannot be enjoyed, 
any more than adversity supported. If we 
would pass through the world with tran- 
quillity and honour, it must enter into the 
temper and form the habit of the soul. 

One of the purest sources of patience is 
faith in the superintending providence of 
God. When we think that every event in 
life is merely fortuitous, the effect of chance, 
or of combinations of occurrences, over 
which no intelligence presides, and which 
no goodness directs, there can be but little 
hope to cherish patience. Patience under 
those sufferings which are the natural con- 
sequence of the circumstances in which we 
are placed, and which may rather be as- 
cribed to a divine agency than to human 
contrivance, is principally encouraged and 
supported by this consideration, that those 
sufferings do originate in a benevolent in- 
tention, and will be ultimately beneficial. 
Now what is there which can produce this 
belief in him, who thinks that there is one 
end to the righteous and to the wicked, 
that there is nothing like a moral govern- 
ment manifested in the vicissitudes of life, 
and that if there be a Supreme Being, he 
is an indifferent spectator of human inter- 
ests and human actions.' But when we be- 
lieve that every event which befalls us, is 
the result of Wisdom and of Goodness, 
making the best possible contrivance for our 
welfare, suited to our disposition and our 
circumstances, this persuasion will prove a 
comfort in sorrow, and a stav in misery. 
It will enliven hope, and hope will establish 
patience; for we are easily reconciled to 
those pains which we consider as the inflic- 
tion of Goodness, and subservient to our 
happiness. 



PAT 

This belief in the good providence of God 
will work in us that placid submission to 
his will, in which the perfection of patience 
resides. For we readily acquiesce in the 
determinations of one whose judgment is 
better than our own, and whose regard for 
us we believe to be equal to our regard 
for ourselves. If we have right notions 
of the perfections of God, and a hearty 
reliance on his goodness, we cannot but be 
assured, that whatever he wills must be bene- 
ficial for us to endure. No affliction is 
for the present matter of joy, but of grief; 
but that anticipation of future good, which 
religious trust excites, cannot but greatly 
blunt the edge or alleviate the pressure of 
any present evil. For if the whole world 
be subject to the administration of a Being, 
whose tender mercies are over all his works, 
our calamities, however severe they may 
seem, can never be more than propor- 
tioned to our necessities, and their continu- 
ance cannot be longer than our needs. It 
is, indeed, natural for us to desire a termi- 
nation of our pains; but if we consider 
those pains as the effect of the most benefi- 
cent regard, and expressly designed for the 
prevention of our misery, or the promotion 
of our happiness, shall we not rather wish 
that they may last till they have accom- 
plished the purpose for which they were 
inflicted 1 

Christianity not only teaches patience by 
precept, but it most clearly shows, and most 
forcibly inculcates, this and every other 
virtue, by an example the most perfect, 
most interesting, and most instructive. Our 
blessed Saviour was placed in such circum- 
stances as are best fitted for the culture, and 
most imperiously demand tbe exercise, of 
patience. Do we repine at the meanness 
of our parentage, or the poverty of our 
circumstances ? Was not he continually 
reproached with the obscurity of his origin, 
and the want of lustre in his temporal 
condition ? Did he not endure the most 
distressing privations ? And yet did he ex- 
hibit any marks of querulousness and im- 
patience 1 Did he not rather practise the 
utmost complacency and forbearance ? 

We all possess a quick sense of insult 
and of injury. Every species of insult or 
injury soon exasperates our pride, and kin- 
dles our resentment. And it is in the vic- 
tory over those passions and sensations to 
which we are most liable, and by which we 
are most easily subdued, that true evangeli- 
cal patience consists. Now this patience 
can be founded only on a belief in this truth, 
that God is the avenger "of all those who 
suffer wrong ; and that he will recompense 
those who suffer patiently. We know that 
if there be a moral Governor of the uni- 
verse, all wrong must ultimately turn to 
the hurt of him who does it. This persua- 
sion, therefore, will serve to moderate our 
resentment; and to tincture the feeling 
764 



PAT 






with something like compassion for that 
blindness to his own greatest interest and 
happiness which he manifests who, in word 
or deed, commits any cruelty or injury. 
For the retributive vengeance of God is 
sure, though it is not immediate. He who 
is conscious of this important truth, has 
the strongest inducement to practise equa- 
nimity and forbearance. For, while re- 
ligion forbids every act of revenge, reason 
will also teach us, that on almost every 
occasion, we aggravate rather than dimi- 
nish, inflame rather than heal, the wrongs 
which others do us, by labouring to return 
evil for evil, and to retaliate one suffering 
by a greater. By endeavouring to avenge 
ourselves, we in some measure take ven- 
geance out of the hand of God, and become 
obnoxious to the punishment which our 
enemies would otherwise, without real con- 
trition, and, as far as in their power, ac- 
tual restitution for every wrong which they 
have done, sooner or later have experienced. 
Hence, therefore, the Scriptures exhort us 
to render to no man evil for evil ; but, on 
the contrary, rather to cultivate that dispo- 
sition, which will induce us, when opportu- 
nity offers, to pray for those who despite- 
fully use and persecute us, and, if our enemy 
hunger, to give him food, or if he thirst, to 
give him drink. Blair's Sermons, vol. ii. 
p. 102. 

PAT'MOS, narjuof, signifies deadly, or 
mortal. Patmos is an island of the iEgean 
Sea, one of the Sporades, whither the apos- 
tle and evangelist St. John was banished, in 
the reign of Domitian. (Rev. i. 9.) In this 
island he had his revelations. Most inter- 
preters think that he wrote them in the same 
place ; but others are of opinion that he did 
not write them till after his return to Ephe- 
sus. The island of Patmos lies between the 
island of Icaria, and the promontory of Mi- 
letus.. It is now called Patino, or Pactino, 
or Patmol. Its circuit is five-and-twenty or 
thirty miles. It has a city called Patmos, 
with a harbour, and some monasteries of 
Greek monks. They show you a cave, now 
a chapel, where they pretend St. John wrote 
the Revelations. 

' Patmos,' says Dr. Wittman, ' has an 
excellent harbour; and the town being 
situated on the loftiest part of the island, 
makes a pretty appearance on entering. 
The houses, being constructed of a white 
free stone, have a peculiarly neat aspect. 
It has been calculated that the town has an 
elevation of nearly five hundred feet above 
the level of the sea. In its centre is a large 
convent dedicated to St. John the Evange- 
list, who was banished to this island. Here 
he wrote his Revelations. We saw, in walk- 
ing to the summit of the hill, the grotto in 
which he is said to have composed them. 
The convent has a resident bishop, with a 
considerable number of monks, and is a 
college for the education of young men 



PAT 



PAT 



of the Greek persuasion. In those parts of 
the island which the inhabitants are able to 
cultivate, we saw several small fields or 
patches of corn, banked up with stones, to 
prevent the soil from being washed away by 
the rains. It appeared, however, to be cap- 
able of producing but an inconsiderable 
quantity of grain. The inhabitants procure 
sheep and cattle from the neighbouring 
islands. The town contains about two hun- 
dred houses. The women are to the men 
in the proportion of five to one.' 

De la Motraye describes St. John's con- 
vent as ' the principal thing worth seeing on 
this island; it is a sort of a castle, flanked 
with several towers, with a church but in- 
differently built, and yet worse painted 
within. It is pretty well walled, as are most 
of the others, in general ; but, what 1 never 
saw in the Turkish dominions except there, 
at Scio afterwards, and Mount Athos, there 
were two bells hanging at the gate of the 
convent. In this monastery were ninety- 
three Calayeros, or Greek monks, and (as 
they told me) above one hundred churches, 
or rather chapels, on the island, to which 
they had then but ten secular priests, 



which, with the Calayeros, were more than 
sufficient for the number of inhabitants, who 
were not four thousand. I saw also the 
hermit's cell, called by the people of the 
country Apocalypsis, where they pretend 
that St. John wrote his Revelations. It is 
not very far from the convent, and a narrow 
way cut in the rock, leads directly to a little 
chapel, whose vaulted roof was tolerably 
fine ; from whence one passes into a grotto, 
where (it is believed) St. John retired to 
write his Revelations: and a papas (priest) 
showed me a cleft in the solid rock, through 
which he affirmed, pretty positively, the 
voice of God was heard by that evange- 
list. This grotto is a miserable hole.' 
Dr. Wittmaris Travels, p. 113; Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

PATRIARCHS. This name is given to 
the ancient fathers, chiefly those who lived 
before Moses, as Adam, Lamech, Noah, 
Shem, &c. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, the sons 
of Jacob, and heads of the tribes. The He- 
brews call them princes of the tribes, or 
heads of the fathers. The name Patriarch 
is derived from the Greek Patriarcha, head 
of a family. 



Antediluvian Patriarchs lived before 
their sons' birth. 


1 Hebrew. | Samarit. | Septuag. 


Adam Oen. v. 3 

Seth — — 6 

Enos — — 9 


130 

105 

90 

70 

G5 
162 

65 
187 
182 

600 


130 

105 

.00 

70 

65 
62 
65 
67 
53 

600 


230 
205 
190 
170 
165 
162 
165 
167 
188 

600 


Cainan — — 12 

Mahalaleel — — 15 

Jared — — 18 

Enoch — — 21 

Methuselah — — 25 

Lamech — ■ — 28 

Noah at the i ^ • a 
Flood \ Gen - VU - 6 
Total before the Flood 


1050 


1307 


2242 


Postdiluvian Patriarchs lived before 
their sons' birth. 


1 Hebrew. I Samarit. I Septuag. 


Shem begat Arphaxad after i 
the Flood, Gen. xi. 10. t 

Arphaxad, Gen. xi. 12. . . 

Cainan (2d) mentioned only by) 
the lxx. and Luke iii. 30. j 

Sal ah Gen. xi. 14 

Eber — — 16 


2 

35 



30 
34 
30 
32 

30 

2!) 

70 


o 

135 



130 
134 

130 
132 
130 

7:> 
70 


2 

135 

130 

130 
134 
130 
132 
130 
179 
70 


Peleg — — 18 

lieu — — 20 


Serug — — 22 

Nahor — — 24 

Terah — — 20 

Total to the seventieth year of 1 
Terah i 


292 


042 


1172 



76* 



PAT 



PAT 



The Scripture chronology respecting the 
ages of some of the ante and post diluvian 
Patriarchs has greatly embarrassed chrono- 
logists, critics, and divines. The printed 
Hebrew text, the Samaritan, the Septua- 
gint, and Josephus, are all different, and 
have their respective vouchers and defend- 
ers. The preceding tables of the genealo- 
gies of the Patriarchs before and after the 
flood, according to the Hebrew, Samaritan, 
and Septuagint, exhibit at once the dis- 
cordances. 

The period before the flood is reckoned 
by Josephus to be 2256 years ; and the se- 
cond period to the seventieth year of Terah, 
1002 years. 

Thus, the Hebrew says, that Adam lived 
130 years, and begat Seth; and the Septua- 
gint, that he lived 230 years, and begat 
Seth. The Septuagint add 100 years to 
the age of each of the antediluvian Patri- 
archs before he begat his son, except to 
Jared and Methuselah ; and the Samaritan 
agrees with the Hebrew in the age of each 
Patriarch before he begat his son, except 
that it makes Jared 100, Methuselah 120, 
and Lamech 129 years younger. It is, how- 
ever, observable that this difference in the 
chronology of the Hebrew, the Samaritan, 
and the Septuagint, affects nothing which is 
necessary either to be believed or practised. 
Every thing material and necessary for us to 
know and believe, in this part of Scripture, 
is the same in all, and no difference exists 
between them. 

Nothing has caused so great a difference 
between the ancient Christian chronolo- 
gers who follow the Septuagint, and those 
of modern times who follow the Hebrew, 
as the difference between the Hebrew and 
Greek copies, in the age of the most ancient 
Patriarchs when they begat their children. 
It would appear, however, from Philo and 
Josephus, that originally no difference ex- 
isted between the Hebrew genealogies and 
those of the Greek version ; that the com- 
putation of Josephus was conformable to 
both in his time ; and that either the He- 
brew copies, or the Greek copies, both of 
the Septuagint and of Josephus, have been 
adulterated since his time. The Hebrew 
chronology is chiefly followed ; and it is 
generally supposed that the adulteration 
took place in the Greek, rather than in the 
Hebrew copies. Dr. Hales, however, seems 
to be of a different opinion. He observes, 
that the inspection of various editions, and 
the copious collations of the Hebrew text 
with a great number of MSS. collected from 
all parts of the world, by the laudable in- 
dustry and extensive researches of Kenni- 
cott, De Rossi, and other learned men, 
have proved that the sacred classics are 
not less exempt from various readings than 
the profane. He thinks that the Hebrew 
copies afforded greater facilities and op- 
portunities of adulteration than the Greek : 
766 



because the Hebrew language was not in 
general use like the Greek ; and because 
copies of the Septuagint in the possession 
of the Christians, rendered any material 
adulteration of the Greek text, at least in 
so important a case as that of the genea- 
logies, almost impossible. He is also of 
opinion, that the Hebrew copies lay under 
a greater temptation to be adulterated than 
the Greek, because the Jews were full of 
rage and vexation that their own Scrip- 
tures were turned against them to prove 
that Jesus was indeed the Christ. Hence 
he concludes, that the adulteration was 
rather of the Hebrew Genealogies than of 
the Greek, and that it was introduced, pro- 
bably by Aquila, just before the time of the 
fabrication of the Seder Olam Rabba, A.D. 
1 30, founded upon it. ' The motive,' he says, 
' which led the Jews to mutilate the Patri- 
archal genealogies, is very clearly exposed 
by Ephrem Syrus, who died A.D. 373, and 
who states that the Jews have subtracted 600 
years from the generations of Adam, Seth, 
&c. in order that their own books might not 
convict them concerning the coming of 
Christ, he having been predicted to appear 
for the deliverance of mankind after 5500 
years. 

According to the chronology of our En- 
glish Bibles, the creation of the world was 
4004 years, and the time of the Flood 2348 
years before Christ. Hence the time from 
the creation to the Flood was 1656 years ; 
which was exactly the time that the ante- 
diluvian patriarchs lived in their regular 
succession, from the creation of the world to 
the general deluge, according to the ap- 
proved chronology in our English Bibles. 
The reason why the lives of the Patriarchs 
were so prolonged by God, is evident. Pas- 
cal observes, that it is not the number of 
years that renders things obscure, but genera- 
tions. Lamech had a sight of Adam, to whom 
God probably communicated the account of 
his own creation and that of the world ; 
Shem conversed with Lamech ; Abraham 
with Shem ; Jacob with Abraham ; and 
Moses with those who had seen Jacob. 
Bishop Watson's Theologic. Tracts, vol. iii. 
pp. 55, 56; Dr. Hales' s New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. i. pp. 72 — 78. 

Patriarchs, among Christians, are eccle- 
siastical dignitaries, or bishops, so called 
from their paternal authority in the church. 
The power of patriarchs was not the same 
in all, but differed according to the customs 
of different countries, or the pleasure of 
kings and councils. Thus the patriarch of 
Constantinople became a patriarch over the 
patriarchs of Ephesus and Caesarea, and 
was called the Oecumenical and Universal 
Patriarch ; and the patriarch of Alexandria 
had some prerogatives which no other pa- 
triarch but himself enjoyed ; such as the 
right of consecrating and approving of every 
single bishop under his jurisdiction. The 



PAT 



PAU 



patriarchate has been ever esteemed the 
supreme dignity in the church. The bishop 
had only under him the territory of the 
city of which he was bishop ; the metro- 
politan superintended a province, and had 
for suffragans the bishops of his province ; 
the primate was the chief of what was then 
called a diocese, and had several metropo- 
litans under him ; and the patriarch had 
under him several dioceses, composing one 
exarchate, and the primates themselves 
were under him. Usher, Pagi, De Marc a, 
and Morinus, attribute the establishment of 
the grand patriarchates to the apostles 
themselves, who, in their opinion, according 
to the description of the world then given 
by geographers, made choice of three prin- 
cipal cities in the three parts of the known 
world, namely, Rome in Europe, Antioch in 
Asia, and Alexandria in Africa ; and thus 
formed a trinity of patriarchs. Others 
maintain, that the name patriarch was un- 
known at the time of the council of Nice ; 
and that for a long time afterwards patri- 
archs and primates were confounded to- 
gether, as being all equally chiefs ofdioceses, 
and equally superior to metropolitans, who 
were only chiefs of provinces. Hence 
Socrates gives the title patriarch to all the 
chiefs of dioceses, and reckons ten of them. 

Mosheim is of opinion, that the hishops, 
who enjoyed a certain degree of pre-emi- 
nence over the rest of their order, were dis- 
tinguished by the Jewish title of patriarchs 
in the fourth century. The authority of the 
patriarchs gradually increased till about the 
close of the fifth century. All affairs of 
moment within the compass of their patri- 
archates came before them either in the 
first place, or by appeals from the metropo- 
litans. They consecrated bishops ; assem- 
bled yearly in council the clergy of their 
respective districts ; pronounced a decisive 
judgment in those cases in which accusa- 
tions were brought against bishops ; and 
appointed vicars or deputies, clothed with 
their authority, for the preservation of 
order and tranquillity in the remoter pro- 
vinces. 

Bishop Tomline thinks, that the date of 
the patriarchates of Rome, Alexandria, and 
Antioch, was certainly prior to the council 
of Nice, and probahly much earlier. 'The 
see of Constantinople,' he observes, ' was 
not raised into a patriarchate till the first 
council of Constantinople, A. D. 381. It 
was at the same time decreed, that the 
patriarch of Constantinople should rank 
immediately after the patriarch of Rome, 
who had precedence of the other patriarchs ; 
and this distinction was confirmed by the 
council of Chalcedon, and the second coun- 
cil of Constantinople, and by several im- 
perial edicts; and, therefore, at the end of 
the fourth century, and for some time after- 
wards, the whole of Christendom may be 
considered as divided into four parts, two of 
767 



which were in the east, and were subject to 
the patriarchs of Constantinople and An- 
tioch ; the south was under the patriarch of 
Alexandria ; and the west under the patri- 
arch of Rome. The patriarchs had the 
power of assembling the archbishops and 
bishops within their jurisdiction, of conse- 
crating archbishops, and of hearing appeals 
from them.' Bishop Tomline's Elem. of 
Christian Theology, vol. ii. p. 392 ; B rough- 
ton's Hist. Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 227 ; Bio- 
graphia Britannica ; Mosheim' s Eccles. Hist. 
vol. i. p. 349, vol. ii. p. 23. edit. 1811. 

PATRlPASSIANS,a denomination that 
arose in the second century. Praxeas, a 
man of genius and learning, denied any real 
distinction between the Father, Son, and 
Holy Ghost, and maintained that the Father, 
sole Creator of all things, had united to him- 
self the human nature of Christ. Hence 
his followers were called Monarchians, be- 
cause of their denying a plurality of persons 
in the Deity ; and also Patripassians, be- 
cause they believed that the Father was so 
intimately united with the man Christ, his 
son, that he suffered with him the anguish 
of an afflicted life, and the torments of an 
ignominious death. It does not appear, 
that this sect formed to itself a separate 
place of worship, or removed from the ordi- 
nary assemblies of Christians. Mosheim's 
Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 235, edit. 1811. 

PAUL, Ilai/Xoc;, signifies small, or little. 
Paul, originally named Saul, was of the 
tribe of Benjamin, a native of Tarsus in 
Cilicia, and of the sect of the Pharisees. 
He was first a persecutor of the church, 
afterwards a disciple of Jesus Christ, and 
apostle of the Gentiles. Bishop Pearce 
conjectures, that he changed his Hebrew 
name Saul to the Roman name Paul, from 
respect to his first Roman convert Sergius 
Paulus. (Acts xiii. 7-) He was a Roman 
citizen, (Acts xxii. 27, 28.) because Augus- 
tus had given the freedom of Rome to all the 
freemen of Tarsus, in consideration of their 
firm adherence to his interests. It is pro- 
bable that he laid the foundation of those 
literary attainments, for which he was so 
eminent in the future part of his life, at his 
native city of Tarsus ; and he afterwards 
studied the law of Moses, and the traditions 
of the elders, at Jerusalem, under Gamaliel, 
a celebrated Rabbi. 

St. Paul is not mentioned in the Gospels ; 
nor is it known whether he ever heard our 
Saviour preach, or saw him perform any 
miracle. His name first occurs in the ac- 
count given in the Acts of the martyrdom 
of St. Stephen, to which he is said to have 
consented: be is upon that occasion called 
a young man, but we are no where informed 
what was then his precise age. This might 
happen A.D. 34. 

At the time of the persecution against 
the church, after the deatli of Stephen, Saul 
was one who shewed most violence in ilis- 



PAU 



PAU 



tressing the believers. (Gal. i. 13. ; Acts 
xxvi. 11.) He entered into their houses, 
and forcibly seized both men and women, 
and sent them to prison. (Acts viii. 3. ; 
xxii. 4.) In the synagogues he caused 
those to be beaten who believed in Jesus 
Christ, compelling them to blaspheme the 
name of the Lord. Having received cre- 
dentials from the high-priest Caiaphus, and 
the elders of the Jews, to the chief Jews of 
Damascus^ with power to bring to Jerusalem 
all the Christians he should find there, he 
departed, full of threats, and breathing out 
slaughter. But, being on the road, and 
near to Damascus, suddenly about noon a 
great light from heaven encompassed him 
and all his company. This splendour struck 
them to the ground, and Saul heard a voice 
saying to him, ' Saul, Saul, why persecutest 
thou me V Saul answered, ' Who art thou, 
Lord?' The Lord replied, ' I am Jesus of 
Nazareth, whom thou persecutest; it is 
hard for thee to kick against the pricks.' 
Saul in consternation asked, 'Lord, what 
wilt thou have me to do V Jesus bid him go 
to Damascus, where he should learn his will. 
Saul now, though his eye-lids were open, 
yet could not see ; but his companions led 
him by the hand to Damascus, where he 
continued three days without sight, and 
without nourishment. On the third day, 
the Lord commanded a disciple of his, 
Ananias, to find out Saul, to lay his hands 
on him, and to cure his blindness This he 
did; then Saul was baptized, and filled 
with the Holy Ghost. He continued some 
days with the disciples at Damascus, preach- 
ing in the synagogues, and proving that 
Jesus was the Messiah. The conversion of 
Paul may be dated A.D. 35. 

Having preached some time at Damascus, 
he went into Arabia, (Gal. i. 17-) probably 
into the neighbourhood of Damascus, then 
under the government of Aretas, king of 
Arabia. After some time, he returned to 
Damascus, and preached the Gospel. The 
Jews, unable to endure the progress of the 
Gospel here, resolved to put him to death, 
and gained over the governor. Saul, how- 
ever, escaped, by being let down over the 
wall in a basket, (Acts ix. 24, 25, 26, 27.) 
A.D. 38. 

Coming to Jerusalem to see St. Peter, 
the disciples were afraid of him, not be- 
lieving him to be a convert; (Gal. i. 18.) 
but Barnabas having introduced him to the 
apostles, Saul related to them the manner 
of his conversion, &c. From Jerusalem he 
went to Csesarea of Palestine, and thence 
into his own country, Tarsus in Cilicia. 

A. D. 39. While Saul was in Cilicia, he 
had those divine visions and revelations of 
which he speaks; (2 Cor. xii.) on which 
occasion there was given him a thorn in the 
flesh, lest he should have been exalted above 
measure, through the abundance of the reve- 
lations. By this thorn in the flesh is now 
768 



generally supposed a paralytic affection, 
brought on by his vision, which occasioned a 
distortion of countenance, stammering, and 
paralytic affection of the nerves. But the 
words of the original do not compel us to 
suppose that the infirmity was absolutely 
occasioned by his vision, since this would 
exclude the instrumentality of Satan. It 
may be inferred, that the infirmity came on 
after the vision. Indeed, it is probable, 
that the high excitement of that vision, and of 
the other revelations with which he had 
been favoured, and was afterwards favoured, 
and the excessive and constant ferment of 
mind, joined to fatigues of body, would 
bring on chronical infirmities of the paraly- 
tic kind, such as, especially with diabolical 
co-operation, might occasion distortion of 
countenance, and some slight defect in 
utterance, yet fatal to oratory, not to men- 
tion hypochondriac and nervous affections, 
all which would tend to raise contempt with 
the multitude, and which joined to his dimi- 
nutive size, and crooked form, will readily 
account for the daOsveia rov (JibpaTog dwelt 
upon by his adversaries. 

Saul continued in Cilicia for some time, 
till A. D. 42, when Barnabas coming to 
Antioch by order of the Apostles, and 
having found many Christians there, went 
to Tarsus to seek Saul, and brought him to 
Antioch, where they continued a whole 
year. (Acts xi. 20, 25, 26.) During this 
time there happened a great famine in 
Judea, which commenced in the fourth, but 
raged chiefly in the fifth and sixth years of 
Claudius Caesar ; and the Christians of 
Antioch having made collections to assist 
their brethren at Jerusalem, they deputed 
thither Saul and Barnabas with their offer- 
ings, A.D. 44. Having acquitted them- 
selves of their commission, they returned 
to Antioch. Shortly after, God warned 
them by his prophets in this church, that 
he had appointed them to carry his word 
into other places. Then the church, after 
fasting and praying, with the prophets 
Simeon, Lucius, and Manaen, laid their 
hands on them, and sent them to preach 
whither the Holy Ghost should conduct 
them. 

Saul and Barnabas went first into Cyprus, 
preaching in the synagogues of the Jews. 
At Paphos, A.D. 45, they found a Jewish 
magician, called Bar-jesus, with the pro- 
consul Sergius Paulus. Bar-jesus did all he 
could to hinder the proconsul from em- 
bracing the Christian faith. As a punish- 
ment, Saul deprived him of his sight for a 
time, and the proconsul, having seen this 
miracle, became a convert. 

From Cyprus St. Paul and his company 
went A. D. 46, to Perga in Pamphyiia, 
where John Mark left them to return to 
Jerusalem. Making no stop at Perga, they 
came to Antioch in Pisidia, where being 
desired to speak in the synagogue, St. Paul 



PAU 



PAU 



in a long discourse shewed that Jesus was 
the Messiah foretold by the prophets ; and 
that he rose again the third day. He was 
desired to discourse again on the same sub- 
ject the next sabbath-day, when almost all 
the city came together to hear. The Jews 
seeing this concourse, and moved with envy, 
opposed what St. Paul said. Then said 
Paul and Barnabas boldly, ' We turn to the 
Gentiles. ' (Acts xiii. 1 — 46.) 

The Jews, unable to bear this happy pro- 
gress of the Gospel, drove away Paul and 
Barnabas from thence, who went to Ico- 
nium. They preached in their synagogue, 
converted a great number, both of Jews 
and Gentiles, and God confirmed their 
mission by many miracles. In the mean 
time, the Jews having incensed the Gen- 
tiles against Paul and Barnabas, and threat- 
ening to stone them, they retired to Lystra 
and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia. At Lystra 
was a man called iEneas, crippled in his 
feet from his mother's womb. This man 
the apostle bid to rise and stand upon his 
feet. The people seeing this miracle, 
cried out, tbat the gods were descended 
among them in human shape. They 
would have offered sacrifices to them ; 
but Paul and Barnabas, with much ado, 
restrained them. 

Some Jews of Antioch in Pisidia, and 
of Iconium, coming to Lystra, animated 
the people against the apostles, who stoned 
Paul, and drew him out of the city, think- 
ing him to be dead. But the disciples 
gathering about him, he rose up, and the 
next day went for Derbe. Having here 
also preached the Gospel, they returned 
to Lystra, to Iconium, and to Antioch of 
Pisidia ; to Pamphylia, and Perga ; thence 
they went down into Attalia, and sailed 
for Antioch in Syria, whither they returned 
A.D. 47. This first apostolical journey of 
St. Paul, in which he was accompanied and 
assisted by Barnabas, is supposed to have 
occupied about two years. (Acts xiii. 46 — 
52.; xiv. 1—27.) 

Paul and Barnabas continued at Antioch 
a considerable time ; and while they were 
there, a dispute arose between them and 
some Jewish Christians of Judea. These 
men asserted, that the Gentile converts 
could not obtain salvation through the 
Gospel, unless they were circumcised : 
Paul and Barnabas maintained the con- 
trary opinion. This dispute was carried 
on for some time with great earnestness ; 
and it being a question, in which not only 
the present, but all future Gentile converts 
wore concerned, it was thought right that 
Paul and Barnabas, with some others, 
should go up to Jerusalem to consult the 
apostles and elders concerning it. They 
passed through Phcenice and Samaria, anil 
upon their arrival at Jerusalem, A.D. 4!), a 
council was assembled lor the purpose of 
discussing this important point. IVter. 
7o"!J 



and James the Less, were present, and 
delivered their sentiments, which coincided 
with those of Paul and Barnabas ; and, 
after much deliberation, it was agreed, 
that, as a term or condition of salvation, 
neither circumcision, nor conformity to 
any part of the ritual law of Moses, was 
necessary in Gentile converts ; but that 
it should be recommended to them to ab- 
stain from certain specified things pro- 
hibited by that law, lest their indulgence 
in them should give offence to their 
brethren of the circumcision, who were 
still very zealous for the observance of the 
ceremonial part of their ancient religion. 
This decision, which was declared to have 
the sanction of the Holy Ghost, was com- 
municated to the Gentile Christians of 
Syria and Cilicia, by a letter written in 
the name of the apostles, elders, and whole 
church at Jerusalem, and conveyed by 
Judas and Silas, who accompanied Paul 
and Barnabas to Antioch for that purpose. 
(Acts xv. 1—35.) 

Not long after Paul's return to Antioch, 
Peter came thither, and at first associated 
freely with the Gentile converts; but he 
afterwards withdrew himself from them, 
through fear of incurring the displeasure 
of some Jewish Christians, who had come 
from Jerusalem. Paul publicly, and with 
great severity, reproved him for this in- 
stance of weakness or dissimulation, and 
pointed out the impropriety and inconsis- 
tency of such conduct. 

St. Paul, in this journey to Jerusalem, 
declared the doctrine he preached among 
the Gentiles, and discoursed of some points 
of it in private, in the presence of Bar- 
nabas and Titus, with Peter, James, and 
John, who could find nothing amiss in it. 
They saw with joy the grace that God had 
given him, and his appointment as apostle 
of the Gentiles. 

After Paul and Barnabas had continued 
a short time at Antioch, Paul proposed 
to Barnabas to visit the cities where they 
had planted the Gospel. Barnabas con- 
sented, but wished to take Mark with them. 
This was opposed by St. Paul, and caused 
a separation between them. Barnabas and 
Mark went together to Cyprus ; and St. 
Paul, taking >ilas, they crossed over Syria 
and Cilicia, and came to Derbe, and after- 
wards to Lystra, A.D. 50. Here they found 
a disciple called Timothy, the son of a 
Jewish mother, but of a Gentile father, 
whom St. Paul took with him, and cir- 
cumcised him, that he might not offend 
the Jews. They went over the provinces 
of Lycaonia, Phrygia, and Galatia, to Mysia, 
and, coining to Troas, they were joined by 
the evangelist Luke, and St. Paul had here 
a virion in the night. ' There stood a man 
of Macedonia, and prayed him, saying, 

Come over into Macedonia, anil help us.' 
( Vets XV. 85 41.; xvi. 1 9. 

3 1) 



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Paul knew this to be a command from 
heaven. Embarking, therefore, at Troas, 
they sailed to Neapolis, a city of Mace- 
donia, near the frontiers of Thrace, and 
came to Philippi, where they found some 
religious women, among whom was Lydia. 
Another day they happened to meet with 
a maid servant, who was possessed with a 
spirit of Python. Paul, turning towards 
her, said to the spirit, I command thee, 
in the name of Jesus Christ, to come out 
of her ; upon which it immediately left 
her. But the masters of the servant, who 
made great profit by her, accused Paul 
and Silas before the magistrates, who or- 
dered them to be whipped with rods, and 
sent them to prison. 

Towards midnight, as Paul and Silas 
were singing hymns to God, there was a 
great earthquake ; the foundations of the 
prison were shaken, all the doors flew 
open, and the fetters of the prisoners 
burst. The gaoler awaked, and, seeing all 
this, drew his sword with intention to kill 
himself; but Paul cried out to him to do 
himself no mischief, for they were all safe. 
The gaoler then brought out Paul and 
Silas, asking them what he must do to 
be saved ? Paul and Silas instructing 
him and his family, baptized them. In 
the morning the magistrates sent to re- 
lease his prisoners ; but Paul refused, say- 
ing, After they have publicly whipped us, 
being Roman citizens, they shall come 
themselves and fetch us out : the magis- 
trates hearing they were Roman citizens, 
did so. Paul and Silas went first to Lydia, 
and comforted the brethren ; then they 
departed from Philippi. (Acts xvi. 9 — 
40.) 

Passing through Amphipolis and Apol- 
lonia, they came to Thessalonica, the ca- 
pital of Macedonia, where the Jews had 
a synagogue. Paul, according to his cus- 
tom, there preached the Gospel three sab- 
bath-days successively. Several believed 
in Jesus Christ; but the greater part of 
the Jews raised a tumult in the city. The 
night following, the brethren conducted 
Paul and Silas towards Berea, where many 
were converted. 

The Jews of Thessalonica, being informed 
that Paul and Silas were at Berea, came 
thither, and animated the mob against 
them ; so that St. Paul was forced to with- 
draw, and went to Athens. 

Disputing with the Athenian philoso- 
phers, they brought him before the Areo- 
pagus, where he made his defence, in- 
tending to instruct them respecting the 
' Unknown God.' A few embraced the 
faith at Athens. (Acts xvii.) See Altar, 
Athens. 

Timothy came from Berea to Athens, 

according to the request of St. Paul, and 

informed him of the persecution which 

afflicted the Christians of Thessalonica. 

770 



This obliged the apostle to send him into 
Macedonia, that he might comfort them. 
After this, St. Paul went to Corinth, where 
he lodged with one Aquila, a Jew, a tent- 
maker ; and with him St. Paul worked, as 
being of the same trade. Here he made 
several converts, and baptized Stephanas 
and his house, with Crispus and Gaius. 
(1 Cor. i. 11. 16. 17- ; xvi. 15.) Silas and 
Timothy came to Corinth, (Acts xviii. 5. 
1 Thess. iii. 6. 9.) A.D. 51, and brought 
him great comfort, acquainting him with 
the good state of the faithful of Thessa- 
lonica. Shortly after he wrote his first 
Epistle to the Thessalonians, which is the 
first Epistle he wrote, A.D. 52. 

The second Epistle to the Thessalonians 
was written not long after the first. St. 
Paul, encouraged by the presence of Silas 
and Timothy, prosecuted the work of his 
ministry with new ardour ; but the Jews 
opposing him with blasphemous and op- 
probious words, * he shook his raiment, and 
said unto them, Your blood be upon your 
own heads ; I am clean : from henceforth I 
will go unto the Gentiles.' He then quit- 
ted the house of Aquila, and went to lodge 
with one Titus Justus, who was originally 
a Gentile, but one that feared God. In 
the mean time, God encouraged him by 
a vision, and told him that he had much 
people in Corinth. He continued here a 
year and six months, during which time 
he probably also wrote his Epistle to the 
Galatians. 

From Corinth Paul sailed into Syria, and 
thence he went to Ephesus. The Ephe- 
sians, upon hearing the Gospel explained 
by Paul, desired that he would continue 
with them ; but, as it was necessary for 
him to keep the approaching feast at Je- 
rusalem, he could not comply with their 
request : however, he promised that, with 
the permission of God, he would return 
to them. He sailed from Ephesus to Cae- 
sarea, and is supposed to have arrived at 
Jerusalem just before the feast of Pente- 
cost. After the feast he went to Antioch ; 
and this was the conclusion of his second 
apostolical journey, in which he was ac- 
companied by Silas ; and, in part of it, 
Luke and Timothy were also with him. 

Having made a short stay at Antioch, 
Paul set out upon his third apostolical 
journey. He passed through Galatia and 
Phrygia, confirming the Christians of those 
countries ; and thence, according to his 
promise, he went to Ephesus, A. D. 54. 
(Acts xviii.) He found there some dis- 
ciples who had only been baptized with 
John's baptism. He directed that they 
should be baptized in the name of Jesus ; 
and then he communicated to them the 
Holy Ghost. He preached for the space 
of three months in the synagogue ; but the 
Jews being hardened beyond conviction, and 
speaking reproachfully of the Christian re- 



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ligion before the multitude, he left them ; 
and, from that time, he delivered his in- 
structions in the school of a person called 
Tyrannus, who was probably a Gentile. 
Paul continued to preach in this place 
about two years, so that all the inhabitants 
of that part of Asia Minor ' heard the word 
of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks.' 
During this stay of St. Paul at Ephesus, 
he wrote his first Epistle to the Co- 
rinthians, probably in the beginning of 
the year 50; and from this Epistle we 
learn that he supported himself by his 
own labour at Ephesus, as he had before 
done at Corinth. (1 Cor. iv. 11, 12.) He 
alludes to the same thing in his speech to 
the Ephesian elders at Miletus. (Acts xx. 
34.) He performed many miracles at 
Ephesus ; and not only great numbers of 
people were converted to Christianity, but 
many also of those, who in this supersti- 
tious city used incantations and magical 
arts, professed their belief in the Gospel, 
and renounced their former practices, by 
publicly burning their books. 

Such was the general success of Paul's 
preaching at Ephesus. But Demetrius, a 
silversmith, who sold models of the temple 
and image of Diana, observing the tendency 
of the Gospel to put an end to every thing 
connected with idolatry, represented to the 
workmen employed by him, and to others of 
the same occupation, that not only their 
trade would be ruined, which they knew by 
experience to be very lucrative, but also 
that the temple of their ' great goddess, 
Diana,' the pride and glory of their city, 
would be brought into discredit and con- 
tempt, if Paul were permitted to propagate 
his doctrines, and to persuade the people 
1 that they be no gods which are made with 
hands:' these men, thus instigated both by 
interest and superstition, raised a great 
tumult in the city, and probably would have 
proceeded to extremities against Paul and 
his companions, if the chief magistrate had 
not interposed, and by his authority dis- 
persed the multitude. (Acts xix.) 

Previously to this disturbance Paul had 
intended to continue at Ephesus till Titus 
should return, whom he had sent (2 Cor. xii. 
18.) to enquire into the state of the church 
at Corinth. He now thought it prudent 
to go from Ephesus immediately ; (Acts xx.) 
and having taken an affectionate leave of 
the disciples, he set out for Troas, (2 Cor. 
ii. 12, 13.) where he expected to meet 
Titus. 

Titus, however, from some cause which 
is not known, did not come to Troas ; and 
l'aul was encouraged to pass over into 
Muedonia, with the hope of making con- 
verts. He nut Titus there, (2 Cor. \ ii. (>.) 
aiul sent him back, with several other per- 
sons, to apprize the Corinthians of his in- 
tention to visit them shortly. St. Paul's 
Second Epistle to the Corinthians was written 

771 



at this time. St. Paul, after preaching in 
Macedonia, and receiving from the Christ- 
ians of that country liberal contributions 
for their poor brethren in Judea, (2 Cor. 
viii. 1.) went to Corinth, and remained there 
about three months. Just before Paul left 
Corinth, he wrote his Epistle to the 
Romans, probably in the beginning of the 
year 58. The Christians also of Corinth, 
and of the rest of Achaia, contributed to the 
relief of their brethren in Judea. 

St. Paul's intention was to have sailed 
from Corinth into Syria ; but being in- 
formed that some unbelieving Jews, who 
had discovered his intention, lay in wait for 
him, he changed his plan, passed through 
Macedonia, and sailed from Philippi to 
Troas in five days. He staid at Troas seven 
days, and preached to the Christians on the 
first day of the week, the day on which they 
were accustomed to meet for the purpose of 
religious worship. St. Paul, being to de- 
part the day following, discoursed to them 
till midnight. During this time, a young 
man, called Eutychus, happening to sit in a 
window, overcome by sleep, fell down from 
three stories high, and was killed by the 
fall. St. Paul came down to him, embraced 
him, and restored him to life. He went on 
foot as far as Assos, (otherwise Apollonia) 
and embarked at Mitylene ; whence he 
came to Miletus, whither the elders of the 
church of Ephesus came to see him. 

After having exhorted them, and having 
prayed with them, he went on board, and 
arrived safe at Tyre. At Caesarea they 
found Philip the Evangelist, who was one 
of the seven deacons. While St. Paul was 
here, the prophet Agabus arrived also from 
Judea ; and having taken St. Paul's girdle, 
he bound his own hands and feet with it, 
saying, ' So shall the Jews at Jerusalem 
bind the man that owneth this girdle, and 
shall deliver him into the hands of the 
Gentiles.' This prediction caused great 
uneasiness to Paul's friends ; and they en- 
deavoured to dissuade him from his inten- 
tion of going thither. Paul, however, 
would not listen to their entreaties, but de- 
clared that he was ready to die at Jerusalem, 
if it were necessary, for the name of the 
Lord Jesus. Seeing him thus resolute, 
they desisted from their importunities, and 
accompanied him to Jerusalem, where he is 
supposed to have arrived just before the 
feast of Pentecost, A.D. 58. This may be 
considered as the end of St Paul's third 
apostolical journey. 

At Jerusalem the brethren received him 
with great joy ; and the day following he 
went to see St. .lames, at whose house 
Paul gave an account of what God had 
done among the Gentiles by his ministry. 
St. James informed him that the converted 
Jews were strangely prejudiced against bun. 
He advised Paul to join himself to four men 

who were there, and who hail had a VOW <>t' 

:; i. a 



PAU 

Nazariteship, and to contribute to the 
charge of their purification, and purify him- 
self also, that he might offer with them the 
offerings and sacrifices ordained for the 
purification of a Nazarite. Others, how- 
ever, seem more rightly to refer this vow, 
which was a civil vow, and not one of Naza- 
riteship, to Aquila. See Nazarites. 

St. Paul followed this advice, and the 
next day went into the temple, where he 
declared to the priests, that in seven days 
these four Nazarites would complete their 
vow of Nazariteship, and that he would 
contribute his share of their charges. But 
towards the end of these seven days, the 
Jews of Asia observing him in the temple, 
moved the people against him, seized him, 
shut the gates of the temple, and would 
have killed him, had not Lysias, the tribune 
of the Roman garrison there, run and res- 
cued him. St. Paul being on the steps, 
desired the tribune to suffer him to speak to 
the people. The tribune permitted him : 
and St. Paul related the manner of his con- 
version, and his mission from God to preach 
to the Gentiles. At his mentioning the 
Gentiles, the Jews cried out, Away with this 
wicked fellow out of the world, for he is 
not worthy to live ! 

The tribune brought him into the castle, 
and ordered that he should be put to the 
question by whipping ; but being bound, he 
said to the tribune, Is it lawful for you to 
whip a Roman citizen before you hear him ? 
The tribune, hearing this, caused him to be 
unbound, and, assembling the priests and 
the chiefs of the Jews, he brought Paul 
before them, that he might know the occa- 
sion of this tumult. Paul said, 'Brethren, 
I have lived in all good conscience before 
God until this day.' At these words, 
Ananias, the high-priest, ordered to give 
him a blow in the face. St. Paul replied 
to him, ' God shall smite thee, thou whited 
wall : for sittest thou to judge me after 
the law, and commandest me to be smitten 
contrary to the law?' Those present said 
to him, * Revilest thou God's high-priest V 
St. Paul excused himself by saying, that 
he did not know he was the high-priest. 
Then, perceiving that part of the assem- 
bly were Sadducees, and part Pharisees, 
he cried out, ' Brethren, I am a Pharisee, 
the son of a Pharisee : of the hope and 
resurrection of the dead I am called in 
question.' 

The assembly being divided in opinion, 
and the clamour increasing, the tribune and 
the soldiers fetched him out of the assembly 
into the castle. The following night the 
Lord appeared to Paul, to encourage him. 
The next day more than forty Jews engaged 
themselves by an oath, not to eat or drink 
till they had killed Paul. But St. Paul, 
being informed of this conspiracy by his 
sister's son, acquainted the tribune with it ; 
who gave orders that the night following he 
772 



PAU 

should be sent to Caesarea, to Felix the 
governor. (Acts xxii. xxiii.) 

Five days afterwards, Ananias, the high- 
priest, and some of the council, came to 
Caesarea, bringing with them Tertullus, an 
advocate, to plead against St. Paul. St. 
Paul easily refuted all their calumnies ; and 
Felix, having heard these discourses, put 
off the cause. It does not appear that 
Felix ever took any further step in this 
trial ; but, not long after, he and his wife 
Drusilla, who was a Jewess, sent for Paul 
to hear him, ' concerning the faith in Christ.' 
Paul knew the characters of the persons 
before whom he was to speak, and enlarged 
upon such points as were likely to affect 
them ; 'and as he reasoned of righteousness, 
temperance, and judgment to come, Felix 
trembled, and answered, Go thy way for 
this time ; when I have a convenient season, 
I will call for thee.' Felix was a man of 
profligate life and corrupt principles ; and 
this discourse of the apostle, though it 
caused a temporary remorse of conscience, 
and excited some dread of future punish- 
ment, made no lasting impression upon his 
mind ; on the contrary, he frequently sent 
for Paul afterwards, not for the purpose of 
hearing the great truths of the Gospel ex- 
plained and enforced, but with the hope 
that he would offer him money for his re- 
lease. (Acts xxiv.) 

At the end of two years, A.D. 60, Felix 
resigned the government of Judea to Portius 
Festus ; and, with a view of gratifying the 
Jews, he left Paul a prisoner at Caesarea. 
Three days after Festus landed at Caesarea, 
he went up to Jerusalem ; and the high- 
priest and the principal Jews, still retain- 
ing their malice, requested their new 
governor to send for Paul from Caesarea. 
Their intention was to have murdered him 
upon the road : but Festus refused to send 
for him, stating, that he should shortly 
return to Caesarea, and that he would try 
him there. In about ten days Festus went 
to Caesarea, and the day after his arrival 
Paul was brought before him : and the Jews, 
who had come from Jerusalem for that pur- 
pose, ' laid many and grievous complaints 
against him, which they could not prove.' 
Paul defended himself by declaring, in a few 
simple words, that he had been guilty of no 
offence, either against the law of Moses, or 
the authority of Caesar : but Festus, wishing 
to ingratiate himself with the Jews, asked 
Paul, whether he were willing to be tried at 
Jerusalem ? He again asserted his innocence, 
and, availing himself of his privilege as a 
Roman citizen, appealed to the emperor 
himself : and Festus, after some delibera- 
tion, informed him, that he should be sent 
to the emperor, as he desired. 

Not long after, king Agrippa, with his 
sister Bernice, came to congratulate Festus 
upon his accession to the government of 
Judea. Festus acquainted him with all the 



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circumstances relative to Paul ; and Agrippa 
expressing a desire to hear Paul, Festus 
promised that he should hear him the next 
day. Accordingly, on the following morning, 
Paul was brought in bonds before Agrippa, 
Bernice, the military officers, and principal 
persons of the city. Festus represented to 
the assembly, that the Jews had laid very 
heavy charges against Paul, declaring that 
he was not worthy to live ; that he had him- 
self found no guilt of that description in 
him ; but, upon his appealing to Caesar, he 
had determined to send him immediately 
to Rome ; and that he had now brought 
him before them, and especially before 
Agrippa, that after examination he might 
be enabled to state to the emperor, as it was 
his duty to do, the nature of the crimes al- 
leged against him. Then Agrippa, who is 
said to have been well acquainted both with 
the Jewish and Roman laws, told Paul, that 
he was permitted to speak for himself. In 
the course of his defence Paul argued so 
forcibly in support of the Gospel, and justi- 
fied his own conduct in so satisfactory a 
manner, that Agrippa acknowledged him- 
self almost persuaded to be a Christian, and 
declared that Paul might have been set at 
liberty, if he had not appealed unto Caesar. 
After an appeal was made to the emperor, 
the judge, from whom the appeal was made, 
could neither condemn nor release the pri- 
soner. (Acts xxv. xxvi.) 

As it was resolved to send Paul into Italy, 
he was taken on board a ship of Adramyt- 
tium, for Myra, in Lycia, where having 
found a ship bound for Italy, they sailed. 
But the season being far advanced, and the 
wind proving contrary, they arrived with 
difficulty enough at the Fairhavens, in 
Crete. St. Paul advised them to winter 
here ; but others preferred Phenice, another 
harbour of the same island As they were 
going thither, the wind drove them upon a 
little island, called Clauda, where the mari- 
ners, fearing to strike upon some sand 
bank, lowered their mast, and lay at the 
mercy of the waves. Three days afterward 
they threw overboard the tackling of the 
ship. Neither the sun nor stars appeared 
for fourteen days. In this extreme danger 
an angel assured St. Paul, that God had 
given him the lives of all who were in the 
ship with him, being two hundred and se- 
venty-six persons. On the fourteenth night 
the seamen thought by their sounding they 
approached land. They were attempting 
to save themselves in the boat; but St. Paul 
told the centurion and the soldiers, that, 
except the sailors continued in the ship, 
the lives of the passengers could not be 
saved. 

About day-break St. Paul persuaded 
them to take nourishment, assuring them 
that not a hair of their heads should pe- 
rish ; and after his example they took food. 
The soldiers, fearing lest any of the prisoners 
773 



should escape by swimming, were for put- 
ting them all to the sword : but the centu- 
rion would not sutler that, being willing to 
save Paul : and all of them came safe to 
shore. The island was called Melita, and 
the inhabitants received them with great 
humanity. (Acts xxviii. 1, 2,3, &c.) 

Being all very wet and cold, a great fire 
was lighted to dry them ; and Paul having 
gathered a handful of sticks, and put them 
on the fire, a viper sprung out of the fire, 
and seized his hand. The people said, This 
man is surely a murderer, and Divine ven- 
geance still pursues him. But Paul, shaking 
off the viper into the fire, received no in- 
jury from it. The people seeing this, 
changed their opinion, and took him for a 
god. He cured the father of Publius. the 
chief man of the island, of a fever and bloody 
flux. After this miracle all their sick were 
healed. See Melita. 

At the end of three months they em- 
barked again, and arrived, first at Syracuse, 
then at Rhegium, and lastly at Puteoli. 
Here St. Paul found some Christians, who 
detained him seven days ; then he set out 
for Rome. The Roman Christians having 
been informed of St. Paul's arrival, came to 
meet him as far as Appii-Forum, and the 
Three Taverns. St. Paul arrived at Rome 
in the spring of the year 61. At Rome he 
was allowed to dwell where he pleased, hav- 
ing a soldier to guard him, joined to him 
with a chain. Three days after his arrival, 
St. Paul desired to see the chief of the 
Jews. A day was appointed, and St. Paul 
preached to them the kingdom of God, 
endeavouring to convince them from Moses 
and the prophets, that Jesus was the Mes- 
siah. Some believed, and others disbe- 
lieved. 

Paul dwelt two whole years at Rome, in a 
hired lodging, where he received all that 
came to him, preaching the kingdom of 
God, and the religion of Jesus Christ, with- 
out interruption. His captivity contributed 
to the advancement of religion ; and he con- 
verted several persons, even of the empe- 
ror's court. (Philip, i. 12. 14. 18.; iv. 22.) 
The Scriptures do not inform us whether he 
was ever tried before Nero, who was at this 
time emperor of Rome; and the learned are 
much divided in their opinion on this point. 
St. Luke only says, 'Paul was suffered to 
dwell by himself with a soldier that kept 
him. And Paul dwelt two whole years in 
his own hired house, and received all that 
came in unto him, preaching the kingdom 
of God, and teaching those things which 
concern the Lord Jesus Christ, with all con- 
fidence, no man forbidding him.' Lardner, 
however, thinks it very strange, that any 
should be of opinion that Paul's cause was 
not heard at Rome, during the two years he 
remained in that city. The same writer 
supposes Paul to have come to Jerusalem at 
the Pentecost of the year 515, to Rome in the 



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spring of the year 61, and to have been re- 
leased in the former part of the year 63. 
During the apostle's imprisonment at Rome, 
he wrote his Epistles to the Ephesians, 
Philippians, Colossians, and to Philemon ; 
and it seems probable that he wrote his 
Epistle to the Hebrews soon after his re- 
lease. 

As St. Luke has not continued St. Paul's 
history beyond his first imprisonment at 
Rome, we have no authentic record of his 
subsequent travels and labours from the 
spring of A.D. 63, when he was released, to 
the time of his martyrdom. By what means 
St. Paul was delivered from prison is not 
known. Calmet, with great probability, 
conjectures that the Jews durst not prose- 
cute him before the emperor. It seems pro- 
bable that, immediately after he recovered 
his liberty, St. Paul went to Jerusalem ; and 
that afterwards he travelled through Asia 
Minor, Crete, Macedonia, and Greece, con- 
firming his converts, and regulating the 
affairs of the different churches which he 
had planted in those countries. St. Paul 
probably wrote his first Epistle to Timothy, 
and his Epistle to Titus, at this time ; that 
is, between his first and second imprison- 
ments at Rome. Some modern authors 
consider St. Paul as making two apostolical 
journeys after the first of these imprison- 
ments ; the first by way of Crete, through 
Judea, to Antioch ; the second from Antioch, 
through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, Macedonia, 
and thence to Rome. No mention, how- 
ever, is made of these journeys in any an- 
cient author. Whether the apostle preached 
the Gospel in Spain at this time, as some 
have imagined, seems very uncertain. The 
opinion that Paul preached the Gospel in 
Spain probably arose from the following 
passage in his Epistle to the Romans: 
' Whensoever I take my journey into Spain, 
t will come to you ;' but we have no certain 
information whether he ever went into Spain 
or not. Some, however, have argued from 
an expression of Clement, in his Epistle to 
the Corinthians, that Paul went into Spain. 
Clement says, that this apostle, 'having 
taught the whole world righteousness, and 
having come to the borders of the West, 
and having suffered martyrdom, went 
to the holy place.' By ' the borders of 
the west,' some contend that Spain is 
meant ; but, observes Lardner, by this ex- 
pression is meant only Italy, or Rome, 
where Clement was, and where Paul suf- 
fered. 

It was the unanimous tradition of the 
church, that St. Paul returned to Rome ; 
that he underwent a second imprisonment 
there, and at last was put to death by the 
emperor Nero. During his second impri- 
sonment at Rome, he wrote his second 
Epistle to Timothy. Tacitus and Sueto- 
nius have mentioned a dreadful fire which 
happened at Rome in the time of Nero. It 
774 



was believed that the emperor himself was 
the author of that fire ; but, to remove the 
odium from himself, he chose to attribute it 
to the Christians ; and, to give some colour 
to that unjust imputation, he persecuted 
them with the utmost cruelty. In this per- 
secution Peter and Paul suffered martyr- 
dom, probably in the year 65 ; and if we 
may credit Sulpicius Severus, a writer of 
the fifth century, the former was crucified, 
and the latter beheaded. 

The following masterly observations on 
St. Paul's moral character are the produc- 
tion of Dr. Paley : " St. Paul's letters 
furnish evidence of the soundness and 
sobriety of his judgment. His caution in 
distinguishing between the occasional sug- 
gestions of inspiration, and the ordinary 
exertions of his natural understanding, is 
without example in the history of enthu- 
siasm. His morality is every where calm, 
pure, and rational ; adapted to the condition, 
the activity, and the business of social life, 
and of its various relations ; free from the 
over-scrupulousness and austerities of su- 
perstition, and from, what was more perhaps 
to be apprehended, the abstractions of 
quietism, and the soarings or extravagancies 
of fanaticism. His judgment concerning a 
hesitating conscience ; his opinion of the 
moral indifferency of many actions, yet of 
the prudence and even the duty of compli- 
ance, where non-compliance would produce 
evil effects upon the minds of the persons 
who observed it, is as correct and just as 
the most liberal and enlightened moralist 
could form at this day. The accuracy of 
modern ethics has found nothing to amend 
in these determinations. What Lord Lyt- 
tleton has remarked of the preference as- 
cribed by St. Paul to inward rectitude of 
principle above every other religious ac- 
complishment, is very material to our pre- 
sent purpose. ' Though I speak with the 
tongues of men and of angels, and have not 
charity, I am become as sounding brass, or 
a tinkling cymbal,' &c. (I Cor. xiii. 1 — 3.) 
Did ever enthusiast prefer that universal 
benevolence, meant by charity here, (which, 
we may add, is attainable by every man,) 
to faith and to miracles, to those religious 
opinions which he had embraced, and to 
those supernatural graces and gifts which 
he imagined he had acquired ; nay even to 
the merit of martyrdom? Is it not the 
genius of enthusiasm to set moral virtues 
infinitely below the merit of faith ; and of 
all moral virtues to value that least which 
is most particularly enforced by St. Paul, 
a spirit of candour, moderation, and 
peace ? Certainly, neither the temper nor 
the opinions of a man subject to fanatic 
delusions are to be found in this passage. 
His letters, indeed, every where discover 
great zeal and earnestness in the cause in 
which he was engaged ; that is to say, he 
was convinced of the truth of what he 



PAU 



PAU 



taught, he was deeply impressed, but not 
more so than the occasion merited, with 
a sense of its importance. This produces 
a corresponding animation and solicitude 
in the exercise of his ministry. But would 
not these considerations, supposing them 
to have been well founded, have holden 
the same place, and produced the same 
effect, in a mind the strongest and the most 
sedate 1 Here, then, we have a man of 
liberal attainments, and in other respects 
of sound judgment, who had addicted his 
life to the service of the Gospel. We see 
him, in the prosecution of his purpose, 
travelling from country to country, en- 
during every species of hardship, encoun- 
tering every extremity of danger, assaulted 
by the populace, punished by the magis- 
trates, scourged, beat, stoned, left for 
dead ; expecting, wherever he came, a re- 
newal of the same treatment, and the same 
dangers; yet, when driven from one city, 
preaching in the next ; spending his whole 
time in the employment, sacrificing to it 
his pleasures, his ease, his safety; persist- 
ing in this course to old age, unaltered by 
the experience of perverseness, ingrati- 
tude, prejudice, desertion ; unsubdued by 
anxiety, want, labour, persecutions ; un- 
wearied by long confinement, undismayed 
by the prospect of death. Such was St. 
Paul." 

" Paul," says Mr. Locke, " is full of 
the matter he treats ; and writes with 
warmth, which usually neglects method, 
and those partitions and pauses, which 
men educated in the schools of rhetori- 
cians usually observe." There is, how- 
ever, a real connexion and coherence 
in all his writings ; and his reasoning, 
although it may sometimes seem to be 
desultory, will always be found to be cor- 
rect and convincing. Instead of the beau- 
ties which arise from a nice arrange- 
ment of words, an harmonious cadence 
of periods, and an artificial structure of 
sentences, we have a style at once concise 
and highly figurative, and a striking 
peculiarity and uncommon energy of lan- 
guage. Whenever he speaks of the doc- 
trines and excellency of the Christian 
religion, enlarges upon the nature and 
attributes of the Deity, or terrifies with 
the dread of divine judgments, his style 
rises with the subject ; and while our 
minds are impressed with the justness 
and the dignity of the sentiments, we 
cannot but admire the force and sublimity 
of the expressions. Though he never 
departs from the authority of the apostolic 
character, yet the sensibility of his own 
heart frequently leads him to appeal to 
the feelings and affections of those to 
whom he writes ; and the zeal of his 
temper is so constantly apparent through- 
out his Epistles, that no one can read 
them with attention, without catching 
775 



some portion of that fire by which he was 
animated. Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 345 — 380 ; 
Paley's Horee Paulince, pp. 41 1 — 425 ; 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. 
ii. book ii. p. 1254, note; Bishop Watson's 
Theolog. Tracts, vol. ii. p. 181, &c. 

PAULIANS, or Paulianists, a deno- 
mination which appeared in the third cen- 
tury; so called from Paul of Samosata, 
bishop of Antioch. He taught that the 
Son and the Holy Ghost exist in God in 
the same manner as the faculties of reason 
and activity do in man ; that Christ was 
born of a mere man, but that the reason, 
or wisdom, of the Father descended into 
him, and by him wrought miracles upon 
earth, and instructed the nations; and 
finally, that, on account of this union of 
the divine Word with the man Jesus, 
Christ might, though improperly, be called 
God. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 
248. 

PAULICIANS, a denomination formed 
in the seventh century by two brothers, 
Paul and John, inhabitants of Jerusalem, 
from the former of whom they derive their 
name. 

The tenets attributed to this sect are as 
follow:— (1.) That the inferior and visible 
world is not the production of the Supreme 
Being. — (2.) That the evil principle was 
engendered by darkness and fire, not self- 
originated and eternal. — (3.) That, though 
Christ was the Son of Mary, yet he 
brought from heaven his human nature. — 
(4.) That Christ was clothed with an 
ethereal, celestial, and impassable body, and 
did not really expire on the cross : hence they 
refused to pay religious homage to the cross. 
— (5. ) That the bread and wine which 
Christ is said to have administered to his 
disciples at his Last Supper, only signifies 
the divine discourses and exhortations of 
the Saviour, which are a spiritual food and 
nourishment to the soul, and fill it with 
repose, satisfaction, and delight; hence 
they refused to celebrate the institution of 
the Lord's Supper. — (6.) They rejected the 
books of the Old Testament, and looked 
upon its writers as inspired by the Creator 
of the world, and not by the Supreme 
God. They received all the books of the 
New Testament, except the Epistles of St. 
Peter, which they rejected for reasons un- 
known to us. 

This denomination had not, like the 
Manicheans, an ecclesiastical govern- 
ment, administered by bishops, priests, 
and deacons. They had no sacred order 
of nun, distinguished by their manner of 
life, their habit, or any other circum- 
stance, from the rest of the assembly; 
nor had councils, synods, or such -like 
institutions, any place in their religious 

polity. They had certain doctors, whom 

they called St/iit'ciicuii, that is, companions 



PEK 



PEL 



in the journey of life ; and also Notarii. 
Among these there reigned a perfect 
equality ; and they had no peculiar rights, 
or privileges, or any external mark of 
dignity to distinguish them from the 
people. The only singularity which 
attended their promotion to the rank of 
doctors was, that they changed their lay- 
names for Scripture ones, as if there had 
been something peculiarly venerable in the 
names of holy men, whose lives and actions 
are recorded in the sacred writings. Mo- 
sheinis Eccles. Hist. vol. ii. pp. 175, 176. 

PE'KAH, npD, <J>aicd, <paKeai, signifies 
he that opens; otherwise, that opens the 
eye, or that is at liberty, Pekah, son of 
Remaliah, was general of the army of 
Pekahiah, king of Israel. He conspired 
against his master, (2 Kings xv. 25.) in 
the year of the world 3245, attacked him 
in the tower of his royal palace of Samaria, 
and being seconded by Argob and Arieh, 
and by fifty men of Gilead, he slew him, 
and reigned in his place twenty years. 
Perhaps Argob and Arieh may here sig- 
nify the cities of Argob and Areopolis, 
beyond Jordan, which were parties in the 
conspiracy of Pekah. Pekah did evil 
before the Lord, and followed the wicked 
example of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, 
who made Israel to sin. Under the reign 
of Pekah came Tiglath-pileser, king of 
Assyria, into the country of Israel, and 
took Ijon, Abel-beth-maachah, Janoah, 
Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and all the country 
of Naphtali, and carried away all the 
inhabitants into Assyria. At last, Hoshea, 
son of Elah, formed a conspiracy against 
Pekah, slew him, and reigned in his 
stead. 

PEKAHI'AH, rrnpEJ, HaKtia, signi- 
fies, it is the Lord that opens. Pekahiah, 
son and successor of Menahem, king . of 
Israel, (2 Kings xv. 22, 23.) in the year 
of the world 3243, reigned only two years. 
He did evil before the Lord, and followed 
the steps of Jeroboam, tbe son of Nebat, 
who made Israel to sin. Pekab, the son of 
Remaliah, conspired against him, and killed 
him in his own palace. 

PELAGIANS, a sect that arose in the 
fifth century. Pelagius was a British monk, 
of some rank, and very exalted repu- 
tation. He, with his friend Celestius, tra- 
velled to Rome, where they resided very 
early in the fifth century, and opposed 
with warmth the doctrines of original sin, 
and the necessity of divine grace. What 
reception their doctrines met with at Rome 
does not appear ; but their uncommon piety 
and virtue excited general approbation. On 
the approach of the Goths, they retired to 
Africa, where Celestius remained, with a 
view of gaining admittance as a presbyter 
into the church of Carthage. Pelagius 
proceeded to Palestine, where he enjoyed 
the favour and protection of John, bishop 
776 



of Jerusalem. But his friend and his opi- 
nions met with a very different reception 
from Augustine, the celebrated bishop of 
Hippo. 

Whatever parts were visited by these un- 
orthodox friends, they still asserted their 
peculiar opinions ; and they were gradually 
engaged in a warm contest, in the course of 
which they were probably led to advance 
more than had originally occurred to them. 
In contending for the truth of their doc- 
trines, they asserted, ' that mankind de- 
rived no injury from the sin of Adam ; that 
we are now as capable of obedience to the 
will of God, as he was ; that, otherwise, it 
would have been cruel and absurd to pro- 
pose to mankind the performance of certain 
duties, with the sanction of rewards, and 
the denunciation of punishments ; and that, 
consequently, men are born without vice, 
as well as without virtue.' Pelagius is said 
also to have maintained, ' that it is possible 
for men, provided they fully employ the 
powers and faculties with which they are 
endued, to live without sin ;' and though he 
did not deny, that external grace, or the 
doctrines and motives of the Gospel, are 
necessary, yet he is said to have rejected 
the necessity of internal grace, or the aids 
of the Divine Spirit. He acknowledged 
' that the power we possess of obeying the 
will of God, is a Divine gift ;' but asserted, 
' that the direction of this power depends 
upon ourselves ; that natural death is not a 
consequence of the sin of Adam, but of the 
frame of man ; and that Adam would have 
died, though he had not sinned.' Isidore, 
Chrysostom, and Augustine, strenuously op- 
posed these opinions; and the last pro- 
cured their condemnation in a synod held 
at Carthage, in 412. They were, however, 
favourably received at Rome ; and pope 
Zozimus was at the head of the Pelagian 
party ; but his decision against the African 
bishops, who had opposed Pelagianism, was 
disregarded by them, and the pontiff yielded 
at length to their reasonings and remon- 
strances, and condemned the men whom he 
had before honoured with his approbation. 
The council of Ephesus likewise condemned 
the opinions of Pelagius and Celestius ; and 
the emperor Honorius, in 418, published an 
edict, which ordained that the leaders of 
the sect should be expelled from Rome, and 
their followers exiled. Some of the Pela- 
gians taught that Christ was a mere man, 
and that men might lead sinless lives be- 
cause Christ did so — that Jesus became 
Christ after his baptism, and God after his 
resurrection ; the one arising from his unc- 
tion, the other from the merit of his passion, 
The Pelagian controversy, which began with 
the doctrines of grace and original sin, was 
extended to predestination, and excited con- 
tinual discord and division in the church. 
Dr. Gregory's History of the Christian Church, 
vol. i. pp. 272-274. 



PEL 



PEN 



PELATI AHjTViabs, signifies let the Lord 
deliver, or deliverance, or flight of the Lord. 
Pelatiah, son of Benaiah, was a prince of 
the people, who lived under Zedekiah, 
king of Judah, and opposed the advice 
given by Jeremiah, to submit to Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Ezekiel, being a captive in Meso- 
potamia, had a vision, (chap. xi. 1, 2, &c) 
in which he saw twenty-five men at the 
door of the temple of Jerusalem, among 
whom Jaazaniah, the son of Azur, and Pe- 
latiah, the son of Benaiah, were the most 
remarkable. The Lord said to him, Son of 
man, these are the men who have thoughts 
of iniquity, and who are forming pernicious 
designs against this city, &c. As he was 
prophesying in this manner, Pelatiah, the 
son of Benaiah, died. 

PE'LEG, Jbs, signifies division. Peleg, 
son of Eber, was born in the year of the 
world 1757. The Scripture says, that his 
father named him Peleg, signifying divi- 
sion, because in his time the earth was 
divided, (Gen. xi. 16.; x. 25.): whether 
Noah had begun to distribute the earth 
among his descendants some years before 
die building of Babel ; or that Peleg came 
into the world the same year that Babel 
was begun ; or that Eber, by a spirit of 
prophecy, named his son Peleg some years 
before the tower of Babel was commenced. 
What here perplexes interpreters is, 1. 
That Peleg was born not above one hun- 
dred years after the deluge. But it should 
seem that the number of men was not then 
sufficient for such an undertaking as that 
of Babel. 2. Joktan, the brother of Peleg, 
had already thirteen sons at the time of the 
dispersion, after the confusion of Babel. 
Peleg being born in the thirty-fourth year 
of Eber, (Gen. xi. 16.) it is impossible his 
brother Joktan should have such a num- 
ber of children at the birth of Peleg. It 
seems, therefore, that he was not born at 
the time of the dispersion. To this it may 
be answered, that Moses has enumerated 
the names of the thirteen sons of Joktan, 
(Gen. x. 26.) by way of anticipation, though 
they were not born till after the confusion 
of Babel ; but, as they possessed a very 
large country, it was convenient to notice 
and to name them among the other de- 
scendants of Noah, who participated in the 
provinces of the East. However this be, 
at the age of thirty years Peleg begat Reu ; 
and he died at the age of two hundred and 
thirty-nine. 

Dr. Hales observes, that ' of Peleg's al- 
lotted settlement a trace may perhaps re- 
main in the town of Phalga, not far from 
the conflux of the river Chaboras with the 
Euphrates, where the town of Charran 
was seated. Bochart rather derives the 
name of the town from Phalga, signifying, 
in the Syriac dialect, " the middle," because 
it was midway between the two Seleueias ; 
the one city in Pieria, the other in Mcso- 

777 ' 



potamia. Peleg began the third reduc- 
tion of the standard of human life.' Hales' s 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
p. 47. 

PE'LETHITES, »nf?B, 0eXn, 0£\m\ in 
Chaldee, signifies those that draw the bow, 
or slingers ; in Hebrew, judges, or destroy- 
ers. The Pelethites and the Cherethites 
are famous under the reign of David, as 
the most valiant men of his army, and the 
guards of his person* They were origin- 
ally Philistines, of Gath. See Chere- 
thim. 

PELICAN. The Talmud describes the 
kaat as a water bird, with a long neck ; the 
Septuagint read pelecas, and the Vulgate 
onocrotalus. The principal food of the pe- 
lican, or onocrotalus, is shell-fish, which it 
is said to swallow shells and all, and after- 
wards, when, by the heat of its stomach, the 
shells begin to open, to vomit them up 
again, and pick out the fish. But it may 
be justly questioned whether this bird does 
really take its prey into its stomach in the 
first instance. It is more probable, that 
its prey goes no farther than the bag or 
pouch under its lower chap, which ' serves 
not only as a repository for its food, but as 
a net to catch it. And it may be further 
observed, that in feeding its young ones, 
(whether this bag is loaded with water or 
more solid food,) the onocrotalus squeezes 
the contents of its mouth into their mouths, 
by strongly compressing it upon its breast 
with its bill ; an action which might well 
give occasion to the received tradition and 
reports that the pelican, in feeding her 
young, pierced her own breast, and nou- 
rished them with her blood.' ' This bird,' 
says Mr. Edwards, ' seemed to me to be 
more than double the bigness of the largest 
swan. I thought it something incredible 
in Willoughby's Description, that a man 
should put his head into the pouch under 
the bill, till I saw it performed in this bird 
by its keeper, and am sure a second man's 
head might have been put in with it at the 
same time. The academy of Paris think 
the bird (of this kind) they have described 
is the pelican of Aristotle, and the onocro- 
talus of Pliny. The pelican seems to in- 
habit the greatest part of the old world, it 
being found in many climates, both far 
north and south, as well as in the inter- 
mediate latitudes, it being pretty common 
in Russia, abounding in Egypt, and some- 
times found at the Cape of Good Hope.' 
Edwards's Nat. Hist, of Birds, part ii. p. 92 ; 
Parkhurst's Hebreto and English Lexicon, pp. 
631, 632. 

PENANCE. The popish sacrament of 
penance is derived from the Scripture doc- 
trine of repentance ; but it is, in fact, a cor- 
ruption of a practice which prevailed in the 
primitive church. During the severe per- 
secutions which the Christians Buffered in 
the early ages of the Gospel, many, through 



PEN 



PEN 



fear of tortures and death, apostatized from 
the faith. It frequently happened, that 
these men, after the danger was past, were 
desirous of returning to communion with 
the church ; but they were not allowed, 
till they had made a public confession of 
their offence in the presence of the con- 
gregation. In this manner confession be- 
gan to be a part of ecclesiastical discipline ; 
and being thus, in the first instance, ap- 
plied to a crime of a public nature, it was 
afterwards extended to private sin. Be- 
sides the shame of public confession, the 
offending party was compelled to submit 
to public reproof, to acts of penance, to 
exclusion from the sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper, and to a temporary suspension 
of all the privileges of a Christian. We 
learn from the canons of the numerous 
councils, which were held in the fourth 
and fifth centuries, that they were chiefly 
occupied in regulating the nature and du- 
ration of these censures, and in settling the 
degree of discretionary power to be vested 
in bishops for the purpose of relaxing or 
shortening them, according to the circum- 
stances of the case. Public confession was 
soon found to be attended with many in- 
conveniences ; and, therefore, instead of it, 
offenders were permitted to confess their 
sins privately, either to the bishops them- 
selves, or to penitentiary priests appointed 
by them. When the punishment, which 
was still public, though the sins remained 
secret, was finished, the penitent was for- 
mally received into communion with the 
church, by prayer and imposition of hands. 
The office of a penitentiary priest was 
abolished in the East in the reign of The- 
odosius ; but it was retained much longer 
in the western church. In the fifth cen- 
tury, public penance was submitted to 
with difficulty and reluctance ; and it was 
thought expedient to allow penance, in 
certain cases, to be performed in monas- 
teries, or in some private place, before a 
small select number of persons; this pri- 
vate penance was gradually extended to 
more and more cases ; and before the end of 
the seventh century, the practice of public 
penance for private sins was entirely 
abolished. About the end of the eighth 
century, penance began to be commuted ; 
in the room of the ancient severities, 
prayers, masses, and alms were substi- 
tuted ; and in process of time the clergy 
of the church of Rome gained such an 
ascendancy over the minds of the people, 
as to persuade them that it was their duty 
to confess all their sins, however private 
or heinous, to the priest, who had power 
to prescribe the conditions of absolution ; 
and, to give a greater sanction to this delu- 
sion, they called it a sacrament, and made 
it to consist in confession to the priest, and 
in absolution from him, after or before such 
acts of devotion, mortification, and charity, 
778 



as he should think fit to enjoin. By a 
canon of the council of Lateran, held A.D. 
1215, every person was directed to confess 
his sins, at least once in every year, to the 
priest of his parish. A ritual was drawn 
up for this purpose, which is still used 
by Papists, and in which the priest ab- 
solves without any qualification or reserve ; 
and it was decreed by the council of Trent, 
that all were to be anathematized who 
maintained ' non requiri confessionem pce- 
nitentis, ut sacerdos eum absolvere possit;' 
or who asserted ' absolutionem sacramen- 
talem sacerdotis non esse actum judiciale, 
sed nudum ministerium pronunciandi et 
declarandi remissa esse peccata.' 

It is, therefore, scarcely necessary to 
observe, that the penance of the church 
of Rome is totally different from the Gos- 
pel doctrine of repentance, which consists 
in an inward sorrow for past sins, and a 
firm resolution of future amendment. ' The 
true penance enjoined by the Gospel, is 
the forsaking of sin, and the doing acts of 
virtue. Fasting, prayers, and alms-giving, 
are acts that are very proper means to 
raise us to this temper. If fasting is joined 
with prayer, and if prayer arises out of an 
inward devotion of mind, and is serious 
and fervent, then we know that it has 
great efficacy, as being one of the chief 
acts of our religious service of God, to 
which the greatest promises are made, and 
upon which the best blessings do descend 
upon us. Alms-giving is also a main part 
of charity, which, when done from a right 
principle of loving God and our neighbour, 
is of great value in his sight. But if fasting 
is only an exercise of the body, and of ab- 
staining so long, and from such things, 
this may, perhaps, trouble and pain the 
body, but bodily exercise profiteth nothing ; 
so not to mention the mockery of fasting, 
when it is only a delay of eating, after 
which all liberties are taken, or an absti- 
nence which is made up with other de- 
licious and inflaming nutritives, these are 
of no value, being only inventions to de- 
ceive men> and to expose religion to 
mockery. But even severe and afflicting 
fasting, if done only as a punishment, 
which, when it is over, the penance is be- 
lieved to be completed, gives such a low 
idea of God and religion, that from thence 
men are led to think very slightly of sin, 
when they know at what price they can 
carry it off. Such a continuance in fast- 
ing, in order to prayer, as humbles and de- 
presses nature, and raises the mind, is a 
great means to reform the world ; but 
fasting, as a prescribed task to expiate 
our sins, is a scorn put upon religion. 
Prayer, when it arises from a serious 
heart that is earnest in it, and when it 
becomes habitual, is certainly a most ef- 
fectual means to reform the world, and to 
fetch down divine assistances ; but to ap- 



PEN 



PEN 



point so many vocal prayers to be gone 
through as a task, and then to tell the 
world, that the running through these 
with few or no inward acts accompanying 
them, is contrition or attrition, this is liker 
a design to root out all the impressions 
of religion, and all sense of that repent- 
ance which the Gospel requires, than to 
promote it This may be a task fit to ac- 
custom children to, but it is contrary to the 
true genius of religion, to teach men, in- 
stead of that reasonable service that we 
ought to offer up to God, to give him only 
the labour of the lips, which is the sacri- 
fice of fools. Prayers gone through as a 
task can be of no value, and can find no 
acceptation in the sight of God. And, as 
St. Paul said, that if he gave all his goods 
to the poor, and had not charity, he was 
nothing ; so the greatest profusion of 
alms-giving, when done in a mercenary 
way, to buy off, and to purchase a pardon, 
is the turning of God's house from being a 
house of prayer, to be a den of thieves.' 
Burnet's Exposition of the Thirty-nine Ar- 
ticles, pp. 351, 352; Tomline's Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. ii. pp. 420—423. 

PENIN'NAH, n339, <pevvave, signifies, 
pearl, precious stone; otherwise, his face. 
Peninnah was the second wife of Elkanah, 
the father of Samuel. (1 Sam. i. 2, 3, &c.) 
Peninnah had several children, but Han- 
nah, afterwards mother of Samuel, was bar- 
ren. Peninnah, instead of giving glory to 
God, the author of fruitfulness, was ele- 
vated with pride, and insulted Hannah. But 
the Lord having graciously visited Hannah, 
Peninnah was humbled ; and some inter- 
preters think, that God took her children 
from her, or at least that she ceased bear- 
ing after this time, according to the expres- 
sion of Hannah, ' the barren hath borne 
seven, and she that hath many children is 
waxed feeble.' 

PENTAFOLIS, UevrairoXig, signifies 
a country of five cities. This name is given 
to the five cities, Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, 
Zeboim, and Zoar. They were all five con- 
demned to destruction ; but Lot interceded 
for Zoar, otherwise called Bala. The other 
four were consumed by fire from Heaven, 
and the place where they had stood became 
the lake Asphaltites. 

PEN'TATEUCH, UevTaTev X og t signi- 
fies the five boohs. This word, derived from 
the Greek, signifies, literally, the collection 
of the five instruments or books of Moses ; 
that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Num- 
bers, Deuteronomy. 

The first argument in favour of the genu- 
ineness of the Pentateuch, is the universal 
concurrence of all antiquity. The rival 
kingdoms of Judah and Israel, the hostile 
serfs of Jews and Samaritans, and every 
denomination of early Christians, received 
the Pentateuch as unquestionably written by 
Moses. It is also mentioned and referred 
770 



to by many heathen authors in a man- 
ner which shows it plainly to have been the 
general and undisputed opinion of the Pagan 
world, that this book was the work of the 
Jewish legislator. Nicolaus of Damascus, 
a philosopher, poet, historian, and orator, 
in the time of Augustus, after describing 
Baris, a high mountain in Armenia, upon 
which it was reported that many who fled at 
the time of the Deluge were saved, and that 
one came on shore upon the top of it, adds, 
'■ this might be the man about whom Moses, 
the legislator of the Jews, wrote.' Diodo- 
rus Siculus, who also lived in the time of 
Augustus, mentions Moses as the legislator 
of the Jews in three different places of his 
remaining works ; and in a fragment of the 
fortieth book, after giving some account of 
the conduct and laws of Moses, he says, that 
' Moses concludes his laws by declaring, that 
he had heard from God the things which he 
addresses to the Jews.' Strabo, who also lived 
in the time of Augustus, considered the 
Pentateuch as written by Moses. The em- 
peror Julian, whose apparent favour to the 
Jews proceeded only from his hostility to the 
Christians, was obliged to confess that the 
books which bore the name of Moses were 
genuine, and that the facts which they con- 
tained were worthy of credit. 

To this testimony from profane authors 
may be added the positive assertions of the 
sacred writers both of the Old and New 
Testament. Moses frequently speaks of 
himself as directed by God to write the com- 
mands which he had received from him, and 
to record the events which occurred during 
his ministry, (Exod. xvii. 14. ; xxiv. 4. ; 
Numb, xxxiii. 2.) ; and at the end of Deu- 
teronomy he expressly says, ' And Moses 
wrote his law, and delivered it unto the 
priests, the sons of Levi, which bare the ark 
of the covenant of the Lord, and unto all the 
elders of Israel.' (Deut. xxxi. 9.) After- 
wards, in the same chapter, he says still 
more fully, l And it came to pass, when 
Moses had made an end of writing the words 
of this law in a book, until they were 
finished, that Moses commanded the Levites, 
which bare the ark of the covenant of the 
Lord, saying, Take this book of the law, and 
put it in the side of the ark of the covenant 
of the Lord your God, that it may be there 
for a witness against thee.' (Deut xxxi. 24, 
&c.) If the Pentateuch had been forged, 
or even written in a subsequent age from 
existing materials, these passages must 
have excited inquiry, and have caused 
the fraud to be detected. In the New 
Testament also the writing of the Law, or 
Pentateuch, is expressly ascribed to Moses, 
(John i. 45.) ; and in a variety of passages 
in the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles, Moses 
is evidently considered as the author of the 
Pentateuch, and every one of the live books 
is quoted as written by him. It is likewise 
material to remark, as of itself a sufficient 



PEN 



PEN 



proof of the inspiration of the Pentateuch, 
that Christ called the words of Exodus and 
Deuteronomy the words of God himself. 
(Compare Matt. xv. 4. with Exodus xx. 12. 
and Deuteronomy v. 16.) 

Mr. Whiston asserts, and in support of 
his assertion appeals to a similar declara- 
tion of the learned Grotius, ' That there 
do not appear in the genuine records of 
mankind, belonging to ancient times, any 
testimonies that contradict those produced 
from the Old Testament; and that it may 
be confidently affirmed, there are no such 
to be found.' We are not, however, con- 
fined to negative testimony ; for it would 
be easy to bring forward nearly demon- 
strative evidence to prove the positive agree- 
ment of antiquity with the narrative of the 
sacred historian. It appears that the most 
ancient traditions remarkably agree with 
Moses's account of the creation of the world, 
the fall of man, the deluge, and the disper- 
sion of mankind; that about the time men- 
tioned in the Pentateuch, a part of the in- 
habitants of Egypt, who came originally from 
the East, did migrate under a person of the 
name of Moyses, or Moses ; that a people 
with such laws and institutions as he pro- 
fesses to have given them, have existed from 
remote antiquity; and we ourselves are 
eye-witnesses that such a people, so circum- 
stanced, exist at this hour, and in a state 
exactly conformable to his predictions con- 
cerning them. But the civil history of the 
Jews is seldom contested, even by those 
who imagine the Pentateuch to have been 
written in some age subsequent to that of 
Moses, from a collection of annals or dia- 
ries ; it is the miraculous part of it which is 
disputed. To this observation, however, 
we may oppose the conclusive argument of 
a professed enemy to revealed religion, 
' that the miraculous part of the Mosaic 
history is not like the prodigies of Livy, 
and other profane authors, unconnected with 
the facts recorded ; it is so intermixed and 
blended with the narrative, that they must 
both stand or fall together.' With respect 
to the annals which are mentioned as the 
supposed foundation of this history, they 
must have been either true or false : if true, 
the history of the Israelites remains equally 
marvellous ; if false, how was it possible 
for the history to acquire the credit and 
esteem in which it was so universally 
held? 

Among the objections to the divine au- 
thority of the Pentateuch, the command 
to destroy the nations of Canaan, is con- 
sidered as being absolutely irreconcilable 
with Divine justice, and therefore as im- 
possible to have proceeded from God. It 
is a curious example of the inconsistency 
of sceptical arguments, that the destruc- 
tion of the inhabitants of a small part of 
the earth is pronounced to be incompat- 
ible with the Divine attributes, while the 
780 



destruction of the whole world by the De- 
luge is passed by without any such com- 
ment. But the Deluge is a fact authenti- 
cated by such a variety of proofs, and so 
universally acknowledged in all ages and 
countries, that its consistency with the 
justice of God must be allowed, or his moral 
government must be at once denied. And 
yet, in reality, the general destruction of 
the human race by the Deluge, and the par- 
tial extermination of the inhabitants of Ca- 
naan by the Israelites, are to be accounted 
for upon precisely the same principle. In 
both cases it was the enormous wickedness 
of the people which drew upon them such 
signal punishment. 

With respect to the marks of a posterior 
date, or at least of posterior interpolation, 
so often urged with an insidious design to 
weaken the authority of the Pentateuch, 
it will be sufficient to observe, that it may 
- safely be admitted that Joshua, Samuel, or 
some one of the succeeding prophets, wrote 
the account of the death of Moses, con- 
tained in the last chapter of Deuteronomy ; 
and that Ezra, when he transcribed the 
history written by Moses, changed the names 
of some places, which were then become 
obsolete, to those by which they were called 
in his time, and added, for the purpose of 
elucidation, the few passages which are al- 
lowed to be not suitable to the age of Moses. 
Now surely, when it is considered that 
these few passages are of an explanatory 
nature ; that they are easily distinguished 
from the original writings of Moses ; and 
that Ezra was himself an inspired writer, 
raised up by God to re-establish the Jewish 
church, after the return from captivity, the 
cavils founded upon such circumstances can 
scarcely be thought deserving of any serious 
attention. — Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 30 — 74. 

PEN'TECOST, mvrriKoOTri, signifies the 
fiftieth. Pentecost is derived from th'e Greek 
pentecoste, the fiftieth, because the feast of 
Pentecost was celebrated the fiftieth day 
after the sixteenth of Nisan, which was 
the second day of the feast of the Passover. 
(Levit. xxiii. 15, 16.) The Hebrews call it 
(Exod. xxxiv 22.) the Feast of Weeks, be- 
cause it was kept seven weeks after the 
Passover. They then offered the first fruits 
of their wheat-harvest, which at that time 
was completed. (Deut. xvi. 9, 10.) The 
first fruits consisted in two loaves of leavened 
bread ; of two assarons of meal, or of three 
pints of meal each. (Levit. xxiii. 16, 17-) 
Some interpreters think, that each family 
was obliged to give two loaves for first fruits ; 
but others maintain, and perhaps with more 
reason, that they offered only two loaves in 
the name of the whole nation ; this is suf- 
ficiently hinted by Josephus, who puts only 
one loaf of two assarons. Besides these, 
they presented at the temple seven lambs of 
that year, one calf, and two rams, for a 



PEN 



PEN 



burnt-offering, two lambs for a peace-offer- 
ing, and a goat for a sin-offering. We do 
not find in Scripture, or in Josephus, tbat 
that the Pentecost had an octave, though it 
was one of the three great solemnities, in 
which all the males were to appear before 
the Lord. Besides the victims appointed 
(Lev. xxiii. 18, 19.) for the day of Pente- 
cost, they offered two calves and a ram for a 
burnt- ottering, seven lambs for a peace- 
offering, and a goat for a sin-offering. 
(Numb, xxviii. 27-) Josephus puts all these 
sacrifices together. The feast of Pentecost 
was instituted, first, to oblige the Israelites 
to repair to the temple of the Lord, there to 
acknowledge his dominion over their coun- 
try, and their labours, by offering to him the 
first fruits of all their harvests. Secondly, 
to commemorate, and to render thanks to 
God, for the law given from Mount Sinai, 
on the fiftieth day after their coming out of 
Egypt. 

The modern Jews celebrate the Pente- 
cost for two days. They adorn the syna- 
gogue and the places appointed for the 
reading of the law, and even their houses, 
with roses and flowers, in crowns and gar- 
lands. The prayers are accommodated to 
the festival ; and they read from the Pen- 
tateuch the sacrifice that was offered on 
that day, with a lesson out of the prophets, 
which has relation to the feast of Pente- 
cost Afterwards they pronounce a bless- 
ing for the sovereign, and a sermon in 
commendation of the law. The Jews of 
Germany, in order to recall to mind more 
sensibly the Mount of Sinai, upon which 
the law was given, make a very thick cake, 
of seven layers of paste ; this they call 
Sinai, and inculcate that these seven thick- 
nesses of paste represent the seven heavens, 
which God was to re-ascend, from this 
mountain to the heaven of heavens, his 
abode. 

The Christian church celebrates the feast 
of Pentecost fifty days, or seven weeks, 
after the passover, or the resurrection of 
our Saviour. After the ascension of Christ, 
the apostles returned to Jerusalem, where 
they waited for the Holy Ghost, which our 
Saviour had promised them. On the day 
of Pentecost, about the third hour of the 
day (nine o'clock in the morning), suddenly 
they heard a great noise, like the rushing 
of a mighty wind, from heaven, which filled 
the whole house where the apostles were 
assembled. At the same time appeared 
among them, as it were, tongues of fire, 
parted, or cloven, and rested on each of 
them, who were immediately filled with the 
Holy Ghost, and began to speak different 
tongues of languages, as the Spirit gave 
them utterance. (Acts ii. 1, 2, 3.) There 
were at that time at Jerusalem pious Jews 
of all nations, who were astonished to hear 
such a variety of languages. Others, pro- 
bably the Jews of Jerusalem, mocked and 
781 



said, These men are full of new wine. Peter 
undertook their defence, and said, ' These 
are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is 
but the third hour of the day. But this is 
that which was spoken by the prophet Joel, 
(ii. 28.) '1 will pour out my Spirit upon all 
flesh,' &c. ; and whosoever shall call on the 
name of the Lord shall be delivered.' It is 
observable, that, on festivals, the Jews did 
not eat before noon, and especially they 
tasted nothing before nine in the morning, 
which was an hour of prayer. Those who 
heard Peter were moved with compunction, 
and said, ' Men and brethren, what shall 
we do V Peter answered, ' Repent, and be 
baptized every one of you in the name of 
Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and 
ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.' 
That day three thousand persons were bap- 
tized. Dr. Hales observes, that ' this amaz- 
ing and astonishing gift, the gift of tongues, 
was a miracle, new and unheard of before in 
former ages ; and greater, or more decisive, 
than any wrought by our Lord himself dur- 
ing his ministry. Possessions, or diseases, 
might be counterfeited ; even death might 
be only apparent; the reality, therefore, of 
such cures, and restorations to life, might 
be questioned by gainsayers, and denied by 
infidels ; but to inspire a company of ' un- 
lettered Galileans,' who knew only their 
mother tongue, and whose dialect was pro- 
verbial for its vulgarity, suddenly and in- 
stantaneously with the knowledge and ex- 
pression of sixteen or eighteen different 
languages or dialects ; when, in the ordinary 
course of things, the acquisition of a single 
new language is a work of so much time 
and pains to understand, and still more to 
speak it with fluency and correctness, was 
indeed a miracle of the most stupendous 
size, carrying with it the most overpower- 
ing and irresistible conviction, the simplest 
and plainest in itself, and the most impos- 
sible to be-counterfeited. No wonder then, 
that the effect was so prodigious, as the con- 
version of three thousand prejudiced Jews, 
in one day, to the faith of a crucified Sa- 
viour, at Jerusalem, the scene of his dis- 
grace, and only fifty- two days after, on the 
memorable day of Pentecost.' (Acts ii.) 
Ilales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book ii. p. 1063. 

PENU'EL, bxna, signifies the sight of 
God ; that is, where God graciously mani- 
fested himself. Penuel, or Peniel, was a 
city beyond Jordan, near the ford of the 
brook Jabbok. When Jacob returned from 
Mesopotamia he rested at the brook Jab- 
bok ; and very early the next morning, hav- 
ing sent all his people before, he remained 
alone, anil an angel came and wrestled with 
him, till the day dawned. The angel blessed 
him in the same place, which Jacob from 
bence called Peniel, saying, I have seen 
God face to face, yet continue alive. (Gen. 
xxxii. 30.) 



PER 



PER 



In following ages the Israelites built a 
city at this place, which was given to the 
tribe of Gad. Gideon, returning from the 
pursuit of the Midianites, overthrew the 
Tower of Peniel, (Judg. viii. 17.) and slew 
the inhabitants, for having refused suste- 
nance to him and his people, in a very in- 
sulting manner. Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, 
rebuilt the city of Peniel. (1 Kings xii. 25.) 
Josephus says that this prince built himself 
a palace here. 

PERFUMES. The use of perfumes was 
frequent among the Hebrews, and among 
the Orientals in general, before it was known 
to the Greeks and Romans. They must 
have been known ip Egypt in the time of 
Moses, since that legislator speaks of the 
art of the perfumer, and gives the composi- 
tion of two perfumes, of which one (Exod. 
xxx. 25.) was to be offered to the Lord, 
upon the golden altar in the holy place ; and 
the other (Exod. xxx. 34, 35.) was ap- 
pointed for the anointing of the high-priest 
and his sons, of the tabernacle, and the ves- 
sels of divine service. (Exod. xxx. 23.) The 
first of these perfumes was composed of 
stacte, the onyx, or odoriferous shell-fish, of 
galbanum, and incense, each of equal weight. 
This perfume was sacred and inviolable ; 
and it was forbidden to be used by any man, 
on pain of death. It was placed every 
morning and evening upon the golden altar 
in the holy place, by one of the priests of 
the week. This perfume Zacharias, father 
of John the Baptist, went to offer, when 
the angel foretold to him the birth of that 
forerunner of the Messiah. The other kind 
of perfume was rather an ointment, to 
anoint the priests and the sacred vessels of 
the" tabernacle. It was composed of the 
best myrrh five hundred shekels, of cinna- 
mon two hundred and fifty shekels, of cala- 
mus a like quantity, of cassia five hundred 
shekels, and one bin of oil olive. But it is 
thought that they did not afterwards anoint 
the successors of Aaron, because*the dignity 
being hereditary in his family, this unction 
did not seem necessary. God reserved this 
ointment, or this perfume, to his own ser- 
vice ; and whoever should make it, either 
for himself or another, was to be cut off 
from his people. 

The Hebrews had also perfumes which 
they used for embalming the dead. The 
composition is not exactly known ; but they 
used myyrh, aloes, and other strong and 
astringent drugs, proper to prevent putre- 
faction, infection, and corruption. See 
Embalming. 

Besides these perfumes, others are no- 
ticed in Scripture. The spouse in the Can- 
ticles commends the scent of the perfumes 
of her lover ; and her lover in return says, 
that the scent of the perfumes of his spouse 
surpasses the most excellent odours. He 
names particularly the spikenard, the ca- 
lamus, the cinnamon, the myrrh, and the 
782 



aloes, as composing these perfumes. The 
voluptuous woman described by Solomon, 
(Prov. vii. 17-) says, that she had perfumed 
her bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinna- 
mon. The epicures in the Book of Wis- 
dom, (ii. 7.) encourage one another to the 
luxuriant use of odours and costly per- 
fumes. 

Isaiah reproaches Judea, whom he de- 
scribes as a faithless spouse to God, as be- 
ing painted and perfumed to please stran- 
gers, (Isaiah lvii. 9.) ; ' Thou wentest to the 
king with ointment, and didst increase thy 
perfumes.' Ezekiel (xxiii. 41.) seems to 
accuse the Jews of having profaned the 
odours and perfumes, whose use was re- 
served to sacred things, by applying them 
to their own use. 

PER'GA, U'epyrj, signifies extremely 
earthy. Perga was a city of Pamphylia, 
(Acts xiii. 14.) to which, as it was not a 
maritime city, St. Paul must have gone up 
the river Caystrus, or otherwise on foot. 
It was one of the most considerable cities 
of Pamphylia ; and when that province 
was divided into two parts, this city be- 
came the metropolis of the one part, and 
Side of the other. Upon a neighbouring 
mountain was a very famous temple of 
Diana, surnamed Pergaea, from the name 
of the city; and it appears that Bacchus 
was also worshipped at Perga. Sacred Geo- 
graphy. 

PER'GAMUS, U'spyafiog, signifies height, 
or sublimity. John the Evangelist (Rev. 
ii. 13.) speaks thus to the angel, or bishop, 
of Pergamus : ' I know thy works, and 
where thou dwellest, even where Satan's 
seat is,' &c. 

Pergamus was one of the most renowned 
cities in Asia. It was in Mysia, and the 
residence of king Eumenes, and of the other 
Attalic princes. Sacred Geography. 

PER'IZZITES, »ns, signifies who dwell 
in villages, or places not inclosed with 
walls. 

The Perizzites, ancient inhabitants of 
Palestine, mingled with the Canaanites. 
It is very probable, that they themselves 
were Canaanites, but having no fixed ha- 
bitations, and living sometimes in one 
country, sometimes in another, were called 
Perizzites, which signifies scattered or dis- 
persed. Pherazoth stands for hamlets or 
villages. The Perizzites did not inhabit 
any certain portion of the land of Canaan ; 
there were some on each side of the river 
Jordan, in the mountains and in the plains. 
In several places of Scripture the Canaan- 
ites and Perizzites are mentioned as the 
chief people of the country. It is said, for 
example, in the time of Abraham and Lot, 
the Canaanite and Perizzite were in the 
land. (Gen. xiii. 7-) The tribe of Ephraim 
complained to Joshua, that they were too 
much confined in their possession ; he bid 
them go, if they pleased, into the moun- 



PER 



PER 



tains of the Perizzites and Rephaim, there 
clear the land, cultivate, and inhabit it. 
(Josh. xvii. 15.) Solomon subdued the 
remains of the Canaanites and Perizzites, 
which the children of Israel had not rooted 
out, and made them tributary. (1 Kings ix. 
20, 21. 2 Chron. viii. 7-) Mention is made 
of the Perizzites by Ezra, after the return 
from Babylon ; and several Israelites had 
married wives from that nation. (Ezra 
ix. 1.) 

PERSECUTION is any pain or afflic- 
tion which a person designedly inflicts 
upon another ; and, in a more restrained 
sense, the sufferings of Christians on ac- 
count of their religion. The establishment 
of Christianity was opposed by the powers 
of the world, and occasioned several se- 
vere persecutions against Christians, during 
the reigns of several Roman emperors. 
Though the absurdities of polytheism were 
openly derided and exposed by the first 
teachers of Christianity, yet it does not ap- 
pear that any public laws were enacted 
against it till the reign of Nero, in the 
year 64, by which time it had acquired 
considerable stability and extent. As far 
the greater number of the first converts 
to Christianity were of the Jewish nation, 
one secondary cause for their being so long 
preserved from persecution may probably 
be deduced from their appearing to the 
Roman governors only as a sect of Jews, 
who had seceded from the rest of their 
brethren on account of some opinion tri- 
fling in its importance, and, perhaps, diffi- 
cult to be understood. Nor when their 
brethren were fully discovered to have cast 
off the religion of the synagogue, did the 
Jews find it easy to infuse into the breasts 
of the Roman magistrates that rancour 
and malice which they themselves expe- 
rienced. But the steady and uniform op- 
position made by the Christians to heathen 
superstition could not long pass unnoticed. 
Their open attacks upon Paganism made 
them extremely obnoxious to the populace, 
by whom they were represented as a so- 
ciety of atheists, who, by attacking the 
religious constitution of the empire, me- 
rited the severest animadversion of the 
civil magistrate. Horrid tales of their 
abominations were circulated throughout 
the empire; and the minds of the Pagans 
were, from all these circumstances, pre- 
pared to regard with pleasure, or indiffer- 
ence, every cruelty which could be in- 
flicted upon this despised sect. Histo- 
rians usually reckon ten general perse- 
cutions. 

First general persecution. — Nero selected 
the Christians as a grateful sacrifice to the 
Roman people, and endeavoured to trans- 
fer to this hated sect the guilt of which 
he was strongly suspected, that of having 
caused and enjoyed the fire which hail 
nearly desolated the city. With this view, 
783 



he inflicted upon them the most exquisite 
tortures, attended with every circumstance 
of the most refined cruelty. Some were 
crucified ; some impaled ; some were thrown 
to wild beasts ; and others were wrapped 
in garments dipped in pitch and other 
combustibles, and burned as torches in the 
garden of Nero, and other parts of the 
city, by night. This persecution was not 
confined to Rome : the emperor issued 
edicts against the Christians throughout 
most of the provinces of the empire. He 
was far, however, from obtaining the ob- 
ject of his hopes and expectations ; and 
the virtues of the Christians, their zeal 
for the truth, and their constancy in suf- 
fering, must have considerably contributed 
to the respectability of their sect, and to 
make their tenets more generally known. 

Second general persecution. — From the 
death of Nero to the reign of Domitian, 
the Christians remained unmolested, and 
daily increasing ; but towards the close of 
the first century, they were again involved 
in all the horrors of persecution. In this 
persecution many eminent Christians suf- 
fered ; but the death of Domitian soon 
delivered them from this calamity. 

Third general persecution. — This perse- 
cution began in the third year of the em- 
peror Trajan, A.D. 100. Many things con- 
tributed towards it ; as, the laws of the em- 
pire, the emperor's zeal for his religion, 
and aversion to Christianity, and the pre- 
judices of the Pagans, supported by false- 
hoods and calumnies, against the Christians. 
Under the plausible pretence of their hold- 
ing illegal meetings and societies, they were 
severely persecuted by the governors and 
other officers ; in which persecution great 
numbers fell by the rage of popular tumult, 
as well as by laws and processes. This 
persecution continued several years, with 
different degrees of severity, in many parts 
of the empire, and was so much the more 
afflicting, because the Christians generally 
suffered under the notion of malefactors 
and traitors, and under an emperor famed 
for his singular justice and moderation. 
The most noted martyr, in this persecution, 
was Clement, bishop of Rome. After some 
time, the fury of this persecution was 
abated, but did not cease during the whole 
reign of Trajan. In the eighth year of his 
successor, Adrian, it broke out with new 
rage. This is by some called the fourth 
general persecution ; but is more commonly 
considered as a revival or continuance of 
the third. 

Fourth general persecution. — This took 
place under Antoninus, the philosopher, and 
at different places, with several intermis- 
sions, and different degrees of severity ; it 
continued the greatest part of his reign. 
Antoninus himself has been much excused 
as to this persecution. As the character 
of the virtuous Trajan, however, is sullied 



PER 



PER 



by the martyrdom of Ignatius, so the reign 
of the philosophic Marcus is for ever dis- 
graced by the sacrifice of the venerable 
Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, the friend and 
companion of St. John. A few days pre- 
vious to his death, he is said to have 
dreamed that his pillow was on fire. When 
urged by the proconsul to renounce Christ, 
he replied, ' Four-score and six years have 
I served him, and he has never done me 
an injury; can I blaspheme my King and 
my Saviour V Several miracles are re- 
ported to have happened at his death. The 
dames, as if unwilling to injure his sacred 
person, are said to have arched over his 
head ; and, it is added, that at length being 
dispatched with a sword, a dove flew out 
of the wound ; and that from the pile pro- 
ceeded a most fragrant smell. It is ob- 
vious that the arching of the flames might 
be an accidental effect, which the enthu- 
siastic veneration of his disciples might 
convert into a miracle ; and as to the story 
of the dove, &c. Eusebius himself appa- 
rently did not credit it, since he has omit- 
ted it in his narrative of the transaction. 
Among many other victims of persecution 
in this philosophic reign, we must also re- 
cord that of the excellent and learned 
Justin. But it was at Lyons, and Vienne, 
in Gaul, that the most shocking scenes 
were acted. Among many nameless suf- 
ferers, history has preserved from oblivion 
Pothinus, the respectable bishop of Lyons, 
who was then more than ninety years of 
age ; Sanctus, a deacon of Vienne ; Attains, 
a native of Pergamus ; Maturus and Alex- 
ander ; some of whom were devoured by 
wild beasts, and some of them tortured 
in an iron chair, made redhot. Some 
females also, and particularly Biblias and 
Blandina, reflected honour both upon their 
sex and their religion, by their constancy 
and courage. 

Fifth general persecution. — A consider- 
able part of the reign of Severus proved 
so far favourable to the Christians, that no 
additions were made to the severe edicts 
already in force against them. For this 
lenity they were probably indebted to 
Procolus, a Christian, who, in a very ex- 
traordinary manner, cured the emperor of 
a dangerous distemper, by the application 
of oil. But this degree of peace, pre- 
carious as it was, and frequently inter- 
rupted by the partial execution of severe 
laws, was terminated by an edict, A.D. 197, 
which prohibited every subject of the em- 
pire, under severe penalties, from embrac- 
ing the Jewish or Christian faith. This 
law appears, upon a first view, designed 
merely to impede the further progress 
of Christianity ; but it incited the magis- 
tracy to enforce the laws of former em- 
perors, which were still existing against 
the Christians, and, during seven years, 
they were exposed to a rigorous persecu- 
784 



tion in Palestine, Egypt, the rest of Africa, 
Italy, Gaul, and other parts. In this 
persecution, Leonides, the father of Ori- 
gen, and Irenseus, bishop of Lyons, suf- 
fered martyrdom. On this occasion, Ter- 
tullian composed his Apology. The vio- 
lence of Pagan intolerance was most se- 
verely felt in Egypt, and particularly at 
Alexandria* 

Sixth general persecution. — This perse- 
cution began with the reign of the emperor 
Maximinus, A.D. 235, and seems to have 
arisen from that prince's hatred to his 
predecessor, Alexander, in whose family 
many Christians had found shelter and 
patronage. Though this persecution was 
very severe in some places, yet we have 
the names of only a few martyrs. Origen, 
at this time, was very industrious in sup- 
porting the Christians under these fiery 
trials. 

Seventh general persecution. — This was 
the most dreadful persecution that ever 
had been known in the church. During 
the short reign of Decius, the Christians 
were exposed to greater calamities than 
any they had hitherto suffered. It has 
been said, and with some probability, that 
the Christians were involved in this perse- 
cution by their attachment to the family of 
the emperor Philip. Considerable num- 
bers were publicly destroyed ; several pur- 
chased safety by bribes, or secured it by 
flight; and many deserted from the faith, 
and willingly consented to burn incense on 
the altars of the gods. The city of Alex- 
andria, the great theatre of persecution, 
had even anticipated the edicts of the em- 
peror, and had put to death a number of 
innocent persons, among whom were some 
women. The imperial edict for persecuting 
the Christians was published in the year 
249 ; and shortly after Fabianus, bishop of 
Rome, with a number of his followers, was 
put to death. The venerable bishops of 
Jerusalem and Antioch died in prison ; the 
most cruel tortures were employed, and 
the numbers that perished are by all parties 
confessed to have been very considerable. 

Eighth general persecution. — The em- 
peror Valerian, in the fourth year of his 
reign, A.D. 257, listening to the sugges- 
tions of Macrinus, a magician of Egypt, 
was prevailed upon to persecute the 
Christians, on pretence that, by their 
wicked and execrable charms, they hin- 
dered the prosperity of the emperor. Ma- 
crinus advised the emperor to perform 
many impious rites, sacrifices, and incant- 
ations, to cut the throats of infants, &c, 
and edicts were published in all places 
against the Christians, who were exposed, 
without protection, to the common rage. 
We have the names of several martyrs, 
among whom was the famous St. Laurence, 
archdeacon of Rome, and the great St. 
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. 



PER 



PER 



Ninth general persecution. — This persecu- 
tion took place under the emperor Aurelian, 
A.D. 274, but it was so small and incon- 
siderable, that it gave little interruption to 
the peace of the church. 

Tenth general persecution. — The tenth and 
last general persecution of the Christians 
began in the nineteenth year of the emperor 
Diocletian, A. D. 303. The most violent 
promoters of it were Hierocles the philoso- 
pher, who wrote against the Christian re- 
ligion, and Galerius, whom Diocletian had 
declared Caesar. This latter was excited not 
only by his own cruelty and superstition, but 
likewise by his mother, who was a zealous 
Pagan. Diocletian, contrary to his incli- 
nation, was prevailed upon to authorize the 
persecution by his edicts. Accordingly, it 
began in the city of Nicomedia, whence it 
spread into other cities and provinces, and 
became at last universal. Great numbers of 
Christians suffered the severest tortures in 
this persecution ; though the accounts given 
of it by succeeding historians are probably 
exaggerated. There is, however, sufficient 
of well-authenticated facts, to assure us 
amply of the cruel and intolerant dispo- 
sition of the professors of Pagan philosophy. 
The human imagination was, indeed, almost 
exhausted in inventing a variety of tortures. 
Some were impaled alive, some had their 
limbs broken, and in that condition were 
left to expire. Some were roasted by slow 
fires, and some suspended by the feet with 
their heads downward, and, a fire being placed 
under thern, were suffocated by the smoke. 
Some had melted lead poured down their 
throats, and the flesh of some was torn off 
with shells, and others had splinters of reeds 
thrust under the nails of their fingers and 
toes. The few who were not capitally pun- 
ished had their limbs and their features 
mutilated. It would be endless to enu- 
merate the victims of superstition. The 
bishops of Nicomedia, of Tyre, of Sidon, 
of Emesa ; several matrons and virgins of 
the purest character, and a nameless multi- 
tude of plebeians, arrived at immortality 
through the flames of martyrdom. At last 
it pleased God that the emperor Constan- 
tine, who himself afterwards became a 
Christian, openly declared for the Christ- 
ians, and published the first law in favour 
of them. The death of Maximin, emperor 
of the East, soon after put a period to 
all their troubles ; and this was the great 
epoch, when Christianity triumphantly got 
possession of the thrones of princes, and to 
its own native power obtained the additional 
strength of human laws and constitutions. 
In this state, though with different degrees 
of success and splendour, it has since con- 
tinued. — Broughton's Histor. Dictionary, vol. 
ii. pp. 240—242 ; Dr. Gregory's History of the 
Christian Church, vol. i. pp. '39, 40, 41, &C. 
PERSIA, D19, neptrai, signifies breaking, 
or dividing . otherwise, a claw, or a griffin. 
785 



Persia is a kingdom of Asia. It was 
bounded on the west by Media and Susiana, 
on the south by the Persian Gulf, on the 
north by the great Desert, which divided it 
from Parthia Proper, and on the east by 
another still greater between it and the 
river Indus. The Persians became very 
famous from the time of Cyrus, the founder 
of the Persian monarchy. Their ancient 
name was Elamites ; in the time of the 
Roman emperors they were called Par- 
thians : at present Persians. See Par- 

THIAIN'S. 

Authors speak differently of the religion 
of the ancient Persians. Herodotus is the 
first that has given any account of it. He 
tells us, that they had neither temples, nor 
statues, nor altars. They look on it as folly 
to make, or to suffer any, because they did 
not believe, as the Greeks, that the gods 
were of human origin. They sacrificed to 
Jupiter upon the highest mountains. They 
gave the name of God to the whole circuit 
of the heavens. They sacrificed also to the 
sun, and the moon, and the earth, to the 
fire, and the water, and the winds. They 
knew no ether gods, anciently, but these. 
Since that time they have learned from the 
Assyrians and the Arabians, to sacrifice to 
Urania, or heavenly Venus; whom the 
Assyrians call Militta, the Arabians Alitta, 
and the Persians Mithra. 

A modern author, very skilful in the 
eastern languages, and who had purposely 
studied the religion of the Persians, pre- 
tends that these people had just notions 
concerning the Deity, and believed but one 
God. That, indeed, they admitted of two 
principles : but one of them was uncreated, 
and the other created. The created prin- 
ciple was the world. He maintains, that 
the worship they paid the sun and fire was 
merely civil and relative. 

The modern Persians refer their religion 
to Abraham, whom some confound with 
Zoroaster, and others will have to have 
been the master of Zoroaster. They think 
the world was created in six days ; that in 
the beginning God created a man and a 
woman, from whom mankind are derived. 
That there are several terrestrial paradises, 
one universal Deluge, one Moses, one Solo- 
mon. All this, without doubt, is taken from 
the history of the Jews, and from the tra- 
ditions of the Mahometans. 

They hold one eternal God, called in their 
language Jazdan, or Ormuzd, who is the 
true God, called by the Arabians, Allah, the 
author of all good ; also another god pro- 
duced by darkness, whom they name Aher- 
nian (properly the Eblis of the Arabians, 
or the devil) the author of all evil. They 
have a very great veneration for light, and 
great aversion from darkness. God the 
Creator of all things has produced light and 
darkness, and from a mixture of these two, 
of good and evil, of generation ami cor- 

3 E 



PET 



PET 



ruption, the composition and decomposition 
of the parts of the world is effected, and will 
always continue, till light withdrawing it- 
self on one side, and darkness on the other, 
shall cause a destruction and dissolution. 
This is an abridgment of the doctrine of 
Zoroaster, which is still maintained by the 
Magians and Guebres, who are worship- 
pers of fire ; and who always, when they 
pray, turn themselves towards the rising 
sun. 

PETER, ILerpog, signifies a stone or rock. 
Peter, the apostle, born at Bethsaida, in Up- 
per Galilee, was son of John, Jonas, or 
Joanna, and brother of Andrew. (John i. 42, 
43.) His first name was Simon, to which 
our Saviour afterwards added that of Cephas, 
which in Syriac signifies a stone or a rock ; 
and hence he was called Peter, from the Latin 
word Petra. He was a married man, and dwelt 
with his mother-in-law, and his wife, at Ca- 
pernaum, on the lake of Gennesareth. (Mark 
i. 29. Matt. viii. 14. Luke iv. 38.) An- 
drew was a disciple of John the Baptist, and 
hearing him declare Jesus to be the Lamb 
of God, he followed Jesus, and continued 
with him the rest of that day. Andrew, 
having found his brother, carried him to 
Jesus. (John i. 41.) Though Peter and 
Andrew seem to have been now convinced 
that Jesus was the Messiah, yet they con- 
tinued to carry on their trade of fishing. It 
is thought, however, that they were present 
with our Lord at the marriage of Cana in 
Galilee. 

Jesus, being on the shore of the lake of 
Gennesareth, saw Peter and Andrew busy, 
washing their nets. (Luke v. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 
He entered their boat, and bade Peter throw 
out his nets into the sea, in order to fish. 
Peter obeyed him, though he had been 
fishing the whole night without catching 
any thing. They took so many fishes at 
this draught, that their own vessel, and 
that of James and John, the sons of Zebe- 
dee, were filled. Then Peter threw him- 
self at the feet of Jesus, and said, Depart 
from me, Lord, for I am a sinner. Jesus 
said to them, Follow me, and I will make 
you fishers of men. He said the same to 
James and John, who immediately quitted 
their boats and nets, and followed our 
Saviour. 

Soon after (Luke iv. 38. Matt. viii. 14.) 
Jesus, coming to Capernaum, entered the 
house of Peter, where his mother-in-law 
lay sick of a fever. He immediately healed 
her ; and she began to serve them. When 
Jesus chose his twelve apostles, Peter was 
one of them. It would seem, observes Dr. 
Lardner, that when our Lord left Nazareth, 
and came and dwelt at Capernaum, (Matt. 
iv. 13.) he made Peter's house the place of 
his usual abode in those parts. We are 
told that when Jesus came out of the syna- 
gogue at Capernaum, ' he entered into Si- 
mon's house,' (Luke iv. 38. Mark i. 29.) 
786 



This is paraphrased by Dr. Clarke as fol- 
lows : ' Now when Jesus came out of the 
synagogue, he went home to Peter's house ;' 
where the people resorted to him in the 
evening. Another proof of this is in the 
history related by Matthew (xvii. 24 — 27.) 
of our Lord's paying, at Capernaum, the tri- 
bute-money for the use of the temple, and 
his directing Peter, when he had found a 
piece of money, in the manner prescribed, 
to pay it for them both. The text says, 
' And when they were come to Capernaum, 
they that received the tribute-money came 
to Peter, and said, Doth not your master pay 
tribute ? He saith, yes. And when he was 
come into the house, Jesus prevented him.' 
The beginning of this account is thus para- 
phrased by Dr. Clarke : ' Now when they 
were come home to Capernaum, where Jesus 
used to dwell, the officers appointed to gather 
the yearly offering for the service of the tem- 
ple, came to Peter.' 

One night when Jesus Christ walked on 
the waters of the lake . of Gennesareth, 
Peter proposed to come and meet him. 
(Matt. xiv. 28, 29.) Jesus gave him leave; 
but he, seeing a great wave coming, was 
afraid, and began to sink. Jesus held him 
up, and said to him, ' O thou of little faith, 
wherefore didst thou doubt ?' Afterwards, 
some of his disciples being offended, left him ; 
and Jesus asked his apostles if they would 
also leave him? Peter replied, To whom 
shall we go, Lord ? for thou hast the words 
of eternal life. (John vi. 53, 54, &c.) 

One day as our Saviour was near Csesarea 
Philippi, he asked his apostles, Whom men 
took him to be? (Matt. xvi. 13, 14.) They 
answered, some said he was John the Bap- 
tist, some Elias, others Jeremiah, or one of 
the old prophets. But whom, asked he, 
do ye say that I am ? Simon Peter an- 
swered, ' Thou art the Christ, the son of the 
living God.' Jesus said to him, ■ Blessed 
art thou, Simon Bar-jona : for flesh and 
blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but 
my father which is in Heaven. And I say 
also unto thee, that thou art Peter, and 
upon this rock I will build my church ; and 
the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. 
And I will give unto thee the keys of the 
kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou 
shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven : 
and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth 
shall be loosed in heaven.' By the words, 
' Upon this rock I will build my church,' 
&c. and ' I will give unto thee,' &c. most 
interpreters suppose, that our Lord promised 
to Peter that he should have the honour of 
first preaching the Gospel, after his resur- 
rection, to Jews and Gentiles, and of receiv- 
ing them into the church. But Dr. Lard- 
ner observes on the words 'whatsoever thou 
shalt bind,' &c. this must have been the 
privilege of all the apostles ; for the same 
things are expressly said to them. (Luke xxii. 
29, 30. John xx. 21, 22, 23.) Besides, all 



PET 



PET 



the apostles concurred with Peter, in the 
first preaching hoth to Jews and Gentiles. 
As he was president in the college of the 
apostles, it was proper that he should be 
primarily concerned in the first opening of 
the subject. The confession before us was 
made by him : but it was in answer to a 
question put to all ; and he spoke the sense 
of all the apostles, and in their name. 

When our Saviour was transfigured upon 
a mountain, he had with him Peter, James, 
and John, and showed them a glimpse of 
his glory. Peter being in an ecstacy, and 
seeing Moses and Elias with Jesus, ex- 
claimed, ' Lord, it is good for us to be here : 
if thou wilt, let us make here three taber- 
nacles ; one for thee, and one for Moses, 
and one for Elias.' (Matt, xvii 1, 2, 3, 
&c. Luke ix. 28.) 

One day, as Jesus was speaking concern- 
ing forgiveness of injuries, (Matt, xviii. 21, 
22.) Peter asked him how oft they must 
forgive? Seven times? Jesus told him, 
Seventy times seven. On another occasion, 
(Matt. xix. 27, 28, 29.) as our Saviour was 
speaking of the danger of riches, Peter said 
to him, ' Behold, we have forsaken all, and 
followed thee; what shall we have there- 
fore?' Jesus answered, An hundred-fold, 
even in this world, and in the other world 
eternal life. 

In the account which St. John has given 
of our Saviour's washing the disciples' feet, 
Peter's modesty and fervour are conspi- 
cuous. (John xiii. 6 — 10.) During the 
same evening, our Lord said, Simon, Simon, 
behold, Satan hath desired to have you that 
he may sift you as wheat : but I have 
prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not: 
and when thou art converted, strengthen 
thy brethren. Peter replied, Lord, I am 
ready to go with thee both into prison, and 
to death. But Christ foretold to him, that 
he would abjure him three times that very 
night, before the cock should crow. When 
supper was ended, Jesus went to the garden 
of Gethsemane, taking Peter, James, and 
John apart, as witnesses of his agony. Peter, 
though he had lately shown so much reso- 
lution, yet fell asleep with the rest, which 
occasioned Jesus to say to him, Do you 
sleep Simon? Could you not watch with 
me one hour? (Mark xiv. 37- Matt. xxvi. 
40, &c.) 

Judas being come with the soldiers to 
seize Jesus, Peter drew his sword, and cut 
off" the right ear of one Malchus, servant to 
the high-priest : but Jesus bid him put up 
his sword, adding, all who fight with the 
sword, should perish by the sword : at the 
same time he healed Malchus's ear. (John 
xviii. 10, &c.) Peter followed Jesus afar 
oft* into the house of Caiaphas ; where the 
soldiers and servants having a fire in the 
middle of the hall, Peter stood among them 
to warm himself; when a maid servant said, 
Surely this man was with Jesus of Nazareth 

787 



Peter answered, I know not what you say ; 
I do not so much as know the man. A 
little while alter another maid said, This 
man was with Jesus of Nazareth. But 
Peter denied it with an oath. About an 
hour after, one of the company affirmed 
that Peter was a disciple of Jesus. Others 
insisted on the same thing, and said, that 
certainly he was one, for his very speech 
betrayed him to be a Galilean. One of 
them, a kinsman to Malchus, whose ear 
Peter had cut off, asked him, Did not I see 
you with him in the garden ? Peter again 
denied it with an oath, protesting that he 
did not know the man. And now the cock 
crowed the second time. Jesus, being so 
placed that he could see Peter, turned and 
looked on him : Peter, remembering that 
Jesus had said to him, Before the cock 
crowed twice, he should deny him thrice, 
went out of Caiaphas's house, and wept 
bitterly. (Matt. xxvi. 73. 75. Mark xiv. 
30. 72.) See Cock. 

Very probably he remained in secret, 
and in tears, all the time of our Saviour's 
passion, but on Sunday morning, Jesus 
being risen, and Mary having been at the 
tomb, and not finding the body of Jesus, 
she ran into the city, to tell Peter and John 
that their Master was taken away. Peter 
and John ran to the sepulchre ; John 
coming first, did not enter it; but Peter 
coming, stooped down, and saw the linen 
clothes in which the body had been wrapped. 
They returned to Jerusalem, not under- 
standing what had come to pass. The 
same day our Saviour appeared to Peter, to 
comfort him. (John xx. 1, 2, 3, &c. Luke 
xxiv. 12, &c. Mark xvi. 7. 

Some days after, Peter being returned 
into Galilee, and going to fish in the sea of 
Galilee, (or lake of Gennesareth) with some 
others of the apostles, Jesus appeared to 
them on the shore. John said to Peter, It 
is the Lord. Peter immediately swimming 
to shore came to Jesus; and Jesus dined 
with them. After dinner Jesus said to 
Peter ; Simon, son of Jona, do you love me 
more than these ? He answered, Yea, Lord, 
you know that I love you. Jesus says to 
him, Then feed my sheep. He put the same 
question to him again ; and, Peter making 
the same answer, our Lord said to him 
again, Feed my lambs. This he repeated a 
third time : at whieh Peter, being mortified, 
said, You know, Lord, that I love you. 
Jesus replied to him, Feed my sheep. I 
tell you for a truth, that when you were 
young, you girded yourself, and went where 
you pleased ; but now you are old, another 
shall gird you, and lead you where you 
would not go. At the same time, Peter, 
seeing John the Evangelist following Jesus, 
said, Lord, what must become of him ! Jesus 
answered, If I will have him continue, what 
does thai concern you ! Do you follow me. 
Thus, though lie forewarned Peter, vet he 
3 e 2 



PET 



PET 



refused to declare in what manner John 
should end his life. 

After Jesus Christ had ascended into 
heaven, and the apostles had seen his ascen- 
sion, they returned to Jerusalem, to wait 
for the Holy Ghost. During this interval, 
Peter proposed to fill up the place vacant 
by the treachery of Judas. The proposal 
was agreed to, and the lot was cast, which 
fell upon Matthias. 

The Holy Ghost having descended on the 
apostles, and the faithful, and having filled 
them with supernatural gifts, and especially 
with the gift of tongues, there being then at 
Jerusalem Jews from all the East, they 
could not comprehend by what means these 
people, who were Galileans, should speak 
such variety of languages. Some said the 
apostles were full of wine : but Peter, in 
their defence, stated that this was not the 
effect of drunkenness, but the completion of 
the promise, (Joel ii. 28.) to send the Holy 
Spirit on all flesh, &c. See Pentecost. 

Some days after, Peter and John, going 
to the temple at the hour of prayers, found 
at the gate of the temple a man of more 
than forty years of age, who from his birth 
had been a cripple, and could not walk. 
Peter healed him, and on this occasion 
preached Jesus to the people. 

While he was speaking, the priests and 
Sadducees laid hold on Peter and John, and 
put them in prison. The day following, 
the senate, the magistrates, and the chief 
priests, being assembled, they asked the two 
apostles, In whose name they had performed 
the miracle of healing the lame man? 
Peter answered them, In the name of Jesus 
Christ of Nazareth, whom they had crucified, 
and whom God had raised again, &c. The 
council strictly charged them to teach 
no more in this name : but Peter and 
John told them, Judge yourselves which 
is most just, whether to obey you or to obey 
God. 

Many of the faithful sold their estates, 
and brought the money, and laid it at the 
feet of the apostles. Of this number was a 
man called Ananias, with his wife Sapphira, 
who, by agreement between themselves, 
concealed part of the money for which they 
had sold their land, and brought the rest, 
as if it were the whole. Ananias came 
first, and Peter said to him, How could you 
suffer Satan to seduce you, to lie to the 
Holy Ghost, by concealing part of the price 
of your land 1 &c. Immediately Ananias 
fell down dead, and was carried out and 
buried. About three hours afterwards, his 
wife Sapphira came in, and Peter said to 
her the same he had said to her husband : 
immediately she also fell down, and gave up 
the ghost. This infused a great awe in all 
who heard of it. See Ananias. 

The number of believers increased daily ; 
the people even brought the sick into the 
streets, that the shadow of Peter might 
788 



cover some of them. Then the high- 
priest and the Pharisees put the apostles 
into prison. But an angel brought them 
forth, and bid them go into the temple, and 
boldly declare the words of life. This they 
did: upon which the princes and priests 
apprehended them, and demanded why they 
had disobeyed their orders, by continuing 
to speak in the name of Jesus Christ ? 
Peter and the apostles answered, that it 
was more necessary to obey God than man. 
This answer provoked them, and they were 
going to condemn them to death, when 
Gamaliel suspended their resolution, by 
representing, that if this matter was from 
God, it was in vain to oppose it; but if 
otherwise, it would soon vanish of itself. 
So they dismissed the apostles, after giving 
each of them thirty-nine stripes. 

After the martyrdom of Stephen, the 
apostles alone continued at Jerusalem. 
Philip, the deacon, going to Samaria, the 
Samaritans received the word of the Lord, 
and several were baptized. Peter and John 
repaired thither also, to impart the Holy 
Ghost ; which Philip had not power to do. 
Simon, the magician, was also baptized 
among others, and, admiring the power of 
the apostles, in conferring the Holy Ghost, 
he offered money for it to Peter. But Peter 
with indignation replied to him, Thy money 
and thyself perish together, who thinkest 
the gifts of God can be bought with money ! 
(Acts viii.) 

St. Peter, departing from Jerusalem, 
visited the disciples from city to city ; and 
came to Lydda. Here he cured TEneas, 
who had been paralytic eight years. A 
certain holy woman, named Tabitha, hap- 
pening to die at Joppa while Peter was at 
Lydda, the disciples sent for him. Peter 
came, and entering the chamber where 
Tabitha lay dead, he betook himself to 
prayers : then he said, Tabitha arise. She 
opened her eyes, and, seeing Peter, she sat 
up. Peter stayed at Joppa a good while, 
lodging with one Simon, a tanner. (Acts 
ix. 36, &c.) 

At Caesarea in Palestine resided a centu- 
rion called Cornelius, a man who feared 
God : he was directed by an angel to send 
to Joppa for Peter ; and Cornelius imme- 
diately sent two of his servants. While 
they were on the road, Peter being on the 
terrace of his host Simon's house, in an 
ecstasy, saw, as it were, a great sheet of 
linen let down from heaven, full of animals 
clean and unclean. He heard a voice, say- 
ing, Arise, Peter, kill and eat. But Peter 
answered, Lord, I have never eaten any- 
thing unclean. The voice replied, Call not 
that unclean which God has purified. He 
had this vision three times, after which the 
sheet was again taken up into heaven. By 
this time, came in the men sent by Corne- 
lius. The day following St. Peter went with 
them, and some of the brethren from Joppa. 



PET 



PET 



(Acts x.) He ound Cornelius with his 
kindred and friends waiting for him. When 
Cornelius first saw him, he fell at his feet: 
but Peter, lifting him up, said, I am only 
a man, as well as you. Cornelius related 
to him what had happened ; and Peter, 
giving thanks to God, began to preach 
Jesus Christ. While he was speaking, 
the Holy Ghost descended upon all that 
heard him. Then Peter said, Can any 
one refuse baptism to those who have al- 
ready received the Holy Ghost as well as 
ourselves ? 

When St. Peter was returned to Jeru- 
salem, the faithful of the circumcision said 
to him, Why have you gone unto those that 
are not circumcised ? But when Peter had 
related to them all that had passed, they 
glorified God. Peter being at Jerusalem, 
at the passover, A.D. 44, Herod Agrippa 
began a persecution against the church. 
(Acts xii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) He slew James 
the Great, brother of John, and caused 
Peter to be apprehended, designing to put 
him to death after the passover. But, the 
very night before Herod thought of exe- 
cuting him, as Peter, loaded with chains, 
was sleeping between two soldiers, the 
angel of the Lord awaked him, opened the 
prison, and brought him the length of a 
street He came to the house of Mary, 
the mother of John, where the faithful were 
assembled at prayers. 

He left Jerusalem, but we are not told 
what became of him, till the council at Je- 
rusalem, A.D. 49. Peter was at the coun- 
cil of Jerusalem, in which, after a strict 
examination, the council came to this con- 
clusion, which Peter promoted, That no new 
obligation should be imposed on the Gen- 
tiles, but only abstinence from fornication, 
from the use of blood, and from meats of- 
fered to idols. 

Some time after, Peter coming to An- 
tioch, he ate and drank with the Gentiles, 
without regarding the Mosaic distinction of 
meats. But, when some converted Jews 
from Jerusalem came to Antioch, Peter, 
being unwilling to offend them, separated 
himself from the converted Gentiles. Paul, 
fearing that what Peter did might be inter- 
preted as if he meant to revoke and annul 
what he had determined in the council of 
Jerusalem, withstood him to his face, and 
expostulated with him; to which Peter sub- 
mitted. (Gal. ii. 11.) 

The particulars of St. Peter's life are 
little known after the council of Jerusalem, 
A.D. 49. The only authentic account 
which we have of the remaining part of 
his life, is from Origen, as quoted by Eu- 
sebius, who says in general terms, that 
Peter is supposed to have preached to the 
•lews of the dispersion in Pontus, GaJatia, 
Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia; and that 
at length, coming to Rome, be was cruci- 
fied with his head downwards, himself hav- 
7»9 



ing desired that it might be in that manner. 
That St. Peter should die by crucifixion 
had been foretold by Christ (John xxi. 
18.) ; and St. Peter himself alluded to that 
prediction. (2 Pet. i. 14.) All ancient 
writers concur in asserting, that St. Petei 
suffered martyrdom at Rome, in the first 
persecution of the Christians, in the reign 
of Nero, probably in the year 65 ; but at 
what time he went thither, and whether 
this was his first visit to that city, is not 
certainly known. As he is not mentioned 
in any of St. Paul's Epistles written from 
Rome, it has been concluded, that he was 
not there during St. Paul's first imprison- 
ment in that city; and upon the whole it 
seems probable, as Lardner thinks, that St. 
Peter did not go to Rome till the year 63 
or 64. 

As St Peter, says Bishop Tomline, had 
been the first apostle that preached to the 
Jews immediately after the descent of the 
Holy Ghost, so, about eight years after- 
wards, he was also the first that preached 
to the Gentiles in the house of Cornelius at 
Caesarea. By these means he may be said 
to have founded the universal church of 
Christ ; and this is supposed to have been 
the meaning of our Lord's words, ' Upon 
this rock will I build my church ; and I 
will give thee the keys of heaven :' for, by 
being the first person that explained the 
Gospel both to Jews and Gentiles, after 
the ascension of our Saviour, he, as it 
were, opened the doors of heaven to all 
mankind. He seems to have performed 
more miracles than any other of the apos- 
tles, for the people ' brought their sick, for 
the purpose of having his shadow pass 
over them.' (Acts v. 15.) When he was 
imprisoned by Herod Agrippa, prayer was 
made for him without ceasing by the church, 
and he was miraculously delivered out of 
prison by an angel, though Herod had been 
permitted to put James the Great to death. 
(Acts xii. 1, &c.) The speech of Peter, 
at the council of Jerusalem, so often men- 
tioned, is recorded, but of no other person 
except of James the Less, bishop of Je- 
rusalem (Acts xv. 6, &c.) ; and St. Paul 
tells us, that to St. Peter was committed 
the Gospel of the circumcision, (Gal. ii. 7-) 
whence he is called the apostle of the 
Jews, as St Paul is called the apostle of the 
Gentiles. And, lastly, in all the cata- 
logues of the apostles, and whenever he 
is mentioned in conjunction with others, 
in the Gospels or Acts, the name of Peter 
stands first Though these facts may lead 
us to consider Peter as the chief, or the 
most distinguished, of the twelve apos- 
tles; yet they by no means prove that he 
bad any superior dignity or jurisdiction over 

the real j ' One is your master, even Christ ; 
but all ye are brethren.' (Matt xxiii. S.) 

\-> John was the apostle who was fa- 
voured with the greatest share of our Sa- 



PET 



PET 



viour's affection, so Peter seems to have 
been considered by him as the apostle 
whose disposition would lead him to be the 
most active and instrumental in propa- 
gating his religion ; and that this was really 
the case, the Acts of the Apostles suffi- 
ciently prove. Confidence and zeal form 
a conspicuous part of his character; but 
he was sometimes deficient in firmness and 
resolution. He had the faith to walk upon 
the water to his divine Master ; but when 
the sea grew boisterous, his faith deserted 
him, and he became afraid. (Matt. xiv. 
28, &c) He was forward to acknowledge 
Jesus to be the Messiah, (Matt. xvi. 16. 
Mark viii. 29. Luke ix. 20. John vi. 68, 
69.) and declared himself ready to die in 
that profession (Matt. xxvi. 35.) ; and yet, 
soon after, he thrice denied, and with oaths, 
that he knew any thing of Jesus. (Matt, 
xxvi. 69, &c.) The warmth of his temper 
led him to cut off the ear of the high- 
priest's servant, (John xviii. 10.) and, by 
nis timidity and dissimulation respecting 
the Gentile converts at Antioch, he in- 
curred the censure of the eager and reso- 
lute St. Paul. (Gal.ii. 11.) But while we 
lament this occasional want of steadiness 
and consistency in St. Peter, we should 
remember, that his good qualities seem not 
to have been mixed with any other in- 
firmity ; and his voluntary acknowledgment 
to Christ of his being a sinful man, the 
bitter remorse which he felt upon the de- 
nial of his Master, and his submission to 
the reproof of St. Paul, justify us in con- 
cluding, that to his zeal he added humility, 
which are virtues rarely united in the same 
person. 

The First General Epistle of St. Peter 
is addressed ' to the strangers scattered 
through Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, 
and Bithynia.' Great doubts have arisen, 
whether by ' strangers' were meant Jewish 
or Gentile Christians, or Christians of both 
denominations. As there is nothing in 
the Epistle itself to lead us to think that 
the apostle intended it for any particular 
description of Christians, it may be con- 
sidered as addressed to the Christians in 
general of the above countries of Asia 
Minor, most of whom, it is probable, had 
been converted from heathenism. The 
apostle wrote this Epistle from a place 
which he calls Babylon : ' The church that 
is at Babylon saluteth you ;' but it is very 
doubtful what place is meant by that name. 
It may, however, be best to accede to the 
general opinion, that Babylon is here used 
figuratively for Rome ; and more especially 
since Eusebius, the oldest author extant, 
mentioning this subject, says, that in his 
time it was thought that this Epistle was 
written from Rome. If this Epistle was 
written from Rome, we may place its date 
about the year 64 ; since there is no reason 
to believe that Peter went to Rome till 
790 



after Paul's release from imprisonment 
in that city, in the year 63. This Epistle 
is very generally admired as a composition. 
Erasmus says, that it is worthy of the prince 
of the apostles, and full of apostolical dig- 
nity and majesty: and Ostervald calls it 
one of the finest works of the New Testa- 
ment. Whoever compares this Epistle with 
those of St. Paul, will find so exact a con- 
formity between the sentiments and pre- 
cepts contained in them, that he will be 
convinced, as Estius observes, that the 
doctrine of both proceeded from one and 
the same Spirit of God. 

The Second General Epistle of St. Peter 
is addressed to the same persons as the 
former, and the design of it was to en- 
courage them to adhere to the genuine 
faith and practice of the Gospel. It was 
written when the apostle foresaw that his 
death was at no great distance, and he 
might hope that advice and instruction 
given under such circumstances would have 
the greater weight. As he is supposed to 
have suffered martyrdom in the year 65, 
we may place the date of this Epistle in 
the beginning of that year. It was pro- 
bably written from Rome. Clement of 
Rome, and Hermas, refer to this Epistle ; 
it is mentioned by Origen and Eusebius, 
and has been universally received since 
the fourth century, except by the Syriac 
Christians. Bishop Tomline's Elements oj 
Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 479 — 489 ; 
Watson's Theological Tracts, vol. ii. p. 403, 
&c. 

PE'THOR, rmri3, signifies interpreta- 
tion of dreams. It was a city of Mesopo- 
tamia, of which Balaam was a native. The 
Hebrews call this city Pethura; Ptolemy 
calls it Pachora; and Eusebius, Phathura. 
He places it in the Upper Mesopotamia. 
Calmet takes it to be situated towards 
Thapsacus, beyond the Euphrates. Je- 
rome, in his translation of the Book of 
Numbers, (xxii. 5.) has omitted this name. 
He has only ' To Balaam, who dwelt upon 
the river of the Ammonites.' The Sep- 
tuagint have, ' To Balaam, son of Beor 
Pathura, who dwells on the river of the 
country of his people.' Our English trans- 
lators have rendered it, ' Unto Balaam, 
the son of Beor, to Pethor, which is by 
the river of the land of the children of his 
people.' Certain it is, that Balaam was of 
Mesopotamia. (Deut. xxiii. 4.) 

PETROBRUSSIANS, a denomination 
which was formed about the year 1110 in 
Languedoc and Provence, by Peter de 
Bruys, who taught the following doctrines : 

1. That no persons were to be baptized be- 
fore they came to the full use of their reason. 

2. That it was an idle superstition to build 
churches for the service of God, who will 
accept of a sincere worship wherever it is 
offered ; and that therefore such churches 
as had already been erected were to be pulled 



PHA 



PHA 



down and destroyed. 3. That the crucifixes 
deserved the same fate. 4. That the real 
body and blood of Christ were not exhibited 
in the eucharist, but were only represented 
in that holy ordinance by their figures and 
symbols. 5. That the oblations, prayers, 
and good works of the living, could be in no 
respect advantageous to the dead. The 
founder of this sect, after a laborious min- 
istry of twenty years, was burnt in the year 
1130 by an enraged populace, excited by the 
clergy, whose traffic was in danger from 
the enterprising spirit of this reformer. 
Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, vol. iii. 
p. 116. 

PHAL'TI, TibS), signifies deliverance, or 
flight. Phalti, or Phaltiel, son of Laish, mar- 
ried Michal, Saul's daughter, after Saul had 
taken her from David; but David after- 
wards took her from Phalti. (1 Sam. xxv. 
44. 2 Sam. iii. 15.) See Michal. 

PH A'RAOH, njnS, signifies that disperses, 
that spoils, that discovers; according to the 
Syriac, the revenger, the destroyer, the king, 
the crocodile. Pharaoh was a common name 
of the kings of Egypt. Josephus says, that 
all the kings of Egypt, from Minaeus the 
founder of Memphis, who lived several ages 
before Abraham, had the name of Pha- 
raoh, down to the time of Solomon, more 
than three thousand three hundred years. 
He adds, that in the Egyptian language, the 
word Pharaoh signifies a king, and that 
these princes did not assume this name till 
they ascended the throne, when they quitted 
their former name. Hence, says Josephus, 
Herodotus names none of the kings of Egypt 
after Minaeus, the builder of Memphis, 
though he had three hundred and thirty 
kings for his successors, because they had 
all the name of Pharaoh ; but he names an 
Egyptian queen, Nicaule, who succeeded 
them. 1 find, adds Josephus, from the an- 
cient records of our nation, that, after the 
age of Solomon, no king of Egypt had the 
name of Pharaoh. 

But Josephus is not very accurate in this 
passage. True it is, Herodotus says, that 
Mines, or Minaeus, was the first king of 
Egypt, and founder of Memphis ; that there 
were three hundred and thirty kings after 
him in Egypt ; that after them was a queen 
called Nitocris (not Nicaule, as Josephus 
writes it) : but it is not true that these kings 
had no other name than Pharaoh. Herodo- 
tus says expressly, that in the books of the 
Egyptian priests were registered the names 
of three hundred and thirty kings; that in 
this number eighteen were Ethiopians, and 
a woman, who was a foreigner, called Ni- 
tocris : and that the others were Egyptians. 
These princes, therefore, had each his 
right name in this catalogue. So we see in 
the fragments of Manetho, that each king of 
Kgypt had a name peculiar to him ; and we 
tind the name Pharaoh only in Scripture. 

As to what Josephus says, that since the 
701 



time of Solomon, the kings of Egypt had 
no longer the name of Pharaoh, it is mani- 
festly false, since we find this name under 
Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 21.) ; under Jo- 
siah (xxiii. 29, 30, &c.) ; where this name 
is joined to Necho, which was the proper 
name of this prince; under Jehoiakim (xxiii. 
35.) ; and in the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
and Ezekiel ; who are much later than 
Solomon. It is very probable that the 
Egyptians gave the name of Pharaoh to their 
kings, as long as the Egyptian language 
was in common use, and as long as their 
kings were of their own nation. But, after 
the conquest of Egypt by the Persians, 
and especially by Alexander the Great, and 
after the Grecians had introduced their lan- 
guage with their government, the name of 
Pharaoh ceased among them. 

Mr. Bryant distinguishes between Pha- 
raon, as the word is written by Josephus, 
and the Peirom of Herodotus. The former 
term, he thinks, is compounded of Phi and 
ourah, implying ' the voice of Orus ;' be- 
cause ' it was no unusual thing, among the 
ancients, to call the words of their prince, 
the voice of God.' The observations of 
Herodotus and Josephus, however, so far 
coincide as to make it evident they meant 
the same title or denomination, though they 
may have both, perhaps, altered the original 
word, by expressing it in the characters of 
their respective languages. In a treatise 
'On Providence,' written by Synesius, the 
celebrated bishop of Cyrene, is a passage 
which coincides with, and illustrates, the 
observations of Herodotus. He says, ' the 
father of Osiris and Typhon was, at the 
same time, a king, a priest, and a philoso- 
pher. The Egyptian histories, also, rank 
him among the gods ; for the Egyptians 
are disposed to believe that many divinities 
reigned in succession, before their country 
was governed by men, and before their kings 
were reckoned in a genealogical series, by 
Peirom after Peirom.' It seems to be ad- 
mitted, that Pharaoh is a title signifying dig- 
nity, honour, exaltation. May it not be 
analogous to the title of highness among our- 
selves ? ' I conceive,' says a late writer, 
1 that the expression in Herodotus, 'pyromis 
after pyrosis' signifies a great man after a 
great man.' Assuming that highness may be 
the radical import of this Egyptian title, we 
may, perhaps, discover the true sense of the 
expression (Exod. ix. 1G.) : * For this cause 
have I raised thee up* This seems to be a 
turn of words perfectly agreeable to the 
Eastern modes of speech, and implies as 
much as ' I have raised your highness to 
your height, that, in spite of your height, 
in your very face, I might display my 
power.' 

The following are the principal sovereigns 
of this name, who are mentioned in the Old 
Testament : — 

1. The first Pharaoh known to us is he, 



PHA 



PHA 



in whose time Abraham went down into 
Egypt (Gen. xii. 10, &c.) ; in the year of 
the world 2084, whose officers brought Sa- 
rah into that prince's harem ; from which she 
was not recovered without divine interfer- 
ence. The character of this prince seems to 
have been only indifferent. 

2. The second Pharaoh, noticed in Scrip- 
ture, reigned in Egypt in the time of Joseph, 
when he was sold thither by the Ishmaelitish 
merchants. This prince, or perhaps his 
successor, had the mysterious dream of 
the seven fat kine, and the seven full ears 
of corn, consumed by seven lean kine, and 
seven barren ears ; and he promoted Joseph 
to be regent of the whole kingdom. (Gen. 
xlv. 8, 9.) This is the same Pharaoh who 
sent for and entertained the patriarch Ja- 
cob and his family in Egypt, and the. sove- 
reign alluded to by Stephen. (Acts vii. 10. 
13.) 

3. The third Pharaoh gave one of his 
daughters in marriage to Mered, a descend- 
ant of Judah. (1 Chron. iv. 18.) This re- 
markable alliance must have taken place 
while the Hebrews were the guests, and 
not the slaves of the Egyptians; and this 
prince must certainly have been one of the 
first successors of the king who honoured 
Joseph. 

4. The fourth Pharaoh was the contem- 
porary of Moses, and reigned at the period 
when Jacob's descendants had already be- 
come a great people. The genealogical lists 
of that period, which are extant, in harmony 
with the sacred historians, show how rapidly 
the race of Israel had multiplied. (1 Chron. 
iv. 1 — 27.) This prince adopted the false 
policy of oppressing the Hebrews, as related 
by Moses, (Exod. ii.) little thinking that his 
own daughter would save from the waters of 
the Nile the future avenger and deliverer of 
the Israelites. The recent discoveries which 
have thrown new light on Egyptian antiqui- 
ties, and which harmonize more and more 
with the sacred history, enable us to recog- 
nise the Pharaohs, who are mentioned in the 
Bible, subsequently to the time of Moses. 
The Pharaoh, under whose reign Moses was 
born, can be no other than Rameses or 
Ramses IV. surnamed Mei-Amoun, the last 
sovereign but one of the eighteenth dynasty. 
The first oppression of the Israelites (Exod. 
i. 11. 14.) most probably commenced under 
Thoutmosis I IT., the Mceris of the Greeks, 
a predecessor of this prince ; but the suc- 
ceeding narrative of the proscription of all 
the male Hebrew children, and of the birth 
of Moses, relates only to this Rameses Mei- 
Amoun. This prince, the contemporary of 
Moses, must have swayed the Egyptian scep- 
tre more than forty years, since the Hebrew 
legislator passed forty years at his court, 
and, a long time afterwards, it is said that 
the king of Egypt died. Now, it is certain, 
according to the recent discoveries, as shown 
by A. L. C. Coquerel (Biographie Sacree, 

792 



torn. iii. p. 361.) that this identical Rameses 
or Ramses Mei-Amoun reigned sixty-six 
years. Are not these unexpected agree- 
ments between sacred and profane history 
evident proofs of truth ? Who then has 
falsified the ancient lists of Egyptian dynas- 
ties, the lists written on papyrus, and the 
ruins of Egypt, to make them agree so well 
with a few sentences uttered by a Christian 
named Stephen (Acts vii. 18, et seq.) and 
with a few lines written by a Jew named 
Moses ? 

5. The fifth Pharaoh, also the contempo- 
rary of Moses, had reigned about eighteen 
years, when Moses was commanded to re- 
turn into Egypt, Ramses Mei-Amoun and 
his personal enemies being dead. (Exod. iv. 
19.) His history is narrated by Moses. 
(Exod. vi. — xii.) He perished with his 
army in the Red Sea. (Exod. xiv. 5 — 31.) 
This Pharaoh is Amenophis or Ramses V., 
the last king of the eighteenth dynasty, and 
the father of Ramses VI. or Sesostris. 

6. The sixth Pharaoh, the contemporary 
of David, received at his court, and honour- 
ably entertained Hadad, prince of Idumaea, 
(to whom he gave his wife's sister in mar- 
riage) after the conquest of that country by 
the Hebrews. (1 Kings xi. 17 — 19.) He 
was one of the last kings of the twenty-first 
or Tanite dynasty, and most probably was a 
different person from the Pharaoh who is 
next noticed, because it is difficult to con- 
ceive how the protector of Hadad could be 
the father-in-law of Solomon. 

7. The seventh Pharaoh, the contempo- 
rary of Solomon, gave the Hebrew king his 
daughter in marriage, with the city of Gezer 
as a portion. (1 Kings ix. 16.) This prince, 
the last sovereign of the twenty-first or Tan- 
ite dynasty, was probably dethroned and put 
to death by Shishak, who was contemporary 
with Rehoboam. M. Coquerel thinks that 
Eccles. iv. 14. may allude to this event. 

8. The eighth is Pharaoh-Necho, the con- 
temporary of Josiah king of Judah. He took 
up arms against the new empire of the Chal- 
dseans, which was rapidly advancing, and 
threatening Asia. He resolved to carry the 
war across the Euphrates, into the very cen- 
tre of the Chaldsean empire ; but being op- 
posed in his passage by Josiah, an ally of the 
Chaldsean monarch, he totally discomfited 
the forces of the Jewish king near Megiddo. 
He then marched to Jerusalem, which city 
he entered either by force or capitulation; 
and deposing Jehoahaz, who had just suc- 
ceeded his father on the throne, he gave the 
crown of Judah to his elder brother Jehoia- 
kim, and levied a heavy military contribu- 
tion on the kingdom of Judah. Encouraged 
by these successes, Necho proceeded on his 
Asiatic expedition, taking with him Jehoa- 
haz, whom he left prisoner at Riblah. He 
made himself master of Carchemish on the 
Euphrates ; where, after three years' war- 
fare with various success, he was defeated 



PHA 



PHA 



by Nebuchadnezzar, and forced to return 
into Egypt with the wreck of his army. On 
his return, he took the captive Jehoahaz 
with hira. (2 Kings xxiii. 29 — 34. ; xxiv. 7. ; 
2 Chron. xxxv. 20—24. ; xxxvi. 1—4.) The 
Scripture account of the war carried on by 
Pharaoh-Necho against the Jews and Baby- 
lonians is confirmed by an ancient monu- 
ment discovered in Egypt by the late enter- 
prising traveller Belzoni. In one of the 
numerous apartments in the tomb of Psam- 
methis or Psammis, the son of Pharaoh- 
Necho, M. Belzoni discovered a sculptured 
group, describing the march of a military 
and triumphal procession with three differ- 
ent sets of prisoners, who are evidently 
Jews, Ethiopians, and Persians. Among 
the hieroglyphics contained in M. Belzoni's 
drawings of this tomb, Dr. Young succeeded 
in discovering the names of Nichao, (the 
Xecho of Scripture and Xecos of Herodotus) 
and of Psammethis. Pharaoh-Necho, the 
son of Psammetichus, and the sixth king of 
the twenty-sixth dynasty, that of the Sai'tes, 
is celebrated in profane history, for his pro- 
ject of digging a canal, to join the Nile to 
the Red Sea, and by the voyage of discovery 
which his vessels, manned by Phenician 
sailors, made round Africa. 

9. The ninth is Pharaoh-Hophra, who is 
the Apries or Vaphres of profane historians, 
and was the son of Psammis, and grandson 
of Pharaoh-Necho. He was the eighth 
king of the twenty-sixth dynasty, and con- 
temporary with Zedekiah king of Judah, 
witli whom he formed an alliance against 
Nebuchadnezzar. During the last siege of 
Jerusalem, Hophratook arms, and advanced 
to succour his ally. This diversion was 
useful for a short time ; but, agreeably to 
the predictions of Jeremiah, the Egyptians, 
notwithstanding their brilliant promises, 
withdrew without fighting, or at least with- 
out making any resistance. After the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, when, deaf to the 
counsels of Jeremiah, Azariah and Johanan 
took refuge in Egypt, the prophets pre- 
dicted to them the deplorable end of 
Hophra. (Ezek. xvii. 15. Jerem. xxxvii. 
5.; xliii. 9.; xliv. 30.; xlvi. 26.) The 
prophet Ezekiel (xxix.) reproaches Pharaoh 
with his base conduct towards the king of 
Judah, and foretels that Egypt should be 
reduced to a desert, and that the sword 
should cut off both man and beast. This 
prediction was afterwards accomplished, 
first in the person of Pharaoh-Hophra, who 
was deprived of his kingdom by Amasis, who 
usurped his throne, and subsequently by the 
conquest of Egypt by the Persians. Home's 
Introduction, vol. iii. pp. 611, 612 ; Frag- 
ments annexed to Calntet's Dictionary, No. 
lxxxiii. pp. 142, 143. 

PHAR'ISEES, a famous sect of the 

Jews. This sect was one of the most 

ancient and considerable among the Jews ; 

but its origin is not very well known. It 

793 



was, however, in great repute in the time of 
our Saviour; and its origin must have been 
contemporary with the traditions. They 
grew up together, till at length the tradi- 
tional absorbed the written law ; and the 
propagators of traditions were the bulk of 
the Jewish nation. Hence the distinguish- 
ing character of the Pharisees was their 
zeal for the traditions of the elders, which 
they derived from the same fountain as the 
written word itself: they pretended that 
both were delivered to Moses upon Mount 
Sinai, and were, therefore, of equal authority. 
It is probable, that the principles, by which 
the Pharisees were chiefly distinguished, 
existed some time before they were formed 
into a regular sect. Godwin thought that 
the Pharisees arose about three hundred 
years before Christ ; but the earliest written 
account which we have of them in any 
ancient author is in Josephus, who tells us 
that they were a sect of considerable 
weight when John Hyrcanus was high- 
priest, a hundred and eight years before 
Christ. 

The Pharisees derived their name from 
Pharos, a Hebrew word, which signifies 
separated, or set apart, because they affected 
an extraordinary degree of sanctity and 
piety. Their distinguishing dogma was a 
scrupulous and zealous adherence to the 
traditions of the elders, which they placed 
upon an equal footing with the written law. 
They were strict observers of external rites 
and ceremonies, beyond what the law re- 
quired, and were superstitiously exact in 
paying tithe to the most trifling articles, 
while in general they neglected the essen- 
tial duties of moral virtue. They were of 
opinion that good works might claim reward 
from God, and ascribed an extraordinary 
degree of merit to the observance of rules, 
which they had themselves established as 
works of supererogation. Of this sort were 
their frequent washings and fastings, their 
nice avoidance of reputed sinners, their 
rigorous observance of the sabbath, and the 
long prayers which they ostentatiously 
1 made in the synagogues and in the corners 
of the streets.' ' Trusting in themselves 
that they were righteous,' they not only 
despised the rest of mankind, but were 
entirely destitute of humility towards God, 
which is inseparable from true piety; yet 
the specious sanctity of their manners, and 
their hypocritical display of zeal for religion, 
gave them a vast influence over the common 
people, and consequently great power and 
authority in the Jewish state. 

Dr. Lardner, in speaking of the Jewish 
sects, after quoting a passage from Josephus, 
in which he says, that ' the multitude 
with the Pharisee's,' very justly observes, 
that ' there is in this respect a complete 
agreement between the Evangelist and 
Josephus. The people, as clearly appears 
from the Gospels, Very generally held the 



PHA 



PHE 



tenets, and observed the traditions, of the 
Pharisees, yet they are never dignified so 
far as to be called Pharisees; they were 
rather an appendage than a part of the 
sect, and always called, very plainly, the 
people, the multitude, and the like. The 
title of Pharisee seems to have been almost 
entirely appropriated to men of leisure and 
substance.' The Pharisees believed in the 
immortality of the soul, in the resurrection 
of the dead, and in the existence of angels 
and spirits ; and it is supposed by many 
of the learned, that they believed also in 
the pre- existence of souls, a doctrine which 
seems to have been commonly held in the 
time of our Saviour. The question of the 
disciples of Christ, relative to the man that 
was born blind, ' who did sin, this man or 
his parents, that he was born blind V (John 
ix. 2.) and the doubts expressed by the 
people, whether Christ was John the Bap- 
tist, or Elias, or one of the ancient pro- 
phets, (Matt. xvi. 14.) are thought to have 
arisen from some opinion of this sort. 
Hence some commentators have formed an 
opinion, that the Pharisees believed in the 
Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration 
of souls. This supposition, however, ap- 
pears to be clearly contradicted both by 
Josephus and the sacred writers. Josephus, 
in his second book against Apion, says, 
with an allusion to the rewards given by the 
heathen nations for meritorious conduct, 
' However, the reward for such as live ex- 
actly according to the laws is not silver or 
gold ; it is not a garland of olive branches, 
or of smallage, nor any such public sign of 
commendation ; but every good man has 
his own conscience bearing witness to him- 
self; and by virtue of our legislator's pro- 
phetic spirit, and of the firm security God 
himself affords to such an one, he believes 
that God has made this grant to those that 
observe these laws, even though they be 
obliged readily to die for them, that they 
shall come into being again, and, at a certain 
revolution of things, shall receive a better 
life than they had enjoyed before.' In his 
Antiquities he also says, ' They believe that 
it hath pleased God to make a temperament, 
whereby what he wills is done, but so that 
the will of man can act virtuously or vici- 
ously. They also believe that souls have 
an immortal vigour in them, and that under 
the earth there will be rewards or punish- 
ments, according as they have lived vir- 
tuously or viciously in this life ; and the 
latter are. to be detained in an everlasting 
prison, but the former shall have power to 
revive and live again.' St. Luke expressly 
says, that the Pharisees believed in the 
resurrection of the dead ; and we cannot 
suppose that he would call the metem- 
psychosis by that name. When St. Paul 
professed himself a Pharisee, and declared, 
that of the ' hope and resurrection of the 
dead he was called in question,' (Acts 
794 



xxiii. 6.) the Pharisees vindicated and sup- 
ported him, acknowledging that he was 
preaching a doctrine conformable to the 
principles of their own sect. On the whole, 
therefore, it appears most reasonable to 
adopt the opinion of Reland, though in 
opposition to the sentiments of many other 
learned men, that the Pharisees held the 
doctrine of the resurrection in its proper 
sense, though their notions upon this im- 
portant point were not correct and accu- 
rate. 

To the same cause whence the Pharisees 
derived their other superstitions and cor- 
ruptions, even their attachment to traditions, 
may be traced their most unreasonable and 
malicious opposition to our Saviour. Having 
learned to interpret the prophecies of the 
Messiah in a carnal sense, and being 
strongly tinctured with the notion of a 
temporal prince and deliverer, no miracles 
could overcome their prejudices against the 
meanness of Christ's appearance, and per- 
suade them that a person, who made no 
pretence to civil authority and military 
power, could be ' Messiah, the prince,' the 
' Son of David, and the Saviour of Israel.' 
Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christian The- 
ology, vol. i. pp. 251 — 255; Dr. Jennings's 
Jewish Antiquities, book i. chap. x. 

PHAR'PAR, -IE3-I3, signifies reduced to 
minuteness, or fructification of fruit; other- 
wise bull of the bull. Pharpar, or Pharphar, 
is one of the rivers of Damascus, or rather 
an arm of the Barrady, or Chrysorrhoas, 
which waters the city of Damascus, and the 
country about it. (2 Kings v. 12.) The 
river of Damascus has its fountain in the 
mountains of Libanus. Near the city it is 
divided into three streams, one of which 
passes through Damascus, the other two 
water the surrounding gardens; then re- 
uniting, they lose themselves four or five 
leagues north of the city. MaundrelVs 
Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem. 

PHE'BE, &oLJ3ri, signifies shining, pure. 
Phebe was a deaconess of the port of Co- 
rinth, called Cenchrea. St. Paul had a 
particular esteem for this holy woman ; and 
it is thought she carried to Rome the 
epistle he wrote to the Romans, in which 
she is commended. (Rom. xvi. 1, 2.) 

PHENI'CE, QolviZ, signifies red or pur- 
ple ; otherwise, palm-tree. Phenice was a 
port of the island of Crete, to the west, 
where St. Paul anchored when he was 
carried to Rome, A.D. 60. (Acts xxvii. 12.) 

PHENIC'IA, Qoiviki}, is a province of 
Syria, whose limits have not always been 
the same. Sometimes its extent has been 
defined from north to south, from Orthosia 
to Pelusium. At other times its southern 
limit has been Mount Carmel and Ptole- 
mais. From the conquest of Palestine by 
the Hebrews, its limits were narrow, and 
excluded the country of the Philistines, 
which occupied the coast from Mount 



PHI 



PHI 



Carmel along the Mediterranean toward 
Egypt. It had also little extent on the land 
side, because the Israelites, who had Galilee, 
confined it to the coast of the Mediterra- 
nean Sea, 

Thus when we speak of Phenicia we must 
have a right notion of the time. Before 
Joshua conquered Palestine, the country 
was possessed by Canaanites, the sons of 
Ham, who were divided into eleven families, 
of which the most powerful was that of 
Canaan, the founder of Sidon, and head of 
the Canaanites, properly so called, whom 
the Greeks named Phenicians. Only these 
preserved their independence under Joshua ; 
also under David, Solomon, and the suc- 
ceeding kings : but they were subdued by 
the kings of Assyria and Chaldaea. After- 
wards they successively obeyed the Per- 
sians, Greeks, and Romans. At this day 
Phenicia is in subjection to the Ottomans, 
not having had any national or native kings, 
or any independent form of government, 
for more than two thousand years : for the 
kings that the Assyrians, Chaldaeans, Per- 
sians, and Grecians, sometimes established, 
were tributary, and had but a precarious 
authority. 

The chief cities of Phenicia were Sidon, 
Tyre. Ptolemais, Ecdippe, Sarepta, Beryth, 
Biblos, Tripoli, Orthosia, Simira, Aradus. 
The Phenicians also anciently possessed 
some cities in Libanus. Sometimes the 
Greek authors comprehend all Judea under 
the name of Phenicia. 

Many fine inventions have been ascribed 
to the Phenicians ; as particularly the art of 
writing. It is said also that they discovered 
the art of navigation, commerce, astronomy, 
and voyages in the open sea. Bochart, by 
incredible labour and industry, has shown, 
that they had sent out colonies, and had 
left traces of their language, in almost all 
the isles, and on all the coasts of the Medi- 
terranean Sea. The most famous of their 
colonies was that of Carthage. 

Herodotus says, ' The Phenicians were 
seated on the Red Sea, before they came 
to the Mediterranean, where they addicted 
themselves to navigation and commerce.' 
Justin also says, that ' the Tyrians were 
a people conducted by a chief named 
Phoenix, who left their native land on 
account of the earthquakes to which it was 
subject. They first settled on the Assyrian 
lake, (sea of Tiberias) ; afterwards they 
settled on the shore of the Mediterranean, 
where they built a city, which, from the 
plenty of fish, they named Sidona.' Sacred 
Geography. 

PHILADELPHIA, *iXafc\0ia, sig- 
nifies love of brothers, or fraternity. Phila- 
delphia is a city of Lydia. When St. John 
wrote his Revelation, the angel or bishop of 
the church here was a very holy man. (Rev. 
iii. 7-) It received its name from Attains 
Philadelphus, king of Pergamus. It is 
7!>r> 



situated east of Sardis about twenty-eight 
miles, and became famous for its public 
games. It is now inhabited by the Turks, 
and by them called Alashakir, the Fair 
City, or, according to others, Allah-Shehr, 
the city of God, still retaining the form of a 
city, with something of trade to invite peo- 
ple to it, being the road of the Persian 
caravans; though the walls which encom- 
pass it are decayed in many places, and, 
according to the custom of the Turks, are 
wholly neglected. The situation of Phila- 
delphia is on the rising of the mountain 
Tmolus, having a pleasant prospect on the 
plains beneath, well furnished with divers 
villages, and watered by the Pactolus. 

Dr. Chandler says, ' the bishop of Phila- 
delphia was absent, but the proto-papas, his 
substitute, whom we went to visit, received 
us at his palace, a title given to a very in- 
different house, or rather a cottage of clay. 
We found him ignorant of the Greek tongue, 
and were forced to discourse with him, by 
an interpreter, in the Turkish language. 
He had no idea that Philadelphia existed 
before Christianity, but told us that it had 
become a city in consequence of the many 
religious foundations. The number of 
churches he reckoned at twenty-four, mostly 
in ruins, and mere masses of wall decorated 
with painted saints. Only six are in a better 
condition, and have their priests. The 
episcopal church is large, and ornamented 
with gilding, carving, and holy portraits. 
The Greeks are about three hundred fami- 
lies, and live in a friendly intercourse with 
the Turks, of whom they speak well. We 
were assured that the clergy and laity in 
general knew as little of Greek as the proto- 
papas ; and yet the liturgies and offices of 
the church are read as elsewhere, and have 
undergone no alteration on that account.' 
Whatever may be lost of the spirit of 
Christianity, there is still the form of a 
Christian church in this city, which contains 
about a thousand Christians, chiefly Greeks, 
most of whom speak only the Turkish lan- 
guage. They have twenty-five places of 
public worship, five of which are large and 
regular churches, with a resident bishop and 
inferior clergy. Hartley's Visit to the Apo- 
calyptic Churches, in Missionary Register, 
July 1827 ; Taylor's Sacred Geography ; 
Wells's Geography of the Old and New Testa- 
ment, vol. ii. p. 275. 

Philadelphia, the same as Rabbah, or 
Rabbath, the capital of the Ammonites. See 
Rabbah. 

PHILADELPHIAN SOCIETY, a sect 
or society of the seventeenth century, so 
called from an English female, whose name 
was Jane Leadley. She embraced, it is 
said, the same views and the same kind of 
religion as Madam Bourignon. She was of 
opinion that all dissensions among Christ- 
iana would cease, and the kingdom of the 
RedeeHRI become, even here below, a glo- 



PHI 

rious scene of charity, concord, and felicity, 
if those who bear the name of Jesus, with- 
out regarding the forms of doctrine or dis- 
cipline that distinguish particular commu- 
nions, would all join in committing their 
souls to the care of the internal guide, to be 
instructed, governed, and formed, by his 
Divine impulse and suggestions. Nay, she 
went still farther, and declared in the name 
of the Lord, that this desirable event would 
actually come to pass, and that she had a 
Divine commission to proclaim the approach 
of this holy communion of saints, who were 
to be gathered together in one visible uni- 
versal church, or kingdom, before the dis- 
solution of this earthly globe. This predic- 
tion she delivered with a peculiar degree of 
confidence, from a notion that her Phila- 
delphian Society was the true kingdom of 
Christ, in which alone the Divine Spirit 
resided and reigned. She believed, it is 
said, the doctrine of the final restoration of 
all intelligent beings to perfection and hap- 
piness. Mosheim's Eccles. History, vol. v. 
pp. 516, 517- 

PHILE'MON, $i\i]nu)v, signifies that 
kisses, or is affectionate. Philemon was a 
rich citizen of Colosse in Phrygia. He was 
converted to the Christian faith, with Appia, 
his wife. Perhaps we should have known 
nothing of Philemon, had not it been on 
account of his slave Onesimus, who, having 
run away from him to Rome, there found 
St. Paul, and was very serviceable to him. 
St. Paul converted him, baptized him, and 
sent him back to his master Philemon, to 
whom he wrote a letter. Philemon had 
made a church of his house ; and his do- 
mestics, as well as himself, were of the 
household of faith. His charity, liberality, 
and compassion, were a refuge to all in 
distress. 

PHILE'TUS, <^i\rjTbg, signifies amiable, 
or who is beloved. St. Paul writing to Timo- 
thy, (2 Tim. ii. 16, 17, 18.) a short time be- 
fore his martyrdom, speaks of Hymenaeus 
and Philetus, ' who concerning the truth 
have erred, saying that the resurrection is 
past already.' 

PHILIP, QiknnroQ, signifies warlike, or 
a lover of horses. Philip, the apostle, was a 
native of Bethsaida, in Galilee. Jesus 
Christ invited him to follow him. (John i. 
43, 44, &c.) Philip followed him ; and soon 
after finding Nathanael, Philip said to him, 
' We have found the Messiah.' Then he 
brought Nathanael to Jesus ,- and they were 
with him at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. 
Philip was called at the very beginning of 
our Saviour's mission, and about a year 
afterwards he was appointed an apostle. 
When our Saviour intended to feed five 
thousand men, he asked Philip, only to 
prove him, whence bread might be bought 
for such a multitude? Philip answered 
that two hundred pennyworth would not be 
sufficient for every one to take a little. (John 
796 



PHI 






vi. 5, 6, 7- Luke vi. 13. Matt. x. 2.) Some 
Gentiles, having a curiosity to see Jesus 
Christ, a little before his passion, addressed 
themselves to St. Philip, who mentioned it 
to St. Andrew, and these two together to 
Christ. (John xii. 20. 22.) At the last 
Supper, Philip asked our Saviour, that he 
would please to show them the Father, and 
that was all they desired. But Jesus an- 
swered them, that, seeing the Son, they saw 
the Father also. (John xiv. 8. 10.) 

Philip, the second of the seven deacons, 
(Acts vi. 5.) was, they say, of Caesarea in 
Palestine. It is certain his daughters lived 
in that city. (Acts xxi. 8, 9.) After the 
death of Stephen, all the Christians, except 
the apostles, having left Jerusalem, and be- 
ing dispersed in several places, St. Philip 
went to preach at Sebaste, or Samaria, 
where he performed several miracles, and 
converted many persons. (Acts viii. 1, 2, 
3, &c.) He baptized them ; but informed 
the apostles at Jerusalem, that Samaria had 
received the word of God ; that they might 
come and communicate the Holy Ghost to 
them. Peter and John came thither for 
that purpose. Phrlip was, probably, at Sa- 
maria, when an angel commanded him to 
go on the road that leads from Jerusalem to 
Old Gaza. Philip obeyed, and there met 
with an Ethiopian eunuch, belonging to 
Candace, queen of Ethiopia, whom he con- 
verted and baptized. (Acts viii. 26.) Being- 
come out of the water, the Spirit of the 
Lord took away Philip, and the eunuch saw 
him no more. 

PHILIPPI, ^tXiTTTroi, from Philip, was 
a city of Macedonia, and a Roman colony. 
(Acts xvi. 12, 13, &c.) St. Paul came to 
preach here, A.D. 51, and converted seve- 
ral people ; among others Lydia, a seller of 
purple. He also cast out a pythonic spirit 
from a servant maid. Her master stirred 
up the whole city against Paul; and the 
magistrates caused him to be seized, whip- 
ped, and put in prison. But the day fol- 
lowing they made excuses for their ill treat- 
ment. 

The Philippians were always full of ac- 
knowledgment for the faith they had re- 
ceived from God, by the ministry of St. 
Paul. They assisted him on several occa- 
sions. (Philipp. iv. 16.) They sent him 
money while in Achaia ; and being informed 
that he was a prisoner at Rome, they sent 
a deputation to him by Epaphroditus, their 
bishop, to be serviceable to him. (Philipp. 
iv. 12. 18.) Epaphroditus fell sick; and 
St. Paul, in order to deliver the Philippians 
from their concern, at the hearing of his 
sickness, sent Epaphroditus to them again, 
when he was recovered, and by him the 
epistle which we have remaining ; in which 
he commends their liberality, and shows 
great acknowledgment for their readiness. 
* It is a strong proof,' says Chrysostom, ' of 
the virtuous conduct of the Philippians, 



PHI 



PHI 



that they did not afford the apostle a single 
subject of complaint ; for in the whole epis- 
tle, which he wrote to them, there is no- 
thing but exhortation and encouragement, 
without the mixture of any censure what- 
ever.' As the apostle tells the Philippians 
that he hoped to see them shortly, (Phil. ii. 
24.) and there are plain intimations (Phil. i. 
12.; ii. 26.) in the epistle of his having been 
some time at Rome, it is probable that it 
was written in the year 62, towards the end 
of his confinement. Bishop Tomline's Ele- 
ments of Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 411, 
412. 

PHILISTINES, dW>3, $v\i<jTidn, 
signifies scattered, as powder or dust; other- 
wise, apposite ruin, or double ruin, or the 
drink of ruin ; or falling drinking. The Phi- 
listines were a people of Palestine, who 
came thither from the isle of Caphtor. See 
Caphtor. 

The time of their coming to Palestine is 
unknown ; but they had been long in Ca- 
naan, when Abraham came thither, in the 
year of the world 2083. The name Phi- 
listine is not Hebrew. The Septuagint 
generally translate it ' A\\6<pv\oi, strangers. 
The Pelethites and Cherethites were also 
Philistines ; and the Septuagint sometimes 
translate Cherethim Kp/j-ai, Cretes. The 
Philistines were a powerful people in Pa- 
lestine, even in Abraham's time, since they 
had then kings, and considerable cities. 
They are not in the number of the nations 
devoted to extermination, and whose terri- 
tory the Lord had abandoned to the He- 
brews. They were not of the cursed seed 
of Canaan. However, Joshua did not for- 
bear to give their land to the Hebrews, and 
to attack them by command from the Lord, 
because they possessed a country promised 
to Israel. But these conquests of Joshua 
must have been ill maintained, since, under 
the Judges, under Saul, and at the begin- 
ning of the reign of king David, the Philis- 
tines had their kings, and their lords, whom 
they called Sazenim ; since their state was 
divided into five little kingdoms or satra- 
pies, and since they oppressed the Israel- 
ites during the government of the high- 
priest Eli, and of Samuel, and during the 
reign of Saul, for about 120 years, from the 
year of the world 2848 to 2960. True it 
is, that Shamgar, Samson, Samuel, and Saul, 
opposed them, and killed some of their peo- 
ple, but did not reduce their power. They 
continued independent till David, who 
subdued them. (2 Sam. v. 17. ; viii. 1, 2, &c.) 

They continued in subjection to the kings 
of Judah down to the reign of Jehoram, son 
of Jehoshaphat, about 246 years, from the 
year of the world 2960, when they were 
subdued by David, to the year of the world 
3116, when they revolted from Jehoram. 
(2 Chron. xxi. 16.) Jehoram made war 
against them, and probably reduced them 
to his obedience again, because it is ob- 
797 



served in Scripture, that they revolted again 
from Uzziah, who kept them to their duty 
during his whole reign. (2 Chron. xxvi. 
6, 70 Uzziah began to reign in 3194. 
During the unfortunate reign of Ahaz, the 
Philistines made great havoc in the terri- 
tory of Judah ; but his son and successor 
Hezekiah subdued them again. (2 Chron. 
xxviii. 18. 2 Kings xviii. 8.) Lastly, they 
regained their full liberty under the later 
kings of Judah ; and we may see, by the 
menaces made against them by the prophets 
Isaiah, Amos, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and 
Ezekiel, that they brought a thousand hard- 
ships and calamities on the children of 
Israel, for which God threatened to punish 
them with great misfortunes. 

Esar-haddon, successor to Sennacherib, 
besieged Ashdod, or Azoth, and took it by 
the arms of his general Thasthan, or Tar- 
tan. Psammetichus, king of Egypt, took 
the same city after a siege of twenty- nine 
years, according to Herodotus. During 
the siege of Tyre, which held out thirteen 
years, Nebuchadnezzar used part of his 
army to subdue the Ammonites, the Mo- 
abites, the Egyptians, and other nations 
bordering on the Jews. There is great 
probability that the Philistines could not 
withstand him, but were reduced to his 
obedience, as well as the other people of 
Syria, Phenicia, and Palestine. After- 
wards, they fell under the dominion of the 
Persians ; then under that of Alexander the 
Great, who destroyed the city of Gaza, the 
only city of the Phenicians that dared to 
oppose him. After the persecution of An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, the Asmoneans took by 
degrees several cities from the country of 
the Philistines, which they subjected. Try- 
phon, regent of the kingdom of Syria, gave 
to Jonathan, the Asmonean, the government 
of the whole coast of the Mediterranean, 
from Tyre to Egypt ; consequently all the 
country of the Philistines. 

PHIN'EHAS, Dn3% signifies aspect, or 
face of trust, or protection. Phinehas, or, 
as the Jews pronounce, Pinchas, was son 
of Eleazar, and grandson of Aaron. He 
was the third high- priest of the Jews, in 
the year of the world 2571, until towards 
the year of the world 2590. He is par- 
ticularly commended in Scripture for zeal, 
in vindicating the glory of God when the 
Midianites had sent their daughters into 
the camp of Israel, to tempt the Hebrews 
to marry them, and commit idolatry. 
(Numb. xxv. 7.) Hence the Lord pro- 
mised the priesthood to Phinehas by per- 
petual covenant, evidently including this 
tacit condition, that his children should 
continue faithful and obedient ; for we 
know the priesthood passed out of the 
family of Eleazar and Phinehas, to that 
of Ithamar, and that it returned not to the 
posterity of Eleazar until after about one 
hundred and fifty years. 



PHU 



PHY 



This dignity continued in the race of 
Phinehas, from Aaron down to the high- 
priest Eli, for about three hundred and 
thirty-five years. Aaron was appointed 
high- priest in the year of the world 2513. 
Eli was acknowledged high -priest and 
judge of Israel in 2848. The manner 
and causes of this change are unknown. 
It re-entered the family of Eleazar under 
the reign of Saul, who, having put to death 
Abimelech, and the other priests of Nob, 
gave the high-priesthood to Zadok, of the 
race of Phinehas. At the same time David 
had with him Abiathar, of the race of Eli, 
who performed the functions of high-priest. 
So that after the death of Saul, David 
continued the priesthood to Zadok and 
Abiathar conjunctly. But, towards the 
end of David's reign, Abiathar having es- 
poused the interests of Adonijah to the 
prejudice of Solomon, he was disgraced, 
and Zadok only acknowledged as high- 
priest. The priesthood continued in his 
family until after the captivity of Babylon, 
and even to the destruction of the temple. 
From the beginning of Zadok's priesthood 
alone, and the exclusion of Abiathar, to 
the ruin of the temple, is 1084 years. 
Zadok was high-priest alone, and Abiathar 
disgraced, in the year of the world 2989. 
The temple was • destroyed in the year of 
the world 4073. 

We read also of another memorable and 
zealous action of Phinehas. (Josh. xxii. 30, 
31.) When the Israelites beyond Jordan 
had raised upon the banks of the river a 
vast heap of earth, those on the other side 
fearing they were going to forsake the 
Lord, and to set up another religion, de- 
puted Phinehas, and other chief men, to 
inform themselves of the reason for erecting 
this monument. When they found that 
it was only in commemoration of their 
union and common origin, Phinehas praised 
the Lord, saying, We now know that the 
Lord is with us, since you are not guilty of 
that prevarication of which we suspected 
you. 

We do not exactly know the time of the 
death of Phinehas. But as he lived after 
Joshua, and before the servitude under 
Chushan-rishathaim, his death is placed in 
the year of the world 2590. Under his 
pontificate, the story of Micah happened 
(Judg. xvii.) ; also the conquest of Laish, 
by the tribe of Dan (Judg. xviii. 27.) ; and 
the enormity committed upon the wife of 
the Levite of Mount Ephraim. (Judg. xix.) 
Phinehas's successor was Abiezer, or Abi- 
shuah. (Judg. xx. 28.) 

PHUT, tai9, <bi)9, signifies extension, aug- 
mentation of the family ; the posterity of 
Phut, the son of Ham. (Gen. x. 6.) Cal- 
met is of opinion, that Phut, the third son 
of Ham, peopled either the Canton of 
Phtemphu, Phtemphi, Phtembuti, of Pliny 
and Ptolemy, whose capital was Thara, 
798 



in Lower Egypt, inclining towards Libya ; 
or the Canton called Phtenotes, of which 
Buthas was the capital. The prophets often 
speak of Phut. In the time of Jeremiah, 
(Jerem. xlvi. 9.) Phut was under the obe- 
dience of Necho, king of Egypt. Nahum 
(iii. 9.) reckons this people in the number 
of those who ought to come to the assist- 
ance of No-ammon, or Diospolis. 

It is remarkable, that from Moses to the 
prophets in the days of Hezekiah, this 
people is not mentioned, except when de- 
scribing the hired auxiliaries of the nations 
to whom their prophecies refer. It is 
absolutely incredible, says a late writer, 
that the Phut mentioned in Judith, as 
conquered by Holofernes, should have been 
situated in or near Mauritania. The Ara- 
bic versions, by Phut, understand a people 
in Southern Egypt, if not rather in Nubia. 
Sacred Geography. 

PHYLACTERY, (pvXaKTvpiov, signifies 
a preservative. This word is derived from 
the Greek, and properly denotes a preserv- 
ative, such as the Pagans carried about 
them to preserve them from evils, diseases, 
or dangers : for example, they wore stones, 
or pieces of metal, engraved under certain 
aspects of the planets. The East is to 
this day filled with this superstition ; and 
the men do not only wear phylacteries for 
themselves, but for their animals also. Je- 
sus Christ in the Gospel says, The Scribes 
and Pharisees made broad their phylac- 
teries, and enlarged the borders of their 
garments, (Matt, xxiii. 5.) as indicating 
their pretensions to a more studious and 
perfect observance of the law. These phy- 
lacteries consisted of four strips or scrolls 
of parchment, or the dressed skin of some 
clean animal, inscribed with four para- 
graphs of the law, taken from Exod. xiii. 
1—10.; and xiii. 11—16. Deut. vi. 4— 9. ; 
and xi. 13 — 21. all inclusive; which the 
Pharisees, interpreting literally, (as do the 
modern Rabbins,) Deut. vi. 8. and other 
similar passages, tied to the fronts of their 
caps, and on their arms, and also inscribed 
on their door-posts. These phylacteries 
were regarded as amulets, or, at least, as 
efficacious in keeping off evil spirits ; 
whence this Greek name <pv\aKrripia, from 
<pv\drTb), to guard or preserve. They 
founded this custom upon the following 
words (Exod. xiii. 9.) : ' And it shall be 
for a sign unto thee upon thine hand, and 
for a memorial between thine eyes ;' and 
(ibid. 16.) ' it shall be for a token upon 
thine hand, and for frontlets between thine 
eyes.' 

This precept evidently refers to the 
whole law of Moses, and not to the par- 
ticular sentences which they wrote in their 
phylacteries. The command of writing and 
binding this law as a sign upon the hands, 
and as frontlets betwixt the eyes, ought, 
doubtless, to be understood metaphorically, 



PIE 



PIE 



as a charge to remember it, to meditate 
upon it, to have it as it were continually 
before their eyes, and to conduct their 
lives by it; as when Solomon says, con- 
cerning the commandments of God, in 
general, ' Bind them about thy neck, write 
them upon the table of thine heart.' (Prov. 
iii. 1. 3.; vi. 21.) See Frontlets. Jen- 
nings's Jewish Antiquities, book i. chap. x. 

PIETISTS, a religious sect that arose 
among the Protestants in Germany, in the 
latter end of the seventeenth century. 
Pietism was set on foot by the pious and 
learned Philip James Spener, who, by the 
private societies he formed at Frankfort, 
with a design to promote vital religion, 
roused the lukewarm from their indiffer- 
ence, and excited a spirit of vigour and 
resolution in those who had been satisfied 
to lament in silence the progress of im- 
piety. The remarkable effect of these 
pious meetings was increased by a book 
which he published under the title of Pious 
Desires, in which he exhibited a striking 
view of the disorders of the church, and 
proposed the remedies that were proper 
to heal them. Many persons of good and 
upright intentions were highly pleased 
both with the proceedings and writings of 
Spener ; and, indeed, the greatest part of 
those who had the cause of virtue and 
practical religion truly at heart, applauded 
the designs of this good man, though an ap- 
prehension of abuses restrained numbers 
from encouraging them openly. These 
abuses actually happened. The remedies 
proposed by Spener to heal the disorders 
of the church fell into unskilful hands, 
were administered without sagacity or pru- 
dence, and thus, in many cases, proved to 
be worse than the disease itself. Hence, 
complaints arose against these institutions 
of Pietism, as if, under a striking appear- 
ance of sanctity, they led the people into 
false notions of religion, and fomented, in 
those who were of a turbulent and violent 
character, the seeds and principles of mu- 
tiny and sedition. 

These first complaints would have been 
undoubtedly hushed, and the tumults they 
occasioned would have gradually subsided, 
had not the contests that arose at Leipsic, 
in the year 168!), added fuel to the flame. 
Certain pious and learned professors of 
philosophy, and particularly Franckius, Scha- 
dius, and Paulus Antonius, the disciples of 
Spener, who at that time was ecclesiastical 
superintendent of the court of Saxony, began 
to consider with attention the defects that 
prevailed in the ordinary method of in- 
structing the candidates for the ministry ; 
and this review persuaded them of the ne- 
cessity of using their best endeavours to 
supply what was deficient, and to correct 
what was amiss. For this purpose they un- 
dertook to explain in their colleges certain 
books of Scripture, in order to render these 
799 



genuine sources of religious knowledge bet- 
ter understood, and to promote a spirit of 
practical piety and vital religion in the 
minds of their hearers. The novelty of 
this method drew attention, and rendered 
it singularly pleasing to many ; accordingly, 
these lectures were much frequented, and 
their effects were visible in the lives and 
conversations of several persons, whom they 
seemed to inspire with a deep sense of the 
importance of religion and virtue. Whe- 
ther these first effusions of religious fervour, 
which were in themselves most certainly 
laudable, were always kept within the strict 
bounds of reason and discretion, is a ques- 
tion not easily decided. If we are to be- 
lieve the report of common fame, and the 
testimonies of several persons of great 
weight, this was by no means the case ; and 
many things were both said and done in 
these Biblical Colleges (as they were called) 
which, though they might be looked upon 
by equitable and candid judges, as worthy 
of toleration and indulgence, were, never- 
theless, contrary to custom, and far from 
being consistent with prudence. Hence, 
rumours were spread, tumults excited, 
animosities kindled, and the matter was 
at length brought to a public trial, in 
which the pious and learned men above 
mentioned were, indeed, declared free from 
the errors and heresies that had been laid 
to their charge, but were, at the same time, 
prohibited from carrying on the plan of 
religious instruction they had undertaken 
with such zeal. It was during these 
troubles and divisions, that the invidious 
denomination of Pietists was first invented ; 
it may, at least, be affirmed, that it was not 
commonly known before this period. It 
was at first applied by some giddy and in- 
considerate persons to those who frequented 
the Biblical Colleges, and lived in a manner 
suitable to the instructions and exhorta- 
tions that were addressed to them in those 
seminaries of piety. It was afterwards 
used to characterize all who were either 
distinguished by the excessive austerity of 
their manners, or who, regardless of truth 
and opinion, were only intent upon practice, 
and turned the whole vigour of their efforts 
towards the attainment of religious feelings 
and habits. But as it is the fate of all 
those denominations by which peculiar 
sects are distinguished, to be variously and 
often very improperly applied, so the title 
of Pietist was frequently given, in common 
conversation, to persons of eminent wisdom 
and sanctity, who were equally remarkable 
for their adherence to truth, and their love 
of piety ; and, not seldom, to persons 
whose motley characters exhibited an 
enormous mixture of profligacy and en- 
thusiasm, and who deserved the title of 
delirious fanatics rather than any other 
denomination. 

This contest was by no means confined 



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to Leipsic, but diffused its contagion, witli 
incredible celerity, through all the Lutheran 
churches in the different states and king- 
doms of Europe. For, from this time, in 
all the cities, towns, and villages, where Lu- 
theranism was professed, there suddenly 
started up persons of various ranks and pro- 
fessions, of both sexes, learned and illiterate, 
who declared that they were called by a 
divine impulse to pull up iniquity by the root, 
to restore to its primitive lustre, and propa- 
gate throughout the world, the declining cause 
of piety and virtue, to govern the church of 
Christ by wiser rules than those by which 
it was at present directed ; and who, partly 
in their writings, and partly in their private 
and public discourses, pointed out the means 
and measures that were necessary to bring 
about this important revolution. All those, 
who were struck with this imaginary impulse, 
unanimously agreed, that nothing could have 
a more powerful tendency to propagate 
among the multitude solid knowledge, pious 
feelings, and holy habits, than the private 
meetings which had been first contrived by 
Spener, and were afterwards introduced into 
Leipsic. Several religious assemblies were 
accordingly formed in various places, which, 
though they differed in some circumstances, 
and were not all composed and conducted 
with equal wisdom, piety, and prudence, 
were yet intended to promote the same gene- 
ral purpose. In the mean time, these unu- 
sual, irregular, and tumultuous proceedings, 
filled with uneasy and alarming apprehen- 
sions both those who were entrusted with the 
government of the church, and those who 
sat at the helm of the state. These appre- 
hensions were justified by this important 
consideration, that the pious and well-mean- 
ing persons who composed these assemblies 
had indiscreetly admitted into their com- 
munity a number of extravagant and hot- 
headed fanatics, who foretold the approach- 
ing destruction of Babel (by which they 
meant the Lutheran church,) terrified the 
populace with fictitious visions, assumed the 
authority of prophets honoured with a di- 
vine commission, obscured the sublime truths 
of religion by a gloomy kind of jargon of 
their own invention, and revived doctrines 
that had long before been condemned by 
the church. These enthusiasts also asserted, 
that the millennium, or thousand years' reign 
of the saints on earth, mentioned by St. 
John, was near at hand. They endeavoured 
to overturn the wisest establishments, and 
to destroy the best institutions ; and desired 
that the power of preaching, and administer- 
ing public instruction, might be given pro- 
miscuously to all sorts of persons. Thus 
was the Lutheran church torn asunder in 
the most deplorable manner, while the vot- 
aries of Rome stood by, and beheld with a 
secret satisfaction these unhappy divisions. 
The most violent debates arose in all the 
Lutheran churches, and persons whose dif- 
800 



ferences were occasioned rather by mere 
words, and questions of little consequence, 
than by any doctrines or institutions of con- 
siderable importance, attacked one another 
with the bitterest animosity ; and, in many 
countries, severe laws were at length enacted 
against the Pietists. 

These revivers of piety were of two kinds, 
who, by their different manner of proceed- 
ing, deserve to be placed in two distinct 
classes. One sect of these practical re- 
formers proposed to carry on their plan 
without introducing any change into the 
doctrine, discipline, or form of government, 
established in the Lutheran church. The 
other maintained, on the contrary, that it 
was impossible to promote the progress of 
real piety among the Lutherans, without 
making considerable alterations in their 
doctrine, and changing the whole form of 
their ecclesiastical discipline and polity. 
The former had at their head the learned 
and pious Spener, who, in the year 1691, 
removed from Dresden to Berlin, and whose 
sentiments were adopted by the professors of 
the new University at Halle, and particu- 
larly by Franckius and Paulus Antonius, 
who had been invited thither from Leipsic, 
where they began to be suspected of Pietism. 
Though few pretended to treat either with 
indignation or contempt the intentions and 
purpose of these good men (which, indeed, 
no one could despise without affecting to 
appear the enemy of practical religion and 
virtue) yet many eminent divines, and more 
especially the professors and pastors of Wit- 
tenberg, were of opinion, that, in the exe- 
cution of this laudable purpose, several 
maxims were adopted, and certain measures 
employed, that were prejudicial to the truth, 
and also detrimental to the interests of the 
church. Hence they thought themselves 
obliged to proceed publicly, first against 
Spener, in the year 1695, and afterwards 
against his disciples and adherents, as the 
inventors and promoters of erroneous and 
dangerous opinions. These debates are of 
recent date ; so that those who are desi- 
rous of knowing more particularly how far 
the principles of equity, moderation, and 
candour, influenced the conduct, and di- 
rected the proceedings of the contending 
parties, may easily receive satisfactory in- 
formation. 

These debates turned upon a variety of 
points ; and therefore the matter of them 
cannot be comprehended under any one 
general head. If we consider them, indeed, 
in relation to their origin, and the circum- 
stances that gave rise to them, we shall 
be able to reduce them to some fixed prin- 
ciples. It is well known, that those who 
had the advancement of piety most zea- 
lously at heart, entertained a notion that no 
order of men contributed more to retard its 
progress than the clergy, whose peculiar 
vocation it was to inculcate and promote it. 



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While they considered this as the root of the 
evil, it was natural that their plans of refor- 
mation should begin here ; and, accordingly, 
they laid it down as an essential principle, 
that none should be admitted into the mi- 
nistry, except such as had received a proper 
education, were distinguished by their wis- 
dom and sanctity of manners, and had hearts 
filled with divine love. Hence, they pro- 
posed, in the first place, a thorough refor- 
mation of the schools of divinity ; and they 
explained clearly enough what they meant 
by this reformation, which consisted in the 
following points : That the systematical theo- 
logy, which reigned in the colleges, and 
was composed of intricate and disputable 
doctrines, and obscure and unusual forms of 
expression, should be totally abolished ; that 
polemical divinity, which comprehended the 
controversies subsisting between Christians 
of different communions, should be less 
eagerly studied, and less frequently treated, 
though not entirely neglected ; that all mix- 
ture of philosophy and human learning with 
Divine wisdom was to be most carefully 
avoided ; that, on the contrary, all those 
who were designed for the ministry should 
be accustomed, from their early youth, to 
the perusal and study of the holy Scriptures; 
that they should be instructed in a plain 
system of theology, drawn from these uner- 
ring sources of truth, and that the whole 
course of their education was to be so di- 
rected, as to render them useful in life, by 
the practical power of their doctrine, and 
the commanding influence of their example. 
As these maxims were propagated with the 
greatest industry and zeal, and were ex- 
plained inadvertently by some, without those 
restrictions which prudence seemed to re- 
quire ; these professed patrons and revivers 
of piety were suspected of designs that could 
not but render them obnoxious to censure. 
They were supposed to despise philosophy 
and learning ; to treat with indifference, and 
even to renounce, all inquiries into the 
nature and foundations of religious truth ; 
to disapprove the zeal and labours of those 
who defended it against such as corrupted 
or opposed it ; and to place the whole of 
their theology in certain vague and inco- 
herent declamations concerning the duties 
of morality. Hence arose those famous dis- 
putes concerning the use of philosophy and 
the value of human learning considered in 
connexion with the interests of religion, the 
dignity and usefulness of systematic theo- 
logy, the necessity of polemic divinity, the 
excellence of the mystic system, and also 
concerning the true method of instructing 
the people. 

The second great object that employed 
the zeal and attention of the persons now 
under consideration, was, that the candi- 
dates for the ministry should not only, for 
the future, receive such an academical edu- 
cation a3 would tend rather to solid utility 
801 



than to mere speculation, but also that they 
should dedicate themselves to God in a pe- 
culiar manner, and exhibit the most striking 
examples of piety and virtue. This maxim, 
which, when considered in itself, must be 
acknowledged to be highly laudable, not 
only gave occasion to several new regula- 
tions, calculated to restrain the passions of 
the studious youth, to inspire them with 
pious sentiments, and to excite in them 
holy resolutions ; but also produced another 
maxim, which was a lasting source of con- 
troversy and debate, namely, ' that no per- 
son, who was not himself a model of piety 
and divine love, was qualified to be a pub- 
lic teacher of piety, or a guide to others 
in the way of salvation.' This opinion was 
considered by many as derogatory from 
the power and efficacy of the word of God, 
which cannot be deprived of its divine in- 
fluence by the vices of its ministers ; and as 
a sort of revival of the long-exploded errors 
of the Donatists ; and what rendered it pe- 
culiarly liable to an interpretation of this 
nature was the imprudence of some Pietists, 
who inculcated it without those restrictions 
that were necessary to render it unexcep- 
tionable. Hence arose endless and intri- 
cate debates concerning the following ques- 
tions : ' whether the religious knowledge 
acquired by a wicked man can be termed 
theology ? whether a vicious person can, 
in effect, obtain true knowledge of religion?' 
'how far the office and ministry of an im- 
pious ecclesiastic can be pronounced salu- 
tary and efficacious V — ' whether a licentious 
and ungodly man can be susceptible of illu- 
mination V and other questions of a like 
nature. 

These revivers of declining piety went yet 
farther. In order to render the ministry of 
their pastors as successful as possible, in rous- 
ing men from their indolence, and in stem- 
ming the torrent of corruption and immo- 
rality, they judged two things indispensably 
necessary. The first was to suppress en- 
tirely, in the course of public instruction, 
and more especially in that delivered from 
the pulpit, certain maxims and phrases 
which the corruption of men leads them 
frequently to interpret in a manner favour- 
able to the indulgence of their passions. 
Such, in the judgment of the Pietists, were 
the following propositions : ' No man is able 
to attain that perfection which the divine 
law requires : good works are not necessary 
to salvation : in the act of justification, on 
the part of man, faith alone is concerned, 
without good works.' Many, however, were 
apprehensive, that, by the suppression of 
these propositions, truth itself must suffer 
deeply; and that the Christian religion, 
deprived thus of its peculiar doctrines, would 
be exposed, naked and defenceless, to the 
attacks of its adversaries. The second step 
they took, in order to give efficaoy to their 
plans of reformation, was to form new rules 
3 F 



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of life and manners, much more rigorous 
and austere than those which had been for- 
merly practised ; and to place in the class 
of sinful and unlawful gratifications several 
kinds of pleasure and amusement, which 
had hitherto been looked upon as innocent 
in themselves, and which could only become 
good or evil, in consequence of the re- 
spective characters of those who used them 
with prudence, or abused them with intem- 
perance. Thus, dancing, public sports, 
pantomimes, theatrical diversions, the 
reading of humorous and comical books, 
with several other kinds of pleasure and 
entertainment, were prohibited by the 
Pietists, as unlawful and unseemly, and, 
therefore, by no means of an indifferent 
nature. Many, however, thought this rule 
of moral discipline far too rigid and severe ; 
and thus was revived the ancient contest 
of the schoolmen, concerning the famous 
question, whether any human actions are 
truly indifferent ? that is, equally removed 
from moral good on the one hand, and from 
moral evil on the other; and whether, on 
the contrary, it be not true, that all actions 
whatever must be either considered as good or 
as evil? The discussion of this question 
was attended with a variety of debates upon 
the several points of the prohibition now 
mentioned; and these debates were often 
carried on with animosity and bitterness, 
and very rarely with that precision, tem- 
per, and judgment, which the nicety of the 
matters in dispute required. The third 
point, on which the Pietists insisted, was, 
that besides the stated meetings for public 
worship, private assemblies should be 
h olden for prayer and other religious ex- 
ercises. But many were of opinion, that 
the cause of true piety and virtue was rather 
endangered than promoted by these assem- 
blies; and experience and observation 
seemed to confirm this opinion. It would 
be both endless and unnecessary to enu- 
merate all the little disputes that arose from 
the appointment of these private assemblies, 
and, in general, from the notions entertained, 
and the measures pursued, by the Pietists. 
It is, nevertheless, proper to observe, that 
the lenity and indulgence shown by these 
people to persons whose opinions were 
erroneous, and whose errors were by no 
means of an indifferent nature, irritated 
their adversaries to a very high degree, 
and made many suspect that the Pietists 
laid a much greater stress upon practice 
than upon belief, and that, separating what 
ought ever to be inseparably joined, they 
held virtuous manners in higher esteem 
than religious truth. Amidst the prodi- 
gious numbers that appeared in these con- 
troversies, it was not at all surprising, if the 
variety of their characters, capacities, and 
views, be duly considered, that some were 
chargeable with imprudence, others with 
intemperate zeal, and that many, to avoid 
802 



what they looked upon as unlawful, fell 
injudiciously into the opposite extreme. 

The other class of Pietists already men- 
tioned, whose reforming views extended so 
far, as to change the system of doctrine, 
and the form of ecclesiastical government, 
established in the Lutheran church, com- 
prehended persons of various characters 
and different ways of thinking. Some of 
them were totally destitute of reason and 
judgment ; their errors were the reveries of 
a disordered brain ; and they were rather to 
be considered as lunatics than as heretics. 
Others were less extravagant, and tempered 
the singular notions, which they had derived 
from reading or meditation, with a certain 
mixture of the important truths and doc- 
trines of religion. Mosheim's Eccles. Hist. 
vol. v. pp. 313—325, edit. 1811. 

PIETY consists in a firm belief and in 
right conceptions of the being, perfections, 
and providence of God ; with suitable af- 
fections to him ; resemblance of his moral 
perfections, and a constant obedience to 
his will. In the opinion of men of the 
world, piety, or religion, is by no means 
necessary to form a good, a virtuous, or a 
worthy character. According to their sen- 
timents, a man may possess every virtue 
that can adorn human nature, though wholly 
void of religion, and a total stranger to de- 
votion, or the exercise of the pious affec- 
tions. The importance of what are called 
the moral virtues they do not deny. These 
they allow to be essentially necessary to the 
peace, the comfort, and the happiness of 
society. They are sensible that if these 
were banished from the world, mankind 
would degenerate into savages, nay into 
fiends, and become absolutely odious and 
intolerable to each other. But they see no 
necessary connexion betwixt piety and the 
moral virtues. These, they think, may take 
place and flourish, where the other is wholly 
wanting. 

But a very little consideration might con- 
vince them, that this notion is as false and 
absurd as it is irreligious. A very little 
consideration might convince them, that, 
if good principles be essentially necessary to 
form a truly virtuous character, a mind 
destitute of piety can no more possess true 
virtue and moral excellence, than thorns 
can produce figs, or thistles grapes. Reli- 
gious principles alone can kill the seeds of 
vice in the heart, and produce the fruits of 
true goodness. A semblance of virtue and 
goodness there may be, and often is, where 
there is no piety, no sense of religion. A 
man's external conduct may, upon the 
whole, be unexceptionable, and often praise- 
worthy, whilst he is an utter stranger to 
every pious sentiment and affection. But 
all this is only an unprincipled kind of 
virtue, and, however it may be applauded 
among men, is, in the sight of God, lightly 
esteemed. A principle of true religion im- 



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planted in the heart by the Divine Spirit, is 
the only root from which genuine virtue 
and true unaffected goodness can spring. 
' A good man,' that is, a man of good prin- 
ciples and unfeigned piety, ' out of the good 
treasure of his heart, bringeth forth that 
which is good ; and an evil man, out of the 
evil treasure of his heart, bringeth forth 
that which is evil.' 

The pious man who can look up to God 
as his Father in heaven, who orders his lot, 
appoints every affliction that befals him, 
and overrules the most grievous dispensa- 
tions of Providence for his good, has a prop 
to support him under the heavy pressure of 
calamity. He has a balm which can soothe 
the anguish of a wounded spirit. He has a 
cup of consolation which the world cannot 
give nor take away. Relying upon the 
unerring wisdom and infinite goodness of 
that Providence which overrules everything 
concerning him, and without which not a 
hair of his head can fall to the ground ; and 
looking forward to that happy termination 
of all his sorrows and sufferings, which the 
Gospel of Christ promises to the pious, he 
can be patient in tribulation. But is it 
thus with the man who is destitute of piety 
and religious principles? When the cala- 
mities of life overtake him, when ills past 
reckoning compass him around, can he 
possess his soul in patience ? Alas ! what is 
there to preserve the tranquillity of his 
mind ? Having no trust in God, no depen- 
dence on his Providence, no hope of future 
happiness, what is there to give him rational 
comfort in the time of distress? Must he 
not either become a prey to sorrow, or en- 
deavour to steel his mind by stoical prin- 
ciples? Suppose he acts the part of a Stoic. 
Is this stoical patience to be compared 
with the patience which I just now repre- 
sented as the effect of genuine piety? Is it 
any thing else than an insensibility of mind, 
which, instead of being virtuous, destroys 
all the feelings which are essentially neces- 
sary to true virtue and real inward good- 
ness? 

When the man whose mind is under the 
full influence of religion is called to en- 
counter danger, he knows that he is not left 
to himself; but, that either the providence 
of God will assist and protect him, or that 
if he should lose his life in the cause, he 
does not lose his all, as his chief happiness 
is secure, and the end of his mortal life 
upon earth will be the beginning ofan eter- 
nal life in the kingdom of heaven. Ani 
mated by this well-grounded hope, he is 
collected, bold, and intrepid, in the midst 
of dangers. How many instances of the 
most heroic fortitude do we find in the 
history of the prophets, and apostles, and 
other eminent servants of God ! With what 
firmness and constancy did they adhere to 
their duty, and to the cause of truth and 
righteousness, in the midst of perils, and >n 



the views of torture and death ! Upon perus- 
ing their history, well may we adopt the 
words of Solomon, ' The righteous are bold 
as a lion.' 

The views which the pious Christian has 
of his relation to all mankind as his 
brethren, as children of the same heavenly 
Father, as disciples of the same Saviour, 
and as fellow-travellers to the same eternal 
world, cannot but tend to dilate his heart 
with sentiments of benevolence towards the 
whole human race. The very spirit of 
Christianity is a spirit of love. Justly did 
the apostle speak of faith (that is, of reli- 
gious principles) as working by love ; for it 
is impossible for a man who truly believes 
the Gospel, and feels the influence of its 
truths, not to be humane and charitable, 
tender-hearted and benevolent. 

The views which the pious man has of 
his own unworthiness and of his need of 
forgiveness from heaven, and the represen- 
tation which the Gospel gives of the wil- 
lingness of the Father of mercies to pardon 
his numberless transgressions, make him 
ashamed to harbour sentiments of malice 
and revenge against those who have of- 
fended him. What ! saith the pious Christ- 
ian, is the Almighty willing to pardon my 
past offences which are past reckoning? 
Did the Saviour offer up himself a sacrifice 
without spot unto God, that he might take 
away the sin of the world ? And shall I 
refuse to forgive any of my brethren who 
have offended me ? God forbid ! I will 
heartily forgive my bitterest enemies, and 
pray that God may forgive them. Such are 
the sentiments which pious principles do 
naturally infuse into the heart But are 
these the sentiments of men destitute of 
piety ? Can they forgive their enemies ? 
Can they bless those who curse them ? Can 
they do good to those who hate them ? On 
the contrary, must they not be unforgiving, 
malicious, and revengeful ? Is not this the 
general character of men void of pious prin- 
ciples ? 

Hence it appears, that to attempt to pro- 
mote the interest of virtue in the world, and 
to gain the hearts of mankind to a love of 
true goodness, without endeavouring to 
impress their minds with a reverence for 
God and religion, is to labour in vain. A 
plan of morality unconnected with religion, 
will never succeed. It may appear plausible 
in theory ; hut it cannot be reduced to 
practice. To attempt to reform the minds 
and lives of men, and to give virtue a footing 
in the world, without the aid of religion and 
pious principles, is to attempt to rear a 
fabric in the air, or, as our Lord speaks, to 
build a house on the sand. This should be 
seriously considered by all teachers of reli- 
gion. It likewise demands the serious con- 
sideration of all who are entrusted with the 
education of youth, and of all parents \\ bo 
wish to train their children to (rue virtue, 

s i a 



PIH 



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and to form their minds to a love of good- 
ness. If they wish to see their children 
confirmed in virtuous sentiments, let them 
be careful to teach them, in the days of 
their youth, to remember their Creator, and 
him who redeemed them. Pious principles 
will naturally produce virtuous sentiments 
and virtuous practice ; whilst a contempt of 
religion shall assuredly be productive of base 
principles and immoral conduct. A good 
tree will yield good fruit; and a corrupt 
tree must yield corrupt fruit. Dr. Hood's 
Sermons, Sermon iv. 

PI-HAHI'ROTH, hTnrr% signifies the 
mouth, or, the pass, of Hiroth, or, the opening 
of liberty ; otherwise, mouth engraved. The 
Hebrews, departing from Succoth, came to 
Etham. (Exod. xiii. 20.) Then the Lord 
said to Moses, (Exod. xiv. 2.) ' Speak unto 
the children of Israel, that they turn and 
encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol 
and the sea, over against Baal-zephon : 
before it shall ye encamp by the sea.' 
Pi-hahiroth may be explained by the pass 
of Hiroth, or the mouth of Hiroth. Moses 
(Numb, xxxiii. 8.) calls it simply Hiroth in 
the Hebrew: and also Eusebiusand Jerome. 
The Syriac version has it, over against the 
ditches. The Septuagint (Exod. xiv. 2.) 
translate it over against the village ; others 
over against the pass of liberty, or the pass of 
drought. Calmet is of opinion, that Hiroth 
is the city Heroum, or Heroopolis, situ- 
ated at the extremity, or point of the Red 
Sea; or else the city of Phagroriopolis, 
placed by Strabo about the same place, 
and the capital of the canton of Phagrorio- 
polis. He thinks there is great pro- 
bability, that Pi-hahiroth stands for the 
pass which was near Heroum. Beyond 
this pass the Hebrews went to encamp at 
the Red Sea. 

A late writer observes, that the word 
hiroth has usually been taken as a proper 
name ; yet Dr. Shaw very justly renders it 
' the gullet,' though he did not perceive its 
direct application : Piis the mouth, he of, 
that is, the mouth of the gullet. ' Encamp 
in the face (in front) of the mouth of the 
gullet, between Migdol ( the tower) and the 
sea.' He supposes Baal-zephon to be Suez; 
and the encamping- from Baal-zephon to 
the sea, from Suez towards the west, along 
the head of the sea-shore. Fragments an- 
nexed to Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy 
Bible, No. xxxix. pp. 68, 69. 

PI'LATE, HtXaroc, signifies armed with 
a dart. The family or country of Pilate, or 
Pontius Pilate, is not known ; but it is be- 
lieved he was of Rome, or at least of Italy. 
He was sent to govern Judea in the room 
of Gratus, A.D. 26 or 27. He governed 
this province ten years, from the twelfth or 
thirteenth year of Tiberius, to his twenty- 
second or twenty-third year. He was a 
man of impetuous and obstinate temper, 
who disturbed the repose of Judea, and gave 
804 



occasion to the troubles and revolt that fol- 
lowed. 

St. Luke (xii. 1, 2, &c.) acquaints us, 
that Pilate had mingled the blood of some 
Galileans with their sacrifices ; and that the 
matter having been related to J esus Christ, 
he said, Think you that these Galileans were 
greater sinners than other Galileans, because 
they suffered this calamity 1 No, I assure 
you. And if you do not repent, you shall 
all perish in like manner. It is unknown 
on what occasion Pilate caused these Gali- 
leans to be slain in the temple, while they 
were sacrificing ; for this is the meaning of 
that expression, mingling their blood with 
their sacrifices. Some think they were dis- 
ciples of Judas Gaulonites, who taught that 
the Jews ought not to pay tribute to foreign 
princes ; and that Pilate had put some of 
them to death, even in the temple : but there 
is no proof of this. Others think, that these 
Galileans were Samaritans, whom Pilate cut 
to pieces in the village of Tirataba, as they 
were preparing to go up to Mount Gerizim, 
where a certain impostor had promised to 
discover treasures to them. But this event did 
not happen before A.D. 35, consequently 
two years after the death of Jesus Christ. 

At the time of our Saviour's passion, 
Pilate made some endeavours to deliver him 
from the Jews. He knew they pursued his 
life only out of malice and envy. His wife 
also, who had been disturbed with dreams, 
sent and desired him not to meddle with 
the affair of that just person. He attempted 
to appease the Jews, and to give them some 
satisfaction, by whipping Jesus Christ. He 
tried to take him out of their hands, by 
proposing to deliver him or Barabbas, on 
the day of the festival of the passover. He 
wanted to discharge himself from pronoun- 
cing judgment against him, by sending him 
to Herod, king of Galilee. When he saw 
all this would not satisfy the Jews, and 
that they even threatened him, saying, he 
would be no friend to the emperor, if he 
let Jesus go ; he caused water to be brought, 
washed his hands before all the people, and 
publicly declared himself innocent of the 
Wood of that just person. Yet at the same 
time he delivered him up to his soldiers, 
that they might crucify him. This was 
enough to justify Jesus Christ, and to show 
that Pilate held him innocent ; but it was 
not enough to vindicate the conscience and 
integrity of a judge, whose duty it was, as 
well to assert the cause of oppressed inno- 
cence, as to punish the guilty criminal. He 
ordered to be put over our Saviour's cross, 
as it were an abstract of his sentence, and 
the motive of his condemnation, • Jesus of 
Nazareth, King of the Jews ;' written in 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Some of the 
Jews remonstrated to Pilate, that he ought 
to have written, 'Jesus of Nazareth, who 
pretended to be King of the Jews.' But 
Pilate gave them a peremptory answer, 



P1L 



PIL 



What he had written, he had written. To- 
wards evening he was applied to, for leave 
to take down the bodies from the cross, 
that they might not continue there the fol- 
lowing day, which was the passover and the 
Sabbath-day. This he allowed, and also 
granted the body of Jesus to Joseph of Ari- 
mathea, that he might pay his last duties to 
it. When the priests came to desire him to 
set a watch about the sepulchre, lest the 
disciples should steal Jesus away by night, 
he answered, They had a guard, and might 
place it there themselves. This is the sub- 
stance of what the Gospels tell us concern- 
ing Pilate. 

Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Eusebius, and 
after them several others, ancients and mo- 
derns, assure us, that it was the custom for 
Roman magistrates to send to the emperor 
copies of all verbal processes and judicial 
acts, which they passed in their several pro- 
vinces. Pilate, in compliance with this 
custom, having written to Tiberius what 
had occurred relating to Jesus, the emperor 
wrote an account of it to the senate, in a 
manner which gave reason to judge, that 
he thought favourably of the person of Je- 
sus, and that he was willing they should 
decree divine honours to him. But the 
senate was not of this opinion, and so the 
matter dropped. It appears by what Justin 
says of these acts, that the miracles of Jesus 
Christ were there mentioned, and even that 
the soldiers had divided his garments among 
them. Eusebius insinuates, that they spoke 
of his resurrection and ascension. Tertul- 
lian and Justin refer to these acts with so 
much confidence, as would make one be- 
lieve they had had them in their hands. 
However, neither Eusebius nor Jerome, 
who were both inquisitive and understand- 
ing persons, nor any other author who wrote 
afterwards, seems to have seen them ; at 
least not the true and original acts. For 
as to what we have now in great number, 
they are not authentic, being neither ancient 
nor uniform. See Acts of Pilate. 

Pilate, having greatly disturbed the peace 
of Judea by his cruelty and rapine, was de- 
posed by Vitellius, the proconsul of Syria, 
who ordered him to Rome, to give an ac- 
count of his conduct to Tiberius. Pilate 
quitted the government of Judea, A.D. 36, 
in the twenty-third year of Tiberius. This 
emperor was dead before Pilate arrived at 
Rome. The particulars of what afterwards 
happened to this governor are unknown ; 
but it is said, that he was banished by Ca- 
ligula to Vienne in Dauphine, where he was 
reduced to such extremity, that in despair 
he killed himself with his own sword. 

PILGRIM, denotes one who is going 
forward to visit a holy place, with a design 
of paying his most solemn devotions there. 
If pilgrimages are as ancient as the days of 
Jacob, this skives a very expressive sense 
to the words of the good old man, who 
805 



calls the years of his life ' the days of his pil- 
grimage ;' and it is perfectly consistent with 
the apostle's observation, that the ancient 
patriarchs ' confessed they were strangers 
and pilgrims on earth.' (Heb. xi. 13.) 

Pilgrimages began to be made about the 
middle ages of the church. They were, how- 
ever, most in vogue after the end of the 
eleventh century, when every one was for 
visiting places of devotion, not excepting 
kings and princes ; and even bishops made 
no difficulty of being absent from their 
churches on the same account. The places 
most visited were Jerusalem, Rome, Tours, 
and Compostella. The Mahometans place 
a great part of their religion in pilgrimage. 
Mecca is the grand place to which they go ; 
and this pilgrimage is so necessary a point 
of practice, that, according to a tradition of 
Mahomet, he who dies without performing 
it may as well die a Jew or a Christian; 
and the same is expressly commanded in 
the Koran. To the Caaba, or sacred temple 
at Mecca, every Mahometan, who has 
health and means sufficient, ought once, at 
least, in his life-time to go on pilgrimage : 
nor are women excused from the perform- 
ance of this duty ; and all they who have 
performed it are confident that they are 
absolved from all sin, and sure of being 
rewarded with the joys of Paradise. The 
pilgrims ' set out from Constantinople in 
a caravan in the month of May, and re- 
I pair to Damascus, where they join the 
other pilgrims from Natolia and Asia. 
Afterwards, they unite with those that 
come from Persia, and from Egypt, and 
other parts of the Ottoman empire. The 
whole number commonly amounts to 
60,000,' who are obliged to be at Mecca 
by the beginning of the month Dhul-hajja, 
which is peculiarly set apart for the cele- 
bration of this solemnity. Hence devo- 
tion has established an annual fair at 
Mecca, which has long become a place of 
traffic, to which the pious Mussulman car- 
ries the merchandise of his country, and 
returns home with the richest goods of 
other places. 

• Pilgrimage,' says Dr. Johnson, ' like 
many other acts of piety, may be reason- 
able or superstitious, according to the 
principles upon which it is performed. 
Long journeys in search of truth are not 
commanded : truth, such as is necessary 
to the regulation of life, is always found 
where it is honestly sought ; change of 
place is no natural cause of the increase 
of piety, for it inevitably produces dissi- 
pation of mind. Yet, since men go every 
day to view the fields where great actions 
have been performed, and return with 
stronger impressions of the event, curi- 
osity of the same kind may naturally dis- 
pose us to view that country whence our 
religion had its beginning. That the Su 
l>n me Being may be more easily propili- 



PIL 



PIT 



ated in one place than in another, is the 
dream of idle superstition ; but that some 
places may operate upon our minds in an 
uncommon manner, is an opinion which 
hourly experience will justify. He, who 
supposes that his vices may be more suc- 
cessfully combated in Palestine, will, per- 
haps, find himself mistaken ; yet he may 
go thither without folly ; he, who thinks 
they will be more freely pardoned, dis- 
honours at once his reason and his religion.' 
Johnson's Rasselas ; Sale's Koran, Prelim, 
Discourse ; Additions to Calmet's Dictionary ; 
Broughton's Histor. Diet. vol. ii. p. 250. 

PILLAR. A pillar of cloud, a pillar of 
fire, a pillar of smoke, signifying a cloud, 
a fire, a smoke, which rises up toward 
heaven in the form of an irregular column. 
The pillars of heaven, (Job xxvi. 11.) the 
pillars of the earth, (Job ix. 6. Psal. lxxv. 
3.) are metaphorical expressions, which 
suppose the heavens and the earth to be as 
an edifice, raised by the hand of God, and 
founded on its basis. 

PINE, tidaher, a tree so called from the 
springiness or elasticity of its wood, says 
Parkhurst. This would lead us to consider 
the tidaher, as the yew. One of the kinds 
of oak, which is most famous for bearing 
the galls produced by means of the puncture 
of insects, has authorities in its favour. 
Luther thought it was the elm, which is a 
lofty and spreading tree. Scripture Illus- 
trated, Expos. Index, p. 173. | 

PINNACLE OF THE TEMPLE. 
When the devil had tempted Jesus in the 
desert, (Matt. iv. 5.) 'he taketh him up 
into the holy city, and setteth him on a pin- 
nacle of the temple ; and saith unto him, If 
thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down,' 
&c. There is no need, says a late writer, 
for attributing to the devil any power of con- 
veying our Lord's body through the air ; or 
by any other preternatural manner bringing 
him to the holy city. If we suppose that 
our Lord visited Jerusalem now, as he might 
have done at other times, we shall then find 
it advisable to inquire in what part of the 
temple he was placed on this occasion. To 
answer this, observe, that his station could 
not be on the roof of the temple, because 
that was full of spikes, and was not flat, but 
shelving ; nor could it well be on the top of 
either wing, on each side of that sacred 
building. To understand this history, ob- 
serve, that \epbv rendered temple, signifies 
not only the holy house itself, but its courts, 
and the galleries round it ; the whole struc- 
ture : that the word irrtgvyiov, signifies an 
appendage to a building, a wing. Parkhurst 
takes it for a portico, ' the king's portico,' 
which was built parallel to the south front 
of the temple. Scheuzer repeats three 
notions of this wing: 1. That of the roof of 
the holy house ; this he discards. 2. That 
of a throne, or exalted edifice, for the king 
to sit in at worship. 3. A tribune of wood 
806 



erected every seven years in the court of 
the women, from whence the king read the 
law to the people. This conjecture would 
be one of the most probable, if it could be 
proved that the time of the temptation of 
Jesus Christ coincided with one of these 
festivals. 

Hence the word wing, unhappily rendered 
pinnacle, may be taken, perhaps, for a bal- 
cony, portico, or projection from one of the 
galleries which surrounded the temple court. 
It may be inferred, there was a projection 
in one of the galleries around the temple, 
whence a person could be well heard below ; 
and that the leaping down from thence, to 
which the devil tempted Jesus, was not ab- 
solute suicide. Scripture Illustrated, Expos. 
Index, pp. 196, 197. 

PIS'GAH, n:>D9, signifies the high hill; 
the name of a mountain beyond Jordan, in 
the country of Moab. The mountains 
Nebo, Pisgah, and Abarim, form only one 
chain, near Mount Peor, over-against Je- 
richo, on the road from Livias to Heshbon. 

In the Hebrew text, (Deut. xxxiv. 1 — 3.) 
the prospect enjoyed by Moses from Pisgah, 
reaches from Dan, north, to Zoar, south ; 
but in the Samaritan Pentateuch it is much 
more extensive : ' all the land from the river 
of Egypt, to the river, the great river 
Euphrates, to the utmost sea.' This was 
the extent of Solomon's dominions, and the 
utmost bounds of the royal power of the 
kings of the Israelites. But there is another 
use which may be made of this passage, not 
without its importance. Could this whole 
district be seen from any other mountain 
than Pisgah ? Was this the same extent as 
was shown by the tempter to our Lord, 
when rousing him to ambition ? ' All this, 
the utmost bounds that ever were enjoyed 
by the ancient kings of thy nation, from 
whom thou art descended ; all the whole 
kingdom and dominion of thine ancestors, 
will I give thee, if,' &c. This may account 
for the term used by St. Luke, rendered 
in our version, 'all the world.' Sacred 
Geography. 

PIS I'D I A, Hiaidia, signifies pitch, pitchy. 
It was a province of Asia Minor, having 
Lycaonia north, Pamphylia south, Cilicia 
and Cappadocia east, and the province of 
Asia west. St. Paul preached at Antioch of 
Pisidia. (Acts xiii. 14.) 

PI'S ON, ]tt>*9, signifies change of mouth, 
or multitude, or extension. Pison, or Phison, 
was one of the four great rivers that 
watered Paradise. Calmet takes it to be 
the Phasis, a famous river of Colchis ; 
Lakemacher, the Jordan ; and some, a great 
river of India. See Paradise. 

PI'THOM, on3, signifies their blowing ; 
otherwise, consummation of the mouth; other- 
wise, their persuasion, or, dilatation, or, gift 
of the mouth. Pithom was one of the cities 
that the children of Israel built for Pharaoh 
in Egypt, during their servitude. (Exod. i. 



PLA 



PLA 



11.) This is, probably, the same as Pa- 
thumos mentioned by Herodotus, which he 
places on the canal made by the kings Necho 
and Darius to join the Red Sea with the 
Nile. We find, also, in the ancient geo- 
graphers, Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny, &c, that 
there was an arm of the Nile called Path- 
meticus, Phatmicus, Phatnicus, or Phatniti- 
cus. Bochart says, that Pithom and Ra- 
amses are about five leagues above the 
division of the Nile, and beyond this river : 
but this assertion has no proof from anti- 
quity. Marsham will have Pithom to be 
the same as Pelusium or Damietta. 

PLATONICS, or PLATONISTS. The 
simple and majestic fabric reared by Christ 
and his apostles was, in some degree, under- 
mined in its foundation by the prevalence 
of an opinion which was disseminated in 
the second century, that the whole duties of 
religion were not equally incumbent upon 
all, but that a sublimer degree of virtue was 
to be pursued and attained by those who in 
solitude and contemplation aspired to an 
intimate communion with the Supreme 
Being, whilst inferior attainments were suf- 
ficient for men who were engaged in the 
active employments of life. In consequence 
of this absurd opinion, the moral doctrines 
of Christianity were divided into precepts 
and counsels, the former of which distin- 
guishes those laws which are of universal 
obligation, and the latter, those which re- 
late to the conduct of Christians of superior 
merit and sanctity. These opinions were 
propagated with great reputation, towards 
the close of the second century, by Ammo- 
nius Saccas, who taught in the school at 
Alexandria, and was a professed follower of 
the Platonic philosophy. This philosophy 
took its rise, not from the doctrines of Plato, 
but from the belief of its professors, that the 
sentiments of Plato respecting the Deity 
and the invisible world were much more 
sublime and rational than those of the other 
philosophers. They professed to search 
after truth alone, and were disposed to adopt, 
from every system and sect, such tenets as 
they thought most conformable to it. Hence 
they were called Eclectics. 

Ammonius maintained not merely with 
the primitive Eclectics, that truth and false- 
hood were blended in the opinions of every 
sect, but that the great principles of all 
truth, whether philosophical or religious, 
were equally discoverable in all sects ; and 
that the only difference between them con- 
sisted in a different mode of expression, 
and in some points of little or no importance. 
By a proper interpretation of these senti- 
ments, he contended that all sects, whether 
philosophical, or religious, might easily 
coalesce in this universal philosophy, which, 
however then perverted, was the great source 
of all the religious opinions that prevailed, 
in the world; but that, in order lo this, the 
fables of the priests were to be removed from 
807 



Paganism, and the comments and interpre- 
tations of the disciples of Jesus from Christ- 
ianity. He asserted, that the errors of Pa- 
ganism proceeded from the symbols and 
fictions under which, according to the East- 
ern manner, it had been inculcated by the 
ancients ; that in time these were erroneously 
understood in a literal sense, whence the 
invisible beings who were placed by the 
Deity in different parts of the universe, as 
his ministers, were converted, by the sug- 
gestions of superstition, into gods, and 
worshipped as such, though in fact deserv- 
ing only of an inferior kind of homage. 
Jesus Christ he considered as an excellent 
being, the friend of the Deity ; but sup- 
posed that his design in descending upon 
earth was not to abolish the worship of 
daemons, but to purify the ancient religion, 
and restore the true philosophy, the great 
path of truth, from which all had wandered, 
out that his disciples had manifestly 
corrupted the doctrines of their Divine 
Master. 

Ammonius adopted the doctrines of the 
Egyptians, concerning the universe and the 
Deity, as constituting one great whole ; the 
eternity of the world, the nature of souls, the 
empire of Providence, and the government of 
the world by dcemons. These sentiments he 
associated with the doctrines of Plato, by 
adulterating some of the opinions of that 
philosopher, and forcing his expressions 
from their obvious and literal sense ; and, 
to complete his conciliatory scheme for the 
restoration of true philosophy and the union 
of its professors, he interpreted so artfully 
the doctrines of the other philosophical and 
religious sects, that they appeared closely 
to resemble the Egyptian and Platonic 
systems. 

This philosophical system was soon em- 
braced by those among the Alexandrian 
Christians, who were desirous to unite the 
profession of the Gospel with the dignity, 
the title, and the habit of philosophers. The 
school of Ammonius extended itself from 
Egypt over the whole Roman Empire ; but 
its disciples were soon divided into various 
sects ; a certain consequence of that fun- 
damental law, which all who embraced it 
were obliged to keep perpetually in view, 
that truth ivas to be pursued with the utmost 
liberty, and to be collected from the different 
systems in which it lay dispersed. Hence 
the Athenian Christians rejected the opi- 
nions entertained by the philosophers of 
Alexandria. But all who aspired to rank 
with the new Platonics, agreed in their opi- 
nion of the existence of one God, the source of 
all, the eternity of the world, the dependence 
of matter upon the Supreme Being, the nature 
of souls, the plurality of Gods, and the me- 
thod of interpreting the popular superstition. 
The rules prescribed by this seel were ex- 
tremely austere ; the people at large were, 
indeed, permitted to live conformably to the 



PLA 



POE 



laws of their country, and the dictates of 
nature ; hut the wise were enjoined to ex- 
tenuate by mortification the sluggish body 
which confined the activity of the immortal 
spirit, that in life they might enjoy com- 
munion with the Deity, and ascend after 
death alone and unincumbered to dwell in 
his presence for ever. 

This philosophy, which involved the truth 
of the Gospel in subtilty and obscurity, and 
added to the doctrine of Christ the com- 
mandments of men, became in time ex- 
tremely prejudicial to the Christian cause. 
It will be easily conceived that these opi- 
nions produced in time those voluntary se- 
clusions from the world which confined or 
destroyed the utility of a considerable por- 
tion of mankind. But its tendency, however 
injurious, was still less pernicious than an opi- 
nion derived from those philosophical sects 
who affirmed, that it was not only lawful but 
laudable to deceive, in order to advance the 
interests of religion. This detestable senti- 
ment, at first probably very cautiously propa- 
gated, and very sparingly used, opened wide 
the gates of falsehood, and, in succeeding 
ages, filled the whole system with absurd 
legends, pretended miracles, and that train 
of imposture, which, while it disgraced hu- 
man nature, was dignified with the perfi- 
dious title of pious fraud. Gregory's History 
of the Christian Church, vol, i. pp. 71 — 76- 

PLAY, to play. The Hebrew word zachak, 
which signifies to play, is commonly used for 
laughing, mocking, jeering, insulting. When 
Sarah saw Ishmael play with her son Isaac, 
she was offended at it ; it was a play of 
mockery or insult, or, perhaps, of squabbling. 
So (2 Sam. ii. 14.) let the young people, 
(or soldiers) get up, and play before us ; let 
them fight, as it were, by way of play : but 
the event shows that they fought in good 
earnest, since they were all killed. When 
the Israelites had set up the golden calf, 
they began to dance about it, and to divert 
themselves : ' The people sat down to eat 
and to drink, and rose up to play.' (Exod. 
xxxii. 6.) 

POETRY OF THE HEBREWS. No 
point of criticism has been more canvassed 
among the learned, than that concerning 
the Hebrew poetry. The most skilful com- 
mentators, and the most able critics, have 
abundantly laboured this argument, and 
yet we cannot say the matter is exhausted, 
or the difficulty cleared. Since we cannot 
pretend to know, nor ever shall know, the 
true pronunciation of the Hebrew language ; 
and consequently we cannot perceive either 
the harmony of the words, or the quantity 
of the syllables, which constitute the beauty 
of the verses. Nor have we in Hebrew, as 
we have in Greek and Latin, rules for as- 
certaining the quantity of the syllables, the 
number of feet, the cadence and con- 
struction of verses ; and yet it is plain the 
Hebrews observed these things, at least in 



some measure, since in their poems we ob- 
serve letters added to, or cut off from, the 
ends of the words, which show some sub- 
mission to the rhythm, to the number, or 
measure of syllables. Nor have we now any 
notion of the tune and dance which gene- 
rally accompanied Hebrew poetry ; for we 
know that the poetry was sung, and made 
on purpose for singing : and the Scripture 
frequently speaks of choirs and dances in 
the ceremonies of religion. 

From the manner in which Josephus, 
Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome, have spoken 
of the Hebrew poetry, it should seem that 
in their time the beauty and rules of it 
were well known. Josephus affirms in 
several places, that the songs composed 
by Moses are in heroic verse, and that 
David composed several sorts of verses and 
songs, odes and hymns, in honour of God ; 
some of which were in trimeters, or verses 
of three feet, and others in pentameters, or 
verses of five feet. 

Le Clerc composed a very ingenious dis- 
sertation, to show that the Hebrew poetry 
was in rhymes, pretty much like the French 
or English: and his opinion has been 
espoused by a good number of partisans. 
Others maintain, that in the old Hebrew 
verses there is neither measure nor feet. 
Scaliger even affirms, that this language, 
as well as that of the Assyrians, Arabians, 
and Abyssinians, is not capable of the re- 
straint of feet or measures. Austin, of Eu- 
gubium, says that the Hebrews have neither 
heroic verses, nor iambics, nor any other 
measure ; but only something that resem- 
bles it. This opinion is supported by Lud. 
Capellus, Martin Martinius, Samuel Boh- 
lius, Wasmurh, Aust. Pfeiffer, and others. 
Grotius also seems to have adopted the same 
sentiments. 

Bishop Lowth has proved that Hebrew 
poetry has pretty regular rules. * I should 
hope,' he says, ' that the method of distri- 
bution, here proposed, of sentences into 
stanzas and verses in the poetical books of 
Scripture, will appear to have some founda- 
tion, and even to carry with it a consider- 
able degree of probability. Though no 
complete system of rules concerning this 
matter can perhaps be formed, which will 
hold good in every particular ; yet this way 
of considering the subject may have its use, 
in furnishing a principle of interpretation 
of some consequence, in giving a general 
idea of the style and character of the He- 
brew poetry, and in showing the close 
conformity of style and character between 
a great part of the prophetical writings and 
the other books of the Old Testament, uni- 
versally acknowledged to be poetical.' It 
is, however, observable, that some have 
doubted the application of certain princi- 
ples advanced by the bishop. Lowth's 
Isaiah, Prelim. Discourse, p. xxxiv. ; De Sacrd 
Poesi Hebrceorum. 



POL 



POL 



POLYGAMY, the state of having more 
wives than one at a time. The circum- 
stances of the patriarchs living in polygamy, 
and their not being reproved for it, has 
given occasion to some modern writers to 
suppose that it is not unlawful. But it is 
answered, that the equality in the number 
of males and females born into the world, 
intimates the intention of God that one 
woman should be assigned to one man; 
for, if to one man be allowed an exclusive 
right to five or more women, four or more 
men must be deprived of the exclusive pos- 
session of any ; which could never be the 
order intended. It seems also a significant 
indication of the Divine will, that he at first 
created only one woman to one man. Had 
God intended polygamy for the species, it 
is probable he would have begun with it ; 
especially as by giving Adam more wives 
than one, the multiplication of the human 
race would have proceeded with a quicker 
progress. 

Polygamy not only violates the constitu- 
tion of nature and the apparent design of 
the Deity, but produces to the parties them- 
selves, and to the public, the following bad 
effects : contests and jealousies amongst the 
wives of the same husband ; distracted affec- 
tions, or the loss of all affection, in the hus- 
band himself; a voluptuousness in the rich, 
which dissolves the vigour of their intellec- 
tual as well as active faculties, producing 
that indolence and imbecility, both of mind 
and body, which have long characterized 
the nations of the East ; the abasement of 
one half of the human species, who, in coun- 
tries where polygamy obtains, are degraded 
into mere instruments of physical pleasure 
to the other half; neglect of children ; and 
the manifold, and sometimes unnatural mis- 
chiefs, which arise from a scarcity of wo- 
men. To compensate for these evils, poly- 
gamy does not offer a single advantage. In 
the article of population, which it has been 
thought to promote, the community gain 
nothing (nothing, I mean, compared with a 
state in which marriage is nearly universal); 
for the question is not, whether one man 
will have more children by five or more 
wives than by one ; but whether these five 
wives would not bear the same or a greater 
number of children to five separate hus- 
bands ? And as to the care of children 
when produced, and the sending of them 
into the world, in situations in which they 
may be likely to form and bring up families 
of their own, upon which the increase and 
succession of the human species in a great 
degree depend, this is less provided for, and 
less practicable, where twenty or thirty chil- 
dren are to be supported by the attention 
and fortunes of one father, than if they were 
divided into five or six families, to each of 
which were assigned the industry and inhe- 
ritance of two parents. 

Whether simultaneous polygamy was per- 
809 



mitted by the law of Moses, seems doubtful, 
(Deut. xvii. 17- ; xxi. 15.) ; but, whether per- 
mitted or not, it was certainly practised by 
the Jewish patriarchs both before that law 
and under it The permission, if there were 
any, might be, like that of divorce, ' for the 
hardness of their heart,' in condescension to 
their established indulgences, rather than 
from the general rectitude or propriety of 
the thing itself. The state of manners in 
Judea had probably undergone a reforma- 
tion in this respect before the time of 
Christ ; for in the New Testament we meet 
with no trace or mention of any such prac- 
tice being tolerated. For this reason, and 
because it was likewise forbidden among the 
Greeks and Romans, we cannot expect to 
find any express law upon the subject in the 
Christian code. The words of Christ (Matt, 
xix. 9.) may be construed by an easy im- 
plication to prohibit polygamy ; for if ' who- 
ever putteth away his wife, and marrieth 
another, committeth adultery;' he who mar- 
rieth another without putting away the 
first, is no less guilty of adultery ; because 
the adultery does not consist in the repu- 
diation of the first wife (for, however unjust 
or cruel that may be, it is not adultery), 
but in entering into a second marriage dur- 
ing the legal existence and obligation of the 
first. The several passages in St Paul's 
writings which speak of marriage, always 
suppose it to signify the union of one man 
with one woman. (Rom. vii. 2, 3. 1 Cor. 
vii. 12. 14. 16.) 

The manners of different countries have 
varied in nothing more than in their do- 
mestic constitutions. Less polished and 
more luxurious nations have either not per- 
ceived the bad effects of polygamy, or if 
they did perceive them, they who in such 
countries possessed the power of reforming 
the laws, have been unwilling to resign 
their own gratifications. Polygamy is re- 
tained at this day among the Turks, and 
throughout every part of Asia in which 
Christianity is not professed. In Christian 
countries it is universally prohibited. In 
Sweden it is punished with death. In Eng- 
land, besides the nullity of the second mar- 
riage, it subjects the offender to transporta- 
tion or imprisonment, and branding for the 
first offence, and to capital punishment for 
the second. And whatever may be said in 
behalf of polygamy, when it is authorized 
by the law of the land, the marriage of a 
second wife, during the life of the first, in 
countries where such a second marriage is 
void, must be ranked with the most dan- 
gerous and cruel of those frauds, by which 
a woman is cheated out of her fortune, her 
person, and her happiness. Foley's Moral 
and Political Philosophy, vol. i. pp. 313 — 

319. 

POLYGLOT, having many languages. 
For the more commodious comparison of 
different versions of the Scriptures, they 



POL 



POL 



have been sometimes joined together, and 
called Polyglot Bibles. The first modern 
Polyglot work was printed at Genoa, in 
1516, by Peter Paul Porrus, who undertook 
to print the Pentaglot Psalter of Augustin 
Justinian, Bishop of Nebo. It was in He- 
brew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and Greek, with 
the Latin versions, glosses, and scholia, 
which last made the eighth column, in folio. 
The Arabic was the first that ever was 
printed ; and this was the first piece of the 
Bible that ever appeared in so many lan- 
guages. 

In 1518, John Potken published the 
Psalter, in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and 
JEthiopic, or Chaldaic, as he with some 
others called it, at Cologne ; but the name 
of the printer is not to be found in the book. 
It has no Preface, properly so called. But 
in an Address of Potken to the studious 
reader, which is printed on the last page of 
the Psalter, we are informed, that, while his 
earnest zeal for Christianity and for the 
Roman see made him extremely desirous 
of learning foreign languages, especially 
what he calls the Chaldee, for which he was 
destitute of any proper master, some Ethi- 
opian Friars happened to be at Rome (as 
he expresses it) peregrinationis causa, to 
whom he eagerly applied ; and that, from 
his intercourse with them, he had acquired 
such a knowledge of their language, as to 
make him believe he might undertake an 
edition of the iEthiopic Psalter ; which was 
actually published at Rome nearly five years 
before the date of his Polyglot performance. 
At the end of the above-mentioned Address, 
he promised to perform something in the 
Arabic, if he should meet with sufficient 
encouragement. 

The famous Bible of Cardinal Ximenes, 
commonly called the Complutensian, con- 
sists of six large folio volumes ; having the 
Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in three distinct 
columns, and the Chaldee paraphrase, with 
a Latin interpretation, at the bottom of the 
page, the margin being filled with the He- 
brew and Chaldee radicals. It was begun 
in 1502, finished in 1517, but not published 
till 1522. 

In 1546 appeared at Constantinople, 
' Pentateuchus Hebraeo-Chaldaeo-Persico- 
Arabicus,' in three columns ; the Hebrew 
text in the middle ; on the right hand the 
Persic version of R. Jacob fil. Joseph ; and 
on the left the Chaldee paraphrase of On- 
kelos; at the top is the Arabic paraphrase 
of Saadias, and at the bottom the commen- 
tary of Rasi. The whole is printed in He- 
brew characters with points, the middle 
column on a larger size than the others. At 
the end of Genesis appears ' Absolutus est 
liber Geneseos in domo Eliezeris Berab 
Gerson Soncinatis.' 

In 1547 was published from the same 
press, ' Pentateuchus, Hebraicus, Hispani- 
cus, et Barbaro-Graecus.' This edition 
810 



was also printed in three columns : the He- 
brew text in the middle ; the old Spanish 
version on the right hand ; and, on the left, 
the modern Greek, as used by the Carai'tes 
at Constantinople, who do not understand 
Hebrew. The Spanish is designed for the 
refugee Spanish Jews. At the head and 
bottom of the pages are the Targum and the 
Commentary, as in the former editions. 

The Royal or Spanish Polyglot was 
printed at Antwerp, by Christopher Plan- 
tinus, 1569—1572, by authority of Philip 
II. king of Spain, in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, 
and Chaldee, under the direction of Arias 
Montanus, in eight volumes, folio ; con- 
taining, besides the whole of the Complu- 
tensian edition, a Chaldee paraphrase on 
part of the Old Testament, which Cardinal 
Ximenes had deposited in the theological 
library at Complutum, having particular 
reasons for not publishing it. The New 
Testament had the Syriac version, and the 
Latin translation of Santes Pagninus as 
reformed by Arias Montanus. This work 
was also enriched with various Grammars 
and Dictionaries of the several languages it 
consists of. 

In 1586 a Polyglot Bible was published 
at Heidelberg, in two volumes, folio, printed 
in four columns, Hebrew, Greek, and two 
Latin versions, namely, Jerome's and those 
of Pagninus ; with the notes of Vatablus ; 
and in the margin are the idioms, and the 
radices of all the difficult words. Two other 
dates have been seen to this edition, namely, 
1599 and 1616; but Le Long, after an at- 
tentive comparison, declares them to be 
only different copies of the same impres- 
sion ; but that some of them have the Greek 
Testament, with the addition of the Latin 
version of Arias Montanus. 

In 1596, Jacobus Lucius printed an edi- 
tion in Greek, Latin, and German, at Ham- 
burgh, in four volumes, folio, ' Studio Da- 
vidis Walderi ;' the Greek from the Venice 
edition of 1518 ; the Latin versions those of 
Jerome and Pagninus. 

In 1599, Elias Hutterus published one 
at Nuremberg, in six languages; four of 
them, the Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, and 
Latin, printed from the Antwerp edition ; 
the fifth was the German version of Luther ; 
and the sixth the Slavonic version of Wit- 
temberg. The Bible was never completed, 
and goes no farther than the Book of Ruth. 

The next work of this kind was, ' Biblia 
Sacra Polyglotta, studio Guy Michaelis Le 
Jay, Parisiis, apud Antonium Vitray, 1628, 
et ann. seqq. ad 1645,' in ten volumes, very 
large folio. This edition, which is ex- 
tremely magnificent, contains all that is in 
those of Ximenes and Plantinus, with the 
addition of the Syriac and Arabic versions. 

This was soon followed by ' Biblia Sacra 
Polyglotta, complectentia Textus originales 
Hebraic. Chaldaic. et Grsec. Pentateuchum 
Samaritanum, et Versiones antiquas, cum 



PON 



POV 



Apparatu, Appendicibus et Annotationi- 
bus ; studio et opera Briani Walton. Lon- 
dini 1657, et ann. seqq.' To this was added, 
4 Lexicon Heptaglotton, Hebraicum, Chal- 
daicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, iEthiopi- 
cum, Arabicum, et Persicum, digestum et 
evulgatum ab Edmundo Castello, 1686,' in 
two volumes more. This may properly be 
called a new edition of Le Jay with im- 
provements ; no pains having been spared 
in making it as perfect as possible : the 
whole was revised with great care, and ac- 
curately corrected; and it is justly consi- 
dered as the most useful of all the Polyglots, 
though Le Jay's is the handsomest. Ni- 
chols's Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth 
Century. 

PONTUS, UovTog, signifies the sea. The 
province of Pontus, in Asia Minor, has the 
Euxine Sea north, Cappadocia south, Paph- 
lagonia and Galatia east, and the Lesser 
Armenia west. It is thought St. Peter 
preached in Pontus, because he addresses 
his first epistle to the faithful of this pro- 
vince, and of the neighbouring provinces. 

POT'IPHAR, -i!noi3, 7rere<ppr], signifies 
the bull of Africa, or, according to the Syriac 
and Hebrew, a fat bull; jna-UlS, that scatters, 
or demolishes the fat. Potiphar is an Egyp- 
tian proper name, which has been explained 
by the Coptic IHGT <S>PPO, father, that is 
prime minister of Pharro, or Pharaoh. 
Potiphar, or Putiphar, was an officer of the 
court of Pharaoh, king of Egypt ; general of 
his troops, according to our translation, Le 
Clerc, and the Vulgate ; chief of his butchers 
or cooks, according to the Hebrew and Sep- 
tuagint. The Hebrew also calls him saris, 
an eunuch. 

Potiphar, having bought Joseph, as a 
slave, from the Midianites, who had bought 
him of his brethren, seeing all things pros- 
per in his hands, gave him the superin- 
tendence of his whole house. But, some 
years after, the wife of Potiphar, taking an 
unlawful liking to Joseph, and having even 
solicited him to the crime of adultery, Jo- 
seph repulsed her. Then, her love changed 
into rage ; she accused him to her husband, 
and Potiphar put Joseph in bonds ; where 
his delegate, who had, by office, the charge 
of the prisoners, laid this care upon Jo- 
seph. 

But God had replenished Joseph with his 
own Spirit, and gave him an extraordinary 
talent of interpreting dreams, which, at 
length, made him known to Pharaoh, who 
appointed him ruler over all Egypt, and 
gave him in marriage Asenath, daughter of 
Potiphar, or Potipherah, priest of Helio- 
polis, or On, according to the Hebrew. 

Some expositors have made a distinction 
between the master of Joseph and the 
keeper of the prison into which he was 
thrown. Others have conjectured, with 
more probability, that Potiphar, alter hav- 
ing punished Joseph in a transport of wrath 
811 



and jealousy, acknowledged his innocence ; 
but that, in order to avoid disgracing his 
wife, instead of restoring Joseph to his 
former office, he confided to him the com- 
mand of the state prison. 

Opinions have been divided, whether 
Potipherah, whose daughter Joseph mar- 
ried, is the same as Joseph's master ? That 
the Potiphar who purchased Joseph, and 
the Potipherah, priest of Heliopolis, or On, 
were two distinct persons, appears from the 
following reasons : I. the Scripture gives 
no intimation that they were one and the 
same person. 2. Potipherah had children, 
and Potiphar was an eunuch; for though 
eunuchs often kept women, there is no proof 
that they had any issue by them. In the 
Hebrew, the word saris, (Gen. xxxvii. 36.) 
which is translated officer in the English 
Bible, properly signifies eunuch. Dr. A. 
Clarke's Comment on Genesis. 

POVERTY is that state or situation op- 
posed to riches, in which we are deprived 
of the conveniences of life. Poverty seems 
one of those evils which we regard with the 
greatest dread, and take most pains to 
avoid. Yet, if we consider that there is 
hardly any state of poverty so desperate, in 
which a moderate share of industry will not 
procure food sufficient for our need, we 
shall find, that on a sober calculation, the 
evils of poverty, when they do not include 
a privation of those things which are of the 
first necessity, are usually more than ba- 
lanced by the concomitant advantages. Po- 
verty, indeed, does not admit of any super- 
fluities at our table; it, perhaps, obliges us 
to satisfy our hunger with one species of 
food, and that of the coarsest quality; it ex- 
cludes all splendour of retinue, all parade 
of wealth. The poor man has no servants 
to attend his nod, no sycophants to watch 
his look, to repeat his jests, or admire his 
wisdom ; he can engage in no costly under- 
takings, no fashionable diversions ; his 
clothing is of the most homely stuff, and 
only sufficient to keep him from the cold ; 
in the furniture of his humble dwelling he 
is always obliged to study utility more than 
show. But the labour, which is necessitated 
by his circumstances, tends to give cheer- 
fulness to his mind, and vigour to his body ; 
it stimulates his appetite, and communicates 
the sweetest relish to his hard-earned mor- 
sel ; and most propitious is it to slumbers, 
which are not liable to be broken by hideous 
and distempered dreams, the effects of a 
feverish fancy, of intemperance, or indiges- 
tion. The sleep of a labouring man is pro- 
verbially sweet; and the rich and the pow- 
erful are often lying in restless vexation, or 
torturing inquietude, on their bed of down, 
while the poor cottager is enjoying, in the 
most delicious tranquillity, a bland oblivion 
of all his cares and all his woes. Poverty 
has many negative, and some positive ail 
vantages. It is an exemption from mans 



POV 



PRA 



solicitudes, much treachery, numerous 
snares, various crosses, many swelling 
hopes, and mortifying disappointments, to 
which those in the higher spheres of life are 
perpetually exposed ; while it favours the 
possession of health, and the growth of va- 
rious virtues, which are often choked hy 
weeds in a more luxuriant soil. It leaves 
the heart open to the genial flow of the do- 
mestic affections ; it precludes not the en- 
dearments of wife and child ; and, above all, 
it often renders the soul more awake to re- 
ligious truth, more susceptible of religious 
impressions and consolations. To the poor 
the Gospel is preached ; they were its first 
and earliest converts; and its blessed 
Founder, while he continued in this world, 
preferred poverty to wealth. 

There is scarcely any condition in life so 
miserable as not to furnish something like 
its own antidote to its own woe ; or in which 
is not found something capable, in a great 
degree, of balancing its inconveniences; and 
thus of raising it almost to a level with those 
states which are esteemed more fortunate, 
and below which it seems sunk in a gulf of 
wretchedness, beyond the power of allevia- 
tion. Poverty is one of the conditions which 
men shun with the most eagerness, and re- 
gard with the most unqualified aversion. 
But, has poverty no appendages of comfort ; 
no associated balm to assuage its discontent, 
no incidental benefits, without which afflu- 
ence verges on misery ? Are there not en- 
joyments, to the production of which poverty 
is more favourable, or with which it is more 
commonly associated, than riches ? Is not 
the exertion which it causes, conducive to 
health, and is not the largest fortune only a 
sorry compensation for languor and disease ? 
Does not indigence remove the temptation 
to excess ; and is it not thus favourable to 
temperance ? Is not temperance propitious 
to the strength of the body and the mind ? 
Does not luxury enervate and corrupt ? 
And may not those circumstances often be 
accounted the most fortunate, which secure 
us from the insidious wiles of an enemy so 
fatal to our integrity and our peace? Is 
not poverty very compatible with a clear 
conscience ? And, without a clear con- 
science, the largest possessions are no sub- 
stitute for so invaluable a gift. Does not 
poverty, when it is found united with inte- 
grity and diligence, naturally excite the ad- 
miration and the sympathy of every be- 
holder ? For nothing more forcibly engages 
the affections than virtue in distress ; and 
what can be a more heartfelt satisfaction 
than the consciousness of possessing the 
love of our fellow-creatures ? Fellowes's 
Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 448, 449, 
&c. 

PRAYER has been defined a request or 

petition for mercies ; or an offering of our 

desires to God, for things agreeable to his 

will, in the name of Christ, by the help of 

812 



his Spirit, with confession of our sins, and 
thankful acknowledgment of his mercies. A 
principal cause of the efficacy of prayer is 
the benignity of the Divine nature, which 
we call the goodness of God, and of which 
the whole earth is full. Whatever is need- 
ful, or convenient ; comfortable, or desira- 
ble ; whatever we either want, enjoy, or ex- 
pect ; is always plentifully flowing from that 
inexhaustible source. To this Fountain we 
more especially owe all those blessings 
which we receive in answer to our prayers ; 
as is sufficiently evident from the illustra- 
tions which our Saviour uses on the occa- 
sion. ' For what man is there of you,' says 
he, ' whom if his son ask bread, will he give 
him a stone ? or if he ask a fish, will he give 
him a serpent ?' That is, will he give him 
what is useless and hurtful, instead of what 
is necessary, fit, and proper ? ' If ye, then, 
being evil, know how to give good gifts unto 
your children, how much more shall your 
heavenly Father, which is in heaven, give 
good things to them that ask him V If a 
parent's affection strongly inclines him to 
supply the necessities of his children, and 
provide for their welfare, much more will 
the infinite goodness and liberality of God 
extend itself to those who make their sup- 
plications to him. For he bears to us the 
relation of a Father, and has a tender care 
for us, infinitely beyond that of the most 
indulgent earthly Parent. He is ever ready 
to hear our prayers, and will liberally give 
whatever he knows to be really good and fit 
for us ; and, unless we render ourselves in- 
capable of it, he will not withhold from us 
the best of his gifts ; for he will give the aid 
and comfort of his Holy Spirit to them that 
ask him. As the efficacy of prayer is chiefly 
founded on God's goodness and beneficence, 
so it depends upon his wisdom, veracity, 
and power. The wisdom of Divine Provi- 
dence appoints prayer, as the necessary 
means of obtaining what we want ; the truth 
of his sacred promises assures us that those 
means will be effectual ; and by his power 
it is accomplished. O God, ' the eyes of all 
wait upon thee, and thou givest them their 
meat in due season. Thou openest thy 
hand, and satisfiest the desire of every liv- 
ing thing.' This dependence on God is 
both reasonable and necessary, to preserve 
in our minds that submission, duty, and 
gratitude, which we owe to the bountiful 
Creator, for the use and enjoyment of his 
manifold gifts. And, for our encouragement, 
the word of truth declares, on God's part, 
the acceptance of this our homage and ser- 
vice ; and his power assures us of a return 
answerable to our prayers. ' The Lord is 
nigh unto all them that call upon him, to 
all that call upon him in truth : he will fulfil 
the desire of them that fear him : he also 
will hear their cry, and will save them.' So 
that God's veracity is expressly engaged to 
perform, what his providence has wisely 



PRA 



PRA 



ordered, and his power is able to effect. If 
we ask, we shall obtain. 

But what adds much to the force and 
efficacy of prayer, is the merit and media- 
tion of Jesus Christ. Though the goodness 
of God inclines him to be gracious to us, 
yet he will not hear sinners ; their prayers 
are an abomination to him. His wrath 
must first be appeased, and his justice sa- 
tisfied for sin, before his mercy will show 
favour to the sinner. Therefore did Christ 
• appear once in the flesh, to put away sin 
by the sacrifice of himself. And since God 
has delivered up his own Son for us all, how 
shall he not with him freely give us all 
things ? For he is able to save us to the 
utmost, if we come unto God by him, since 
he ever liveth to make intercession for us.' 
The power with which Christ is invested 
shall never cease, and the merit upon which 
he pleads can never be exhausted. On this 
we may raise and fix our hopes, that what- 
soever we ask the Father, in the Son's 
name, he will give it us. For all the pro- 
mises of God in Christ, are sure to be per- 
formed ; which is the great confirmation of 
our faith, and a pledge of security, that our 
prayers shall be heard and answered. So 
that when we pray for pardon, grace, and 
salvation, we have the earnest of the Spirit 
already in our hearts, which obtains for us 
all that is necessary to complete our happi- 
ness. The same blessed Spirit, that is the 
Author of those gifts and graces, the first 
fruits of which Christians partake, is the 
Helper of our weakness, the Sanctifier and 
Furtherer of our prayers, and a secret, but 
powerful Intercessor for us. ' The Spirit 
helpeth our infirmities, and maketh inter- 
cession for us with groanings that cannot 
be uttered.' Though the delegation of the 
power of prayer, by our Saviour to his dis- 
ciples, extended to natural impossibilities, 
and was perhaps accompanied with mira- 
cles, and a divine faith; yet the faith which 
we now exercise in prayer is, I apprehend, 
the same in kind, though not in degree, with 
that of those who were extraordinarily gifted 
and enabled to work miracles. At least 
the common measure which is now dealt to 
all, by the operation of the same Spirit, 
must be sufficient to procure all ordinary 
blessings necessary to our real happiness and 
everlasting salvation ; and even capable of 
farther increase, as the greater glory of God, 
and the good of his church, may require. It 
appears, therefore, that the efficacy of prayer 
is universal and unlimited, and all tilings 
with God are possible by prayer ; but there 
are some necessary conditions required, 
upon which the success of it is suspended, 
and without which prayer cannot be effec- 
tual. 

Attention and fervency are principally 

requisite to render our prayers acceptable 

to God, and beneficial to ourselves. If we 

draw near to him with our lips only, whilst 

813 



our heart is far from him ; if we attend the 
duties of his worship with a languid, absent, 
and inattentive mind, in compliance only 
with form and custom, without due im- 
pressions of the sacredness of the service in 
which we are engaged, can we expect that 
such superficial, unmeaning homage can re- 
commend us to his favour, or that he will 
accept the bare semblance or mock repre- 
sentation of prayer ? It is not the service 
of the lips, it is the homage of the mind, 
which God regards. He sees and approves 
even the silent devotions of the heart, which 
need not be formed into vocal prayers to 
inform him of our necessities, but only to 
aid our own weakness, and to keep the mind 
more steady and attentive to the duty we 
are paying to our Creator. When we ap- 
proach the throne of grace, and address the 
Sovereign Lord of heaven and earth, then 
surely, if ever, there is the highest occasion 
to bring with us a serious and collected 
frame of mind, to awaken all our attention, 
to call upon all that is within us, and to 
summon and assemble all the powers and 
faculties of the soul. — Perseverance is 
another condition upon which depends the 
success of our prayers. In the parable of 
the unjust judge, we are informed, that he 
who neither feared God nor regarded man, 
who was insensible to all considerations of 
religion or humanity, was yet prevailed on 
to grant relief to a necessitous supplicant, 
merely by the continued importunity of her 
petitions. And our Saviour has instructed 
us to conclude, that perseverance in prayer 
to Heaven will have the same effect ; for he 
spoke the parable to this end, that men 
ought always to pray, and not to faint. 
Though God may, for wise reasons, delay to 
answer our first petitions, yet ought we not 
to despair of the acceptance of our repeated 
prayers. We ought to pray without ceas- 
ing, that is, not with a weak superstition or 
enthusiastic pride, to devote our whole time 
to prayers ; but, by frequent periodical per- 
formances of this duty, to recommend our- 
selves and our concerns to the care of 
heaven. — Humility, and submission to the 
divine will, are also necessary conditions of 
our prayers. When we come into the pre- 
sence of the Sovereign of the Universe, we 
ought to consider the infinite superiority of 
his nature to ours, and impress our hearts 
with the most awful veneration of him, and 
offer our supplications with the most hum- 
ble reverence, suited to his greatness and 
majesty, and our own meanness and un- 
worthiness to approach him. And as we 
ought with the most reverential awe to come 
before the Lord, and bow ourselves before 
the Most High God, and with the deepest 
humility of heart to sue for mercies we have 
no right to, and for blessings we deserve 
not; so likewise ought we to resign all our 
requests, inclinations, and desires, to the 
determination of bis all- wise providence. 



PRA 



PRE 



We are improper judges of our own condi- 
tion, and know not what to pray for as we 
ought. If we ask what in the opinion of the 
world are reputed blessings, — wealth, honour, 
and distinctions, success, and the like, — these 
may, in their immediate or remote conse- 
quences, be attended with a train of un- 
known evils. Though in themselves good, 
we may be disposed to make an improper 
use of them, and to us they may become 
evil ; or though they favour our present, 
they may be fatal to our future interests. — 
Our prayers to God ought to be accom- 
panied with a trust and confidence in his 
goodness; a confidence that composes our 
fears, and sets us above all despondency. 
When, indeed, we reflect upon the infinite 
holiness and majesty of God, and our own 
impurity and meanness ; when we consider 
the immense distance between his nature 
and ours, rendered still more immense, if 
that were possible, by our unworthiness ; it 
might seem presumption enough to present 
ourselves and our addresses before the 
throne of God, without adding a confidence 
that those addresses will be regarded by 
him. As those addresses are made in obe- 
dience to his commands, and our hopes en- 
couraged by his sure promises, we may and 
ought to approach him with a confidence 
that we shall either be indulged in the par- 
ticular subject of our requests, or that he 
will do in that and every other case that 
we recommend to his providence, whatever 
to his wisdom appears best and fittest for 
us. The last requisite I shall mention, 
necessary to recommend our prayers to the 
Divine acceptance, is, that the state of the 
person who prays should be that of a right- 
eous man, for it is the ' effectual fervent 
prayer of the righteous man only that 
availeth with God.' By a righteous man 
we are not to understand one who is without 
sin, and perfectly innocent ; for there is 
not a 'just man upon earth, that doeth good 
and sinneth not.' But such as comply with 
the terms of the Gospel. All such persons 
will be graciously accepted and esteemed 
as righteous in the sight of God. This 
evangelical righteousness implies a well- 
grounded faith in the merits and mediation 
of Christ, an unfeigned repentance for our 
past sins, and a stedfast purpose of amend- 
ment ; without which no man ought to pre- 
sent himself before God, for he heareth not 
sinners ; but those who believe in him and 
our Saviour, and endeavour to do his will 
with sincerity of heart. 

Let us then, as often as we go to the 
house of prayer, carry with us a mind 
serious, devout, and disengaged ; neither 
ruffled with cares, nor dissipated by plea- 
sure ; that we may serve God with an un- 
divided attention, and with a heart devoted 
solely to the right discharge of the duty 
which we profess to perform. Let no inad- 
vertent behaviour betray our absence frtfm 
814 



God, and the indisposition of our heart to 
pay him that homage which with our lips 
we acknowledge to be due to him. Let no 
suspension of his blessings discourage our 
perseverance ; for though he favours not 
our first, he may our repeated petitions. 
Let them be accompanied with humility of 
heart; with an absolute, unreserved sub- 
mission to the sovereign will of him whose 
goodness to us is expressed sometimes by 
gratifying, sometimes by disappointing, our 
hopes ; and with a firm dependence on his 
providence, and a trust that he will order 
all things for our good. To the first, the 
greatest, and best of Beings, be it our care 
to pay our daily homage. We are every 
day dependent on God ; and every day 
should begin, and close, with pious acknow- 
ledgments of our dependence. Every morn- 
ing, we should look up to him for a renewal 
of his mercies ; and every evening, ask 
forgiveness for the errors of the preceding 
day. When we rise, we should implore his 
guidance ; and when we lie down, we 
should supplicate his protection. Often 
should we lift up our souls in occasional 
supplications to the great Preserver of our 
being, and recommend ourselves and our 
concerns to his providence. Warner's 
System of Divinity and Morality, vol. ii. pp. 
263, 264, &c. ; Carr's Sermons, vol. i. 
Sermon xviii. 

PREDESTINATION, the design which 
some suppose God to have formed, from all 
eternity, of bringing by his grace certain 
persons to faith and salvation, whilst he 
leaves others to their infidelity. This is 
with reason considered as one of the most 
abstruse doctrines of theology. Some have 
greatly perplexed themselves with certain 
expressions of St. Paul, in his Epistle to the 
Romans (ix.) concerning God's electing the 
children yet unborn, who had done neither 
good nor evil ; concerning ' his loving 
Jacob, and hating Esau ; his hardening 
Pharaoh ; and showing mercy on whom he 
will have mercy ; and having compassion 
on whom he will have compassion ;' and of 
his having the same power over mankind as 
the potter has over the clay, to make one 
vessel to honour, and another to dishonour. 
Yet it is clearly evident, that the apostle's 
design is not to speak concerning any de- 
cree of God, with respect to the final and 
eternal state of particular persons ; but only 
to declare both the sovereign power and 
justice of God, in distributing to different 
nations, in different ages, what particular 
advantages he pleases ; and in revealing his 
will to them when, and in what manner, he 
thinks fit. The apostle expressly declares, 
that he does not mean, by the vessels of 
mercy, prepared of God unto glory, any 
particular persons, chosen unconditionally 
to eternal salvation ; but the whole body of 
Christians, even us whom he has called, and 
who obeyed that call by believing in Christ; 



PRE 



PRE 



not from among the Jews only, but also of 
the Gentiles. They were called to receive 
that grace and mercy, and to embrace 
those advantages of the Gospel, which the 
Jews rejected, who therefore became vessels 
of wrath, fitted for destruction. Though we 
are at present the vessels of mercy, yet, if 
we live unworthy of the Gospel, we can have 
no reason to expect, since God spared not 
the Jews, the natural branches, that he will 
spare us, who were engrafted after their fall. 
The apostle had before shown, that the 
Gentiles, by acting contrary to the law of 
nature, and the Jews, by disobeying the 
law given them from Heaven, became 
both equally liable to the wrath of God. 
For God being no respecter of persons, 
' as many as sinned without law, shall 
perish without law; and as many as have 
sinned in the law, shall be judged by the 
law.' 

The apostle proceeds to answer a strong 
objection, which he knew would be raised 
by the unbelieving Jews against what he 
had said. For if this doctrine were true, 
then whosoever of the Jews rejected the 
Gospel, though they were descended from 
the patriarchs, to whom the promises were 
made, and were God's peculiar people ; 
though to them were committed the pro- 
phecies and oracles of God, and to them 
pertained the adoption, and the glory, and 
the covenants, and the giving of the law, 
and the service of God, and the promises ; 
yet, notwithstanding all this, it would 
follow, that they were still out of the way 
of salvation, though zealous observers of 
the ceremonial law, unless they believed in 
Christ, and obeyed the Gospel, which is the 
righteousness of faith. The Jews thought 
this doctrine impossible, and contrary 
to the promises of God made to their 
fathers, and therefore imputed it to the 
apostle's zeal and prejudice against them, 
since his being converted to Christianity. 
To this objection Paul replies, by show- 
ing that there was no injustice in God, no 
breach of promise, no change of his will, 
in rejecting the unbelieving Jews, and re- 
ceiving the Gentiles ; since the promise was 
not oi'iginally made to all the children of 
Abraham, but to Isaac only, and, of his sons, 
only to Jacob ; and all were not Israel, 
which were of Israel ; for a remnant only 
was to be saved. During the whole period 
of the law, God had mercy on whom he 
would have mercy, and compassion on whom 
he would have compassion ; that is, not on 
the whole people, but on whom he pleased, 
who was the alone competent and infallible 
Judge, to distinguish such as were stedfast 
in their faith and fidelity to him. Whom he 
would he hardened ; that is, he chose out of 
obstinate and incorrigible offenders, whom 
he pleased, to make examples of his wrath 
and vengeance. Since this, saith the apos- 
tle, was the method of God's proceeding 
815 



from the beginning, much more might God 
justly reject unbelievers, at the coming of 
the Messiah, who was the end of the law, 
and reckon only those the true children of 
Abraham, who imitated his faith and obe- 
dience, making known the riches of his 
glory on the vessels of mercy, which he had 
before prepared unto glory, even us whom 
he has called, not of the Jews only, but also 
of the Gentiles. Hence it would appear, 
that the Scripture doctrine on this subject 
is, that those, who God foresaw would per- 
form the conditions of the Gospel covenant, 
are said to be predestinated to life ; ' for 
whom he did foreknow, he also did predes- 
tinate.' This, indeed, seems to be the only 
sense in which predestination is reconcilable 
with the attributes of God, and the free 
agency of man. 

But it has been observed, that, when God 
proposes an end, he also proposes the means ; 
when he appoints an effect, he also appoints 
the causes. Now, where is the essential 
difference, if we say, God foresaw the elect 
would be holy, and therefore chose them, or 
say, God chose the elect, to make them holy? 
Because, since their holiness is not from 
themselves, but from him, he must deter- 
mine to bestow on them that which they 
have not of themselves. The difference, 
therefore, is in the order only ; that is, whe- 
ther God determined to elect a person, pur- 
posing his holiness, or determined to make 
him holy, purposing his election. For it is 
to be observed, that God's determination to 
render him holy is, in fact, an election 01 
him ; an election which implies salvation : 
and since this principle places an election 
of the party previous to its effects, it seems 
to be much more convenient to admit of a 
full and entire election, than of a partial 
and incomplete election. Especially if we 
consider that all things are known to God 
from the beginning to the end, so that he 
has no need to stay till a certain event has 
taken place before he can adjust the follow- 
ing event, but, in bis vast, and extensive, 
and intimate foreknowledge of things, that 
which is to follow is no more concealed from 
him, than that which is to precede. If we, 
perhaps, see one single link in the chain of 
the divine government, considered as com- 
pounded of cause and effect, what propor- 
tion does this bear to that infinitely pro- 
longed concatenation, of which the Divine 
mind only is capable of surveying at once 
both the extremes, and together with the 
extremes every connecting link, every act- 
ing cause, and every produced effect; from 
the most trivial, as we call it, to the most 
considerable, in our estimation ! 

The prescience of God, as extending to 
every instance of human conduct, from the 
creation of man to the final consummation 

of all tilings, is undoubtedly a proper object 

of our belief Hut we are utterly incapable 

of comprehending how this prescience eon 



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sists with the other attributes of the Deity, 
and with the free agency of man ; nor can 
we conceive how those future contingencies, 
which depend upon the determination of 
the human will, should be certain and in- 
fallible ; and yet, that they are so, is fully 
proved by the accurate accomplishment 
of prophecies. At the same time the un- 
warranted idea of God's absolute and un- 
conditional predestination is apt to drive 
the presumptuous and the wicked, who re- 
sist the influence of the Spirit of Christ, 
either into a state of gloomy despondency 
on the one hand, or into a course of un- 
bridled licentiousness on the other. ' If a 
man thinks that he is under an inevitable 
decree, as he will have little remorse for all 
the evil he does, while he imputes it to that 
inevitable force that constrains him, so he 
will naturally conclude that it is to no pur- 
pose for him to struggle with impossibili- 
ties ; and men being inclined both to throw 
all blame off from themselves, and to in- 
dulge themselves in laziness and sloth, these 
practices are too natural to mankind to be 
encouraged by opinions that favour them. 
All virtue and religion, all discipline and 
industry, must arise from this, as their first 
principle, that there is a power in us to 
govern our own thoughts and actions, and 
to raise and improve our faculties. If this 
is denied, all endeavours, all education, all 
pains, either on ourselves or others, are 
vain and fruitless things. Nor is it possible 
to make a man believe other than this ; for 
he does so plainly perceive that he is a free 
agent ; he feels himself balance matters in 
his thoughts, and deliberate about them so 
evidently, that he certainly knows he is a 
free being. Though he feels himself often 
hurried on so impetuously, that he may 
seem to have lost his freedom in some turns, 
and upon some occasions, yet he feels that 
he might have restrained that heat in its 
first beginning; he feels he can divert his 
thoughts, and master himself in most things, 
when he sets himself to do it ; he finds that 
knowledge and reflection, that good com- 
pany and good exercises, do tame and soften 
him, and that bad ones make him wild, 
loose, and irregular. From all this they 
conclude that man is free, and not under 
inevitable fate, or irresistible motions either 
to good or evil. All this they confirm from 
the whole current of the Scripture, which 
is full of persuasions, exhortations, reproofs, 
expostulations, encouragements, and ter- 
rors, which are all vain and theatrical things, 
if there are no free powers in us to which 
they are addressed : to what purpose is it to 
speak to dead men, to persuade the blind 
to see, or the lame to run ? If we are under 
an impotence till the irresistible grace comes, 
and if, when it comes, nothing can withstand 
it, then what occasion is there for all those 
solemn discourses, if they can have no effect 
on us ? They cannot render us inexcusable, 
816 



unless it were in our power to be bettered 
by them : and to imagine that God gives 
light and blessings to those, whom he before 
intended to damn, only to make them inex- 
cusable when they could do them no good, 
and they will serve only to aggravate their 
condemnation, gives so strange an idea of 
that infinite Goodness, that it is not fit to 
express it by those terms which do natu- 
rally rise upon it.' Warner's System of Di- 
vinity and Morality, vol. iii. pp. 358 — 362. 
Additions to Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy 
Bible ; Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christian 
Theology, vol. ii. pp. 302 — 307; Burnet's 
Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, pp. 
208, 209. 

PRESBYTERIANS. The term Pres- 
byterian comes from the Greek word Tlpecr- 
fivTtpog, which signifies senior or elder ; and 
the Presbyterians are so denominated from 
their maintaining that the government of 
the church appointed in the New Testa- 
ment was by presbyteries, that is, by asso- 
ciations of ministers and ruling elders, all 
possessed of equal powers, without any su- 
periority among them, either in office, or in 
order. 

Though the Presbyterians in general 
insist that the church was originally con- 
stituted according to their principles, yet 
their opponents as firmly believe that it is 
in vain to look for the origin of their 
scheme of church government till after 
the reformation. Even Dr. Hill, who 
traces the origin of Presbyterianism to the 
practice of the apostles, and affirms that 
there are no traces of episcopacy in Scrip- 
ture, or in the writings of the apostolical 
fathers, admits that this last form pre- 
vailed almost universally in the second 
century, and also that, from that time to 
the era of the reformation, the order of 
bishops, as distinct from, and superior to 
presbyters, continued to exist almost in 
all parts of the Christian world, and was 
regarded with respect and submission, 
both by the clergy and the laity. Dr. 
Campbell also admits, that, about the mid- 
dle of the second century, a kind of epis- 
copacy had grown out of the original in- 
stitution of perpetual moderators. Dr. 
Hill observes, that ' the first reformers, 
who believed that the distinction between 
bishops and presbyters has no foundation 
in Scripture, and who wished to apply an 
effectual remedy to the abuses which ap- 
peared to them to have arisen in the pro- 
gress of human ambition, from the practice 
of investing bishops with powers superior 
to presbyters, did not consider the anti- 
quity or universality of that practice as 
any reason for its being continued. Re- 
curring to what they accounted the pri- 
mitive Scripture model, they laid the foun- 
dation of Presbyterian Church-government 
in this principle, that all ministers are 
equal in rank and power ; and they did 



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not admit any official preference, but that 
which is constituted by voluntary agree- 
ment for the sake of order.' The refor- 
mers here alluded to were chiefly Calvin, 
(who may be said to be the founder of 
Presbytery, having first established that 
form at Geneva, about 1541,) and Messrs. 
John Knox, and Andrew Melvil, who soon 
after introduced it into Scotland ; where, 
from the first dawn of the Reformation till the 
Revolution, there was a perpetual struggle 
of contending parties, whether their Church 
should be modelled according to the Epis- 
copal or the Presbyterian form of Church- 
government. These men, together with 
Beza and some others, were violent reform- 
ers, and seem to have laid it down as a prin- 
ciple, that, in new modelling their respec- 
tive churches, they could not recede too 
far from the Church of Rome ; and hence, 
they condemned episcopacy as having no 
foundation in the word of God. 

From Geneva Presbyterianism was in- 
troduced among the reformed in France, 
into Holland, and also into England and 
Scotland, in which last country it became 
the established form of Church-government 
at the Revolution in 1688. The first Pres- 
bytery in England was set up at Wands- 
worth, in Surrey, in 1572, some years 
before a Presbytery was heard of in Scot- 
land. This first establishment was called 
the Order of Wandsworth, by Field, their mi- 
nister : and under Cromwell, who was alike 
averse to Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, 
though he faund it expedient to show fa- 
vour to the latter, the Church of England 
was delivered to the management of a set 
of commissioners, consisting partly of 
Presbyterians and partly of Independents. 
But upon the restoration of Charles II., 
the Church resumed its ancient form of 
Episcopal government ; and upwards of 
2000 of the clergy, attached to Presby- 
terian discipline, relinquished their cures 
in consequence of the Act of Uniformity, 
which took place on St. Bartholomew's 
day 1662, ' by which,' says Dr. Maclaine, 
1 the validity of Presbyterian ordination was 
renounced, and the ministrations of the 
foreign Churches disowned.' During the 
troubles of the seventeenth century, many 
English Presbyterians emigrated, together 
with multitudes of other denominations, to 
America, where they have been increasing 
to the present day, where the Presbyterians 
make a great proportion of the inhabitants 
of the United States. 

The members of Presbyteral communities 
hold the divine authority of the priesthood 
equally with Episcopalians, but they differ 
from them in their mode of ecclesiastical 
government, and in their manner of con- 
ferring the powers of the ministry. They 
believe that the authority of their ministers 
to preach the Gospel, to administer the 
Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's 
817 



Supper, and to feed the flock of Christ, is 
derived from the Holy Ghost by the im- 
position of the hands of the Presbytery ; 
and they oppose the independent scheme 
of the common rights of Christians, by the 
same arguments which are used for that 
purpose by the Episcopalians. They af- 
firm, however, that there is no order in the 
Church as established by Christ and his 
Apostles, superior to that of Presbyters ; 
that all ministers, being ambassadors of 
Christ, are equal by their commission ; that 
presbyter and bishop, though different words, 
are of the same import ; and that Episco- 
pacy was gradually established on the pri- 
mitive practice of making the moderator or 
speaker of the Presbytery a permanent 
officer. These positions they endeavour to 
maintain against the Episcopalians, by 
arguments deduced from Scripture. 

There have been, »and still are, warm 
advocates for the divine right of Presbytery, 
as well as for that of Episcopacy : and those, 
or most of those, who hold the former, con- 
tend that the Presbyterian form of govern- 
ment is delineated and prescribed in Scrip- 
ture, as a rule to which all the members 
of the Church of Christ are bound to sub- 
mit till the end of the world, and, conse- 
quently, that every other form is unlawful. 
It was a conviction of this doctrine that pro- 
duced, during the commotions of the seven- 
teenth century, the ' Solemn League and 
Covenant,' which was subscribed by many 
of all ranks in England and Scotland, who 
swore, with their hands lifted up to the Most 
High God, that they would endeavour the 
extirpation of prelacy, that is, of Church- 
government by archbishops, bishops, and 
all other ecclesiastical officers depending 
on that hierarchy: and when the Presby- 
terians attained supreme power, they are 
said to have fulfilled this oath by many 
unjust and violent deeds. 

On the other hand, many Presbyterians 
as well as some Episcopalians, vindicate 
their own mode of Church -government, as 
a good human device, upon the principle 
that the particular form has been left by 
Christ to be particularly moulded by the 
rulers of the Church and State, agreeably 
to the prejudices, prepossessions, and cus- 
toms, of different countries. 

The established Church of Scotland exhi- 
bits the best model of Presbyterian Church- 
government now existing. In some of the 
Churches on the continent, where a num- 
ber of Presbyters have the charge of a city 
or district, there are superintendents, prae- 
positi, or inspectores, who are appointed 
for life to preside in the council of Pres- 
byters, but who, having no other superi- 
ority than that which is implied in the 
office of president, and no powers or pri- 
vileges essentially different from those 
which belong to Presbyters, are only ac- 
counted primi inter pares ; — a form of 

SG 



PRE 

government which seems to extend also to 
the German Lutherans. But in the greater 
part of Presbyterian Churches, from a jea- 
lousy, lest, under the form of superinten- 
dency, some kind of prelacy might be in- 
troduced, the parity of ministers is guarded 
by the frequent election of a new president 
or moderator, who, when his term is expired, 
returns to an equality with his brethren. 
A body of Presbyters, having a moderator, 
who conducts the proceedings, and executes 
the sentences, is considered as competent 
to perform all the acts which, in Episco- 
pal government, belong exclusively to the 
bishop. It tries the qualifications of can- 
didates for the office of the ministry ; it 
confers orders by the imposition of hands ; 
to those who are nominated by persons 
having right of nomination, it grants the 
investiture of the sacred office, or induc- 
tion into the charge of a particular office ; 
and it exercises inspection and jurisdiction 
over the pastors of all the parishes within 
its bounds. 

Almost all Presbyterians are Calvinists, 
the Arminians in Holland, &c. excepted. 
At least, their public standards of faith 
are Calvinistical. Yet very few of the 
Presbyterians in England are said to be 
Calvinists at present ; and many of those 
also in the Church of Scotland are supposed 
to have departed from the peculiar doc- 
trines of their standards. It may also be 
remarked here, that though many Unita- 
rians are nominally Presbyterians in re- 
gard to Church-government, yet none of 
them are Calvinists, nor do they admit the 
Presbyterian standards of faith. 

The Presbyterians, Independents, and 
others who embrace those standards, as well 
as the Roman Catholics, profess to believe 
that there is no salvation out of the Church 
of Christ. ' Out of the visible Church, 
which is the kingdom of the Lord Jesus 
Christ, the house and family of God, there 
is no ordinary possibility of salvation.' 
Again, ' They who, never having heard the 
Gospel, know not Jesus Christ, and believe 
not in him, cannot be saved, be they never 
so diligent to frame their lives according 
to the light of nature, or the law of that 
religion which they profess.' 

Calvin himself was no enemy to Litur- 
gies, but ' highly approved of them, and 
composed certain forms of prayer, to be 
used by the ministers in Geneva, in the 
public worship, on Sundays and other holi- 
days, and at the administration of the 
sacraments ;' but almost all Presbyterians, 
at least in Britain, Ireland, and America, 
have now laid them aside, and use extem- 
porary prayer in the worship of God. They 
also differ from Episcopalians in this, that 
while the latter kneel in time of prayer, 
the former stand, and in singing the praises 
of God they sit, while all Episcopalians 
stand ; and what will perhaps seem more 
818 



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re 
r- 



remarkable, the Dutch Presbyterians are 
said to remain covered during public wor- 
ship. These last have not, however, de- 
clared war against instrumental music in 
houses of public worship, like their bre- 
thren in Great Britain and Ireland. Mo- 
sheim tells us, that Calvin laid a scheme 
for sending forth, from his little republic of 
Geneva, ' the succours and ministers that 
were to promote and propagate the Pro- 
testant cause through the most distant 
nations, and aimed at nothing less than 
rendering the government, discipline, and 
doctrine of Geneva, the model and rule 
of imitation to the reformed Churches 
throughout the world.' So strict wa3 the 
discipline that he established at Geneva, 
that it gave general offence ; yet this may 
be said to be the groundwork of that of 
Presbyterian Churches in general. For 
his discharge of all the duties of the pas- 
toral office, a minister is accountable only to 
the Presbytery, from whom he received 
the charge of the parish. ' But in every 
thing which concerns what is called disci- 
pline, the exercise of that jurisdiction over 
the people with which the office-bearers 
of the Church are conceived to be invested, 
a Presbyterian minister is assisted by lay- 
elders. They are laymen in this respect, 
that they have no right to teach, or to 
dispense the sacraments ; and on this ac- 
count they form an office in the Presby- 
terian Church inferior in rank and power 
to that of pastors. They generally dis- 
charge the office which originally belonged 
to the deacons, of attending to the inte- 
rests of the poor. But their peculiar busi- 
ness is expressed by the name ruling elders ; 
for, in every question of jurisdiction within 
the parish, they are the spiritual court, of 
which the minister is officially moderator ; 
and in the Presbytery, of which the pas- 
tors of all parishes within its bounds are 
officially members, lay-elders sit as the 
representatives of the several sessions or 
consistories.' 

Calvin admitted lay-elders into Church 
courts on what he conceived to be the 
sanction of primitive practice, and ' as an 
effectual method of preventing the return 
of inordinate power in a superior order of 
clergy.' With some variation in name or 
in privileges, the office of lay-elders is found 
in all the Presbyterian Churches upon the 
continent, and it forms an essential part of 
the constitution of the Church of Scotland. 

The established religion in Scotland is 
the Presbyterian ; the two parties of Sece- 
ders, and the Society of Relief, are also 
strict Presbyterians ; and in England one 
branch of the Protestant Dissenters are 
still called Presbyterians, though impro- 
perly. The Presbyterians have long been 
numerous in Ireland, especially in the 
north ; and on the continent Presbyte- 
rianism still prevails, in Switzerland and in 



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Holland. Presbyterians are also numerous 
in most parts of North America. Presby- 
terianism is the prevailing religion through- 
out Connecticut, where it is said to reign 
' in all its rigour, despotism, and intole- 
rance.' Though the letter of the law has 
established freedom of religious sentiments 
in Connecticut, yet such freedom is far 
from being known there. Its ministers, 
the zeal of its followers, and the appro- 
priation of the places in the college to 
Presbyterians, exclusively afford very great 
advantages, to prevent it from being sup- 
planted by any other form of religion. 
The Presbyterians are also the most nu- 
merous sect in North Carolina, especially 
in the western parts, which are inhabited 
by emigrants from Pennsylvania. In 1788, 
there were in America about 618 Presby- 
terian congregations, and 226 ministers ; 
and their General Assembly usually meets 
at Philadelphia, in the month of May. 

Among the chief luminaries of the 
foreign Presbyterian Churches may be 
reckoned Calvin, Martyr, Beza, Bullin- 
ger, Zanchius, Blondel, Salmasius, Dal- 
laeus, Claude, &c. : and at home none per- 
haps have been more eminent than Knox, 
Henry, Macknight, Robertson, Campbell, 
and Blair. 

In almost all Presbyterian Churches the 
sacrament of the Lord's Supper is never 
administered in private houses to any per- 
son, under any circumstances whatever. 
But it does not appear, that the Presby- 
terians have adopted this principle from 
Calvin, who thus expresses himself on the 
subject: 'Why the Lord's Supper should 
not be denied to the sick, many and great 
reasons prevail with me, &c. &c. My judg- 
ment for the administration of private 
baptism, and giving the Lord's Supper 
to malefactors that desire it, and appear 
qualified for it, is the same.' He also 
required sponsors in baptism, besides or 
together with the father. But at present 
almost all Presbyterians, both at home 
and abroad, who practise infant baptism, 
require no sponsors, except the father, and 
in some cases the mother , and they seldom 
administer baptism in private houses. It 
appears, likewise, that, in various other 
particulars, the sentiments of Calvin cor- 
responded more with those of the Episco- 
palians, than of the modern Presbyterians. 
Adam's Religious World Displayed, vol. ii. 
pp. 289—305. 

Presbyterians in England. 'Those,' 
says Dr. Doddridge, ' who hold every pastor 
to be so a bishop or overseer of his own 
congregation, as that no other person or 
body of men have, by divine institution, a 
power to exercise any superior or pastoral 
office in it, may, properly speaking, be 
called (so far at least) congregational ; and 
it is by a vulgar mistake that any such are 
called Presbyterians; for the Presbyterian 
819 



discipline is exercised by synods and assem- 
blies, subordinate to each other, and all of 
them subject to the authority of what is 
commonly called a general assembly. The 
appellation Presbyterian is, in England, 
appropriated to a large denomination of 
dissenters, who have no attachment to the 
Scotch mode of Church-government any 
more than to Episcopacy ; and therefore to 
this body of Christians, the term Presby- 
terian, in its original sense, is improperly 
applied. How this misapplication came to 
pass, cannot be easily determined, but it 
has occasioned many wrong notions, and 
should, therefore, be rectified. English 
Presbyterians, as they are called, adopt the 
same mode of Church-government with the 
Independents, from whom they differ chiefly 
in that they are less attached to Calvinism, 
and consequently admit a greater latitude 
of religious sentiment.' 

The first Presbytery in England was 
erected at Wandsworth, in Surrey, No- 
vember 20, 1572, which first establishment, 
as already observed, was called the [ Order 
of Wandsworth,' by Field, their minister. 
Many of the English who had fled to 
Geneva, Frankfort, &c. during the persecu- 
tion under Queen Mary, returned to Eng- 
land, in the reign of Elizabeth, with strong 
prepossessions in favour of Calvinistic doc- 
trines and forms ; and being dissatisfied with 
the Established Church, because, in their 
opinion, it was not formed after a pure 
model, produced a sect of non-conformists, 
then denominated Puritans. They were 
restless ; the age was intolerant ; the queen 
hostile, and despotic in the use of prero- 
gative ; hence they were treated, perhaps, 
with harshness and injustice. From James, 
though a warm friend to Episcopacy, they 
experienced greater humanity and mildness. 
In the reign of Charles I., they met with 
opposition and vexation from Archbishop 
Laud, who regarded them with no favour- 
able eye. Yet their party gradually derived 
strength from the public measures of the 
day, and other concurring circumstances, 
and had a leading share in precipitating 
the kingdom into civil war. In the course 
of the conflict they were depressed and 
supplanted by the more recent sect of Inde- 
pendents ; and both Puritans or Presby- 
terians, and Independents, harassed, in 
every possible way, the National Church, 
and ultimately succeeded in abolishing Epis- 
copacy, and ejecting the episcopal clergy. 
Under Cromwell, who was alike averse to 
Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, though he 
found it expedient to show favour to the 
latter, the Church was delivered to the 
management of a set ot'eonnnissioners, con- 
sisting parti; of Presbyterians and partly of 
Independents. They were to examine and 
approve all those who were to he admitted 
to benefices; and they disposed ot'all the 
livings which had been in the gift of the 

3 a 2 



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PRI 



crown, of the bishops, and of cathedral 
churches. For a time the profession of 
Episcopacy was not even tolerated by the 
Presbyterians ; but, upon the restoration of 
Charles II., an event which they profess to 
have themselves chiefly brought about, the 
Church of England resumed its ancient 
form and government ; and, by the Act of 
Uniformity, upwards of two thousand of the 
clergy, attached to Presbyterian discipline, 
relinquished their cures in one day. 

The modern Presbyterians, so called in 
England, different from their ancestors, 
whose turbulence and intolerance they pro- 
fess to condemn, are perhaps as loyal sub- 
jects, and every way as upright and inoffen- 
sive in their conduct, as any of their neigh- 
bours. We are told, that they, and even 
the Protestant dissenters in general, ' are 
now friends to universal liberty in religion ;' 
and that ' no denomination among them 
wishes to have its own way of worship 
established as the national religion.' Be- 
cause they disclaim all human authority in 
matters of religion, some have inferred that 
they also disclaim all human authority in 
civil matters, and have contracted a fond- 
ness for equality and republican maxims in 
the State. But this inference bespeaks 
neither sound logic nor Christian charity ; 
nor is it well grounded on fact and ex- 
perience. On the contrary, the present 
race of dissenters are by no means enemies 
to the civil government, or to the constitu- 
tion of this country in particular. They 
have, indeed, at all times been determined 
enemies to arbitrary power ; but, happily, 
this has long ceased to be a distinction 
between British subjects ; and since a well- 
defined freedom has limited the prerogative 
of the crown, the throne has not perhaps 
had more faithful supporters than have 
been found among dissenters from the 
Church of England. Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 44 — 48. 

PRIDE is an inordinate and unreason- 
able self-esteem, attended with insolence, 
and rude treatment of others. In some 
persons there is a lust of distinction which 
cannot endure an equal, and burns with a 
vehement desire to level the pre-eminence 
of every superior. In whatever degree this 
disposition may prevail, and whatever di- 
rection it may take, and whether it be seen 
in the loftier soarings and grander projects, 
or only in the more petty longings and 
diminutive exertions of an ambitious spirit, 
it is combined with a desire to eclipse the 
worth, or to deduct from the excellence, of 
those above, or those on a level, of ability 
or merit with itself. Pride, which swells the 
imagination of our own worth, will not suffer 
us to see, or will make us anxious to ob- 
scure, the worth of others. Hence we dis- 
cern one reason why our Saviour so re- 
peatedly and so forcibly enjoined us to be 
lowly in heart, and to think humbly of our- 
820 



selves ; for this disposition, while it fosters 
the sensation of benevolence, is what alone 
can induce us to think less unworthily of 
our neighbour ; to commend genius and 
virtue wherever they are seen ; to render 
honour to whom honour, and praise to whom 
praise, is due. Every extravagant conceit 
of our own proficiency in any attainment, 
while it is utterly incompatible with that 
spirit of humility which is placed so high in 
the scale of Christian excellence, must ex- 
cite a proportionate desire to decry, or pro- 
pensity to underrate, the attainments of 
others. The more greedy we are of praise, 
the less willing we are to bestow it ; and 
the more blind we are to our own defects, 
with the keener eye do we survey, and with 
the greater severity do we condemn, the 
defects of our neighbour. 

Pride is one of the causes which greatly 
tend to increase the acrimony of our dis- 
content ; and, consequently, that which acts 
in an opposite direction, and gives a differ- 
ent tone to the sensations, must contribute 
to the production of a contented disposition. 
Pride, while it inflames the sense of injury, 
sharpens the feeling of suffering. In pro- 
portion to the exalted opinion which we 
have of ourselves, to the fond conceit which 
we entertain, or the extravagant estimate 
which we form of our own dignity or im- 
portance, will be our own resentment of 
wrong, and our impatience of affliction. 
Pride, which aggrandizes the sense of merit, 
renders us only the more sensible to every 
appearance of neglect : and who can wonder 
that the most bitter discontent should be 
occasioned by those calamities and pains 
which we think undeserved, or by the wanton 
infliction of injustice and of cruelty 1 But 
when we are lowly in heart, and think not 
of ourselves above what we ought to think, 
we are less apt to resent the wrongs of man, 
or to repine with angry impatience at the 
inflictions of God. Where pride rules, the 
sensations are easily ruffled by the most 
trivial causes ; but humility generates that 
gentle composure of the feelings, and that 
benignity of the affections, which favour the 
production of content, and disposes us to 
submit with pious equanimity to the vicis- 
situdes of life. 

Pride renders men foolish and void of 
caution, negligent and improvident, obsti- 
nate and insolent. It involves them in 
strife and contention, which are inconsistent 
with true happiness. It disobliges our best 
friends, and affords our enemies an advan- 
tage over us. It makes men impatient of 
good advice and instruction, and incorri- 
gible in their vices. It hinders them from 
examining impartially into the truth of 
religion, and renders them incapable of 
religious improvements ; and it causes them 
to take offence at the plainness and simpli- 
city of the Gospel. Pride is also extremely 
hateful to God, who declares by the prophet, 



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that ' the lofty looks of man shall be humbled, 
and the haughtiness of men shall be bowed 
down.' 

If our civil stations tempt us to a proud 
and haughty behaviour,, we ought to con- 
sider, that God accepteth not the persons of 
princes, nor regardeth the rich more than 
the poor ; for they are all the work of his 
hands. Let us also remember the vanity 
and uncertainty of those tilings in which we 
pride ourselves; that all flesh is grass, and 
all the glory of man as the flower of grass ; 
the grass witbereth, and the flower thereof 
fadeth away. Let the rich man rejoice, in 
that he is made low ; because, as the flower 
of the grass, he shall pass away. Let us 
likewise consider, that if we are placed in 
high stations, we have a larger account to 
give to God ; and that it will not be long 
before death and judgment will level all 
worldly distinctions; when the greatest 
wicked men will say, What hath pride pro- 
fited us? or what hath riches with her 
vaunting brought us ? All these things are 
passed away as a shadow, and as a post that 
hasteth by. If we are proud of our learning, or 
wisdom, it may humble us to consider, to what 
a small degree of these things we can attain. 
If it were possible to attain much more, yet 
there is something far more excellent: for 
knowledge puffeth up, but charity edifieth ; 
and'if any man think he knoweth any thing, 
he knoweth nothing yet as he ought to know. 

If any advantages in religious improve- 
ments tempt us to spiritual pride and vain- 
glory, to judge or despise our weaker bre- 
thren, let us consider, that all the members 
of Christ are useful in their several stations ; 
that how great soever our abilities or ad- 
vantages may be, yet that we are not even 
by the means of these ' sufficient of ourselves 
to think any thing as of ourselves, but our 
sufficiency is of God;' for what have we, 
that we did not receive from God's free 
bounty and goodness ? Let us further con- 
sider, in order to abate our spiritual pride, 
and contempt of our weaker brethren, who 
differ from us in matters of opinion, that 
there is a day coming, which will distinguish 
men by their works of piety and true Holi- 
ness only; when men's foolish pride and 
arrogance shall be entirely confounded, and 
those who witli scorn beheld others as infi- 
nitely below them, shall be placed on an 
equality with those they despised. How 
great soever our improvements are, even in 
real virtue and goodness, yet we have con- 
tinual reason to take heed lest we fall ; and 
whilst we stand the most upright, we have 
nothing in which to glory before God. 
For can a man be justified with God ? The 
greatest and most eminently pious men have 
been exemplarily humble in this respect. 
Holy Job refused to justify himself before 
God; Abraham styled himself dust and 
ashes; Jacob acknowledges that he is less 
than the least of God's mercies ; ami St. Paul 
821 



calls himself the least of all saints, having 
been a persecutor of the church of God. 

Pride was not made for man. He has se 
many defects in his character, so many infir- 
mities to acknowledge, so many sins and 
follies to answer for, that it may seem 
strange how pride could ever steal into his 
heart, or even enter into his thoughts. If 
angels might be dazzled by the lustre of 
their own perfections, yet this is not the 
case with man. Can pride kindle in cor- 
ruption ? or a flame of ambition burst forth 
in sinful dust and ashes 1 We indeed aspire 
to great things, glory in our strength and 
worth, who are related to the very worms, 
and destined for their prey. But can so 
low, so humble a condition, be a proper soil 
for pride and vanity, arrogance and ambi- 
tion ? Since then the proud man violates 
the order of the creation, disturbs the har- 
mony of the world, and resists the appoint- 
ments of Heaven, it naturally follows, in 
truth and righteousness, that God will resist, 
and in time effectually humble him. Fel- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 360, 361, 
492, 493 ; Warner's System of Divinity and 
Morality, vol. iii. pp. 166—172. 

PRIEST, the general name for the 
minister of religion, in all ages and coun- 
tries. In the Old Testament, the priest- 
hood was not annexed to a certain family, 
till after the promulgation of the law of 
Moses. Before that time, the first-born of 
each family, the fathers, the princes, the 
kings, were born priests, in their own cities, 
and in their own houses. Cain and Abel, 
Noah, Abraham, and Job, Abimelech and 
Laban, Isaac and Jacob, offered, personally, 
their own sacrifices. In the solemnity of 
the covenant made by the Lord with his 
people, at the foot of Mount Sinai, Moses 
performed the office of mediator, and young 
men were chosen from among the children 
of Israel, to perform the office of priests. 
(Exod. xxiv. 5, 6.) 

But after the Lord had chosen the tribe 
of Levi to serve him in his tabernacle, and 
the priesthood was annexed to the family of 
Aaron, then the right of offering sacrifices 
to God was reserved to the priests of this 
family. (Numb. xvi. 40.) The punishment 
of Uzziah, king of Judah (2 Chr. xxvi. 19.) 
is well known, who, having presumed to 
offer incense to the Lord, was suddenly 
smitten with a leprosy. However, it seems 
that on certain occasions the judges and 
kings of the Hebrews offered sacrifices to 
the Lord, especially before a constant place 
of worship was fixed at Jerusalem ; and 
Samuel, (1 Sam. \ ii. 9 ) who was no priest, 
offered a lamb for a burnt- sacrifice to the 
Lord. It is also said (1 Sam. ix. 13.) that 
Samuel was to bless the offering of the peo- 
ple ; which should seem to be a function 

appropriated to the priests. Lastlj (1 Sam. 

xvi. ">.), he noes to Bethlehem, where he 
oilers a sacriliee at the anointing oi' David. 



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Saul himself offers a burnt-offering to the 
Lord, perhaps as being king of Israel. 
(1 Sam. xiii. 9, 10.) Elijah also offered a 
burnt-offering on Mount Carmel. (1 Kings 
xviii. 33.) David himself sacrificed — at least 
the text expresses it so — at the ceremony of 
bringing the ark to Jerusalem, (2 Sam. 
vi. 13.) and at the floor of Araunah. (2 Sam. 
xxiv. 25.) Solomon went up to the brazen 
altar at Gibeon, and there offered sacrifices. 
(2 Chron. i. 6.) These passages are com- 
monly explained, by supposing that these 
princes offered these sacrifices by the hands 
of the priests ; but the text by no means 
favours such explication ; and it is very 
natural to imagine, that in the quality of 
kings and heads of the people, they had 
the privilege of performing some sacerdotal 
functions on certain extraordinary occasions. 
So we see David consulted the Lord, being 
clothed with the priestly ephod ; and on 
another occasion he gave a solemn benedic- 
tion to the people. His son Solomon also did 
the same. (1 Sam. xxiii. 9.; xxx. 7> 2 Sam. 
vi. 14. 18. 1 Kings viii. 55, 56.) See Ephod. 

The Lord having reserved to himself the 
first-born of Israel, because he had pre- 
served them from the hand of the destroy- 
ing angel in Egypt, by way of exchange and 
compensation, accepted the tribe of Levi for 
the service of his tabernacle. (Numb. iii. 
41.) Thus the whole tribe of Levi was 
appointed to the sacred ministry ; but not 
all in the same manner ; for of the three 
sons of Levi, Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, 
the heads of the three great families, the 
Lord chose the family of Kohath, and out of 
this family the house of Aaron, to exercise 
the functions of the priesthood. All the rest 
of the family of Kohath, even the children 
of Moses, and their descendants, remained 
among the mere Levites. See Levites. 

The high-priest was at the head of all 
religious affairs, and was the ordinary judge 
of all difficulties belonging to them, and 
even of the general justice and judgment of 
the Jewish nation. (Deut. xvii. 8, 9, 10, 11, 
12. ; xix. 17-; xxi. 5.; xxxiii. 9, 10. Ezek. 
xliv. 24.) The high-priest only had the 
privilege of entering into the sanctuary 
once a year, on the day of solemn expiation, 
to make atonement for the sins of the whole 
people. (Lev. xvi. 2, 3, 4, &c.) See Expi- 
ation. He was to be born of one of his 
own tribe, whom his father had married a 
virgin ; and was to be exempt from corporal 
defect. (Lev. xxi. 13.) In general, no 
priest that had any corporal defect could 
offer sacrifice, or enter the holy place, to 
present the shew-bread. He was to be 
maintained by the sacrifices offered at the 
tabernacle. (Lev. xxi. 21, 22, 23.) 

God had appropriated to the person of 
the high-priest the oracle of his truth ; so 
that when he was habited in the proper 
ornaments of his dignity, and with the urim 
and thummim, he answered questions pro- 
822 



posed to him, and God discovered to him 
secret and future things. He was forbidden 
to mourn for the death of any of his rela- 
tions, even for his father or mother ; or to 
enter into any place where a dead body lay, 
that he might nut contract uncleanness. He 
could not marry a widow, nor a woman who 
had been divorced, nor a harlot; but a 
virgin only of his own race. He was to 
observe a strict continence during the whole 
time of his service. 

The ordinary priests served immediately 
at the altar, offered the sacrifices, killed and 
skinned them, and poured their blood at 
the foot of the altar. They kept up a per- 
petual fire on the altar of burnt-sacrifices, 
and in the lamps of the golden candlestick 
in the sanctuary ; they kneaded the loaves 
of shew-bread, baked them, offered them 
on the golden altar in the sanctuary, and 
changed them every sabbath-day. Every 
day, night and morning, a priest, appointed 
by casting lots at the beginning of the week, 
brought into the sanctuary a smoking censer 
of incense, and set it on the golden table, 
otherwise called the altar of perfumes. 

The priests were not suffered to offer 
incense to the Lord with strange fire, that 
is, with any fire but what was taken from 
the altar of burnt- sacrifices. (Lev. x. 1, 2.) 
God chastised Nadab and Abihu with 
severity for having failed in this. The 
priests and Levites waited by the week, and 
by the quarter, in the temple. They began 
their week on the sabbath, and ended it 
on the next sabbath. (2 Kings xi. 5. 70 
Those who dedicated themselves to per- 
petual service in the temple were well 
received, and maintained by the daily offer- 
ings. (Deut. xviii. 6.) 

It is not certainly known at what age the 
priests entered upon and retired from their 
office. With respect to the Levites, it is 
evident, from the nature of the business 
they had to perform, the law particularly 
respected that age when man is in his 
prime and vigour. But why should the 
age of these men be specified, and no notice 
taken of the age at which the priests, the 
sons of Aaron, commenced or ceased from 
their ministry? (1.) Aaron had only four 
sons, two of whom had already fallen vic- 
tims to divine wrath. There were then 
only two who remained, and assisted their 
father in the discharge of his office. Is it 
not probable, that the younger of these sons 
was now above thirty ? and if so, there was 
no necessity of giving a law expressly to 
restrain these from the exercise of the 
priest's office till that period. (2.) Is it 
not probable, that, when the sons of Aaron 
had multiplied so prodigiously as they 
had in the time of David, the same law 
would be applied to them as was to the 
Levites ? Their office was more important 
than that of the Levites, and required the 
steadiness, gravity, and wisdom of mature 



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life, to discharge it with propriety. It is 
reasonable to suppose that David, when he 
divided the priests into twenty-four courses, 
paid some respect to the age in which they 
began to officiate. Since no express law 
exists on the subject, what forbids us to 
think that the law given to the Levites was 
applied to the priests? Grotius on Luke 
(iii. 23.) says: 'Following the example of 
the Hebrew law, and of his Lord, Justinian 
enacted, that he who should be eligible to the 
episcopal office, should have passed his thir- 
tieth year. Formerly not even a presbyter 
was chosen before that age.' Did the high- 
priest, while living and able to officiate, 
give up his office to another ? (2 Chron. xxiv. 
15.) It is not, perhaps, improbable that 
the priests officiated as long as they lived. 

The Lord had given no lands of inherit- 
ance to the tribe of Levi, in the Land of 
Promise. He intended that they should 
be supported by the tithes, the first-fruits, 
the offerings made in the temple, and by 
their share of the sin-offerings, and thanks- 
giving-offerings, sacrificed in the temple, 
of which certain parts were appropriated 
to the priests. In the peace-offerings the 
priests had the shoulder and the breast. 
(Levit vii. 33, 34.) In the sin-offerings 
they burnt on the altar the fat that covers 
the bowels, the liver, and the kidneys : 
the rest belonged to the priest. (Levit. 
vii. 6 — 10.) The skin or fleece of every 
sacrifice also belonged to him ; and this ar- 
ticle alone was no mean allowance. When 
an Israelite killed any animal for his own 
use, he was to give the priest the shoulder, 
the stomach, and the jaws. (Deut xviii. 
3.) He had also a share in the wool when 
the sheep were shorn, (xviii. 4.) All the 
first-born, both of man and beast, belonged 
to the Lord, that is, to his priests. The 
men were redeemed for five shekels. 
(Numb, xviii. 15, 16.) The first-born of 
impure animals were redeemed or ex- 
changed, but the clean animals were not 
redeemed. They were sacrificed to the 
Lord ; their blood was sprinkled about the 
altar, and the rest belonged to the priest. 
The first-fruit of trees, that is, those of 
the fourth year, belonged also to the priests. 
(Numb, xviii. 13. Lev. xix. 23, 24.) See 
First-born and First-fruits. 

The people offered at the temple the 
first-fruits of the earth ; the quantity was 
fixed by custom, to between the fortieth 
and the sixtieth part. They offered what- 
ever any one had vowed to the Lord. 
They gave to the priests and Levites an 
allowance out of their kneaded dough. 
They also had the tithe of the fruits of 
the land, and of all animals which passed 
under the shepherd's crook. (Lev. xxvi. 
31, 32.) When the Levites had collected 
all the tithes, and all the first-fruits, they 
set apart the tithe of this for the priests. 
(Numb, xviii. 26.) Thus, though the priests 
823 



had no lands or inheritances, they lived in 
great plenty. God also provided them 
with houses and accommodations, by ap- 
pointing forty-eight cities for their habita- 
tion. (Numb. xxxv. 1, 2, 3.) In the pre- 
cincts of these cities they possessed a thou- 
sand cubits beyond the walls. Of these 
forty-eight cities, six were appointed as 
cities of refuge, for those who had com- 
mitted casual and involuntary manslaughter. 
The priests had thirteen of these cities ; 
the others belonged to the Levites. (Josh, 
xxi. 19, 20. 

A principal employment of the priests, 
next to attending on the sacrifices and the 
temple service, was instruction of the 
people, and deciding controversies, dis- 
tinguishing the several sorts of leprosy, 
divorce-causes, the waters of jealousy, 
vows, causes relating to the law, and un- 
cleanness : all these things were brought 
before the priests. (Mai. ii. 7-) They pub- 
licly blessed the people in the name of the 
Lord. In time of war their duty was to 
carry the ark of the covenant, to consult 
the Lord, to sound the holy trumpets, and 
to encourage the army. (Numb. x. 8, 9. 
Deut. xx. 2, 3, 4.) 

The consecration of Aaron and of his 
sons was performed by Moses in the de- 
sert with great solemnity. (Exod. xl. 12. 
Lev. viii. 1, 2, &c.) In this ceremony 
Moses performed the office of consecrating 
the priests. It is doubtful, whether at every 
new consecration of a high-priest all these 
ceremonies were repeated. It is very pro- 
bable they contented themselves with cloth- 
ing the new high-priest in the habit of his 
predecessor, as at the death of Aaron. 
(Numb. xx. 25, 26.) Yet some think they 
gave him unction also, which, perhaps, 
might be, till the Babylonish captivity, 
though there is no proof of this fact. As 
to the ordinary priests, we do not see any 
particular ceremony used at their conse- 
cration ; they were admitted to the exercise 
of their function by making them perform 
the offices of their order. But when the 
priests had fallen away from the Lord, or 
had been long without perfoiming their 
office, as happened under some of the later 
kings of Judah, as Ahaz, Anion, and Ma- 
nasseh, they thought it necessary to sanc- 
tify anew such priests, who had been absent 
from the holy place, and who, for a long 
time, had interrupted the exercise of their 
ministry, like those who had never exer- 
cised it. 

The Christian priesthood is the substance 
and the truth, of which that of the Jews 
was only the shadow and the figure. Jesus 
Christ the everlasting priest, according to 
the order o\ MeLhisedek, abides for ever, 
as St. Paul observes ; whereas the priests, 
according to the order of Aaron, were mor- 
tal, and. then lore, could not continue long. 
(Heb. mi. 23, 2 4. &c) 



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A Chronological List of the High Priests of the Hebrews. 





e 




3. Succession 


4. Succession 


1. Succession from the Holy 


£i. succession 
from 1 Chron. vi. 
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. 


from Joseph. Ant. 


from the Jewish 


Scriptures. 


lib. v. cap. 1 5. ; 
lib. x. cap. 11. 


Chronicle, Seder 
Olam. 


1. Aaron, brother of Moses, cre- 


1. 


Aaron. 


1. Aaron. 


1. Aaron. 


ated high-priest in the year of the 










world 2514, died in 2552. 










2. Eleazar, in 2552, and died about 


2. 


Eleazar. 


2. Eleazar. 


2. Eleazar. 


2571. 










3. Phinehas, about 2571, and died 


3. 


Phinehas. 


3. Phinehas. 


3. Phinehas. 


about 2590. 










4. Abiezer, or Abishua. "j Under 


4. 


Abishua. 


4. Abiezer. 


4 Eli. 


5. Bukki. > the 


5. 


Bukki. 


5. Bukki. 


5. Ahitub. 


6. Uzzi. J Judges. 


6. 


Uzzi. 


6. Uzzi. 


6. Abiathar. 


7. Eli, of the race of Ithamar, cre- 


7. 


Zerahiah. 


7. Eli. 


7. Zadok. 


ated in 2848, died in 2888. 










8. Ahitub I. 


8. 


Meraioth. 


8. Ahitub. 


8. Ahimah,un- 
der Rehoboam. 


9. Ahiah. He lived in the year of 


9. 


Amariah. 


9. Ahimelech. 


9. Azariah, un- 


the world 2911, or 2912. 








der Abiah. 


10. Abimelech, or Abiathar, slain 


10. 


Ahitub I. 


10. Abiathar. 


10. Jehoachash, 


by Saul in 2944. 








under Jehosha- 
phat. 
11. Jehoiarib,un- 


11. Abiathar, Abimelech or Abi- 


11. 


Zadok I. 


11. Zadok. 


melech, under David, from the year 








der Jehoram. 


of the world 2944 to 2989. 










12. Zadok I. under Saul, David, and 


12. 


Ahimaaz. 


12. Ahimaaz. 


12. Jehoshaphat 


Solomon, from 2944 till about 3000. 








under Ahaziah. 


13. Ahimaaz, under Rehoboam 


13. 


Azariah. 


13. Azariah. 


13. Jehoiadah, 


about the year 3030. 








under Joash. 


14. Azariah, under Jehoshaphat, 


14. 


Johanan. 


14. Joram. 


14. Phadaiah, 


probably the same as Amariah, (2 


(lChr.vi.9, 10.) 




under Joash. 


Chron. xix. 11.) about 3092. 










15. Johanan, perhaps Jehoiada, in 


15. 


Azariah. 


15. Issus. 


15. Zedekiah, 


the reign of Joash, (2 Chr. xxiv. 15.) 








under Amaziah. 


in 3126. He died at the age of 130 










years. 

16. Azariah, perhaps Zachariah, 


16. 


Amariah. 


16. Axiora. 


16. Joel, under 


the son of Jehoiada, killed in 3164. 








Uzziah. 


17. Amariah, perhaps Azariah, 


17- 


Ahitub II. 


17. Phideas. 


17. Jothan, un- 


under Uzziah, in 3221. 








der Joatham. 


18. Ahitub IIA UnderJothamj 

19. Zadok II. png°fJudah. 


18. 
19. 


Zadok II. 
Shallum. 


18. Sudeas. 

19. Julus. 


18. Uriah, un- 
der Ahaz. 

19. Neriah, un- 
der Hezekiah. 


20. Uriah under Ahaz ; he lived 


20. 


Hilkiah. 


20. Jotham. 


20. Hosaiah,un- 


in 3265. 








der Manasseh. 


21. Shallum, the father of Aza- 


21. 


Azariah. 


21. Uriah. 


21. Shallum, 


riah, and grandfather of Hilkiah. 








under Amon. 


22. Azariah, who lived in the time 


22. 


Seraiah. 


22. Neriah. 


22. Hilkiah, un- 


of Hezekiah, (2 Chron. xxxi. 10.) 








der Josiah. 


about the year 3278. 










23. Hilkiah under Hezekiah. 


23. 


Jehozadak. 


23. Odeas. 


23. Azariah, un- 
der Jehoiakim 
and Zedekiah. 


24. Eliakim, or Joakim, under 


24. 


Joshua. 


24. Saldum. 


24. Jehozadak, 


Manasseh, and at the time of the 








after the taking 


siege of Bethulia. He lived under 








of Jerusalem. 


Josiah to 3380, and longer. He is 










also called Hilkiah. (Baruch i. 7-) 










25. Azariah, perhaps Neriah, the 






25. Hilkiah. 


25. Jesus, son of 


father of Seraiah and of Baruch. 








Jehozadak, after 
the captivity. 


26. Seraiah, the last high-priest be- 






26. Seraiah. 




fore the captivity, put to death in 3414 











824 



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1. Succession from the Holy Scrip- 
tures. 


2. Succession 
from 1 Chron. vi. 
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. 


3. Succession 
from Joseph. Ant- 
lib. v. cap. 15. ; 
lib. x. cap. 11. 


4. Succession 
from the Jewish 
Chronicle, Seder 
Olam. 


27. Jehozadak, during the capti- 
vity, from 3414 to 3469. 

28. Joshua, or Jesus, the son of 
Jehozadak ; he returned from Ba- 
bylon in 3468. 




27. Jehozadak. 

28. Jesus, or Jo- 
shua. 



Continuation, collected from Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, and Josephus. 

29. Joachim, under the reign of Xerxes. 
Joseph. Ant. lib. xi. cap. 5. 

30. Eliasib, Joasib, or Chasib, under Ne- 
hemiah, in 3550. 

31. Joiada, or Juda. (Nehemiah xii. 10.) 

32. Jonathan, or John. 

33. Jeddoa, or Jaddus, who received 
Alexander the Great at Jerusalem in 3673, 
and died in 3682. 

34. Onias I. made high-priest in 3681, 
governed 21 years, and died in 3702. 

35. Simon I. called the Just, in 3702, or 
3703, and died in 3711. 

36. Eleazar, in 3712. Under this pontiff, 
they tell us, that the translation of the Sep- 
tuagint was made, about the year 3727 ; he 
died in 3744. 

37. Manasseh, in 3745, died in 3771- 

38. Onias II. in 3771, died in 3785. 

39. Simon II. in 3785, died in 3805. 

40. Onias III. in 3805, deposed in 3829. 

41. Jesus, or Jason, in 3830, deposed in 
3831. 

42. Onias IV. otherwise called Mene- 
laus, in 3832, died in 3842. 

43. Lysimachus, vice-gerent to Mene- 
laus, killed in 3834. 

44. Alcimus, or Jacimus, or Joachim, in 

3842, died in 3844. 

45. Onias V. He did not exercise his 
pontificate at Jerusalem, but retired into 
Egypt, where he built the temple Onion, in 
3854. 

46. Judas Maccabeus restored the altar 
and the sacrifices in 3840, died in 3843. 

47. Jonathan the Asmonaean, brother to 
Judas Maccabeus, created high-priest in 

3843, and died in 3860. 

48. Simon Maccabeus, made in 3860, 
died in 3869. 

49. John Hyrcanus, made in 3869, died 
in 3898. 

50. Aristobulus, king and pontiff of the 
Jews, died in 3899. 

51. Alexander Jannaeus, also king and 
pontiff for 27 years, from 3899 to 3926. 

52. Hyrcanus was high-priest for 32 years 
in all, from 3926 to 3958. 

53. Aristobulus, brother of Hyrcanus, 
usurped the high-priesthood, three years 
and three months, from 3935 to 3940. 

54. Antigonus his son also usurped the 
priesthood, in prejudice to the rights of 
Hyrcanus, and possessed it for tine;.' years 

825 



and seven months, from 3964 to 3967, when 
he was taken by Sosius. 

55. Ananeel of Babylon, made high-priest 
by Herod in 3968 till 3970. 

56. Aristobulus, the last of the Asmo- 
naeans, did not enjoy the pontificate a 
whole year. He died in 3970. Ananeel 
was made high-priest a second time in 
3971. 

57. Jesus, the son of Phabis, deposed in 
3981. 

58. Simon, son of Boethus, made in 3981, 
deposed in 3999. 

59. Matthias, son of Theophilus, made in 
3999. 

60. Joazar, son of Simon, son of Boethus, 
made high-priest in 4000, the year of the 
birth of Jesus Christ, four years before the 
beginning of the vulgar era. 

61. Eleazar, brother to Joazar, made 
high-priest in 4004, A.D. 1. 

62. Jesus, son of Siah, made high-priest, 
A.D. 6. Joazar was made a second time, 
A.D. 7> and deposed in 13. 

63. Ananus, son of Seth, for eleven years, 
from 4016 to 40?7, A.D. 24. 

64. Ishmael, son of Phabi, A.D. 24. 

65. Eleazar, son of Ananus, made, A.D. 
24. 

66. Simon, son of Camithus, made, A.D. 
25. 

67- Joseph, surnamed Caiaphas, made, 
A.D. 26, and continued till A.D. 35. 

68. Jonathan, son of Ananus, made, A.D. 
35, and continued till A.D. 37- 

69. Theophilus, son of Jonathan, made, 
A.D. 37, and continued till A.D. 41. 

70. Simon, surnamed Cantharus, and son 
of Simon Boethus, made, A.D. 41. 

71. Matthias, son of Ananus, made, A.D. 
42. 

72. Elioneus made, A.D. 44, till A.D. 45. 
Simon, son of Cantharus, a second time made 
high-priest, A.D. 45, and deposed the same 
year. 

73. Joseph, son of Caneus, made, A.D. 
45, till A.D. 47. 

74. Ananias, son of Nebedeus, made, 
A.D. 47, till A.D. 63. 

75. Ishmael, son of Phabeus, made, A.IK 
63. 

76. Joseph, surnamed Cabei, the same 
year, A.D. 63. 

77- Ananus, son of Ananus, the same 
year, A.I). 63. 

78. Jesus, son of Ananus, made, A.D. 64. 



PRJ 



PRO 



79. Jesus, Son of Gamaliel, the same 
year, A.D. 64. 

80. Matthias, son of Theophilus, made, 
A.D. 70. 

81. Phannias, son of Samuel, made, A.D. 
70, the year of the destruction of the temple 
at Jerusalem by the Romans, and of the 
abolition of the Jewish priesthood. 

PRIESTHOOD, Sacerdotium. We may 
distinguish four kinds of priesthood. 1. 
That of kings, princes, the head of a family, 
and the first-born. This may be called a 
natural priesthood, because nature and rea- 
son teach us that the honour of offering sa- 
crifices to God should belong to the greatest 
in dignity. 

2. The priesthood, according to the order 
of Melchisedek, which does not differ from 
that now mentioned, but in its dignity. The 
priesthood of Melchisedek combined in the 
same person the right of the kingly and of 
the priestly offices, with that of the first- 
born, to exercise the priesthood ; or, he was 
at once king, priest, and prophet, that is, 
teacher. 

3. The priesthood of Aaron and his fa- 
mily, which subsisted as long as the religion 
of the Jews. See Aaron and Priest. 

4. Lastly, the priesthood of Jesus Christ, 
and of the new law. 

As to the priesthood of Jesus Christ, it is 
infinitely superior to all other, in its dura- 
tion, its dignity, its prerogatives, its object, 
and its power. The priesthood of Aaron 
was to end, but that of Jesus Christ is ever- 
lasting. That of Aaron was limited to his 
own family, was exercised only in the tem- 
ple, and among only one people ; its object 
was bloody sacrifices and purifications, which 
were only external, and could not remit 
sins ; but the priesthood of Jesus Christ ex- 
tends to the whole Christian church, spread 
over the face of the whole earth, and among 
all nations of the world. The epistle of St. 
Paul to the Hebrews should be considered 
by those who would comprehend the excel- 
lence of the priesthood of the new law, above 
that of the law of Moses. (Heb. iv. 14, 15, 
&c. ; v. vi. vii. viii. ix. ^ Pet. ii. 5, 6, 7, 
8,9.) 

PRISCIL/LA, UpiffKiWa, from Prisca. 
Priscilla or Prisca, (2 Tim. iv. 19.) a Christ- 
ian woman, well known in the Acts, and in 
St. Paul's epistles ; sometimes placed before 
her husband Aquila. From Ephesus they 
went to Rome, where they were when St. 
Paul wrote his epistle to the Romans, A.D. 
58. He salutes them first of all, with great 
commendations. (Rom. xvi. 3, 4.) They re- 
turned into Asia some time afterwards, and 
St. Paul, writing to Timothy, desires him to 
salute them on his account, (2 Tim. iv. 19.) 
A.D. 65. 

PRISCILLIANISTS, in the fourth cen- 
tury, derived their denomination from Pris- 
cillian, a man of rank and fortune in Spain, 
who was afterwards Bishop ol Abila. A 
826 



considerable mixture of Gnosticism and 
Unitarianism appears to have been united 
in this sect, with the tenets of both which, 
however, they were but imperfectly ac- 
quainted. They thought that the devil was 
not made by God, but arose from chaos and 
darkness ; said that the bodies of men were 
made by the devil ; condemned marriage, 
and denied the resurrection of the body ; 
asserted that the soul was of a Divine sub- 
stance, which, having offended in heaven, 
was sent into the body as a place of punish- 
ment ; that men are subject to necessity, to 
sin, and to the power of the stars ; and our 
bodies compounded according to the order 
of the twelve signs of the Zodiac. They 
agreed that the Son is inferior to the Fa- 
ther, and that there was a time when the 
Son was not. The rule of manners pre- 
scribed by this sect was remarkably austere. 
Priscillian, their leader, was accused by the 
other Spanish bishops, in consequence of 
the increase of his followers ; and he was 
banished by the emperor Gratian from 
Spain. He was again, however, permitted 
to return ; but he was once more accused 
by his implacable enemies, and put to death 
at Treves, in the year 384, by the perfidious 
Maximus, at the instigation of Ithacius, 
Bishop of Sossuba; who, whatever might 
be the professed purity of his faith, was de- 
ficient in every amiable quality of the hu- 
man heart. The opinions of the Priscil- 
lianists did not end with the death of their 
erroneous and unfortunate leader, but ex- 
tended their influence, and continued during 
several succeeding centuries. Gregory's 
Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. i. pp. 209, 
210. 

PROCESSION, a ceremony in the Ro- 
mish church, consisting of a formal march 
of the clergy and people, putting up pray- 
ers, &c, and in this manner visiting some 
church, &c. They have processions of the 
host, or sacrament; of our Saviour to Mount 
Calvary ; of the Rosary, &c. 

Processions are said to be of Pagan origin. 
The Romans, when the empire was dis- 
tressed, or after some victory, used con- 
stantly to order processions, for several days 
together, to be made to the temples, to beg 
the assistance of the gods, or to return them 
thanks. 

The first processions, mentioned in eccle- 
siastical history, are those begun at Con- 
stantinople by St. Chrysostom. The Arians 
of that city, being forced to hold their 
meetings without the town, went thither 
night and morning, singing anthems. Chry- 
sostom, to prevent their perverting the Ca- 
tholics, set up counter-processions, in which 
the clergy and people marched by night, 
singing prayers and hymns, and carrying 
crosses and flambeaus. From this period 
the custom of processions was introduced 
among the Greeks, and afterwards among 
the Latins ; but they have subsisted longer, 



PRO 



PRO 



and been more frequently used in the west- 
ern than in the eastern church. Brough- 
ton's Diet, of all Religions, vol. ii. p. 283. 

PROCESSION of the HOLY GHOST, 
a term used in reference to the Holy Ghost, 
as proceeding from the Father and the Son. 
The word procession is used only in naming 
the relation of the Spirit, to the Father and 
the Son, in such a manner as may best cor- 
respond with the sense of the word Spirit ; 
for it must be confessed we can have no 
explicit idea of this matter. We must 
therefore speak of it either in Scripture 
words, or in such as arise out of them, and 
have the same signification. Hence it is a 
vain attempt to give a reason why the second 
Person is said to be generated, and so is 
called Son, and the third to proceed, and so 
is called Spirit 

' Though it be not expressly spoken in 
the Scripture that the Holy Ghost proceed- 
ed from the Son, yet the substance of the 
same truth is virtually contained there ; be- 
cause those very expressions which are 
spoken of the Holy Spirit in relation to 
the Father, for that reason, because he pro- 
ceeded from the Father, are also spoken of 
the same Spirit in relation to the Son ; and 
therefore there must be the same reason 
presupposed in reference to the Son, which 
is expressed in reference to the Father. 
Because the Spirit proceedeth from the 
Father, therefore it is called the Spirit of 
God, and the Spirit of the Father. (Matt. x. 
20. 1 Cor. ii. 11, 12.) Now the same Spirit 
is also called the Spirit of the Son. (Gal. iv. 
6. Rom. viii. 9. 1 Pet. i. 11. Philip i. 19.) 
If, then, the Holy Ghost be called the Spirit 
of God and the Father, because he proceed- 
eth from the Father, it followeth that, being 
called also the Spirit of the Son, he pro- 
ceedeth also from the Son. 

* Again, because the Holy Ghost pro- 
ceedeth from the Father, he is therefore 
sent by the Father, (John xiv. 26.) ; as from 
him who hath by the original communi- 
cation a right of mission ; but the same Spirit 
which is sent by the Father is also sent by 
the Son, as he saith, When the Comforter is 
come whom I will send unto you. (John xv. 
2G.) Therefore the Son hath the same right 
of mission with the Father, and conse- 
quently must be acknowledged to have 
communicated the same essence. Both the 
Father and the Son send the Holy Ghost, 
because the divine nature common to both 
the Father and the Son was communicated 
by them both to the Holy Ghost. As 
therefore the Scriptures declare expressly, 
that the Spirit proceedeth from the Father; 
so do they also virtually teach, that he pro- 
ceedeth from the Son.' 

'That the procession of the Holy Ghost, 
both from the Father and the Son, was the 
doctrine of the whole primitive church is very 
clearly established by Bishop Pearson. He 
admits that the Greek fathers have not directly 
827 



asserted that the Holy Ghost proceeds from 
the Son, but he shows that the expressions 
which they have used have that meaning. 
And Dr. Nicholls has proved the same thing 
by many quotations both from the Latin and 
Greek ecclesiastical writers, and also by re- 
ference to the acts of several councils ; and 
in particular it may be observed, that at the 
councils of Alexandria and Ephesus, which 
were held as early as the years 430 and 431, 
it was declared that the Holy Ghost pro- 
ceeded from the Son as well as from the 
Father. This doctrine was also the subject 
of a warm and long controversy, and became 
the cause of the great schism between the 
eastern and western churches, the former 
maintaining that the Holy Ghost proceeds 
from the Father only, and the latter that he 
proceeds from the Father and the Son. This 
still continues to be one of the points of dif- 
ference between the Greek church and that 
of Rome.' See Holy Ghost. — Tomline's 
Elements of Christian Theology, vol. ii. pp. 
175, 176. Pearson on the Creed, pp. 323, 324. 
Burnet's Exposition of the Thirty-nine Ar- 
ticles, pp. 85, 86. 

PROPHECY, the prediction of future 
events. Prophecy, in the scriptural idea 
of it, implies the divine agency ; not merely 
in giving the faculty itself, but in directing 
all its operations. It is very clear in what 
manner common sense instructs us to prose- 
cute all inquiries into the divine conduct 
Wise men collect, from what they see done 
in the system of nature, so far as they are 
able to collect it, the intention of its Author. 
They will conclude in like manner, from 
what they find delivered in the system of 
revelation, what the views and purposes of 
the Revealer were. 

Prophecy, which makes so considerable 
apart of that system, must, therefore, be 
its own interpreter. Setting aside all pre- 
sumptuous imaginations of our own, we 
are to take our ideas of what prophecy 
should be, from what, in fact, we find it to 
have been. If it be true, as the apostle 
says, and as the thing itself speaks, that 
' the things of God knoweth no man but 
the Spirit of God,' there cannot be any 
way of acquiring right notions of prophecy, 
except by attending to what the Spirit of 
prophecy hath revealed of itself. They, 
who admit the divine origin of those Scrip- 
tures, which attest the reality, and alone, 
as they suppose, contain the records of this 
extraordinary dispensation, are more than 
absurd, are impious, if they desert this prin- 
ciple ; and they, who reject or controvert 
their claim to such origin, cannot, on any 
other principle, argue pertinently against 
that dispensation. To the Scriptures, there- 
fore, we must have recourse for all the 
information we would have respecting the 
use and intent of prophecy. 

It would be endless to enumerate all the 
prophecies of the Old Testament, which 



PRO 



PRO 



have been supposed to refer to Jesus ; and 
the controversy concerning the application 
of some prophecies to him may be thought 
difficult. But it is very certain that the 
Jews, before the coming of Christ, gave this 
construction to their Scriptures ; they even 
looked beyond the letter of their sacred 
books, and conceived the testimony of the 
Messiah to be the soul and end of the com- 
mandment. The spirit of prophecy was so 
firmly believed to intend that testimony, 
that the expectation was general of some 
such person as Jesus to appear among them, 
and at the very time in which he made his 
appearance. The whole tenor of the sacred 
writings implies this fact, that prophecy, 
in general, has its ultimate accomplishment 
in the history and dispensation of Jesus. If 
we look into the writings of the Old and 
New Testament, we find that prophecy is 
of a prodigious extent : that it commenced 
from the lapse of man, and reaches to the 
consummation of all things ; that, for many 
ages, it was delivered darkly to few persons, 
and with large intervals from the date of 
one prophecy to that of another ; but, at 
length, became more clear, more frequent, 
and was uniformly carried on in the line of 
one people separated from the rest of the 
world, among other reasons assigned, for 
this principally, to be the repository of the 
divine oracles ; that, with some intermission, 
the spirit of prophecy subsisted among that 
people, to the coming of Christ ; that he 
himself and his apostles exercised this power 
in the most conspicuous manner, and left 
behind them many predictions recorded in 
the books of the New Testament, which 
profess to respect very distant events, and 
even run out to the end of time, or, in St. 
John's expression, to that period, * when the 
mystery of God shall be perfected.' 

The argument from prophecy is not to be 
formed from the consideration of single 
prophecies, but from all the prophecies 
taken together, and considered as making 
one system ; in which, from the mutual 
dependence and connexion of its parts, pre- 
ceding prophecies prepare and illustrate 
those which follow, and these, again, re- 
flect light on the foregoing : just as, in any 
philosophical system, that which shows the 
solidity of it, is the harmony and corres- 
pondence of the whole, not the application 
of it, in particular instances. Hence, though 
the evidence be but small, from the com- 
pletion of any one prophecy, taken sepa- 
rately, yet, that evidence being always some- 
thing, the amount of the whole evidence, 
resulting from a great number of prophecies, 
all relative to the same design, may be con- 
siderable, like many scattered rays, which, 
though each be weak in itself, yet, concen- 
tred into one point, shall form a strong 
light, and strike the sense very powerfully. 
This evidence is not simply a growing evi- 
dence, but is, indeed, multiplied upon us, 
828 



from the number of reflected lights, which 
the several component parts of such a sys- 
tem reciprocally throw upon each ; till, at 
length, the conviction rises into a high de- 
gree of moral certainty. 

*■ It cannot be supposed,' says Bishop 
Sherlock, * that God delivered prophecies 
only to satisfy or employ the curiosity of 
the inquisitive, or that he gave his Spirit 
to men merely to enable them to give forth 
predictions for the amusement and enter- 
tainment of the world ; there must be some 
end worthy of the Author. Now, what end 
could this be but to keep alive in the minds 
of those to whom it was given, a sense of 
religion, and a hope of a future deliverance 
from the curse of the fall through Jesus 
Christ V ' The uses of prophecy,' says Dr. 
Jortin, 'besides gradually opening and un- 
folding the things relating to the Messiah, 
and the blessings which by him should be 
conferred upon mankind, are many, great, 
and manifest. 1. It served to secure the 
belief of a God, and of a providence. As 
God is invisible and spiritual, there was 
cause to fear, that in the first and ruder ages 
of the world, when men were busier in cul- 
tivating the earth, than in cultivating arts 
and sciences, and in seeking the necessaries 
of life, than in the study of morality, they 
might forget their Creator and Governor; 
and, therefore, God maintained among them 
the great article of faith in him, by mani- 
festations of himself, by sending angels to 
declare his will, by miracles, and by prophe- 
cies. 2. It was intended to give men the 
profoundest veneration for that amazing 
knowledge from which nothing was con- 
cealed, not even the future actions of crea- 
tures, and the things which as yet were 
not How could a man hope to hide any 
counsel, any design, or thought, from such 
a Being ? 3. It contributed to keep up 
devotion and true religion, the religion of 
the heart, which consists partly in enter- 
taining just and honourable notions of God, 
and of his perfections, and which is a more 
rational and a more acceptable service than 
rites and ceremonies. 4. It excited men to 
rely upon God, and to love him, who con- 
descended to hold this mutual intercourse 
with his creatures, and to permit them to 
consult him as one friend asks advice of 
another. 5. It was intended to keep the 
people, to whom God revealed himself, from 
idolatry ; a sin to which the Jews would be 
inclined, both from the disposition to it, 
which they had acquired in Egypt, and from 
the contagion of bad example. The people 
of Israel were strictly forbidden to consult 
the diviners and the gods of other nations, 
and to use any enchantments and wicked 
arts ; and, that they might have no temp- 
tation to it, God permitted them to apply 
to him and to his prophets, even upon 
small occasions ; and he raised up among 
them a succession of prophets, to whom 



PRO 



PRO 



they might have resort for advice and 
direction. These prophets were reverenced 
abroad as well as at home, and consulted by 
foreign princes ; and, in the times of the 
captivity, they were honoured by great 
kings, and advanced to high stations.' 

* Certainly,' says Dr. Hurd, ' there is 
a Power which governs the world ; which 
raises one family to the throne, and one 
nation to the supremacy; then, when this 
has answered the purposes for which it was 
exalted, transfers the sceptre of rule to a 
stranger, and produces, from obscurity into 
splendour and reputation, another person, 
or another people ; maintains this also 
during its appointed time, and, when that 
time is expired, suffers it gradually to de- 
cay ; or directs a new ambition to wrest 
from its enfeebled hand, and its palsied 
head, the ensigns of royalty, and the tokens 
of dignity. It is said. " kingdoms rise and 
fall by accident : if no superior Power inter- 
fered, would not their changes be just the 
same V It is sufficient for us, without ad- 
verting to what night be, to answer by what 
is ; and this subject deserves attention. 
We have lately seen infidel writers criti- 
cise books which they have not read, or 
which they had read many years before, 
and so criticise from memory ; or which 
they had read so superficially, as scarcely 
amounts to a reading; and then retail un- 
founded observations, and dogmatical re- 
marks, on what they should be entreated 
first to understand. Now, we suppose, that 
if we find certain events predicted, long 
before they happened ; if they be so clearly 
described, that, when completed, the de- 
scription determinately applies to the sub- 
ject ; if they be related by persons entirely 
unconcerned in the events, and expecting 
to be removed from the stage of life long 
before the event takes place ; then we can 
demonstrate that some Power superior to 
humanity has been pleased to impart so 
much of its designs and counsels, as are 
referred to in such predictions. And 
where is the unfitness of this ? May not 
a king, if he please, acquaint a person with 
his intention, that, after such an one has 
been governor of a province for so many 
years, he designs to send such another 
to be governor after him ? or, that, after 
one person has held such an office during 
his appointed time, another shall succeed 
him? If this be nothing strange or un- 
common in human concerns, may not this 
be applied to the divine government of 
the world V Supplement. Addenda to Cal- 
met's Dictionary ; Buck's Theolog. Dictionary, 
vol. ii. pp. 329, 330; Iliad's Introduction 
to the Study of the Prophecies, pp. 3. 25 — 
48, fee. 

PROPHET, Trpo<pi)TT]Q, signifies that 
foretells events. The Hebrews originally 
called prophets seers, (1 Sam. ix. 9.) ; after- 
wards they called them nabi n*23, propheta, 
829 



from the root nibba, to foretell, to divine. 
The Scripture often gives them the name 
of men of God or of angels, or messengers of 
the Lord. The verb nibba to prophesy, in 
the Hebrew, is of very great extent. 
Sometimes it signifies to foretell what is to 
come ; at other times, to be inspired, to 
speak from God. God says to Moses, 
(Exod. vii. 1.) Aaron thy brother shall be 
thy prophet ; he shall explain thy senti- 
ments to the people. St. Paul in his Epis- 
tle to Titus (i. 12.) quoting a profane poet, 
calls him a prophet, because the Pagans 
thought that their poets were inspired. 
The Scripture often gives the name of 
prophet to impostors, who falsely boasted of 
inspiration. 

As the true prophets, when transported by 
the energy of God's Spirit, were sometimes 
agitated in a violent manner, similar mo- 
tions were called prophesying, when exhi- 
bited by persons who were filled with a good 
or evil spirit. Saul being moved by an evil 
spirit prophesied in his house. (1 Sam. 
xviii. 10.) To prophesy is also put for to 
sing, to dance, to play on instruments. 
' Thou shalt meet a company of prophets,' 
says Samuel to Saul, " coming down from 
the high place, with a psaltery and a tabret, 
and a pipe, and a harp, before them, and 
they shall prophesy. And the Spirit of the 
Lord will come upon thee, and thou shalt 
prophesy with them, and shalt be turned 
into another man." (1 Sam. x. 5, 6.) 
We read (1 Chron. xxv. 1.) that the sons 
of Asaph were appointed to prophesy upon 
harps. This term is also used by St Paul, 
(1 Cor. xi. 4, 5.; xiv. 1. 3, 4, &c.) for ex- 
plaining Scripture, speaking to the Church 
in public ; probably, because they who exer- 
cised these functions were regarded as re- 
plete with the Holy Ghost. 

The most usual way by which God com- 
municated himself to the prophets was 
inspiration, which consisted in illumina- 
ting the mind of the prophet, and exciting 
his will to proclaim what the Lord dictated 
to him. In this sense we acknowledge as 
prophets all the authors of the canonical 
books of Scripture, both of the Old and 
New Testament. God also communicated 
himself to the prophets by dreams and 
nocturnal visions. Joel (ii. 28.) promises 
to the people of the Lord, that their young 
men should see visions, and their old men 
should have prophetic dreams. St Peter 
(Acts x. 11, 12.) fell into an ecstacy at noon- 
day, and had a revelation concerning the 
call of the Gentiles. The Lord appeared 
to Abraham, to Job, to Moses in a cloud, 
and discovered his will to them, lie often 
made his voice to be heard articulately. 
Thus he spoke to Moses in the burning 
bush, and on Mount Sinai, ami to Samuel 
in the night. 

We have in the Old Testament the writ- 
ings of sixteen prophets ; that is, of four 



PRO 



PRO 



greater prophets, and twelve lesser pro- 
phets. The four greater prophets are 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. 
The Jews do not properly place Daniel 
among the prophets, because (they say) 
he lived in the splendour of temporal dig- 
nities, and a kind of life different from 
other prophets. The twelve lesser pro- 
phets are, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, 
Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zepha- 
niah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 

The following is the chronological order 
in which the prophets may be ranged: — ■ 

1. Hosea, under Uzziah, king of Judah, 
who began to reign in the year of the world 
31 94 ; and under Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze- 
kiah, kings of Judah, and under Jeroboam 
II, king of Israel, and his successors, to the 
destruction of Samaria, in the year of the 
world 3283. Bishop Tomline says, that he 
began to prophesy about 800 years before 
Christ, and prophesied sixty years. 

2. Amos, under Uzziah, in the year of 
the world 3219, and about six years before 
the death of Jeroboam II., king of Israel, 
which happened in the year of the world 
3220. 

3. Isaiah, at the death of Uzziah, and 
at the beginning of the reign of Jotham, 
king of Judah, in the year of the world 
3246. It is probable that he continued to 
prophesy to the reign of Manasseh, in the 
year of the world 3306. 

4. Jonah, under the kings Joash and 
Jeroboam II, in the kingdom of Israel, 
about the same time as Hosea, Isaiah, and 
Amos. Jeroboam II. died in the year of 
the world 3220. This is the opinion of Cal- 
met. Bishop Tomline, however, says, that 
Jonah is generally considered as the most 
ancient of the prophets, and that he is sup- 
posed to have lived about 840 years before 
Christ. 

5. Micah, under Jotham, Ahaz, and 
Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Jotham began 
to reign in the year of the world 3235, and 
Hezekiah died in 3306. Micah was contempo- 
rary with Isaiah, but began later to prophesy. 

6. Nahum, under the reign of Hezekiah, 
and after the expedition of Sennacherib, 
that is, after the year of the world 3291. 

7- Jeremiah, in the thirteenth year of 
Josiah, king of Judah, and in the year of 
the world 3375. Jeremiah continued to 



prophesy under Shallum, Jehoiakim, Jeco- 
niah, and Zedekiah, to the taking of Jeru- 
salem by the Chaldaeans, in the year of the 
world 3416. It is thought that he died two 
years after in Egypt, in 3418. 

8. Zephaniah appeared at the beginning 
of the reign of Josiah, and before the 
twenty-eighth year of that prince, in the 
year of the world 3381 ; and even before 
the taking of Nineveh, in 3378. 

9. Joel, under Josiah, about the same 
time as Jeremiah and Zephaniah ; or it 
seems more probable, that he was contempo- 
rary with Hosea. 

10. Daniel was taken into Chaldsea, in 
the year of the world 3398, the fourth year 
of Jehoiakim, king of Judah. He prophe- 
sied at Babylon to the end of the captivity, 
in the year of the world 3468, and perhaps 
longer. 

11. Ezekiel was carried captive to Baby- 
lon, with Jeconiah king of Judah, in the 
year of the world 3405. He began to pro- 
phesy in 3409. He continued about twenty- 
one years, or, as some think, till towards 
the end of Nebuchadnezzar's reign, who 
died in the year of the world 3442. 

12. Habakkuk, in Judea, in the begin- 
ning of the reign of Jehoiakim, about the 
year of the world 3394, and before the com- 
ing of Nebuchadnezzar in 3398. 

13. Obadiah, in Judea, after the taking of 
Jerusalem, in the year of the world 3414, 
and before the desolation of Idumea, in 
3410. 

14. Haggai is supposed to have been 
born during the captivity. He returned 
with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem in conse- 
quence of the edict of Cyrus. He prophe- 
sied in the second year of Darius, son of 
Hystaspes, which was the year of the world 
3484. 

15. Zechariah prophesied in Judea at 
nearly the same time as Haggai, and ap- 
pears to have continued after him. 

16. Malachi has no date to his prophe- 
sies. If he was the same as Ezra, which 
is very probable, he may have prophesied 
under Nehemiah, who returned into Judea 
about the year of the world 3550. Dr. 
Kennicott says, that Malachi flourished 
about 420 years before Christ ; and Bishop 
Tomline observes, that he prophesied about 
400 years before Christ. 



The following Table of Bishop Gray commodiously exhibits the Prophets in their sup- 
posed order of time, according to Archbishop Newcome and Blair, with a few variations. 



Names. 


Before Christ. 


Kings of Judah. 


Kings of Israel. 


Jonah 


Between 856 and 
784. 




Jehu and Jehoahaz, according to 
Bishop Lloyd, but Jeroboam II. 
according to Blair. (2 Kings 
xiv. 25.) 


Amos 


Between 810 and 
785. 


Uzziah, chap. i. 1. 


Jeroboam II. chap. i. 1. 



830 



PRO 



PRO 



Names. 


Before Christ. 


Kings of Judah. 


Kings of Israel. 


Hosea 


Between 810 and 
725. 


Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, the 
third year of Hezekiah. 


Jeroboam II. chap. i. 1. 


Isaiah 


Between 810 and 
698. 


Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, 
and Hezekiah, chap. i. 
1. and perhaps Manas- 
seh. 




Joel 


Between 810 and 
660, or later. 


Uzziah, or possibly Ma- 
nasseh. 




Micah 


Between 758 and 
699. 


Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze- 
kiah, chap. i. 1. 


Pekah and Hosea. 


Nahum 


Between 720 and 
698. 


Probably towards the close 
of Hezekiah's reign. 




Zephaniah 


Between 640 and 
609. 


In the reign of Josiah, 
chap. i. 1. 


Jeremiah 


Between 628 and 
586. 


In the thirteenth year of 
Josiah. 


Habakkuk 


Between 612 and 
598. 


Probably in the reign of 
Jehoiakim. 


Daniel 


Between 606 and 
534. 


During all the captivity. 


Obadiah 


Between 588 and 
583. 


Between thetaking of Jeru- 
salem by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, and the destruction 
of the Edomites by him. 


Ezekiel 


Between 595 and 
536. 


During part of the capti- 
vity. 


Haggai 


About 520 to 
518. 


After the return from Ba- 
bylon. 


Zechariah 


From 520 to 518, 
or longer. 




Malachi 


Between 436 and 
420. 



According to this Table, the times when the prophets flourished may be referred to 
three periods:—!. Before the Babylonian Captivity; — 2. Near to and during that event; 
— and 3. After the return of the Jews from Babylon. 



A late writer, speaking of the prophets, 
observes, that ' to these messengers of 
Heaven frequent reference is made in the 
historical parts of holy writ. They had 
different offices, and enjoyed different por- 
tions of the divine communication ; but the 
moderns are not agreed respecting their 
peculiar characteristics. We read of the 
schools of the prophets ; by which it is not 
to be understood that the power of predict- 
ing future events was taught as a science. 
The term prophet is of a general signifi- 
cation. It was applied by heathens to all 
who were supposed to be conversant with 
divine things ; and in the Scriptures many 
persons are considered as prophets who did 
not possess the gift of prophesying ; as 
were Abraham and Aaron. The schools of 
the prophets appear to have been semi- 
naries where religious truths, or the divine 
laws, were particularly taught; and as it is 
obvious, that the Supreme Being prefers 
the use of instruments to the utmost extent 
of their influence, thus we perceive that, 
831 



generally speaking, those who were des- 
tined to higher offices, were selected from 
these schools. In the historical writings of 
the Old Testament these prophets are 
spoken of as holy men of God, as seers, and 
as prophets, in the most exalted sense of the 
term. The first denomination seems to 
have been sometimes applied to men of 
exemplary piety, who assiduously studied 
the divine law, as communicated by their 
legislator Moses ; who firmly believed in 
the predictions of the good and the evil 
that should attend the Israelites, according 
to the tenor of their conduct; who were ob- 
servant of the character of the times in 
which they lived ; and who might be able to 
discern the natural and inevitable conse- 
quences of particular modes of conduct, 
without the necessity of immediate inspi- 
ration. These men of God, however, re- 
ceived peculiar communications upon cer- 
tain emergencies. They were divinely ap- 
pointed to execute some important com- 
missions, and to predict certain events, 



PRO 



PRO 



which were not in the ordinary course of 
things, and far beyond the reach of human 
penetration. It was this which sometimes 
gave them the title of seers. The higher 
class of prophets were those who foretold 
important events which were to take place 
at distant periods ; in which no human 
sagacity could avail; and which were most 
opposite to the natural conceptions or gene- 
ral expectations of mankind, as Isaiah, 
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the minor 
prophets. These having predicted events, 
which were not to be immediately accom- 
plished, and some of which respected future 
generations, their predictions were com- 
mitted to writing, and carefully preserved, 
under a conviction that they contained im- 
portant truths, to be hereafter more fully 
revealed ; and which were to receive their 
accomplishment at the appointed periods. 

' Through the whole of the divine econo- 
my respecting the Jews, from their emigra- 
tion out of Egypt to their return from the 
Babylonish captivity, embracing a period of 
nearly nine hundred years, a succession of 
holy men and prophets was thus appointed, 
who were endowed with qualifications pre- 
cisely adapted to the exigencies of every 
stage. Notwithstanding the diversity of 
their gifts, the object was one. It was uni- 
formly their aim to preserve or reinstate 
true religion ; and to counteract the dis- 
position to apostatize, that was so prevalent 
among this people. They were authorized 
to direct, to counsel, to punish, to predict 
punishment, to encourage or to reward, ac- 
cording to the exigencies of the case, or the 
tenor of conduct. Some of these pro- 
phets were enabled to penetrate deeply into 
futurity. They foresaw calamities in the 
midst of prosperity; destruction in the 
midst of security ; and future deliverance 
through the gloom of present consternation 
and distress. Although many of their pre- 
dictions were expressed in figurative and 
obscure terms, yet no obscurities concealed 
the judgments which were denounced 
against impiety, or the promises of felicity 
to the obedient. The style and manner of 
these prophets were perfectly adapted to the 
character of those ruder times, and to the 
capacities and conceptions of an ignorant 
and perverse people, while they possessed 
an elevation suited to the cause which ani- 
mated their breasts, soaring far beyond 
compositions merely human.' Dr. Cogan's 
Theological Disquisitions, pp. 275 — 301. 
Horne's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 161, 162. 

PROSELYTE, 7rpo<rr/\vroc, signifies a 
stranger, a foreigner; the Hebrew word "13 
ger, or 133 necher, also denotes a stranger, 
one who comes from abroad, or from another 
place. In the language of the Jews, those 
are called by this name who come to dwell 
in their country, or who embrace their reli- 
gion, being not Jews by birth. In the New 
Testament they are called sometimes pro- 
832 



selytes, and sometimes Gentiles, fearing 
God, or godly. (Acts ii. 5. ; x. 2. 22.; xiii. 

16. 50.) 

The Hebrews, says Calmet, distinguish 
two kinds of proselytes. The first, proselytes 
of the gate ; the others, proselytes of justice 
or righteousness. The first dwelt in the land 
of Israel, or even out of that country, and, 
without obliging themselves to circumcision, 
or to any other ceremony of the law, feared 
and worshipped the true God, observing the 
rules imposed on Noah. These were, ac- 
cording to the rabbins, 1. to abstain from 
idolatry ; 2. from blasphemy ; 3. from mur- 
der ; 4. from adultery; 5. from theft; 6. 
to appoint just and upright judges ; 7- not 
to eat the flesh of any animal cut off while it 
was alive. Maimonides says, that the first 
six of these precepts were given to Adam, 
and the seventh to Noah. In the opinion 
of many, Naaman the Syrian, Nebuzaradan 
general of Nebuchadnezzar's army, Corne- 
lius the centurion, the eunuch of queen 
Candace, and some others mentioned in the 
Acts, were among the proselytes of the gate. 
The Jews say, that the proselytes of the gate 
have ceased in Israel, ever since the ob- 
servance of the jubilee has been left off, and 
the tribes of Gad, of Reuben, and of Ma- 
nasseh, on the other side of Jordan, were 
led captive by Tiglath-pileser. But these 
observations are not just, since we see many 
proselytes in the time of Jesus Christ, who 
reproaches the Pharisees with compassing 
sea and land to make a proselyte, and, after 
this, making him a greater sinner than he 
was before. (Matth. xxiii. 15.) And St. 
Luke (Acts ii. 11.) speaks of a great num- 
ber of proselytes, and those who feared God, 
that were at Jerusalem when the Holy 
Ghost descended upon the apostles. It is 
very probable that the greater part of these 
were proselytes of justice ; but it cannot be 
denied that some of them might be proselytes 
of the gate. 

The privileges of proselytes of the gate 
were, first, that by the observance of the 
rules of natural justice, and by avoiding 
idolatry, blasphemy, incest, adultery, and 
murder, they might through a holy life 
hope for eternal life. Secondly, they might 
dwell in the land of Israel, and share in 
the outward prosperities of it. It is said 
they did not dwell in the cities, but only in 
the suburbs and the villages. But it is cer- 
tain, that the Jews often admitted into their 
cities, not only proselytes of habitation, but 
also Gentiles and idolaters, as appears by 
the reproaches on this account, throughout 
the Scriptures. According to some, there 
were in Israel, in the time of Solomon, 
153,600 of these proselytes, whom this 
prince compelled to hew wood, to draw 
water, to cut stones, and to carry burthens 
for the building of the temple. (2 Chron. ii. 

17, 18.) These proselytes, say they, were 
Canaanites, who had continued in the coun- 



PRO 



PRO 



try ever since Joshua's time. Moses forbad 
the Israelites to eat any animals that died of 
themselves, or were strangled, so that the 
blood remained in them ; but allowed them 
to sell or give such animals to the strangers 
and proselytes. (Deut. xiv. 21.) 

Proselytes of justice or of righteousness, are 
those converted to Judaism, who had en- 
gaged themselves to receive circumcision, 
and to observe the whole law of Moses. 
Thus were they admitted to all the prero- 
gatives of the people of the Lord. The 
rabbins inform us, that, before circumcision 
was administered to them, and before they 
were admitted into the religion of the 
Hebrews, they were examined about the 
motives of their conversion ; whether the 
change was voluntary, or whether it pro- 
ceeded from interest, fear, ambition, &c. 
Maimonides assures us, that, under the 
happy reigns of David and Solomon, they 
received no proselyte of justice, because 
there was reason to fear that it was rather 
the prosperity of these princes, than any 
love to religion, that made them converts 
to Judaism. When the proselyte was well 
proved and instructed, they gave him cir- 
cumcision ; and when the wound of his cir- 
cumcision healed, they gave him baptism, 
by plunging his whole body into a cistern of 
water, by only one immersion. Boys under 
twelve years of age, and girls under thir- 
teen, could not become proselytes, till they 
had obtained the consent of their parents, 
or, in case of refusal, the concurrence of the 
officers of justice. Baptism in respect of 
girls, had the same effect as circumcision in 
respect of boys. Each of them, by means of 
this, received as it were a new birth, so that 
those who were their parents before, were 
no longer regarded as such after this cere- 
mony, and those who before were slaves, 
now became free. 

Many, however, are of opinion, that there 
appears to be no ground whatever in Scrip- 
ture for this distinction of proselytes of the 
gate, and proselytes of righteousness. 
' According to my idea,' says Bishop Tom- 
line, ' proselytes were those, and those 
only, who took upon themselves the obli- 
gation of the whole Mosaic law, but re- 
tained that name till they were admitted 
into the congregation of the Lord, as 
adopted children. Gentiles were allowed to 
worship, and offer sacrifices to the God of 
Israel, in the outer court of the temple ; and 
some of them, persuaded of the sole and 
universal sovereignty of the Lord Jehovah, 
might renounce idolatry without embracing 
the Mosaic law ; but such persons appear 
to me never to be called proselytes in 
Scripture, or in any ancient Christian 
writer.' He also observes, that * the term 
proselytes of the gate, is derived from an 
expression frequent in the Old Testament, 
namely, " the stranger that is within thy 
gates;" but I think it evident that "the 
833 



strangers" were those Gentiles who were 
permitted to live among the Jews under 
certain restrictions, and whom the Jews 
were forbid " to vex or oppress," so long as 
they lived in a peaceable manner.' Dr. 
Lardner says, ' I do not believe that the 
notion of two sorts of Jewish proselytes 
can be found in any Christian writer before 
the fourteenth century or later.' Dr. Jen- 
nings also observes, that ' there does not 
appear to be sufficient evidence in the Scrip- 
ture history of the existence of such prose- 
lytes of the gate, as the rabbins mention ; 
nor indeed of any, who with propriety can 
be styled proselytes, except such as fully 
embraced the Jewish religion.' Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, 
vol. i. pp. 266, 267. and note (q) ; Dr. Jen- 
nings's Jewish Antiquities, book i. chap. iii. 

PROTESTANT. The emperor Charles 
V. called a diet at Spire, in 1529, to request 
aid from the German princes against the 
Turks, and to devise the most effectual 
means for allaying the religious disputes, 
which then raged in consequence of Lu- 
ther's opposition to the established reli- 
gion. In this diet it was decreed by Fer- 
dinand, archduke of Austria, and other 
Popish princes, that, in the countries which 
had embraced the new religion, it should 
be lawful to continue in it till the meeting 
of a council ; but that no Roman Catholic 
should be allowed to turn Lutheran, and 
that the reformers should deliver nothing 
in their sermons contrary to the received 
doctrine of the Church. Against this decree 
six Lutheran princes, namely, John and 
George, the electors of Saxony and Bran- 
denburg, Ernest and Francis, the two 
dukes of Lunenburg, the landgrave of 
Hesse, and the prince of Anhalt, with the 
deputies of thirteen imperial towns, namely, 
Strasburg, Uhn, Nuremberg, Constance, 
Rottingen, Windsheim, Memmingen, Nort- 
lingen, Lindaw, Kempten, Hailbron, Wis- 
semburg, and St. Gall, formally and so- 
lemnly protested, and declared that they 
appealed to a general council ; and hence 
the name of Protestants, by which the fol- 
lowers of Luther have ever since been 
known. Nor was it confined to them, for 
it soon after included the Calvinists, and 
has now for a long time been applied indis- 
criminately to all the sects, of whatever 
denomination* and in whatever country 
they may be found, which have separated 
from the see of Rome. 

The active spirit of inquiry, natural to 
nun who had just broken loose from the 
despotism of Popery, operated differently 
on different intellects and dispositions, 
almost necessarily produced a variety of 
sects; and, in some cases, gave birth to 
extreme wildness and extravagance o( un- 
scriptura] doctrine and practice. One great 
source of contention respected Church go- 
vernment ami ceremonies. Some Protes- 

:i u 



PRO 



PRO 



lant Churches, regarding with abhorrence 
whatever had been an appendage of the 
Romish religion, renounced, together with 
ancient rites, the primeval institution of 
episcopacy. Others were of opinion, that 
it was more wise to preserve whatever was 
in itself innocent, and to be content with 
the removal of corruptions. Points of doc- 
trine too caused divisions ; and these con- 
troversies among the reformers, some of 
whom long retained a portion of the viru- 
lent spirit of Popery, were too often con- 
ducted, even when they related to matters 
of secondary importance, with the violence 
and acrimony by which, in opposing the 
Roman Catholics, a good cause had been 
disgraced. They afforded no small matter 
of triumph to the adherents of the Church 
of Rome, and impeded, in no small degree, 
the progress of the Reformation. We are 
not to expect, then, that Protestants are 
unanimous in all points of doctrine, disci- 
pline, worship, or Church government; on 
the contrary, while they agree only in re- 
ceiving the Scriptures as the supreme rule 
of their faith and practice, and in rejecting 
the distinguishing doctrines of the Church 
of Rome, in many other respects they still 
differ not more widely from that Church 
than they do from one another. 

All Protestants who are Trinitarians, and, 
I believe, most Protestant Churches, receive 
the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian Creeds, 
or the substance of the doctrine contained 
in them, together with the first four general 
councils, namely, the first assembled at 
Nice A.D. 325 ; the first of Constantinople, 
in 381 ; that of Ephesus, which met in 431 ; 
and that of Chalcedon, held in 451. 

Mr. Chillingworth, addressing himself to 
a writer in favour of the Church of Rome, 
speaks of the religion of the Protestants 
in the following excellent terms : ' Know 
then, Sir, that when I say the religion of 
Protestants is, in prudence, to be preferred 
before yours; on the one side, I do not 
understand by your religion the doctrine of 
Bellarmine or Baronius, or any other pri- 
vate man amongst you, nor the doctrine of 
the Sorbonne, of the Jesuits, or of the 
Dominicans, or of any other particular 
company among you, but that wherein you 
all agree, or profess to agree, ' The doctrine 
of the Council of Trent:' so accordingly, 
on the other side, by the religion of Protes- 
tants, I do not understand the doctrine of 
Luther, or Calvin, or Malancthon, nor the 
confession of Augsburg, or Geneva, nor the 
Catechism of Heidelberg, nor the Articles 
of the Church of England, no, nor the har- 
mony of Protestant confessions ; but that in 
which they all agree, and to which they all 
subscribe with a greater harmony, as a 
perfect rule of faith and action, that is, the 
Bible. The Bible, I say, the Bible only, 
is the religion of Protestants. Whatsoever 
else they believe besides it, and the plain, 
834 



irrefragable, indubitable consequences of it, 
well may they hold it as a matter of opinion ; 
but as a matter of faith and religion, nei- 
ther can they with coherence to their own 
grounds believe it themselves, nor require 
belief of it of others, without most high and 
most schismatical presumption. I, for my 
part, after a long and (as I verily believe 
and hope) impartial search of the true way 
to eternal happiness, do profess plainly, that 
J cannot find any rest for the sole of my 
foot, but upon this rock only. I see plainly, 
and with my own eyes, that there are popes 
against popes, and councils against coun- 
cils ; some fathers against other fathers, the 
same fathers against themselves ; a consent 
of fathers of one age, against a consent of 
fathers of another age ; traditive interpreta- 
tions of Scripture are pretended, but there 
are few or none to be found : no tradition, 
but that of Scripture, can derive itself from 
the fountain, but may be plainly proved 
either to have been brought in, in such an 
age after Christ, or that in such an age it 
was not in. In a word, there is no suffi- 
cient certainty but of Scripture only, for 
any considering man to build upon. This, 
therefore, and this only, I have reason to 
believe. This I will profess : according to 
this, I will live ; and for this, if there be 
occasion, I will not only willingly, but even 
gladly, lose my life, though I should be 
sorry that Christians should take it from me. 
Propose me any thing out of this Book, and 
require whether I believe or no, and, seem 
it never so incomprehensible to human 
reason, I will subscribe it with hand and 
heart, as knowing no demonstration can be 
stronger than this, God hath said so, there- 
fore it is true. In other things, I will 
take no man's liberty of judging from 
him ; neither shall any man take mine from 
me.' 

Hence the Bible is the only sure founda- 
tion upon which all true Protestants build 
every article of the faith which they pro- 
fess, and every point of doctrine which 
they teach ; and all other foundations, whe- 
ther they be the decisions of councils, the 
confessions of Churches, the prescripts of 
popes, or the expositions of private men, 
are considered by them as sandy and unsafe, 
or as in no wise to be ultimately relied on. 
Yet, on the other hand, they by no means 
fastidiously reject them as of no use ; for 
whilst they admit the Bible, or the Scrip- 
tures of the Old and New Testament, to be 
the only infallible rule by which we must 
measure the truth or falsehood of every 
religious opinion, they are sensible that all 
men are not equally fitted to apply this 
rule ; and that the wisest men want, on 
many occasions, all the helps of human 
learning to enable them to understand its 
precise nature, and to define its certain ex- 
tent. These helps are great and numerous, 
having been supplied in every age of the 



PRO 



PRO 



Church, by the united labours of learned 
men in every country, particularly in Pro- 
testant communions. 

All Protestants profess to abhor idolatry ; 
and the greater part of them worship the 
Trinity in unity, and use a Liturgy, or 
form of prayer. Some, however, use no 
form ; and both the Arians and Socinians 
confine their worship to God the Father. 
It may also be observed, that two sects of 
Protestants, the Moravians and Sweden- 
borgians, address all their prayers to Jesus 
Christ. With regard to Church-govern- 
ment, however widely they may differ in 
other respects, all Protestants agree in 
rejecting an universal visible supreme head 
of the Church, together with the infallibility 
of any church governors or councils what- 
soever, from the days of the Apostles ; and 
all their clergy are seculars. They all, I 
believe, likewise agree in adopting the 
principle of the independency of every 
church in its national character, as subject 
to no spiritual head but Christ ; as conced- 
ing no superiority, and claiming no pre- 
eminence of jurisdiction ; as authorized to 
frame its own laws, and to regulate its own 
government. 

The number of Protestants may be esti- 
mated at 65,000,000; that of the Roman 
Catholics, at 80,000,000. On the conti- 
nent of Europe, the Protestants are divided 
into two grand denominations ; the Luthe- 
rans, who adhere to Luther's tenets, and 
the Reformed, who follow the doctrine and 
discipline of Geneva. Together with these, 
this vast class comprehends the Hugonots 
in France ; the Refugees in Holland ; the 
members of the establishments and the 
Protestant dissenters of all descriptions in 
Great Britain and Ireland ; and a numer- 
ous body of Christians in North America, 
the West and East Indies, &c. Before the 
late revolution, the Protestants in France 
were supposed to amount to 2,000,000 or 
upwards, though they then had no legal 
toleration, and almost their only seminary 
was a private, and merely tolerated one 
at Lausanne, in Switzerland. But from 
some recent statements, it would appear, 
that Protestantism is now reviving in va- 
rious parts of the French dominions. How- 
ever, notwithstanding the toleration of Pro- 
testantism in the French dominions, and 
some other favourable signs of the times, 
considering the late great prevalence of 
infidelity, and the consequent diminution 
of true and vital religion on the continent 
of Europe, it may be questioned whether 
the Protestant Churches there be in a flou- 
rishing state, or in circumstances of dis- 
couragement and distress. Some persons 
of knowledge and discernment are much 
inclined to the latter opinion, and remark 
that to them it is a matter of doubt whe- 
ther pure religion has ever been at a lower 
ebb, since the days of the Waldenses, than 
835 



it is at present, with the exception of Great 
Britain, and perhaps of Sweden. This, 
however, will be considered by most people, 
as viewing the subject in too unfavourable 
a light. 

' It is very remarkable that a Romanist 
may turn Protestant without adding any 
one article to his faith, but a Protestant can- 
not turn to Rome unless he embrace many 
new articles ; for our doctrines are gene- 
rally confessed by both sides to be true, but 
those of the Roman Church are rejected by 
our Reformers, as novel additions, and such 
as have no good foundation in Scripture, 
nor genuine antiquity ; and therefore the 
Protestant doctrines are the surer and safer, 
as those in which both sides agree : for ex- 
ample, we and they both hold there are two 
states after this life, heaven and hell ; but 
they add a third, which is purgatory, and 
this we deny : We and they both say, that 
sins are to be remitted by the merits of 
Christ's death ; but they add the merits of 
the saints, and their own satisfactions, with 
the merit of their own good works, which 
we deny to be expiatory, or such as can 
merit remission for us : We hold there be 
two sacraments, Baptism and the Eucha- 
rist ; these they confess are the chief, but 
add five more, to which we affirm the name 
of sacraments doth not properly belong: 
W e say that God alone is to be worshipped : 
they confess he is chiefly to be worshipped ; 
but then they say, the blessed Virgin Mary, 
angels, and saints, are to be worshipped 
also ; which additions we deny : We say, 
Christ is our only Mediator and Advocate : 
they confess he is principally so, but add, 
that saints and angels are so in an inferior 
manner ; which we utterly deny : We say 
Christ is really present in the sacrament of 
the altar ; this they confess, but add, he is 
corporally there by the transubstantiation 
of the bread, &c, and this we deny : We 
say the Scriptures are the rule of faith, 
and they will not absolutely deny it, but 
add their own traditions which we reject: 
We say there are twenty-two books of the 
Old Testament canonical ; and they confess 
these all to be so, but they add divers 
others, and call them canonical; which 
we affirm to be apocryphal. I could give 
more instances; but these may suffice to 
show that the Protestant doctrines look 
most like the ancientest, as being received 
by both parties ; but the Roman opinions 
are novel enlargements added to the Old 
Catholic truths.' Adam's Religions World 
Displayed, vol. ii. pp. 81 — 98. 

PROVERBS. Tin- Hebrews give the 
Dame of proverbs, parables, or similitudes, 
to moral sentences, maxims, comparisons, 
or enigmas, expressed in a poetical, figu- 
rative, close, and sententious style. The 
Hebrews call this kind of proverbs >Vvt3, 
mishit. Solomon says, that, in bis time, 

maxima of this sort were the chief study 



PRO 

of the learned. (Prov. i. (J.) The queen of 
Sheba came to see Solomon, to prove him, 
and to propose dark riddles to him. (1 
Kings x. 1.) Hiram, king of Tyre, (they say) 
kept up a correspondence, by letters, with 
Solomon, and proposed enigmatical ques- 
tions to him, and explained those that were 
proposed to him by Solomon. 

The Proverbs of Solomon are, without 
doubt, the most valuable part of his works. 
We are informed at the beginning, and in 
other parts of the book, that they were 
the production of Solomon, the son of 
David, a man, as the sacred writings assure 
us, peculiarly endued with divine wisdom. 
The book of Proverbs, that of Ecclesiastes, 
and that of the Song of Solomon, are ail 
that remain of him who is related to have 
spoken 3000 proverbs, whose songs are 
] 005, and who spake of trees, from the cedar 
that is in Lebanon even to the hyssop that 
springeth out of the wall ; who spake also 
of beasts, and of fowls, and of creeping 
things, and of fishes. If, however, many 
valuable writings of Solomon have perished, 
we have reason to be grateful for what still 
remains. Of his proverbs and songs the 
most excellent have been preserved ; and, 
as we possess his doctrinal and moral works, 
we have no right to murmur at the loss of 
his physical and philosophical productions. 
The book of Proverbs may be considered 
as divided into five parts ; the first consists 
of the first nine chapters, which are a kind 
of preface, and contain general cautions and 
exhortations from a teacher to his pupil. 
The second part extends from the begin- 
ning of the tenth chapter, to the 17th verse 
of the 22d chapter, and contains what may 
strictly and properly be called Proverbs, 
given in short, unconnected sentences, and 
adapted to the instruction of youth. In the 
third part, which reaches from the 1 7th 
verse of the 22d chapter, to the end of the 
24th chapter, the pupil is addressed in the 
second person as being present ; and the 
precepts are delivered in a less sententious 
and more connected style. The fourth part 
extends from the beginning of the 25th to 
the end of the 29th chapter, and consists of 
' Proverbs of Solomon, which the men of 
Hezekiah, king of Judah, copied out,' that 
is, selected from a much greater number. 
Who ' these men of Hezekiah' were, we are 
not told ; but they were probably the ' pro- 
phets whom he employed to restore the ser- 
vice and writings of the Church, as Eliakim, 
and Joab, and Shebnah, and probably Hosea, 
Micah, and even Isaiah, who all flourished 
in the reign of that monarch, and doubtless 
co-operated with his endeavours to re- 
establish true religion among the Jews. 
These proverbs, indeed, appear to have been 
selected by some collectors after the time 
of Solomon, as they repeat some which he 
had previously introduced in the former 
part of the book. The fifth part consists of 



PRO 






the 30th and 31st chapters, the former of 
which contains ' the words of Agur the son 
of Jakeh,' and the latter ' the words of 
king Lemuel, that his mother taught him f 
but we are not informed either here, or in 
any other part of Scripture, when or where 
Agur or Lemuel lived. Indeed many of 
the ancient fathers considered these chapters 
also as the work of Solomon, and were of 
opinion, that he intended to describe him- 
self under the names of Agur and Lemuel ; 
but this is a point which must be left in un- 
certainty. There are in this book many 
beautiful descriptions and personifications ; 
the diction is highly polished ; and there is 
a concise and energetic turn of expression, 
which is peculiar to this species of writing. 
Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christian Theo- 
logy, vol. i. pp. 100—103. 

PROVIDENCE, the superintendence 
and care which God exercises over creation. 
As certain as there is a God who created 
all things, so certain is it that he acts as 
sovereign of the universe ; that his supreme 
providence ruleth over all things, and has 
the care and superintendence of his creation. 
For were we to suppose it otherwise, and 
that the world is not under the care and 
government of its Creator ; no other reason 
could be assigned, than that he is either 
wanting in power or inclination, unable or 
unwilling to govern it. But neither of these 
suppositions can be admitted. He, who was 
able to create the world, cannot want ability 
to superintend and govern it. All the 
powers of nature must be dependent on him 
who gave them their being. All things 
must obey that voice which spoke the word, 
and they were made; were made from 
nothing ; and, with regard to any resistance 
they can make to that voice, are as nothing 
still. The whole world is, in his hands, justly 
represented only as a drop of the morning- 
dew, or as the dust of the balance, which he may 
dissipate with the least breath of his power. 
To him it is infinitely easy to preside over 
all events, to direct all the influences of 
natural causes, to govern all contingencies, 
to provide for the interests of communities 
and kingdoms, and for the security and hap- 
piness of every individual in them. As, then, 
the Supreme Being cannot be supposed to be 
defective in power to govern the world, so nei- 
ther can he be wanting in inclination. For is 
it reasonable to think, that God takes no care 
of the world, which, with so much care and 
wisdom, he created ? Is it reasonable to 
suppose, that he who introduced us into be- 
ing, and by that act contracted the relation 
of a parent to us, with all the obligation of 
affectionate care and paternal regard result- 
ing from it ; is it reasonable, is it possible, to 
suppose that he would give up all regard and 
attention to his creatures, his children, his 
family upon earth ? He who gave us being 
must be concerned for our well-being too. 
He, who is perfect wisdom and goodness, will, 



PRO 



PRO 



in every instance, take such care of us as 
perfect goodness and wisdom require. 

What can afford more rational grounds 
of the sublimest joy, than the consider- 
ation that God governs the earth ? What 
can administer more comfort, than the as- 
surance, that we live not in a forsaken and 
fatherless world, are not deserted by the 
great Parent of nature, nor abandoned to 
the power of chance or fate ; but are always 
under the protection of an infinitely wise 
and good Sovereign, in whose presence and 
under whose eye we live, whose great and 
constant object is the security and felicity 
of his creatures and subjects, and without 
whose permission no power can injure, and 
no evil can approach us ? Let us consider 
the state and condition of human nature, and 
we shall find the justest ground to rejoice 
in the government and protection of this 
Almighty Sovereign. Insufficient to our 
own happiness ; uncertain of what we hope 
for ; insecure even of what we possess ; 
often encompassed with difficulties which 
we cannot surmount ; surrounded often with 
dangers which we have neither sagacity to 
foresee, nor ability to oppose, nor skill to 
elude ; full of wants and frailties in our- 
selves ; exposed to injuries and violence 
from others; thus beset on all sides, liable 
to disorders within, and to disasters without ; 
what security could we have against dangers, 
or what consolation under them, were we 
capable of conceiving that there is no Power 
above who can either divert the evils that 
threaten us, or support us under them ; no 
superior Being to whom we might appeal, 
and on whose goodness we might repose in 
conlidence ? To the eye of reason, what a 
dreadful wilderness would life appear ; how 
gloomy would be the prospect, how uncom- 
fortable our pilgrimage through it, did we 
not believe, that there is an all-powerful and 
all-gracious hand that invisibly guides our 
steps, conducts us through the various acci- 
dents that beset us, and through all the thou- 
sand dangers that are planted in our way ! 

The doctrine not only of a general Pro- 
vidence, by which all things are so regu- 
lated as to be preserved in due order, is in- 
culcated ; but that of a particular Providence 
may be proved from almost every page of 
the Bible. The children of Israel were led by 
the especial guidance of the Almighty to the 
Promised Land ; their whole history is mi- 
raculous, and displays the stretched-out 
arm of Jehovah to succour and preserve 
them. What is the whole train of prophe- 
cies, reaching from the first intimation of 
the Messiah of the Jews, the ltedeemer of 
mankind, given to console our first parents 
after the fall, to their full consummation in 
the person, actions, and sufferings of our 
blessed Saviour 1 And what were the reve- 
lations of the divine will made upon extra- 
ordinary occasions to the illustrious fa- 
vourites of heaven, such as Abraham, Moses 
837 



David, Daniel, Hezekiah, Job, Ruth, Esther, 
and the Virgin Mary, but manifest proofs 
of the same truth ? 

This doctrine derives great support from 
one plain argument of reason. An all- 
powerful Being, such as we believe the 
Deity to be, cannot possibly be excluded 
from any place. He is, therefore, every 
where present; and it is inconceivable to 
suppose, that he is an inactive spectator, 
and does not exercise his supreme wisdom, 
as far as is consistent with the free will of 
his rational creatures : ' the eye of the Lord 
is in every place, beholding the evil and the 
good.' This is a brief, but very strong and 
explicit declaration, and proves that the 
Almighty extends his regard to all things, 
and that nothing passes, or indeed can pass, 
without his observation. 

It must be clear to every one who ex- 
amines the history of mankind, that great 
events have often been effected by trifling 
means ; that the consequences of actions 
have been often much more extensive, more 
happy or calamitous, than were originally 
intended by the agents themselves ; that 
the designs of Providence have been some- 
times effected by the caprice of human 
tempers, or the impetuosity of human pas- 
sions; and that fraud, cruelty, oppression, 
and violence, have met with just, though 
sometimes delayed punishment. The re- 
sult of actions has been, in many cases, 
widely different from the end proposed by 
those who planned them, and even great 
revolutions have been effected contrary to 
the intentions of the persons who were the 
chief instruments of them. 

For the most striking proofs of the su- 
perintendence of divine Providence, we may 
appeal to the course of our own experience. 
Have we ever been afflicted by sickness? 
how often has hope renovated our exhausted 
spirits, and spoken peace to our troubled 
souls ! Ask those who have been in poverty 
and want ; have they never received relief 
at a time when they gave themselves up for 
lost ? has not some kind friend succoured 
them like a guardian angel ? Has there 
not been in the life of every one some ex- 
traordinary coincidence of circumstances 
equally out of the reach of his power to 
produce ? The unthinking may talk of 
chance, or fortune, but these are only 
sounds without sense ; plausible nanus 
which mean nothing, when applied to the 
important concerns of our lives. Be assured 
that the whole scheme of our existence has 
been planned by a wise and benevolent 
Power; that nothing happens without his 
knowledge and permission; and thai as there 
is nothing which with respect to his presci- 
ence is unforseen, so there is nothing which 
with respect to bis providence is casual. 

Indeed, no other principle than this, em- 
braced with a steady faith, and attended 

with a suitable practice, can ever be able to 



PSA 



PUB 



give repose and tranquillity to the mind ; 
to animate our hopes, or extinguish our 
fears; to give us any true satisfaction in 
the enjoyments of life, or to minister conso- 
lation under its adversities. If we are per- 
suaded that God governs the world, that he 
has the superintendence and direction of 
all events, and that we are the objects of 
his providential care ; whatever may be our 
distress or our danger, we can never want 
consolation ; we may always have a fund of 
hope, always a prospect of relief. But, take 
away this hope and this prospect, take away 
the belief of God and of a superintending 
providence, and man would be of all crea- 
tures the most miserable ; destitute of every 
comfort, every support, under present suffer- 
ings, and of every security against future 
dangers. Sermons by George Carr, Sermon 
i. ; Mr. Kett's Emily, a Moral Tale, vol i. 
pp. 225—229, third edition. 

PSALMS, The book of, in Hebrew 
Sepher Tehillim, The Book of Hymns. 
'The Book of Psalms is a collection of 
hymns or sacred songs in praise of God, 
and consists of poems of various kinds. 
They are the productions of different per- 
sons, but are generally called the Psalms of 
David, because a great part of them was 
composed by him, and David himself is 
distinguished by the name of the Psalmist. 
We cannot now ascertain all the Psalms 
written by David, but their number pro- 
bably exceeds seventy ; and much less are 
we able to discover the authors of the other 
Psalms, or the occasions upon which they 
were composed ; a few of them were written 
after the return from the Babylonian cap- 
tivity. The titles prefixed to them are of 
very questionable authority ; and in many 
cases they are not intended to denote the 
writer, but refer only to the person who was 
appointed to set them to music. David 
first introduced the practice of singing 
sacred hymns in the public service of God ; 
and it was restored by Ezra, who is sup- 
posed to have selected these psalms from a 
much greater number, and to have placed 
them in their present order. It is to be 
presumed, that those which he rejected were 
either not inspired, or not calculated for 
general use.' 

' The authority of those, however, which 
we now possess, is established not only by 
their rank among the sacred writings, and. 
by the unvaried testimony of every age, but 
likewise by many intrinsic proofs of inspi- 
ration. Not only do they breathe through 
every part a divine spirit of eloquence, but 
they contain numberless illustrious pro- 
phecies, that were remarkably accomplished, 
and that are frequently appealed to by the 
evangelical writers. The sacred character 
of the whole book is established by the tes- 
timony of our Saviour and his apostles, who, 
in various parts of the New Testament, ap- 
propriate the predictions of the Psalms as 
838 



obviously apposite to the circumstances of 
their lives, and as intentionally preconcerted 
to describe them.' 

' The veneration for the Psalms has in all 
ages of the Church been considerable. The 
fathers assure us that in the earlier times 
the whole book of Psalms was generally 
learnt by heart ; and that the ministers of 
every gradation were expected to be able to 
repeat them from memory.' These inva- 
luable Scriptures are daily repeated without 
weariness, though their beauties are often 
overlooked in familiar and habitual perusal. 
As hymns immediately addressed to the 
Deity, they reduce righteousness to prac- 
tice ; and while we acquire the sentiments, 
we perform the offices of piety ; as while we 
supplicate for blessings, we celebrate the 
memorial of former mercies ; and, while in 
the exercise of devotion, faith is enlivened 
by the display of prophecy.' 

' Josephus asserts, and most of the ancient 
writers maintain, that the Psalms were com- 
posed in metre. They have undoubtedly 
a peculiar conformation of sentences, and a 
measured distribution of parts. Many of 
them are elegiac, and most of David's are of 
the lyric kind. There is no sufficient rea- 
son, however, to believe, as some writers 
have imagined, that they were written in 
rhyme, or in any of the Grecian measures. 
Some of them are acrostic ; and, though the 
regulations of the Hebrew measure are now 
lost, there can be no doubt, from their har- 
monious modulation, that they were written 
with some kind of metrical order ; and they 
must have been composed in accommoda- 
tion to the measure to which they were set. 
The Masoretic writers have marked them in 
a manner different from the other sacred 
writings. The Hebrew copies and the 
Septuagint version of this book contain the 
same number of psalms ; only the Septu- 
agint translators have, for some reason 
which does not appear, thrown the ninth 
and tenth into one, as also the 114th and 
115th; and have divided the 116th and 
117th each into two.' 

Several of the Psalms are immediately 
and solely applicable to the divine economy 
of the Christian dispensation in its grand 
outline. Besides these are many others 
that contain minuter traits of the divine and 
human character of the Messiah. This 
shows how extensively ' the word of know- 
ledge,' or the gift of prophecy, was commu- 
nicated to David, and will naturally account 
for the veneration in which the book of 
Psalms, of which he was the principal com- 
poser, has always been held in the Jewish, 
as well as in the Christian Church Hales's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
p. 373 ; Tomline's Elements of Christian 
Theology, vol. i. pp. 97 — 100. 

PUBLICAN, in Greek rtXwi/jjc, an offi- 
cer of the revenue, employed in collecting 
taxes. Among the Romans were two sorts 



PUL 



PUN 



of tax-receivers. Some were general re- 
ceivers, who in each province had deputies, 
that collected the revenues of the empire, 
and accounted to the emperor. These 
principals were men of great consideration 
in the government ; and among these were 
the flower of the Roman knights, the orna- 
ment of the city, and the strength of the 
commonwealth. But the deputies, the 
under-farmers, the commissioners, the pub- 
licans of the lower order, were considered as 
so many thieves and pickpockets. 

Among the Jews, the name and profes- 
sion of a puhlican was excessively odious. 
They could not, without the utmost reluc- 
tance, see puhlicans rigorously exacting 
tributes and impositions laid on them by 
the Romans. ' Several things occurred to 
make the publicans particularly odious to 
the Jews. Considering themselves as a free 
people, under the immediate government of 
God, they bore with impatience the taxes 
imposed by the Romans, and even ques- 
tioned whether it were lawful to pay tribute 
to Caesar.' The publicans were generally 
Jews, who, farming the customs of the 
Romans, were too often led by motives of 
avarice to be extortioners also ; and the 
people could ill endure these rigorous ex- 
actions from their brethren, who thus ap- 
peared to join with the Romans in endea- 
vouring to entail perpetual subjection upon 
their nation, or at least in making the yoke 
more galling and oppressive ; besides, the 
necessary dealings and connexion of the 
publicans with the Gentiles, which the 
Jews held to be unlawful, cast a peculiar 
odium upon the whole body ; and thus we 
find our Saviour was reproached for being 
'a friend of publicans and sinners.' Tom- 
line s Elements of Christian Theology, vol. i. 
pp. 2C1, 262. 

PUL, y>9, signifies bean ; otherwise de- 
struction. Pul, or Phul, king of Assyria, 
(2 Kings xv. 19.) came into the land of 
Israel in the time of Menahem, to assist 
him, and confirm him in the kingdom. 
(Hos. v. 13.) The king of Israel gave him 
a thousand talents of silver, and Pul con- 
tinued in the country till it was paid. 

Some are of opinion, that Pul was the 
same as Belesis, governor of Babylon, who, 
with Arbaces the Mede, slew Sardanapalus, 
the last of the Assyrian monarchs, and 
transferred the empire to the Chaldaeans. 
Of this bishop Patrick seems to be confident. 
But according to Dr. Prideaux, Belesis was 
one generation later, and therefore it is 
supposed that this Pul was the father of 
Sardanapalus, who was called Sardan, with 
his father's name Pul annexed ; in like 
manner as Merodach, king of Babylon, was 
called Merodach- Baladan, because he was 
the son of Baladan. This Pul, therefore, 

was the same king of Assyria, who, when 

Jonah preached against Ninevah, gave great 

tokens of his humiliation and repentance. 
839 



The only difficulty is, that he seems to have 
marched his army from Babylon, and not 
from Nineveh. But then it is suggested, 
that, as the kings of Assyria resided some- 
times at Babylon, and sometimes at Nineveh, 
it is not improbable that Pul, to avoid the 
judgment which Jonah threatened against 
the latter, might remove to Babylon, where 
he resided the remaining part of his reign ; 
and this rendered it convenient for him to 
attack the Israelites on the other side 
Jordan. 

Usher, Rollin, and Calmet, think that 
Pul was the father of Sardanapalus, who 
added the name of Pul to that of Sardan ; 
and if this conjecture be true, Pul in that 
case must be the same as Anacindaraxes, or 
Anabaxares, the name which profane authors 
give to the father of Sardanapalus. On the 
other hand, the system of some modern 
writers, particularly of Sir Isaac Newton, 
and the authors of the ' Universal History,' 
is as follows. This Pul was, by his name, 
a pure Assyrian, and not a Chaldaean or 
Babylonian, as he is mistaken to have been 
by some, who suppose him to be the Belesis 
of Ctesias, than which no position can be 
more false. That he was the first king of 
Assyria, appears by his name, which is sim- 
ple, and not compounded like the rest. 
The Assyrian names are for the most part 
compounded of the simple names of their 
gods ; and the name of this prince we find 
a primitive, as we may call it, compounded 
in the names of the other princes in these 
parts, as Tiglath-Pul-Assur, Nebo-Pul- 
Assur, and the like. From this circum- 
stance, and the affinity of the name itself, 
he is, with apparent certainty, said to have 
been the Assyrian, Syrian, or Tyrian Belus. 
Newton's Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms ; 
Universal History, book i. chap. viii. ix. ; 
Prideaux 's Connection ; Bedford's Scripture 
Chronology. 

PUNISHMENTS of the Hebrews. There 
were several sorts of punishments used 
among the Jews, which are mentioned in 
Scripture. As, I. the punishment of the 
cross ; 2. hanging, or the punishment of 
the rope ; 3. stoning; 4. fire or burning; 
5. the tympanum, or whipping ; 6. impri- 
sonment ; 1. the sword, or beheading; 8. 
the precipice, or throwing down a rock ; 9. 
rending to pieces by thorns, or treading 
under the feet of animals; 10. the saw; 
11. stifling, by being thrown down into a 
place full of ashes ; 12. cutting off the hair ; 
19. blinding the eyes ; 14. being stretched 
on the wooden horse. There are others 
mentioned in tin 1 Maccabees. 

The Jews gave to criminals, at their ex- 
ecution, wine mingled with incense, myrrh, 
ami other strong drugs, proper to stupify 

the senses, and to abate the severity of 

pain. Solomon advises (Pro v< xxxi c>.^ to 

give wine to such as are overwhelmed with 
pain. And we se« an instance of this, in 



PUN 



PUN 



what was offered to Jesus Christ at his 
passion ; wine mixed with myrrh, before his 
crucifixion; and vinegar when he was upon 
the cross. (Matt, xxvii. 34. 48.) These ob- 
servations are general, and belong to all 
that were executed. 

Hanging, or the punishment of the rope. 
The Jews maintain, that none but idolaters 
and blasphemers underwent this punish- 
ment. Haman and, his sons were hung 
upon a high gallows. (Esth. vii. 10.) Pha- 
raoh's chief baker was first beheaded, and 
afterwards hung upon a gibbet. We read 
in the Scriptures, that sometimes they hung 
up men alive, and sometimes they hung 
up their carcases after they were dead. 
(Josh. viii. 29. 2 Sam. xxi. 12, 13.) 

Stoning, or putting to death by casting 
stones, was very much used among the 
Hebrews. See Stoning. 

Fire, or burning, was a very common 
punishment among the Hebrews. When 
Judah was informed that his daughter-in- 
law Tamar was with child, he would have 
had her burnt as an adulteress. (Genesis 
xxxviii. 24.) The law of Moses inflicts 
this punishment on the daughters of the 
priests, guilty of fornication. (Lev. xxi. 9.) 
Nebuchadnezzar caused Daniel and his 
companions to be thrown into a burning 
fiery furnace. (Dan. iii. 6.) Moses ordered 
him to be burnt alive, who should marry 
the mother and her daughter. (Lev. xx. 
14.) 

The punishment of the rack, or tympa- 
num, is met with in the Greek of St. Paul to 
the Hebrews, (xi. 35.) Interpreters are 
divided about the sense of the word ervfi- 
TravirtOrjaav. Some have explained it of 
the Tressel, or Chivalet, a punishment very 
frequent among the ancients, but scarcely 
known at this day. Others think that the 
apostle alludes to the death of John the 
Baptist, and to that of St. James, who were 
both beheaded. Some think it signifies to 
flay alive. Some take it, in a general sense, 
for all kinds of capital punishments and 
violent deaths ; but most interpreters are of 
opinion that the apostle here means the 
bastinado, or the punishment of the stick ; 
and that he makes an allusion to the cruel- 
ties exercised upon old Eleazar. The 
second book of the Maccabees, (vi. 19.) 
speaking of the martyrdom of Eleazar, says, 
that he came to the tympanum. See 
Bastinado. 

Imprisonment was not considered as a 
punishment, but to secure the accused. So 
Joseph detained his brother Simeon in 
prison. (Gen. xlii. 19.) The blasphemer 
that was brought to Moses, (Lev. xxiv. 12.) 
and the man that was found gathering sticks 
on the Sabbath-day, (Numb. xv. 34.) were 
put in ward till the Lord declared what 
kind of punishment they should suffer. 
Jeremiah and John the Baptist were shut 
up in prison, to prevent their remonstrances 
840 



to the people. But, often, imprisonment 
was made a punishment by severities. 
Joseph was put into prison, and loaded 
with fetters. (Gen. xxxix. 20.) Samson, 
taken by the Philistines, was cast into a 
dungeon, and forced to grind at the mill. 
(Judg. xvi. 21.) Hoshea, king of Israel, 
Jehoahaz and Manasseh, kings of Judah, 
were shut up in prison by their conquerors, 
the kings of Assyria and Chaldaea. Zede- 
kiah underwent the same hardships; to 
which was added the punishment of losing 
his eyes. Ahab, king of Israel, gave orders 
(1 Kings xxii. 27.) that the prophet Mi- 
caiah should be shut up in prison ; that he 
should be fed with the bread of affliction, 
and the water of distress, till his return 
from Ramoth-gilead. Bonds, fetters, shac- 
kles, manacles, chains, which usually at- 
tended imprisonment, must be considered 
as punishments. 

To throw headlong into the sea from a 
precipice, with a stone tied about the neck, 
was not a common punishment : if it has 
been sometimes used among the Hebrews, 
it was in extraordinary cases. Amaziah, 
king of , Judah, forced ten thousand Idu- 
means, whom he had taken prisoners of war, 
to leap from the top of a high rock. (2 Chron. 
xxv. 12.) The Jews intended to precipi- 
tate Jesus Christ from the top of a moun- 
tain. (Luke iv. 29.) 

In Scripture we meet with several in- 
stances of decapitation. Pharaoh's chief 
baker had his head cut off; after which his 
body was hung on a gibbet. (Gen. xl. 19.) 
Abimelech, son of Gideon, cut off the heads 
of seventy sons of Gideon, his brethren, on 
one stone. (Judg. ix. 5.) The people of 
Samaria cut off the heads of seventy sons of 
Ahab, and sent them in baskets to king 
Jehu. (2 Kings x. 7-) John the Baptist 
was beheaded in prison, by the order of 
Herod. (Matt. xiv. 8. 11.) 

Trampling to death under thorns, under 
harrows, under the feet of elephants, is not 
known among us ; but we find some in- 
stances in Scripture. When Gideon re- 
turned from pursuing the Midianites, he 
tore with thorns and brambles of the desert, 
the chief men of the city of Succoth, who 
had insulted him. (Judg. viii. 16.) It is 
thought David did something like this to 
the Moabites, (2 Sam. viii. 2.) 'And he 
smote Moab, and measured them with a 
line, casting them down to the ground ; even 
with two lines measured he to put to 
death, and with one full line to keep 
alive.' What is said of casting them down 
to the ground favours this explication. He 
made the Ammonites undergo a punishment 
that was still more cruel (2 Sam. xii. 31.) ; 
he put them under saws and harrows of 
iron, and under axes of iron, and made them 
pass through the brick-kiln. The harrows, 
or sledges, of iron here mentioned, were 
machines proper for threshing of corn ; of 



PUN 



PUR 



which there were several kinds. He made 
them pass under axes of iron, and through 
the places for making of bricks. Whether 
by these last words we are to understand 
furnaces in which bricks are burnt, or the 
place where the earth is beat and macerated, 
in which these miserable wretches were ex- 
ecuted ; these punishments were very hor- 
rible, but were tolerated among those peo- 
ple, who allowed themselves the liberty of 
putting all to death that they took in war. 

The punishment of the saw was not un- 
known to the Hebrews. Some are of opi- 
nion, that it was originally from the Per- 
sians or Chaldseans. It is certain that it is 
still in use among the Switzers ; at least, 
they practised it some time ago on one of 
their countrymen guilty of a great crime. 
They put him in a kind of coffin, and sawed 
him at length, beginning at the head, as a 
piece of wood is sawn. The apostle Paul 
in his epistle to the Hebrews, (xi. 37.) 
speaking of the calamities suffered by saints 
of the Old Testament, says, that they were 
sawn asunder. Several of the ancients have 
explained this passage concerning the death 
of Isaiah, who is said to have been put to 
death by king Manasseh, with a wooden saw. 
Cutting off the hair of the guilty person 
seems to be a punishment rather shameful 
than painful ; and yet it is thought that 
pain was likewise added to the disgrace, 
and that they were not contented to shave 
or cut the hair, but tore it off with violence, 
as if they were plucking a bird alive. This 
at least is the signification of the Hebrew 
and Greek in Nehemiah. ' I contended 
with them, and smote certain of them, and 
plucked off their hair.' Sometimes they 
put hot ashes on the skin, after they had 
torn off the hair, to make the pain the more 
exquisite. It was thus they served adul- 
terers at Athens, as is observed by the 
scholiast on Aristophanes. 

To make blind and to pluck out the eyes, 
are punishments not common ; and though 
Moses appointed that an eye should be 
given for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, 
(Exodus xxi. 24. Deut. xix. 18, 19, 20. 
Levit. xxiv. 20.) yet it is the opinion of 
commentators, that this was seldom prac- 
tised, but that the offender was generally 
punished by a pecuniary penalty, paid to 
the injured party. When the Philistines 
had seized Samson, they put him in prison, 
and bored out his eyes. (Judg. xvi. 21.) 
When N abash king of the Ammonites 
made war with Jabesh-gilead, he threatened 
to put out the right eyes of the people. 
Nebuchadnezzar took king Zedekiah, slew 
his children in his presence, then caused 
his eyes to be put out, and afterwards had 
him carried to Jerusalem in chains. (2 
Kings xxv. 7-) 

To cut off the extremities of the feel and 
hands, was a cruelty exercised by Adoni- 
bezek, on seventy kings conquered by linn, 
841 



who ate like dogs under his table. (Judg. 
i. 6, 7.) But God thought fit to have him 
tortured in the same manner. David pun- 
ished the murderers of Ishbosheth by the 
same means. (2 Sam. iv. 12.) 

To be exposed to wild beasts, and to 
fight with beasts, was a punishment very 
common among the Romans. St. Paul says 
(1 Cor. xv. 32.) that he fought with beasts 
at Ephesus ; but this probably regards his 
being assaulted by the fury of brutal men. 

Other kinds of punishment are mentioned 
in the first, second, and fourth books of 
the Maccabees: as that of the burning- 
pan ; tearing off the skin by the hairs of the 
head ; burning the sides and bowels with 
lighted torches ; tearing with combs of 
iron ; stretching upon the wheel ; and seve- 
ral other sorts of torture. 

Sometimes they demolished the houses 
of offenders, a.nd reduced them to a com- 
mon place for filth and dung. (2 Kings x. 
27. Dan. ii. 5. ; iii. 29. Ezra vi. 11.) How- 
ever, some interpreters explain these pas- 
sages as implying only confiscations to the 
king's use. 

PU'NON, 1133, signifies a gem, or well- 
looking ; otherwise, mouth of eternity, or 
mouth of the son : from the Hebrew and 
Syriac, mouth of the fish. Punon, or Phu- 
non, was a station of the Hebrews in the 
wilderness. (Numb, xxxiii. 42, 43.) It 
was a place were copper mines were found ; 
and it was called Phseno, Phaino, and Me- 
tallo-phaenon, because of its mines of metals. 
Eusebius says, it was between Petra and 
Segon ; and elsewhere he places it four miles 
from Dedan. It is thought to be at Punon 
that Moses erected the brazen serpent, for 
the cure of the murmuring Israelites, who 
had been bilten by the fiery serpents. Others 
believe this happened at the encampment of 
Zalmonah. (Numb. xxi. 7-) 

PUR, TiH), K\i)pog, signifies lot. Pur, 
Phur, or Purim, was a solemn feast of 
the Jews, instituted in memory of the lots 
cast by Hainan, the enemy of the Jews. 
(Esther iii. 7.) These lots were cast in 
the first month of the year, and gave the 
twelfth month of the same year, for the ex- 
ecution of Hainan's design, to destroy all 
the Jews of Persia. Thus the superstition 
of Hainan, in crediting these lots, caused 
his own ruin, and the preservation of the 
Jews ; who had time to avert this blow, by 
means of Esther. Iii memory of this de- 
liverance, the Jews instituted a feast, which 
they Darned Put or Purim. See Haman, 
Esther, and Mokdecai. 

The feast of lots was celebrated among 
the Jews in Shushan on the 14th, and iii 
Other parts of the Persian empire on the 
l.nh of A dar, which answers to our Febru- 
ary. (Esther ix. 18, 19. 21. 2 Mace. w. 

39.) The Jews have exactly kept this 
feast down to our times; and these are the 

ceremonies they observe in it:— On the 



PUR 



PUR 



eve of the feast, if it be a day on which they 
may fast, they keep a strict fast, in memory 
of that kept by Esther and Mordecai. If 
the day be a sabbath, or the eve of a 
sabbath, on which they never fast, they 
anticipate the fast ; that is, instead of fast- 
ing on the 13th of Adar, they fast on 
the 11th. 

On the eve of the feast they give alms 
liberally to the poor, that these also may 
enjoy the feast of lots : and on the feast 
day they send a share of what they have 
at table to those who have need. On the 
evening of Adar 13, when the feast begins, 
they assemble in the synagogue, and light 
the lamps ; and as soon as the stars ap- 
pear, they begin to read the book of Esther. 
They continue reading it throughout. There 
are five places in the text, at which the 
reader raises his voice with all his might, 
and makes such a dreadful howling, as to 
frighten the women and children. When 
he comes to the place which mentions the 
names of the ten sons of Haman, he re- 
peats them very quick without taking breath, 
to show that these ten persons were de- 
stroyed in a moment. Every time the name 
of Haman is pronounced, the children with 
great fury strike the benches of the syna- 
gogues with mallets or stones, and make 
lamentable cries. It is said that heretofore 
they used to bring into the synagogue a 
great stone, with the name of Haman writ- 
ten on it, and all the while the book of 
Esther was reading, they struck it with other 
stones, till they had beaten it to pieces. 

After the reading was finished, they re- 
turned into their houses, where they made 
a meal rather of milk-meats than of flesh. 
The day following, early in the morning, 
they returned to the synagogue, where after 
they had read that passage of Exodus, in 
which is mentioned the war of Amalek, 
they again read the book of Esther with 
the same ceremonies as before. After this 
they return home, and make as good cheer 
as they can, and pass the rest of the day in 
sports and dissolute mirth, the men dress- 
ing themselves in women's clothes, and 
women in the men's, contrary to an express 
prohibition of the law. (Deut. xxii. 5.) 
And their doctors have decided on this 
point, that on this day they may drink 
wine until they cannot distinguish between, 
Cursed be Haman, and cursed be Mordecai. 
Heretofore they used to erect a gibbet, 
and upon it to burn a man made of straw, 
which they called Haman. But it was 
thought they had an intention of insulting 
the Christians on the death of Christ, and 
therefore the emperors forbade them this 
practice, on penalty of forfeiting all their 
privileges. 

They allow themselves the drinking of 

wine to excess, because, they say, it was 

by making king Ahasuerus drunk, that 

Esther procured the deliverance of the Jews. 

842 



They compel every one to be present at 
the synagogue, man, woman, child, and 
servant ; because all shared in the deliver- 
ance, as all were exposed to the danger. 
On this day scholars make presents to their 
masters, heads of families to their domes- 
tics, the great to those of mean condition. 
In a word, the whole day is spent in joy- 
fulness and feasting, as it is said in the book 
of Esther, ' That they should make them 
days of feasting and joy, and of sending por- 
tions one to another, and gifts to the poor.' 
(Esther ix. 22.) 

This festival continues two days, but 
only the first is kept with solemnity. Dur- 
ing these two days they may work or do 
business ; yet they refrain the first day, 
though they are not obliged to it. The 
second day they read no new lesson in 
the synagogue, and the feast is not so 
great ; but they, however, show marks of 
festivity. When the year consists of thir- 
teen months, and there are two Adars, 
they celebrate the feast of lots twice over ; 
the grand Purim on the fourteenth of 
the first Adar, and the lesser Purim on the 
fourteenth of the second Adar. But this 
second feast has properly nothing besides 
the name. 

PURGATORY, a place in which, ac- 
cording to the church of Rome, the just 
who depart out of this life expiate certain 
offences which do not merit eternal dam- 
nation. The Roman doctrine concerning 
Purgatory, as asserted in the councils of 
Florence and Trent, is as follows : That every 
man is subject both to temporal and eternal 
punishment for his sins ; that God does in- 
deed pardon sin, as to its eternal punish- 
ment, for the sake of the death and merits 
of Christ, but that the sinner is still liable 
to temporal punishment ; that this temporal 
punishment must be expiated by voluntary 
acts of penance and sorrow, and by such 
afflictions as he may here endure by the 
appointment of God; that this expiation 
does not fully take place in this life, but 
that there is an intermediate state, in which 
departed souls suffer the remaining part of 
their punishment, and as this state is sup- 
posed to purge them from all effect of their 
sins, and to qualify them for the joys of 
heaven, it is called Purgatory ; and the 
Church of Rome further maintains, that the 
pains and sufferings of Purgatory may be 
alleviated and shortened by the prayers of 
men here on earth, by the intercession of 
the saints in heaven, and, above all, by the 
sacrifice of the mass offered by the priests 
in the name of sinners ; and that as soon 
as souls are released from Purgatory, they 
are immediately admitted to eternal hap- 
piness. 

A passage in the New Testament is 
brought as a full proof of the fire of Pur- 
gatory. When St. Paul, in his Epistle to 
the Corinthians, is reflecting on the divi- 



PUR 



PUR 



sions that were among them, and on that 
diversity of teachers who formed men into 
different principles and parties, he com- 
pares them to different builders : some 
raised upon a rock, an edifice, like the 
temple at Jerusalem, of gold and silver 
and precious stones ; others upon the same 
rock raised a mean hovel of wood, hay, and 
stubble ; of both he says, ' Every man's 
work shall be made manifest : for the day 
shall declare it, because it shall be revealed 
by fire ; and the fire shall try every man's 
work of what sort it is.' He adds, ' If any 
man's work abide which he hath built 
thereupon, he shall receive a reward. If 
any man's work shall be burned, he shall 
suffer loss : but he himself shall be saved ; 
yet so as by fire.' (1 Cor. iii. 10 — 15.) 
These words relate to a fire which was soon 
to appear, and which was to try every man's 
work ; which was to be revealed, and in 
which every man's work was to be made 
manifest. Hence, this could have no rela- 
tion to a secret Purgatory fire. The mean- 
ing can only be, that some with the Apos- 
tles were building up the Church, not only 
on the foundation of Jesus Christ, and the 
belief of his doctrine, but were teaching 
men doctrines and rules which were good 
and virtuous. Others, at the same time, 
were adding a profane mixture both of 
Judaism and Gentilism, which they joined 
with some of the precepts of Christianity. 
The Apostle observes, that a day would 
soon appear, by which is probably meant 
the destruction of Jerusalem, and of the 
Jewish nation, or it may be applied to the 
persecution that was soon to break out ; 
that, in that day, those whose principles 
and practices were right, would survive ; 
but that others, who were entangled with 
weak and superstitious conceits, would be 
in great danger, though their firm belief 
that Jesus was the Messiah, would preserve 
them. Hence it appears, that these words 
cannot belong to Purgatory, but must de- 
note some signal discrimination to be made, 
in certain dreadful appearances, which 
would distinguish between the true and 
false Apostles, and which could be no other 
than either the destruction of Jerusalem, 
or the persecution that was to come on the 
Church. 

The practice of praying for the dead be- 
gan in the third century ; but it was not till 
long afterwards that Purgatory was even 
mentioned among Christians. It was at 
first doubtfully received, and was not fully 
established till the papacy of Gregory the 
Great, in the beginning of the seventh cen- 
tury. The belief, that the saying of masses 
would redeem the souls of the dead from 
the punishment of Purgatory, was the 
source of great gain to the clergy of the 
western churches ; the endowments, indeed, 
for that purpose, became so large and fre- 
quent in this country, that it was necessary 
843 



to restrain them by statutes of mortmain. 
The doctrine of Purgatory was never ad- 
mitted into the Greek church, but something 
of this kind seems to have been believed by 
Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans. 

Not only Purgatory itself is not men- 
tioned in Scripture, but there is not the 
slightest authority for that distinction be- 
tween temporal and eternal punishment, 
which is the foundation of this doctrine ; 
nor are we directed to offer prayers or 
masses for the souls of the dead. It is no 
where said, that there is any species of guilt 
or punishment, from which the merits of 
Christ will not deliver us ; on the contrary, 
we are told, that the ' blood of Jesus Christ 
will cleanse us from all sin,' (1 John i. 7-) ; 
and that ' now there is no condemnation to 
them which are in Christ Jesus.' (Rom. 
viii. 1.) Full and complete forgiveness of 
sins in the world to come, without any re- 
serve or exception, is promised to repentant 
sinners ; and we have the most positive as- 
surances that they will be eternally happy, 
without any intimation of suffering, prepa- 
ratory to their entrance into those joys 
which are at God's right hand for ever- 
more. 

Indeed, it seems absurd to suppose that 
considerable sufferings should await, in a 
future life, those who are to be finally saved, 
and that there should be effectual methods 
of avoiding or shortening those sufferings, 
without any mention of the evil, or its re- 
medy, in any part of the New Testament. 
To this argument from the silence of Scrip- 
ture, we may add that the Gospel represents 
Lazarus as at once conveyed to a state of 
comfort and joy ; that our Saviour promised 
the thief upon the cross that he should on 
that day be with him in paradise, that St. 
Paul exults in the prospect of ' a crown of 
righteousness after death,' (2 Tim. iv. 8.) — 
that he represents, ' to depart and be with 
Christ,' (Phil. i. 23.)—' to be absent from 
the body, and present with the Lord,' (2 
Cor. v. 8.) as states which were immediately 
to follow each other; and St. John says, 
' Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord 
from henceforth ; yea, saith the Spirit, that 
they may rest from their labours' (Rev. 
xiv. 13.) ; but how do they rest from their 
labours, if they have still the pains of Pur- 
gatory to endure ? 

With respect to temporal punishments, 
it is evident that God sometimes interposes 
in visible judgments upon the wicked as 
well as in blessings upon the good ; but, on 
the other hand, the wicked often appear to 
prosper, while the good are suffering under 
adversity. And, indeed, the Gospel warns 
all men, without any discrimination, to ex- 
pect crosses and afflictions in this proba- 
tionary life, and requires faith and patience 
under the heaviest pressure of the most un- 
provoked calamities. These are parts of 
the divine government of this world, which 



PUR 



PUR 



are ordained for the wisest and most salu- 
tary purposes, and have no concern what- 
ever with a state of punishment in another 
life previous to a state of happiness. Torn- 
line's Elements of Christian Theology, vol. ii. 
pp. 347 — 351 ; Burnet's Exposition of the 
Thirty-nine Articles, pp. 276, 277- 

PURIFICATIONS. There were many 
kinds among the Hebrews, according to the 
several kinds of impurities contracted. See 
Defilement, Leprosy, Death, Naza- 
rite, &c. When a woman was delivered 
of a boy, she was esteemed impure for forty 
days. (Lev. xii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) During the 
first seven days she defiled all that she 
touched. After this she was impure thirty 
days, but not so as to hinder her from taking 
care of her household affairs ; only from the 
use and participation of holy things. If she 
had a girl she was judged unclean for sixty 
days ; during the first two weeks of which 
she could not touch any thing without de- 
filing it. 

When the days of her purification were 
ended, she offered a lamb to the tabernacle, 
or temple, for a burnt-offering, and a young 
pigeon, or dove, for a sin-offering. If she 
was unable to offer a lamb, she gave two 
doves, one for a burnt- offering, the other 
for a sin-offering. 

The Virgin Mary complied with the law 
in this respect, (Luke ii. 2. 23, &c.) in 
memory of which the church has instituted 
the feast of the Purification of the Virgin 
Mary, observed on the second day of Fe- 
bruary. 



The Jews that lived at too great a dis- 
tance from the temple, and could not resort 
thither to purify themselves from certain 
defilements which were unavoidable ; such 
as pollution contracted at the burial of the 
dead, &c. made use of the ashes of the red 
heifer sacrificed for this purpose at Jerusa- 
lem, and the ashes of which were distributed 
to all Israelites at a distance. (Numb. xix. 
5.) See Red Heifer. 

A man and woman who used the mar- 
riage-bed, were unclean until the evening ; 
they washed their clothes, and purified 
themselves by bathing. (Lev. xv. 16, 17, 
18.) A woman under her infirmities was 
unclean seven days ; and whatever she 
touched was defiled, &c. (Lev. xx. 18.) 
The ancient Christians on many occasions 
looked on these infirmities of women as de- 
filements. The Turkish women forbear to 
come to worship while this lasts. The 
Indian women do not come into their 
houses. 

Involuntary pollutions in sleep were pu- 
rified by bathing. (Deut. xxiii. 10.) 

The Hebrews had an infinite number of 
other purifications. They did not so much 
as eat, or sit down to table, until after they 
had washed their hands, by pouring water 
from their fingers' ends up to their elbows. 
When they returned into their houses, they 
used to wash their hands. They also puri- 
fied their pots and cups, their beds, and 
whatever else they made use of, following 
the traditions of their elders. 



Q. 



QUA 



QUA 



QUAILS. God gave quails to his people 
in the wilderness, on two occasions. 
First in the wilderness of Sin, or Zin, a few 
days after they had passed the Red Sea. 
(Exod. xvi. 1—23.) A second time at the 
encampment, called in Hebrew Kibroth- 
hattaavah, or, the graves of lust. (Numb. xi. 
32. Psalm cv. 40) Both of these hap- 
pened in the spring, when the quails pass 
from Asia into Europe. Then they are 
found in great quantities on the coasts of 
the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. God, 
by a wind, drove them within, and about 
the camp of Israel ; and in this the miracle 
consists ; that they were brought so season- 
ably to this place and in so great numbers, 
as to suffice above a million of persons 
longer than a month. (Exod. xvi. 13.) 
844 



Great difference of opinion has prevailed 
among the learned with respect to the crea- 
ture intended by the original word selavim, 
rendered quails by our translators. This 
translation is supported by Bochart ; by Jo- 
sephus ; by the Rabbins, who reckon four 
sorts of quails : 1. the Beccafigo ; 2. the 
Thrush ; 3. the Pheasant ; 4. the Qail. The 
Septuagint translate oprwyo/i^rpa, the 'mo- 
ther quail,' a great quail ; and with them 
agree Apollinarius and Philo. On the other 
hand, the learned Job Ludolph insists, that 
these Selavim were locusts : because, 1. the 
word signifies multitudes ; 2. the eastern 
versions retain the original word, whereby 
it should seem that they do not think it the 
quail, which they call by another name ; 3. 
Ludolph owns that he received the first 



QUA 



QUA 



idea of his opinion from Porphyry, who 
mentions an army in Africa ready to perish 
by hunger, when a cloud of locusts, coming" 
from Libya, relieved their distress. 4. 
Many tribes of people live on locusts ; this 
must be admitted ; and that those insects 
are sufficiently abundant to maintain them. 
Bishop Patrick and Scheuchzer entertained 
a similar opinion. But, not to insist on other 
arguments, the selavim are expressly called 
flesh, (Psalm lxxviii. 27.) which locusts are 
not. The passage in Numbers, (xi. 31.) 
should be rendered not ' two cubits high,' 
but, as Bates translates it, ' two cubits dis- 
tant,' that is, from each other ; for, as he 
well observes, quails ' do not settle, like the 
locusts, one upon another, but at small dis- 
tances. ' And had the quails lain for a day's 
journey round the camp, to the great height 
of two cubits, or nearly three feet, the peo- 
ple need not have been employed two days 
and a night in gathering them. The spread- 
ing them round the camp was in order to 
dry them for use in the burning sands, as is 
still practised in Egypt. Parkhzirst' s Hebrew 
and English Lexicon, p. 739 ; Harmer's Ob- 
servations, vol. iv. p. 367, &c. ; Scripture 
Illustrated, Exposit. Index, p. 43. 

QUAKERS. The members of this so- 
ciety denominate themselves Friends, or the 
Society of Friends. The name of Quakers 
was imposed, not assumed ; it is expressive 
of facts rather than of tenets, and, though an 
epithet of reproach, seems to be stamped upon 
them indelibly. The appellation of Friends, 
they borrow from primitive and scriptural 
example, namely, ' Our friends salute thee,' 
• Greet the friends.' (3 John v. 14.) But 
when they address the king's majesty, and 
even in their common transactions in the 
world, they very modestly denominate them- 
selves the people called Quakers, by which 
name they are more generally known. 

Tenets in some respects similar to those 
of the Quakers appeared in the primitive 
church, among the Ascodrutae, as we read 
in Theodoret ; and again, about the latter 
end of the fourth century, among the Mes- 
saliani, or Euchitae, who were for prayer 
without sacraments ; but the people now 
known by that name took their rise in 
England, about the middle of the seven- 
teenth century, and rapidly found their way 
into other countries in Europe, and into 
the English settlements in North America. 
They themselves tell us, that, in the seven- 
teenth century, a number of men, dissatis- 
fied with all the modes of religious worship 
then known in the world, withdrew from 
the communion of every visible church, to 
seek the Lord in retirement. Among these 
was their ' Honourable Elder,' George Fox, 
who, being ' quickened by the immediate 
touches of Divine love, could not satisfy his 
apprehensions of duty to God, without di- 
recting the people where to find the like 
consolation and instruction.' In the course 
845 



of his travels, he met with many 'seeking 
persons,' in circumstances similar to his 
own, and these ' readily received his testi- 
mony.' ' He was one of the first of the So- 
ciety of Friends who were imprisoned. He 
was confined at Nottingham in the year 
1649, for having publicly opposed a preacher 
on a point of doctrine ; and in the following 
year, being brought before two justices in 
Derbyshire, one of them,' (Justice Bennett) 
' scoffing at George Fox, for having bidden 
him, and those about him, to tremble at the 
word of the Lord, gave to our predecessors 
the name of Quakers ; an appellation which 
soon became, and hath remained, our most 
usual denomination ; but they themselves 
adopted, and have transmitted to us, the en- 
dearing appellation of Friends.' They then 
give us a short account of their sufferings, 
and different settlements. They also in 
some measure vindicate Charles II. from 
the character of a persecutor, acknow- 
ledging, that though they suffered much 
during his reign, he sometimes discounte- 
nanced the severities of the legislature. 
They even tell us that he exerted his autho- 
rity to rescue their friends from the unpro- 
voked and cruel persecutions which they 
met with in New England ; and they speak 
with becoming gratitude of the different 
acts passed in their favour during the reigns 
of William and Mary, and George the First. 
At the restoration, a very severe act passed 
against them, the tendency of which was to 
compel them to take oaths ; but at the Re- 
volution, their scruples found relief, and 
their affirmation or asseveration has ever 
since, except in criminal cases, to serve on 
juries, and hold places of profit under go- 
vernment, been considered as equivalent to 
an oath. 

They give us the following account of 
their doctrine : ' We agree with other pro- 
fessors of the Christian name, in the belief 
of one eternal God, the Creator and Pre- 
server of the universe ; and in Jesus Christ 
his Son, the Messiah, and Mediator of the 
New Covenant. (Heb. xii. 24.) When we 
speak of the gracious display of the love of 
God to mankind, in the miraculous con- 
ception, birth, life, miracles, death, resur- 
rection, and ascension of our Saviour, we 
prefer the use of such terms as we find in 
Scripture ; and, contented with that know- 
ledge which Divine Wisdom hath seen 
meet to reveal, we attempt not to explain 
those mysteries which remain under the 
veil ; nevertheless we acknowledge and as- 
sert the divinity of Christ, who is the wis- 
dom and power of God unto salvation. 
(1 Cor. i. 24.) To Christ alone we give the 
title of the Word of God, (John L* I.) and 
not to the Scriptures, although we highly 
esteem these sacred writings, in subordina- 
tion to the Spirit (2 Peter i. 21.) from which 
they were given forth; and we hold, with 
the apostle Paul, that they are able to make 



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wise unto salvation through faith which is 
in Christ Jesus. (2 Tim. iii. 15.) We re- 
vere those most excellent precepts which are 
recorded in Scripture to have been de- 
livered by our great Lord, and we firmly be- 
lieve that they are practicable, and binding 
on every Christian ; and that in the life to 
come' every man will be rewarded accord- 
ing to his works. (Matt. xvi. 27.) And 
further, it is our belief, that, in order to 
enable mankind to put in practice these sa- 
cred precepts, many of which are contra- 
dictory to the unregenerate will of man 
(John i. 9.), every man coming into the 
world is endued with a measure of the light, 
grace, or good spirit of Christ ; by which, as 
it is attended to, he is enabled to distinguish 
good from evil, and to correct the disorderly 
passions and corrupt propensities of his 
fallen nature, which mere reason is alto- 
gether insufficient to overcome. For all 
that belongs to man is fallible, and within 
the reach of temptation; but this divine 
grace, which comes by him who hath over- 
come the world (John xvi. 33.), is, to those 
who humbly and sincerely seek it, an all- 
sufficient and present help in time of need. 
By this the snares of the enemy are de- 
tected, his allurements avoided, and deliver- 
ance is experienced through faith in its 
effectual operation ; whereby the soul is 
translated out of the kingdom of darkness, 
and from under the power of Satan, into 
the marvellous light and kingdom of the 
Son of God. Being thus persuaded that 
man, without the Spirit of Christ inwardly 
revealed, can do nothing to the glory of 
God, or to effect his own salvation, we 
think this influence especially necessary 
to the performance of the highest act of 
which the human mind is capable ; even 
the worship of the Father of lights and 
spirits, in spirit and truth ; therefore, we 
consider as obstructions to pure worship, all 
forms which divert the attention of the 
mind from the secret influence of this 
unction from the Holy One. (1 John ii. 20. 
27.) Yet although true worship is not 
confined to time and place, we think it in- 
cumbent on Christians to meet often to- 
gether, (Heb. x. 25.) in testimony of their 
dependence on the heavenly Father, and for 
a renewal of their spiritual strength : ne- 
vertheless, in the performance of worship, 
we dare not depend, for our acceptance 
with him, on a formal repetition of the 
words and experiences of others ; but we 
believe it to be our duty to lay aside the 
activity of the imagination, and to wait in 
silence to have a true sight of our condition 
bestowed upon us ; believing even a single 
sigh (Rom. viii. 26.) arising from such a 
sense of our infirmities, and of the need 
we have of divine help, to be more accept- 
able to God than any performances, how- 
ever specious, which originate in the will 
of man. 
846 



' From what has been said respecting 
worship, it follows that the ministry we ap- 
prove must have its origin from the same 
source ; for that which is needful for man's 
own direction, and for his acceptance with 
God, must be eminently so to enable him 
to be helpful to others. Accordingly, we 
believe that the renewed assistance of the 
light and power of Christ is indispensably 
necessary for all true ministry ; and that 
this holy influence is not at our command, 
or to be procured by study, but is the free 
gift of God to devoted and chosen servants. 
Hence arises our testimony against preach- 
ing for hire, in contradiction to Christ's 
positive command, " Freely ye have re- 
ceived, freely give," (Matt x. 8.); and hence 
our conscientious refusal to support such 
ministry by tithes, or other means. As we 
dare not encourage any ministry but that 
which we believe to spring from the influ- 
ence of the Holy Spirit, so neither dare we 
attempt to restrain this influence to persons 
of any condition in life, or to the male sex 
alone ; but, as male and female are one in 
Christ, we allow such of the female sex as 
we believe to be endued with a right quali- 
fication for the ministry to exercise their 
gifts for the general edification of the church ; 
and this liberty we esteem a peculiar mark 
of the Gospel dispensation, as foretold by 
the prophet Joel, (ii. 28, 29.) and noticed 
by the apostle Peter. (Acts ii. 16, 17-) 

' There are two ceremonies in use among 
most professors of the Christian name, water- 
baptism, and what is termed the Lord's Sup- 
per. The first of these is generally es- 
teemed the essential means of initiation into 
the church of Christ ; and the latter of main- 
taining communion with him. But as we 
have been convinced that nothing short of 
his redeeming power, inwardly revealed, can 
set the soul free from the thraldom of sin ; 
by this power alone we believe salvation to 
be effected. We hold that as there is one 
Lord and one faith, (Eph. iv. 5.) so his bap- 
tism is one, in nature and operation ; that 
nothing short of it can make living mem- 
bers of his mystical body; and that the 
baptism with water, administered by his 
forerunner, John, belonged, as the latter 
confessed, to an inferior and decreasing 
dispensation. (John iii. 30.) With respect 
to the other rite, we believe that communion 
between Christ and his church is not main- 
tained by that, or by any other external 
performance, but only by a real participa- 
tion of his divine nature (2 Peter i. 4.) 
through faith ; that this is the supper al- 
luded to in the Revelation, " Behold I stand 
at the door and knock ; if any man hear my 
voice, and open the door, I will come in to 
him, and will sup with him, and he with me," 
(Rev. iii. 20.) ; and that where the substance 
is attained, it is unnecessary to attend to 
the shadow ; which doth not confer grace, 
and concerning which, opinions so dif- 



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ferent and animosities so violent have 
arisen.' It is probable that Col. ii. 16, 17, 
applied to the Lord's Supper, might express 
their minds on this subject. 

1 Now, as we thus believe that the grace of 
God, which comes by Jesus Christ, is alone 
sufficient for salvation, we can neither admit 
that it is conferred on a few only, whilst 
others are left without it ; nor, thus assert- 
ing its universality, can we limit its opera- 
tion to a partial cleansing of the soul from 
sin, even in this life. We entertain worthier 
notions both of the power and goodness 
of our heavenly Father, and believe that 
he doth vouchsafe to assist the obedient to 
experience a total surrender of the natural 
will to the guidance of his pure unerring 
Spirit ; through whose renewed assistance 
they are enabled to bring forth fruits unto 
holiness, and to stand perfect in their 
present rank. (Matt. v. 48. Eph. iv. 15. 
Col. iv. 12.) There are not many of our 
tenets more generally known than our 
testimony against oaths, and against war. 
AVith respect to the former of these, we 
abide literally by Christ's positive injunction 
delivered in his Sermon on the Mount, 
'Swear not at all.' (Matt. v. 34.) From 
the same sacred collection of the most ex- 
cellent precepts of moral and religious duty, 
from the example of our Lord himself, 
(Matt. v. 39. 44, &c. ; xxvi. 52, 53.) and 
from the correspondent convictions of his 
Spirit in our hearts, we are confirmed in the 
belief that wars and fightings are, in their 
origin and effects, utterly repugnant to the 
Gospel ; which still breathes peace and 
good-will to men. (Luke xxii. 51. John 
xxviii. 11.) We also are clearly of the 
judgment, that if the benevolence of the 
Gospel were generally prevalent in the 
minds of men, it would effectually prevent 
them from oppressing, much more from en- 
slaving their brethren (of whatever colour 
or complexion), for whom, as for themselves, 
Christ died ; and even would influence their 
conduct in their treatment of the brute 
creation ; which would no longer groan, the 
victims of their avarice, or of their false 
ideas of pleasure. 

' Some of our tenets have, in former times, 
as hath been shown, subjected our friends 
to much suffering from government, though 
to the salutary purposes of government our 
principles are a security. They inculcate 
submission to the laws, in all cases wherein 
conscience is not violated. But we hold, 
that as Christ's kingdom is not of this world, 
it is not the business of the civil magistrate 
to interfere in matters of religion ; but to 
maintain the external peace and good order 
of the community. We therefore think 
persecution, even in the smallest degree, 
unwarrantable. We are careful in re- 
quiring our members not to be concerned 
in illicit trade, nor in any manner to defraud 
the revenue. It is well known that the 
847 



Society, from its first appearance, has dis- 
used those names of the months and days, 
which having been given in honour of the 
heroes or false gods of the heathen, origi- 
nated in their flattery or superstition ; and 
also the custom of speaking to a single per- 
son in the plural number, as having likewise 
arisen from motives of adulation. Compli- 
ments, superfluity of apparel, of furniture, 
and of provision for the table, outward shows 
of rejoicing and mourning, and the obser- 
vation of days and times, we esteem to be 
incompatible with the simplicity of a Christ- 
ian life ; and publfc diversions, gaming, and 
other vain amusements of the world, we 
cannot but condemn. They are a waste of 
that time which is given us for nobler pur- 
poses ; and divert the attention of the mind 
from the sober duties of life, and from the 
reproofs of instruction, by which we are 
guided to' an everlasting inheritance. To 
conclude, although we have exhibited the 
several tenets which distinguish our reli- 
gious society, as objects of our belief, yet 
we are sensible that a true and living faith 
is not produced in the mind of man by his 
own effort ; but is the free gift of God 
(Eph. ii. 8.) in Christ Jesus, nourished and 
increased by the progressive operation of 
his Spirit in our hearts, and our propor- 
tionate obedience. (John vii. 17-) There- 
fore, although, for the preservation of the 
testimonies given us to bear, and for the 
peace and good order of the society, we 
deem it necessary that those who are ad- 
mitted into membership with us should be 
previously convinced of those doctrines 
which we esteem essential, yet we require 
no formal subscription to any articles, either 
as a condition of membership, or a qualifi- 
cation for the service of the church. We 
prefer judging of men by their fruits, and 
depending on the aid of him, who, by his 
prophet, hath promised to be ' for a spirit of 
judgment to him that sitteth in judgment.' 
(Isaiah xxviii. 6.) Without this, there is a 
danger of receiving numbers into outward 
communion, without any addition to that 
spiritual sheep-fold, whereof our blessed 
Lord declared himself to be both the door 
and the shepherd, (John x. 7, 11.) i that is, 
such as know his voice, and follow him in 
the paths of obedience.' 

They doubtless disregard some things 
which others deem essentials of the Gospel, 
as water-baptism, and the use of the bread 
and wine in the communion, and they are 
almost the only modern sect, that rejects 
these two sacraments of the church. Hence, 
some are unwilling to rank them in the 
number of Christians. But Dr. Knox, 
speaking of them, observes, ' I wish any 
tiling I could say (though I wish without 
hope) could prevail with them to take the 
outward and visible signs of an inward ami 
spiritual graiv. 1 lament what appears to un- 
to be their mistake ; but far be it from any 



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Christian to say, that they are cut off by it 
from the body of Christ, while they exhibit 
proofs in other respects of a Christian faith 
and a Christian life. 1 

The Quakers have places of worship, 
where they regularly assemble on Sundays, 
and generally once in the week besides; 
though sometimes without vocal prayer, or 
any religious or practical exhortations. 
According to them, all true and acceptable 
worship is offered by the inward and imme- 
diate moving of the Spirit. They do not, 
however, plead for entirely silent meetings, 
but only for a retired waiting for the divine 
aid, which alone qualifies to pray or preach. 
It does not follow, says Mr. Clarkson, ' be- 
cause nothing is said, that God is not wor- 
shipped. The Quakers, on the other hand, 
contend, that these silent meetings form the 
sublimest part of their worship. The soul, 
they say, can have intercourse with God ; it 
can feel refreshment, joy, and comfort in 
him ; it can praise and adore him, and all 
this, without the intervention of a word.' 
They apprehend it their duty to be diligent 
in assembling themselves together for the 
worship of God; when such as are duly 
prepared, by being gathered into a com- 
posed awful frame of mind, are enabled, 
under the influence of divine grace, to 
worship in solemn silence ; or, if moved 
thereto, to pray or preach as the Spirit 
giveth them utterance. 

Their ceremonies are few and simple. 
'In the practice of discipline, we think it 
indispensable,' say they, ' that the order 
recommended by Christ himself be invari- 
ably observed. (Mat. xviii. 15 — 17.) To 
effect the salutary purposes of discipline, 
meetings were appointed at an early period 
of the society, which, from the times of their 
being held, were called quarterly-meetings. 
It was afterwards found expedient to di- 
vide the districts of these meetings, and to 
meet more frequently ; from whence arose 
monthly-meetings, subordinate to those 
held quarterly. At length, in 1669, a 
yearly-meeting was established, to super- 
intend, assist, and to provide rules for the 
whole ; previously to which, general meet- 
ings had been occasionally held. A monthly- 
meeting is usually composed of several par- 
ticular congregations, situated within a 
convenient distance from each other. Its 
business is to provide for the subsistence of 
the poor, and for the education of their 
offspring; to judge of the sincerity and 
fitness of persons appearing to be convinced 
of the religious principles of the society, 
and desiring to be admitted into member- 
ship; to excite due attention to the dis- 
charge of religious and moral duty ; and to 
deal with disorderly members. Monthly- 
meetings also grant to such of their mem- 
bers as remove into other monthly-meet- 
ings, certificates of their membership and 
conduct ; without which they cannot gain 
848 



membership in such meetings. Each 
monthly-meeting is required to appoint 
certain persons, under the name of over- 
seers, who are to take care that the rules of 
our discipline be put in practice ; and, when 
any case of complaint, or disorderly con- 
duct, comes to their knowledge, to see that 
private admonition, agreeably to the Gospel 
rule before-mentioned, be given, previously 
to its being laid before the monthly-meeting. 
' When a case is introduced, it is usual 
for a small committee to be appointed, to 
visit the offender, to endeavour to convince 
him of his error, and induce him to forsake 
and condemn it. If they succeed, the per- 
son is by minute declared to have made 
satisfaction for the offence ; if not, he is 
disowned as a member of the society. In 
disputes between individuals, it has long 
been the decided judgment of the society, 
that its members should not sue each other 
at law. It therefore enjoins all to end their 
differences by speedy and impartial arbitra- 
tion, agreeably to rules laid down. If any 
refuse to adopt this mode, or, having 
adopted it, to submit to the award, it is the 
direction of the yearly-meeting that such be 
disowned. To monthly- meetings also be- 
longs the allowing of marriages ; for our 
society hath always scrupled to acknowledge 
the exclusive authority of the priests in the 
solemnization of marriage. Those who in- 
tend to marry, appear together, and propose 
their intentions to the monthly-meeting; 
and, if not attended by their parents or 
guardians, produce a written certificate of 
their consent signed in the presence of 
witnesses. The meeting then appoints a 
committee to inquire whether they be clear 
of other engagements respecting marriage ; 
and if at a subsequent meeting no objections 
be reported, they have the meeting's con- 
sent to solemnize their intended marriage. 
This is done in a public meeting for worship, 
towards the close whereof the parties stand 
up, and solemnly take each other for hus- 
band and wife. A certificate of the pro- 
ceedings is then publicly read, and signed 
by the parties, and afterwards by the rela- 
tions and others, as witnesses. Of such 
marriages the monthly-meeting keeps a 
record ; as also of the births and burials of 
its members. A certificate of the date, of 
the name of the infant, and of its parents, 
signed by those present at the birth, is the 
subject of one of these last-mentioned 
records ; and an order for the interment, 
counter-signed by the grave-maker, of the 
other. The naming of children is without 
ceremony. Burials are also conducted in a 
simple manner. The body, followed by the 
relations and friends, is sometimes, pre- 
viously to interment, carried to a meeting ; 
and at the grave a pause is generally made ; 
on both which occasions it frequently falls 
out, that one or more friends present have 
somewhat to express for the edification of 



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those who attend; but no religious rite is 
considered as an essential part of burial. 

'Several monthly-meetings compose a 
quarterly-meeting. At the quarterly-meet- 
ing are produced written answers from the 
monthly-meetings, to certain queries re- 
specting the conduct of their members, and 
the meeting's care over them. The ac- 
counts thus received are digested into one, 
which is sent also, in the form of answers to 
queries, by representatives, to the yearly- 
meeting. Appeals from the judgment of 
monthly-meetings are brought to the quar- 
terly-meetings, whose business also it is 
to assist in any difficult case, or where re- 
missness appears in the care of the monthly- 
meetings over the individuals who compose 
them. There are seven yearly-meetings, 
namely, 1. in London, to which come repre- 
sentatives from Great Britain and Ireland ; 
2. New England ; 3. New York ; 4. Penn- 
sylvania and New Jersey ; 5. Maryland ; 6. 
Virginia; 7- the Carolinas and Georgia. 

• The yearly-meeting has the gener 
superintendence of the society in the country 
in which it is established ; and, therefore, as 
the accounts which it receives discover the 
state of inferior meetings, as particular exi- 
gencies require, or as the meeting is im- 
pressed with a sense of duty, it gives forth 
its advice, makes such regulations as ap- 
pear to be requisite, or excites to the ob- 
servance of those already made ; and some- 
times appoints committees to visit those 
quarterly-meetings which appear to be in 
need of immediate advice. Appeals from 
the judgment of quarterly-meetings are 
here finally determined ; and a brotherly cor- 
respondence, by epistles, is maintained with 
other yearly-meetings. 

' In this place it is proper to add, that, as 
we believe women may be rightly called 
to the work of the ministry, we also think, 
that to them belongs a share in the sup- 
port of our Christian discipline ; and that 
some parts of it, wherein their own sex is 
concerned, devolve on them with peculiar 
propriety. Accordingly, they have monthly, 
quarterly, and yearly-meetings of their own 
sex, held at the same time with those 
of the men ; but separately, and without 
the power of making rules : and it may be 
remarked, that during the persecutions, 
which formerly occasioned the imprison- 
ment of so many of the men, the care of the 
poor often fell on the women, and was by 
them satisfactorily administered. 

1 In order that those who are in the situ- 
ation of ministers may have the tender 
sympathy and counsel of those of either 
sex, who, by their experience in the work 
of religion, are qualified for that service, 
the monthly-meetings are advised to select 
such, under the denomination of elders. 
These, and ministers approved by their 
monthly-meetings, have meetings peculiar 
to themselves, called meetings of ministers 
849 



and elders ; in which they have an oppor- 
tunity of exciting each other to a discharge 
of their several duties, and of extending 
advice to those who may appear to be weak, 
without any needless exposure. Such meet- 
ings are generally held in the compass of 
each monthly, quarterly, and yearly-meet- 
ing. They are conducted by rules pre- 
scribed by the yearly-meeting, and have no 
authority to make any alteration or addition 
to them. The members of them unite with 
their brethren in the meetings for discipline, 
and are equally accountable to the latter for 
their conduct. 

' It is to a meeting of this kind in Lon- 
don, called the second day's morning meet- 
ing, that the revisal of manuscripts concern- 
ing our principles, previously to publication, 
is entrusted by the yearly-meeting held in 
London ; and also the granting, in the inter- 
vals of the yearly-meeting, of certificates of 
approbation to such ministers as are con- 
cerned to travel in the work of the ministry 
in foreign parts ; in addition to those granted 
by their monthly and quarterly-meetings. 
When a visit of this kind doth not extend 
beyond Great Britain, a certificate from 
the monthly-meeting, of which the minister 
is a member, is sufficient ; if to Ireland, 
the concurrence of the quarterly-meet- 
ing is also required. Regulations of similar 
tendency obtain in other yearly-meetings. 

' The yearly-meeting of London, in the 
year 1675, appointed a meeting to be held 
in that city, for the purpose of advising 
and assisting in cases of suffering for con- 
science' sake, which hath continued with 
great use to the society to this day. It is 
composed of friends, under the name of 
correspondents, chosen by the several quar- 
terly-meetings, and who reside in or near 
the city. The same meetings also appoint 
members of their own in the country as 
correspondents, who are to join their 
brethren in London on emergency. The 
names of all these correspondents, pre- 
viously to their being recorded, are sub- 
mitted to the approbation of the yearly- 
meeting. Such men as are approved mi- 
nisters are also members of this meeting, 
which is called the Meeting for Sufferings ; 
a name arising from its original purpose, and 
which is not yet become entirely obsolete. 

'The yearly-meeting has entrusted the 
Meeting for Sufferings with the care of 
printing and distributing books, and with 
the management of its stock; and, considered 
as a standing committee of the yearly-meet- 
ing, it hath a general care of whatever may 
arise, during the intervals of that meeting of 
the society, and requiring immediate atten- 
tion ; particularly of those circumstances 
which may occasion an application to go- 
vernment. 

' There is not, in any of the meetings which 
have been mentioned, any president, as we 
believe that Divine Wisdom alone ought to 



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preside ; nor hath any member a right to 
claim pre-eminence over the rest. The of- 
fice of clerk, with a few exceptions, is un- 
dertaken voluntarily by some member ; as 
is also the keeping of the records. Where 
these are very voluminous, and require a 
house for their deposit, (as is the case in 
London, where the general records of the 
society in Great Britain are kept,) a clerk 
is hired to have the care of them ; but, ex- 
cept a few clerks of this kind, and persons 
who have the care of meeting-houses, none 
receive any stipend or gratuity for their ser- 
vices in our religious society.' 

The Quakers are to be found chiefly in 
Great Britain and Ireland, and in North 
America. In 1681, king Charles the Second 
granted to William Penn, in lieu of arrears 
due to his father Admiral Penn, a large tract 
of land in North America, since called 
Pennsylvania after his name ; and it is re- 
markable, that all the settlements of the 
Europeans in America, except the Quaker 
settlement of Pennsylvania, were made by 
force of arms, with very little regard to any 
prior title in the natives. 

Some have said that the Quakers are a 
species of Deists, exalting their natural light 
above the Scripture, which some of them 
have called a dead letter; others have 
deemed them a kind of enthusiasts, vio- 
lently enslaved by their impulses and feel- 
ings ; whilst a third class have considered 
them, notwithstanding their professions re- 
specting the Spirit, as wordly-minded, eagerly 
intent on the acquisition of property, and 
thus commanding the good things of this 
present world. Their sentiments are doubt- 
less peculiar, as are also their manners; 
yet we have much reason to believe, that, 
in general, they are sincere in their pro- 
fessions, and, with some exceptions, steadily 
governed by the prospects of another world. 
So far, at least, are they from being Deists, 
that they are one of the few Christian socie- 
ties in Britain, which support their discipline 
in such a manner as to disown those mem- 
bers, who, by word or writing, profess or 
propagate deistical principles ; when, after 
due labour, such cannot be brought to ac- 
knowledge their error. 

The Quakers have burying-grounds dis- 
tinct from those of other denominations. 
Refusing to pay tithes, they suffer the loss 
of their goods and of their liberty, rather 
than comply with the demand, and their 
losses are emphatically termed sufferings. 
Many have endured long imprisonments on 
that account. In the century before last they 
were exposed, in common with the Non-con- 
formists, to severe persecutions. Even the 
famous William Penn was tried at the Old 
Bailey ; where he pleaded his own cause. 

With respect to the divinity of Christ, 

they have been very explicit, as may be 

seen by the following extracts from Penn 

and Barclay : ' He that is the Everlasting 

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Wisdom, the Divine Power, the true Light, 
the only Saviour, the creating Word of all 
things (whether visible or invisible), and 
their Upholder by his own power, is without 
contradiction God ; but all these qualifi- 
cations and divine properties are by the 
concurrent testimonies of Scripture ascribed 
to the Lord Jesus Christ, therefore ; without 
a scruple, I call and believe him really 
to be the mighty God.' ' [Christ] having 
been with God from all eternity, being him- 
self God, and also in time partaking of the 
nature of man, through him is the goodness 
and love of God conveyed to mankind, and 
by him again man receiveth and partaketh 
of these mercies.' 

We may well envy the mild creed, and 
universal charity, or fraternal love, of the 
Quakers, while we must allow with a sigh, 
that a nation of Quakers could not exist, 
except all nations were of the same per- 
suasion. To this, however, it has been said 
by one of their writers, that any nation 
actually possessing and practising Christ- 
ian principles, may be contented with the 
protection of Heaven, which can always 
find means to protect what it brings to 
pass. However few of other denomina- 
tions may be disposed to think well of their 
religious opinions, or of many of their pe- 
culiar customs, it cannot be denied that the 
Quakers, as members of society, are a very 
respectable body ; and that though they 
have a church (if that term may be used in 
regard to their society) not only without 
sacraments, but even without a priesthood, 
and a government without a head, they are 
perhaps the best organized and most unani- 
mous religious society in the world. Their 
benevolence, moral rectitude, and commer- 
cial punctuality, have excited, and long se- 
cured to them, very general esteem ; and 
it has been well observed, that in the mul- 
titudes that compose the vast legion of va- 
grants and street beggars, not a single 
Quaker can be found. 

They object to the common mode of 
solemnizing marriage, as, say they, from 
Genesis to Revelation, no record is to be 
found of marriage performed by a priest. 
They consider it as a civil contract, and 
they quote William Penn, who says, that 
' it was the unanimous sense of Friends, 
that joining in marriage was the work of 
the Lord only.' Hence, of all the sects 
in England, they are indulged with the 
peculiar privilege of being married in their 
own way, and in their own places of wor- 
ship. What that particular way, or what 
the form of the vows, or rather promises, 
which they then make, may be, are not 
sufficiently known : we are, notwithstand- 
ing, led to suppose that they are seldom 
broken ; for it is a fact, and to their credit 
be it spoken, that we never hear of adultery 
or divorce among them. Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 314—345. 



RAA 



RAA 



R. 



RA'AMAH, nom, payjxa, signifies the 
thunder, or exprobation ; otherwise an 
apple, or certain society, or certain breaking. 
Raamah, the fourth son of Cush, peopled 
the country of Arabia, whence they brought 
to Tyre spices, precious stones, and gold. 
Calmet thinks this country to have been in 
Arabia Felix, at the entrance into the 
Persian Gulf (Gen. x. 7- Ezek. xxvii. 
22.) A late writer observes, 'the greatest 
probability is, that it is Reama, in Ara- 
bia Felix, which is described by Bar- 
thema as a place of considerable trade ; 
and, as Ezekiel characterizes Raamah as 
dealing with Tyre, this seems to coincide. 
Niebuhr places Rema in N. lat. 15|, not 
far from Sanaa, south; and this further 
corroborates the conjecture that here we 
may place Raamah, says Michaelis.' Sacred 
Geography. 

RAB, 31, signifies great. Rab, Rabbin, 
Rabban, or Rabbam, a title of dignity 
among the Hebrews, which signifies mas- 
ter, or excellent. We find the name Rab 
given not only to masters and doctors, to 
the chief of a class, but also to the principal 
officers of the court of a prince ; for exam- 
ple, Nebuzaradan, general of the army of 
king Nebuchadnezzar, is always called 
Rab Tabachim, (2 Kings xxv. 8. 20. Jer. 
xxxix. 9.) or the master of the butchers, 
cooks, or guards. Esther (i. 8.) says, that 
Ahasuerus appointed a Rab of his court 
over every table of his guests, to take care 
that nothing should be wanting. Daniel 
(i. 3.) speaks of Ashpenaz, the Rab of the 
eunuchs of the house of Nebuchadnezzar, 
and of the Rab of Saganim, or chief of the 
governors or peers. (Dan. ii. 48.) This 
prophet himself was preferred to be chief of 
the interpreters of dreams, or Rab of the 
Chartunim. (Dan. v. 11.) It appears that 
this name came originally from the Chal- 
dees ; for before the captivity, when men- 
tion is made of Judea, we do not find it 
used, but only in reference to the officers of 
the king of Babylon. 

Rab, or Rabban, properly signifies mas- 
ter, or one who excels in any thing ; Rabbi 
or Rabbani, is My master. Rabbin is the 
plural. This Rab is of greater dignity than 
Rabbi, and Rabbin or Rabbim, is of greater 
dignity than Rab, or Rabbi. 

There were several gradations among the 
Jews before the dignity of Rabbin, as among 
us, before the degree of doctor. The head 
of a school was called Chacham, or wise ; he, 
who aspired to the doctorship, had the name 
851 



of Bachur, or Elou ; he frequented the 
school of the Chacham. When further ad- 
vanced, he had the title of Cabar of the 
Rab, or master's companion. Lastly, when 
further skilled in the knowledge of the law 
and traditions, he was called only Rab, or 
Rabin, and Morena, our master. 

The Chacham Rab, or master Rabbin, 
decided differences, determined things al- 
lowed or forbidden, and judged in religious, 
and even in civil controversies. He cele- 
brated marriages, and declared divorces. 
He preached, if he had a talent for it ; and 
was head of the academies. He had the 
head seats in the assemblies, and in the 
synagogues. He reprimanded the disobe- 
dient, and could excommunicate them ; and 
this procured him great respect. In their 
schools they sat upon raised chairs, and 
their scholars were seated at their feet. 
Hence (Acts xxii. 3.) St. Paul is said to 
have studied at the feet of Rabbi Gamaliel. 

Our Saviour upbraids the Rabbins and 
masters of Israel with their vanity, and 
eagerness to have the first places at feasts, 
and the head seats in the synagogues ; and 
also with their being saluted in the streets, 
and desiring to be called Rabbi, my 
master. 

The studies of the Rabbins are employed 
either on the text of the law, or the tradi- 
tions, or the Cabbala ; these three objects 
form so many different schools, and differ- 
ent sorts of Rabbins. Those who chiefly 
apply to the letter of Scripture, are called 
Caraites, Literalists. Those who chiefly 
study the traditions and oral laws of the 
Talmud, are called Rabbinists. Those who 
give themselves to their secret and myste- 
rious divinity, letters and numbers, are 
called Cabbalists, Traditionaries. 

The Rabbins are generally very ignorant 
in history, chronology, philology, antiquity, 
and geography. They understand the holy 
language but imperfectly. They know not 
the true signification of a multitude of words 
in the sacred text. They are prodigiously 
conceited about their traditions, so that 
there is very little profit in reading them ; 
ami experience shows, that most who have 

applied themselves to peruse their books 
have been but little benefited by them, ami 
have entertained a perfect contempt of their 
understanding and their works. 

The chief function of the Rabbins is io 

preach in the synagogue, to make public 
prayers there, and to interpret the law ; 

they have the power of binding and loosing, 



RAB 



RAC 



that is, of declaring what is forbid, and 
what is allowed. When the synagogue is 
poor and small, there is but one Rabbin, 
who at the same time discharges the offices 
of a judge and a teacher. But when the Jews 
are numerous and powerful, they appoint 
three pastors, and a house of judgment, 
where all their civil affairs are determined. 
Then the Rabbin applies himself to instruc- 
tion only, unless it be thought proper to 
call him into the council, to give his advice ; 
in which case he takes the chief place. 

They have the authority of creating new 
Rabbins. They pretend that formerly every 
doctor had a right of giving his title to his 
disciple ; but that in the time of Hillel they 
relinquished this power to him, and re- 
strained themselves to asking leave of the 
head of the captivity, at least in the East. 
At present they content themselves with 
installing the new Rabbin in an assembly of 
several doctors. Sometimes it is sufficient 
for one Rabbin alone to lay on his hands, 
when it is difficult for several to assemble. 

In vain do the Rabbins boast of the 
antiquity of their schools and doctors : 
when we search into these things, we find 
nothing but confusion and uncertainty. 
They speak with great emphasis of their 
schools at Japhne and Tiberias, in Pales- 
tine, after the destruction of the temple ; 
and those of Nahardea, Pundebita, and 
Sora, in the East, They produce lists of 
doctors who have taught in them; but all 
these are so ill put together, that nothing 
can be concluded from them. 

RAB'BAH, nn, aicpa paj3j3d9, signifies 
great, a multitude. Rabbah, Rabbath, or 
Rabbat-Ammon, or Rabbath of the children 
of Ammon, afterwards called Philadelphia, 
was the capital of the Ammonites, and was 
situated beyond Jordan. It was famous 
and considerable even in the time of Moses, 
who tells us that there was still preserved 
here the iron bedstead of king Og. When 
David declared war against the Ammonites, 
his general, Joab, laid siege to Rabbath- 
Ammon, where the brave Uriah lost his 
life, by a secret order give by this prince, 
that Uriah should be forsaken in a place 
of danger. And when the city was reduced 
to the last extremity, David himself went 
thither, that he might have the honour of 
taking it. From this time it became sub- 
ject to the kings of Judah. Afterwards 
the kings of Israel became masters of it, 
with all the rest of the tribes beyond 
Jordan. 

But towards the conclusion of the king- 
dom of Israel, Tiglath-pileser having taken 
away a great part of the Israelites from 
that country, the Ammonites were guilty 
of many cruelties against those that re- 
mained ; from whence it originated, that 
the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel pro- 
nounced very severe prophecies against 
Rabbath, the capital city of the Ammonites, 
852 



and against the rest of the country ; which 
probably had their completion five years 
after the destruction of Jerusalem. Antio- 
chus the Great took the city of Rabbath- 
Ammon, about the year of the world 3786. 
Some time before this, Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus had given it the name of Philadelphia. 
See Philadelphia. 

RAB'BATH MOAB, or Rabbath of the 
children of Moab, was the capital of the 
Moabites, and was otherwise called Ar, 
or Areopolis. This city underwent many 
revolutions, and the prophets threatened it 
with great misfortunes. 

RAB'SHAKEH, npttrm, signifies cup- 
bearer of the prince, or chamberlain; it 
denotes the chief butler, or cup-bearer, 
and is a term of dignity, a title of office, 
and not a proper name. Rab-shakeh was 
sent by Sennacherib, king of Assyria, to 
summon Hezekiah, which he did. Rab- 
shakeh spoke to him in a very haughty 
and insolent manner, and told him in He- 
brew that he ought not to put any confi- 
dence either in the king of Egypt, or the 
Lord, who had ordered Sennacherib to 
march against Judea. (2 Kings xviii. 17.) 

After this, Rab-shakeh returned to his 
master, who had quitted the siege of 
Lachish to meet the king of Egypt, then 
coming to assist Hezekiah. But in this 
march the destroying angel slew 185,000 
of the army of Sennacherib ; and he was 
obliged to hasten back to Nineveh, where 
he was slain by his own sons. See Heze- 
kiah. (Isai. xxxvii. 36, 37, &c. 2 Kings 
xix. 35, 36, 37.) 

RAB'SARIS, D-iD-m, signifies grand, 
master of the eunuchs ; or, gentleman of the 
chamber to the prince. Rjib-saris, or Rab- 
sares, was chief of the eunuchs of king 
Sennacherib, and was sent with Rab-shakeh 
and Tartan to summon Hezekiah. Rab- 
saris is not a proper name, but a name of 
dignity, a title of office. (Jer. xxxix. 3.) 

RACA, paKa, a Syriac word, signifying 
empty, vain, beggarly, foolish, and including 
a strong idea of contempt. Jesus Christ 
says (Matt. v. 22.) that whoever shall say 
to his neighbour Raca, shall be condemned 
by the council or Sanhedrim. 

Lightfoot assures us, that in the books of 
the Jews the word Raca is a term of the 
utmost contempt; and is used to be pro- 
nounced with certain gestures of indigna- 
tion, as spitting, turning away the head, 
&c. 

RA'CHEL, bm, signifies sheep. Rachel 
was the daughter of Laban, and sister of 
Leah. When Jacob fled from his brother 
Esau's resentment, he arrived in Mesopo- 
tamia, near the city of Haran : finding some 
shepherds there, he inquired if they knew 
Laban the son of Nahor. They answered, 
We know him well, and here is his daughter 
Rachel coming with the flock. Jacob 
introduced himself to her, was brought 



RAC 



RAH 



into Laban's house, and entertained with 
great civility. When he had been there 
about a month, Laban desired him to pro- 
pose some recompense for his services. 
Jacob offered to serve him seven years for 
his younger daughter Rachel in marriage. 
Laban agreed to this ; but instead of Ra- 
chel, Laban imposed her elder sister, Leah, 
on Jacob. 

Jacob, the next morning, made bitter 
complaints; Laban excused it, and offered, 
if he was willing to serve him other seven 
years, to let him have Rachel also. Jacob 
agreed ; and when the week of Leah's wed- 
ding was over, he married Rachel. His af- 
fection for Rachel abated his kindness for 
Leah ; but the Lord gave children to Leah, 
and none to Rachel. This excited Rachel's 
anger, and she said to Jacob, ' Give me 
children or else I die :' but Jacob answered 
her with indignation. Rachel said, Take 
my maid Bilhah, that I may have children 
by her. Jacob taking Bilhah, she brought 
forth a son, whom Rachel called Dan. Bil- 
hah had another son the year following, 
whom Rachel named Naphtali. 

At last the Lord remembered Rachel ; 
she brought forth a son, whom she named 
Joseph. Some years after, Jacob taking 
a resolution to return to Canaan, Rachel, 
unknown to Jacob, privately took away 
the Teraphim or domestic gods of her father 
Laban, in the year of the world 2265. (Gen. 
xxxi.) Laban pursued Jacob, and charged 
him with this theft. Jacob wished him to 
search every tent, which he did without 
finding any thing. Laban coming into 
Rachel's tent, she hid the Teraphim under 
her camel's furniture, and sat down upon 
it. When her father had searched every 
where in vain, she said, Let not my lord be 
angry that I cannot rise in his presence, for 
the custom of women is upon me ; and thus 
she evaded her father's inquiry. 

When Jacob passed over the brook 
Jabbok, he divided his wives and children 
into three companies. He put the two 
maids and their children first ; Leah and 
her children second ; and lastly, Rachel 
and her son Joseph. This he did, that, if 
Esau should assault the first company, the 
second and third might escape ; or if he 
should not spare the second, at least the 
third might avoid his fury. After he had 
passed over Jordan, as he advanced towards 
Hebron, and was not above a furlong from 
Bethlehem, otherwise called Ephrath. Ka- 
chel was seized with the pains of child-birth. 
She brought forth a son, whom she named 
Ben-oni, or the son of my pain; but Jacob 
named him Benjamin, or the son of m;i right 
hand. Rachel died, and Jacob buried her 
in this place, erecting a monument for her, 
which continued for ages. 

They show in Judea a monument which 
they call Rachel's ; but it is too like 
the Turkish monuments to be ancient. 
853 



It may have been renewed in later ages. 
Rachel died in the year of the world 2265. 

The prophet Jeremiah (xxxi. 15.) and 
after him St. Matthew (ii. 18.) have put 
Rachel for the tribes of Ephraim and Ma- 
nasseh, born from Joseph the son of Rachel. 
' A voice was heard in Ramah, lamentation 
and bitter weeping; Rachel, weeping for 
her children, refused to be comforted for 
her children, because they were not.' This 
prophecy was completed when these two 
tribes were carried into captivity beyond 
the Euphrates. St. Matthew has accommo- 
dated this prophecy to what happened at 
Bethlehem, when Herod slew the chil- 
dren there. Then Rachel, who was buried 
there, might be said to renew her cries 
and lamentations for the death of so many 
infant innocents, sacrificed to his jealousy 
and cruelty. 

RA'HAB, am, signifies which is large and 
extended, or -public place. Rahab was an host- 
ess of the city of Jericho, who received and 
concealed the spies sent by Joshua. The 
Hebrew calls her Zona (Joshua ii. 1.), which 
Jerome and many others understand of a 
prostitute. Others think she was only an 
hostess or inn-keeper, and that this is the 
true signification of the original word. Had 
she been a woman of ill fame, would Sal- 
mon, a prince of the tribe of Judah, have 
taken her to wife ? or could he have done 
it by the law ? Besides, the spies of Joshua 
would hardly have gone to lodge with a 
common harlot ; they who were charged 
with so nice and dangerous a commission. 
Those who maintain she was an harlot, pre- 
tend that she was perhaps one of those 
women that prostituted themselves in ho- 
nour of the Pagan deities ; as if this could 
extenuate her crime, or the scandal of her 
profession, if she was a public woman. It is 
also observable, that such women are called 
Kadeshah, not Zona, in the Hebrew. 

But, whatever was Rahab's profession, 
when the spies had entered her house, 
notice was given to the king of Jericho, 
who sent to Rahab to produce those men : 
but she hid them, and told the messengers, 
that such men had been at her house, but 
that, when the gates of the city were shutting, 
they went out. Pursue them quickly, she 
said, and you may overtake them. They forth- 
with pursued them, but in vain, for they were 
concealed on the terrace of Rahab's house. 

When the king's messengers were gone 
away, Rahab went up to the terrace, or 
roof, of her house, and said to the spies. I 
know the Lord has delivered this country 
into your hands; promise me, now, that 
you will save the lives of me and my family, 
when you take this city. The spies promised 
her, with an oath, and bid her tie a scarlet 
Btring to her window, that her bouse might 
be distinguished when the Israelites should 
inter Jericho. 

Then she let them down by a rope; lor 



RAH 



RAI 



her house joined to the walls of the city ; 
advising them to return by the mountains, 
for fear of meeting those who had been 
sent in quest of them ; and to continue on 
the mountains three days, in which time 
the messengers would return, after which 
they might proceed. The spies followed 
Rahab's counsel exactly, and at the end of 
three days arrived at Joshua's camp, to 
whom they related all they had discovered 
at Jericho, and their promises to their bene- 
factress Rahab. When Joshua took the 
city, he sent the two spies to the house of 
Rahab, to bring her out safe with all her 
relations. Rahab married Salmon, a prince 
ofJudah, by whom she had Boaz: from 
whom descended Obed, Jesse, and king 
David. Thus Jesus Christ condescended 
to reckon this Canaanitish woman among 
his ancestors. St. Paul magnifies the faith 
of Rahab. (Heb. xi. 31.) 

Ra'hab, nm, signifies proud; otherwise 
quarrelsome. The Psalmist (lxxxvii. 4.) 
speaks of another Rahab, different from 
this now mentioned. ' I will make men- 
tion of Rahab and Babylon to them that 
know me.' And again, (Psalm lxxxix. 10.) 
' Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces,' or 
* the Egyptian.' Isaiah (li. 9. ; xxx. 7-) 
makes use of the same word Rahab, to de- 
note the destruction of Pharaoh and his 
army in the Red Sea. 

RAIN, the vapours exhaled by the sun, 
which fall from the clouds to the earth in 
drops. (Eccles. xi. 3.) Some are of opinion, 
from certain expressions of Scripture, that 
the ancient Hebrews imagined rain to 
be derived from certain great reservoirs 
above the heavens, which Moses calls the 
superior waters, by way of contradistinction 
from the inferior waters, the sea. Moses 
says that, at the Deluge, ' All the fountains 
of the great deep were broken up, and the 
windows of heaven were opened.' And 
Hosea says (ii. 21.) that in times of great 
drought the clouds cry to the Lord, be- 
seeching him to permit the waters which he 
keeps in his treasuries and repositories, to 
fall into them and replenish them. 

The sacred writers often speak of the 
rain of the former season, and of the rain of 
the latter. (Deut. xi. 14.) Twice in the year, 
there fell plenty of rain in Judea : in the 
beginning of the civil year about Septem- 
ber or October ; and half a year after in the 
month Abib, or March, which was the first 
month in the ecclesiastical or holy year, 
whence it is called the latter rain in the first 
month. (Joel ii. 23.) 

RAINBOW, or simply the bow, a me- 
teor in form of a party-coloured arch, or 
semi-circle, exhibited in a rainy sky oppo- 
site to the sun, by the refraction of his 
rays in the drops of falling rain. There is 
a secondary or fainter bow usually seen, 
investing the former, at some distance ; 
and among naturalists, we also read of lunar 
854 



rainbows, marine rainbows, &c. The rain- 
bow, Sir Isaac Newton observes, never 
appears, except where it rains in the sun- 
shine ; and it may be represented artifi- 
cially, by contriving water to fall in little 
drops like rain through which the sun shin- 
ing exhibits a bow to a spectator placed be- 
tween the sun and the drops, especially if a 
dark body, as black cloth, be disposed be- 
yond the drops. 

On the origin and nature of the rainbow 
there have been a great variety of conjec- 
tures, till Anthony de Dominis, bishop of 
Spalatro, in a treatise of his published by 
Bartholus in 1611, partly suggested the 
true cause of this phenomenon, which was 
afterwai'ds fully explained and demonstrated 
by Sir Isaac Newton. To readers in ge- 
neral it may be sufficient to say, that the 
rainbow is a mere natural effect of a natural 
cause : 1. It is never seen but in showery 
weather. 2. Nor then, unless the sun shines. 
3. It never appears in any part of the heavens 
but in that opposite to the sun. 4. It never 
appears greater than a semi-circle, but often 
much less. 5. It is always double, there 
being what is called the superior and in- 
ferior, or primary, and secondary rainbow. 
6. These bows exhibit the seven prismatic 
colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
indigo, and violet. 7- The whole of this 
phenomenon depends on the rays of the 
sun falling on spherical drops of water, and 
being, in their passage through them, re- 
fracted and reflected. 

The rainbow was the sign or token which 
God appointed as a confirmation of the 
truth of" his promise to Noah, that he would 
not any more destroy the earth by a ge- 
neral deluge, or disturb the order of nature 
and the several seasons of the year, and 
their regular vicissitudes. (Gen. ix. 8 — 17-) 
From the well-known cause of this phe- 
nomenon, it cannot be rationally supposed 
that there was no rainbow in the heavens 
before the time mentioned in this passage ; 
for, as the rainbow is the natural effect of 
the sun's rays falling on drops of water, 
and of their being refracted and reflected 
by them, it must have appeared at differ- 
ent times from the creation of the sun and 
the atmosphere. Nor does this passage in- 
timate that the bow was now created, for a 
sign to Noah and his posterity ; but, that 
what was formerly created, or rather, that 
which was the necessary effect, in certain 
cases, of the creation of the sun and atmo- 
sphere, should now be considered by them 
as an unfailing token of their continual pre- 
servation from the waters of a deluge. It 
is, indeed, no more necessary to suppose 
that the rainbow was now created, for this 
purpose, than the symbols of bread and wine, 
for the institution of the Lord's Supper. 
Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book i. p. 43 ; Dr. Adam Clarice's Comment, 
on Gen. ix. 1 3. 



RAM 



RAM 



RAM, or Battering Ram, an engine of 
war, well known and much used by the an- 
cients in sieges. It is mentioned by Eze- 
kiel, (iv. 1, 2.; xxi. 22.) in two passages; 
and Nebuchadnezzar used it at the siege of 
Jerusalem. Pliny says, it was Epeus that 
invented the ram at the siege of Troy ; but 
Vitruvius and Tertullian ascribe the inven- 
tion to the Carthaginians. It is thought 
Ezekiel is the first author that has made 
any mention of this machine. 

RA'MAH, nrai, signifies height or exalted; 
otherwise, projected. Ramah was a city of 
Benjamin, between Gaba and Bethel, to- 
wards the mountains of Ephraim, six miles 
from Jerusalem north. Jerome places it 
near Gaba, seven miles from Jerusalem : it 
was, in his time, only a small village. This 
city stood on the road from Samaria to Je- 
rusalem ; for this reason, Baasha, king of 
Israel, caused it to be fortified, to obstruct 
the passage from the land of Judah into 
that of Israel. Josephus calls it Ramathan. 
(Josh, xviii. 25. Judg. iv. 5. ; xix. 13. 
1 Kings xv. 17- 2 Chron. xvi. 1.) This 
Ramah is also thought to be the city of Sa- 
muel. (1 Sam. i. 19. ; ii. 11, &c.) 

It is also very probable that Jeremiah 
speaks of this Ramah, (Jer. xl. 1, 2, 3.) 
when he says, Nebuzaradan, who com- 
manded the Chaldaean army, having found 
him among the captives at Ramah, whither 
they had been all brought, set him at liberty. 
Of the same place Calmet explains that 
other prophecy of Jeremiah, (xxxi. 15, 16, 
17-) in which the Lord comforts Rachel, 
on account of the taking the children of 
Epbraim and Manasseh into captivity : * A 
voice was heard in Ramah, lamentation and 
bitter weeping ; Rachel weeping for her 
children,' &c. Matthew, (ii. 18.) has ac- 
commodated this passage to the massacre 
of the infants of Bethlehem by Herod. 

The Scripture often joins Ramah with 
Gaba, Geba, orGibeah, as being neighbour- 
ing places. (Ezra ii. 2G. Nehem. vii. 30. 
Isaiah x. 29. Hosea v. 8.) We also see, 
(1 Sam. xxii. C.) that Saul, when in Gibeah, 
sat under a tree at Ramah : but in this place 
Calmet takes Ramah only to signify the 
eminence at Gibeah. 

' The oriental geographers,' says Mr. 
Buckingham, ' speak of Ramah as the me- 
tropolis of Palestine, and every appearance 
of its ruins even now confirms the opinion 
of its having been once a considerable city. 
Its situation, as lying immediately in the 
high road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, made it 
necessarily a place of great resort ; and from 
the fruitfulness of the country around it, it 
must have been equally important as a mi- 
litary station or a depot for supplies, and 
as a magazine for the collection of such ar- 
ticles of commerce as were exported from 
the coast. In its present state, the town of 
Ramah, or, as it is now called, Ramlah, is 
about the size of Jaffa, in the extent actually 
855 



occupied. The dwellings of this last, how- 
ever, are crowded together around the sides 
of a hill, while those of Ramah are scattered 
widely over the face of the level plain on 
which it stands. The style of building here 
is that of high square houses, with flattened 
domes covering them ; and some of the ter- 
raced roofs are fenced around with raised 
walls, in which are seen pyramids of hollow 
earthenware pipes, as if to give air and 
light without destroying the strength of the 
wall itself. On the large mosque we noticed 
a square tower with pointed arched win- 
dows, like many of our country-church 
steeples in England, differing only from 
these in being surmounted by an open gal- 
lery, and a flat-domed summit. These last, 
it could be plainly seen, were subsequent 
additions, and did not harmonize with the 
tower itself, which is purely Gothic, and, 
no doubt, a Christian work at the period of 
the Crusades. We saw also, in other parts 
of the town, vestiges of Gothic edifices, of a 
character decidedly different from Saracen 
architecture, though both of them have the 
pointed arch in common : but all these were 
greatly ruined. The convent of the Latins 
is large and commodious, though not equal 
to that of Nazareth. It has a good church, 
an open court, with a fine spreading orange- 
tree, and several wells of excellent water in 
it for their gardens. The inhabitants are 
estimated at little more than five thousand 
persons, of whom about one-third are Chris- 
tians of the Greek and Catholic communion, 
and the remaining two-thirds Mahometans, 
chiefly Arabs ; the men of power and the 
military only being Turks, and no Jews re- 
siding there. The principal occupation of 
the people is husbandry, for which the sur- 
rounding country is highly favourable ; and 
the staple commodities produced by them 
are corn, olives, oil, and cotton, with some 
soap and coarse cloth made in the town. 
There are still remains of some noble sub- 
terranean cisterns at Ramah, not inferior 
either in extent or execution to many of 
those at Alexandria. They were intended 
for the same purpose, namely, to serve in 
times of war as reservoirs of water.' 

1 The town,' says Dr. Clarke, ' is situated 
in the middle of an extensive and fertile 
plain, which is a part of the great Field of 
Sharon, if we may bestow upon any parti- 
cular region a name which was applied to 
more than one district of the Holy Land. 
It makes a considerable figure at a distance ; 
but we found nothing within the place, ex- 
cept traces of devastation and death. ■ It 
exhibited one scene of ruin. Houses fallen 
or deserted appeared on every side ; and 
instead of inhabitants, we beheld only the 
skeletons of putrifying carcases of banes 
and camels. These were tying in all the 
streets, and even in the courts and cham- 
bers of the buildings belonging to the place. 
A plague, or rather a murrain, during the 



RAM 



REA 



preceding year, had committed such ravages, 
that not only men, women, and children, 
but cattle of all kinds, and every thing that 
had life, became its victims.' Clarke's Tra- 
vels, vol. iv. p. 431 ; Buckingham's Travels in 
Palestine, vol. i. pp. 261 — 264, octavo edition 
of 1822. 

Ramah, a city of the tribe of Naphtali, 
(Josh. xix. 36.) on the frontiers of Asher. 
(Josh. xix. 29.) Jerome reads Horma in 
Hebrew ; but our version, the Septuagint, 
and Eusebius, read Ramah. The same 
Eusebius, and Cyrillus of Jerusalem, own 
there was a Ramah in the tribe of Asher, 
and another belonging to Naphtali. 

RA'MOTH, no*i, pafiwO, signifies 
eminences, or heights. Ramoth was a fa- 
mous city in the mountains of Gilead; 
often called Ramoth-Gilead ; sometimes 
Ramoth ; and sometimes Ramath-mispeh, 
or the Watch-tower. (Josh. xiii. 26.) 
Josephus calls it Ramatham, or Arama- 
tha. This city belonged to the tribe of 
Gad. It was assigned to the Levites, and 
was one of the cities of refuge beyond 
Jordan. (Deut. iv. 43. Josh. xx. 8. ; xxi. 
38.) It became famous during the reigns 
of the latter kings of Israel, and was the 
occasion of several wars between these 
princes and the kings of Damascus, who 
had conquered it, and from whom the 
kings of Israel endeavoured to regain it. 
(1 Kings xxii. 3, 4, &c. 2 Kings viii. 28, 
29. 2 Chron. xxii. 5.) Jehoram, king of 
Judah, was dangerously wounded at the 
siege of this place : and Jehu, the son of 
Nimshi, was here anointed king of Israel, 
by a prophet sent by Elisha. (2 Kings ix. 
1, 2, &c.) Ahab, king of Israel, was killed 
in battle with the Syrians before this place. 
(2 Chron. xviii. 3, 4, 5, &c.) Eusebius 
says, that Ramoth was fifteen miles from 
Philadelphia east. Jerome places it in the 
neighbourhood of Jabbok, and, conse- 
quently, north of Philadelphia. It is now 
called Ramza. 

REASON. Many, who have not been 
enemies to religion, have nevertheless dis- 
puted the necessity of the Christian revela- 
tion : they thought that reason itself, with- 
out any supernatural communication, was 
sufficient to discover the relations in which 
God stands to man, and man to God ; to 
determine what is man's present duty and 
his future expectations. But that reason 
alone is inadequate for this purpose, we may 
learn from the insufficiency of its exertions 
in the heathen world ; for surely it will not 
be denied that among the heathens, whe- 
ther we consider the sages of Greece or of 
Rome, there were men who possessed a vi- 
gour of mind, which, if it has been equalled, 
has never been exceeded in modern times : 
and yet these men, after the closest and 
most elaborate intellectual research, could 
never attain to any thing more than a 
slight glimmering of those truths which 
856 



may be called the fundamentals of reli- 
gion. 

If the efforts of the wisest philosophers, 
during a series of ages, were found so to- 
tally inadequate to the moral and religious 
improvement of the speculative and the 
practical habits of mankind, we may con- 
clude that similar efforts, unassisted by any 
Divine communication, would have been 
equally unavailing if they had continued to 
the present time ; for though knowledge is 
progressive, yet no successions of intellec- 
tual endeavour can advance the progress of 
that knowledge, which is so independent of 
rational experiment and research as the 
doctrine of a future life ; and therefore we 
may readily suppose that, on this most im- 
portant article of religion, the heathen sages 
had learned all that reason could teach 
without the aid of revelation. Hence we 
may well infer the necessity of some Divine 
interposition to bring life and immortality 
to light ; to demonstrate to us, not by a 
long chain of reasoning, too subtle or pro- 
found for the popular apprehension, but in 
a way suited to the conceptions of the most 
untutored intellect, that the consciousness 
of man is not destroyed by death, and that 
there is a state of impartial retribution be- 
yond the grave. 

Though reason, however, might pretend 
to some knowledge of a future state, her 
utmost abilities could not discover what 
atonement God would be pleased to accept 
for the sins of the world. This was a task 
to which she was wholly unequal. The 
heathens, indeed, plainly saw that some ex- 
piation was necessary. They were con- 
vinced, that if there was a God, he must be 
offended with vice and pleased with virtue. 
They knew that they were not virtuous, and 
that, therefore, they could not be in favour 
with God. They wanted the first and fun- 
damental requisite for obtaining tranquillity ; 
an assurance that pardon could be procured 
on any terms. Indeed, there was a possi- 
bility, and, perhaps, a probability, that the 
Almighty would pardon their offences ; but 
there was a possibility that he would not. 
The very possibility, therefore, of being ex- 
posed to the resentment of a God without 
mercy, and without control, was enough to 
sink them into despair. Having no confi- 
dence in any thing, they tried every thing. 
They made use of every expedient which 
could be devised, and, like men ready to 
perish, catched at whatever seemed to afford 
a prospect of relief. Hence originated that 
infinite number of deities, temples, altars, 
festivals, games, sacrifices, supplications, 
and processions. The infinite number of 
ceremonies and superstitions which they 
employed, plainly demonstrated their un- 
easiness, but could not remove its efficient 
cause. From the Gospel we know that 
God is merciful, long-suffering, and of 
great goodness. We know that the death 



REB 



REC 



of his Son was intended as a propitiatory 
atonement for the sins of mankind. We 
are acquainted with the means of preserv- 
ing that favour, which Christ has procured 
us ; and, with respect to the misery which 
guilt occasions, we no longer feel the tor- 
ment of not knowing in what manner it is 
to be expiated. The Scripture assures us, 
that ' Jesus is the Lamb of God, which 
taketh away the sins of the world ;' that he 
• came to seek and to save that which was 
lost ;' and that ' whosoever believeth in him 
shall not perish, but have everlasting life.' 
Hence, then, in the most important of all 
human concerns, we see the necessity of a 
Divine revelation, from which the meanest 
and most ignorant Christian enjoys more 
true content, more peace and satisfaction 
of mind, than any heathen philosopher could 
ever receive from all his wisdom and erudi- 
tion. See Religion and Revelation. 
Bishop Porteus's Sermons. 

REBEK'AH, np^, signifies fat, fat- 
tened; otherwise, quarrel, appeased, or re- 
moved. Rebekah, or Rebecca, was daughter 
of Bethuel, and wife of Isaac. (Gen. xxiv.) 
Eliezer, the steward of Abraham's house, 
went to fetch a wife for Isaac from Haram, 
a city of Mesopotamia, and he brought Re- 
bekah. Rebekah lived with Isaac twenty 
years, without having children : Isaac in- 
terceded for her by his prayers ; and she 
became with child of two children ; who, 
struggling together in her womb, and giving 
her great uneasiness, she consulted the 
Lord on this occasion ; who told her that 
two nations were in her womb, and that the 
elder should be subject to the younger. It 
is not agreed whom Rebekah consulted with : 
some will have it that she went to Shem, 
the son of Noah ; some, to Melchisedek ; 
some, to Heber ; some, to Abraham ; and 
others think she went to sacrifice on Mount 
Moriah, or on the altar that Abraham had 
erected in the forest of Beer-sheba, and 
that while she slept there God revealed this 
to her. 

When Rebekah's time of delivery was 
come, she became the mother of twins. The 
first was ruddy and hairy, and they named 
him Esau. The other immediately followed, 
holding in his hand the heel of his bro- 
ther ; wherefore they called him Jacob, the 
Heeler. When they grew up, Esau betook 
himself to hunting; but Jacob was a plain 
inactive man, and dwelt at home in tents. 
Isaac had most inclination for Esau, but 
Jacob was the favourite of Rebekah; she 
found means of making him obtain surrep- 
titiously the blessing of his father Isaac. 
See Jacob and Isaac. 

A great famine having forced Isaac to 
Gerar, a city of the Philistines, of which 
Abimelech was king ; when asked, who Re- 
bekah was, he answered 'his sister;' because 
he feared they might put him to death, in 
order to possess his wife. Abimelech one 
857 



day perceived him to caress her in a man- 
ner that better agreed with a husband than 
a brother. Abimelech then ordered him to 
be called, and reprimanded him ; and forbad 
any one to meddle with his wife, on pain of 
death. 

Jacob, by the management of his mo- 
ther Rebekah, having obtained his father's 
blessing, to the prejudice of his brother 
Esau, Esau threatened to be his death for 
it, Rebekah had notice of his design, and, 
to prevent it, advised Jacob to travel into 
Mesopotamia to his uncle Laban, and there 
to marry one of his daughters. She pre- 
vailed with Isaac to consent to this journey, 
insinuating that her life became a burden 
to her, on account of the daughters of Heth, 
one of whom Esau had married ; and that 
if Jacob should also take a wife of this 
country, her life would no longer be sup- 
portable. Scripture makes no farther 
mention of Rebekah ; and the year of her 
death is uncertain : but she certainly died 
before Isaac ; because it is said, that Isaac 
was put into the tomb with Rebekah his 
wife. This tomb was the same in which 
Abraham and Sarah had been before bu- 
ried, and where afterwards Jacob and Leah 
were deposited. (Gen. xlix. 31, &c. ; xxxv. 
29.) 

RE'CHAB, 131, signifies square, or 
chariot, or team of horses, or a rider. Re- 
chab was father of Jonadab, and of the 
Rechabites. It is not known in what time 
this Rechab lived, nor what was his ori- 
ginal. Some will have him to proceed from 
the tribe of Judah. Others think he was a 
priest, or at least a Levite, because it is 
said, (Jeremiah xxxv. 19.) that there shall 
be always found of the descendants of Jona- 
dab stedfast to the service of the Lord. 
Some Rabbins pretend, that the Rechabites 
having married the daughters of the priests 
or Levites, their children were employed in 
the temple service. Others think, that 
indeed they waited in the temple, but only 
as servants, like the Gibeonites and Nethi- 
nim, who were servants of the priests and 
Levites. We read (1 Chron. ii. 55.) that 
the Rechabites were originally Kenites, 
and that they were singers in the house of 
God. 

The Kenites were not descended from 
Jacob, but from Midian, son of Cush ; by 
Hobab, or Jethro, the father-in-law of 
Moses. They entered the promised land 
with the Hebrews, and dwelt in the tribe of 
Judah, about the Dead Sea. They were 
distinguished from the Israelites by their 
retired sort of life, and by their contempt of 
cities and houses. Some have thought that 
Hobab or Jethro was the first founder of 
the Rechabites ; that Rechab was one of 
his names; that Jonadab, in the time ol' 

Jehu, was one of his descendants; that 
Heber tin- Kenite followed the customs of 
the Rechabites. Serrarius distinguishes 



RED 



RED 



the ancient Rechabites, descended from and 
instituted by Jethro, from the new Recha- 
bites, of Jonadab, son of Rechab, who lived 
in the time of Jehu, king of Israel. 

The injunction imposed by Jonadab on 
his posterity was, not to drink wine, not to 
build houses, not to sow grain, nor to plant 
vineyards, to have no lands, and to dwell in 
tents all their lives. Such was the insti- 
tution of the children of Rechab. It laid 
no obligations on the Kenites, nor on the 
other descendants of Jethro. This they 
continued to observe above three hundred 
years, from the time of Jehu to that of 
Jehoiakim, king of Judah, when Nebu- 
chadnezzar coming to besiege Jerusalem, the 
Rechabites were obliged to leave the coun- 
try, and take refuge in the city ; whence 
it is imagined they were carried cap- 
tives, together with the Jews, by the Chal- 
daeans. 

REDEMPTION denotes our recovery 
from sin and death, by the obedience and 
sacrifice of Christ, who, on this account, is 
called 'The Redeemer.' (Isai. lix. 20. 
Job xix. 25.)' 'God made his creature 
man upright, but he sought out many inven- 
tions.' We could not possibly have come 
forth from the hands of an infinitely good 
and Almighty Maker, such wicked and un- 
happy creatures as we are. How we came 
into this state of corruption and misery, by 
the transgression of a covenant, made be- 
tween God and our first parent and repre- 
sentative, is plainly set forth in the Mosaic 
history, where the origin of moral evil or 
sin, and of the universal disposition in all 
men to sin, is cleared up, and charged on 
our freedom, that is, on the highest perfec- 
tion of our nature. If then we were, and 
still are, free to do good or evil, though 
more inclinable to evil, does not sin, if we 
commit it, ' lie at the door V But since it 
is as plain, from the universal prevalence of 
corruption and sin, that we did originally 
fall, as it is, from daily experience, that we 
do continually fall, in what light from the 
beginning must we have stood before our 
Maker ? In that, no doubt, of offending chil- 
dren. As offenders, Divine justice must 
have looked on us with an eye of infinite 
indignation, and resolved to punish us pro- 
portionally to our guilt. But, on the other 
hand, as children, the Divine goodness must 
have beheld us with equal tenderness and 
pity, and resolved to show us mercy. 

As we were led into sin by our first 
parent, as we became corrupt and guilty 
in the sight of God through the disobedience 
of a representative, it seems reasonable, that 
a representative, if such there may be, 
should atone for our guilt, and, by suffering, 
remove our punishment. Nay, it is as rea- 
sonable that we should become righteous by 
imputed goodness, as guilty by imputed sin. 
As to our own actual sins, we having been 
betrayed into them by a corruption of our 
858 



nature, derived from the original seduction, 
merely in consequence of God's own ap- 
pointment, who sent us into being through 
a natural entail of that corruption ; it ap- 
pears most highly agreeable not only to the 
goodness, but to the very justice of God, 
that if a representative may take away the 
guilt of original, he may remove that of 
actual, sin also, provided it is truly re- 
pented of. In order that sin may be truly 
repented of, and all men become fit objects 
of the Divine mercy, by a thorough refor- 
mation, it further appears to be reasonable, 
that the new representative should not only 
suffer the punishment due to our sins, which 
is death, but should likewise undertake to 
create us anew, and instead of sinful crea- 
tures, as we are by nature, to make us holy 
and good in the sight of God. 

To fill up these characters of a Creator 
and Redeemer, and to effect the high, and 
otherwise impossible purposes of both, the 
Son of God, the second person in the blessed 
Trinity, interposes ; and, that he may, ' by 
the word of his power,' speak us into a new 
life, and suffer the punishment due to our 
sins, ' becomes flesh, makes his tabernacle 
among men, is delivered up to death for our 
offences, rises again for our justification,' 
and, placing himself at the right hand of his 
Father, urges the merits of his all-sufficient 
sacrifice for every one who believes in him, 
and effectually hears his call to repentance. 

On this subject Dr. Barrow observes as 
follows : ' In correspondence to all the ex- 
igencies of the case [that God and man 
both might act their parts in saving us] the 
blessed eternal Word, the only Son of God, 
by the good- will of his Father, did vouchsafe 
to intercede for us, and to undertake our 
redemption; in order thereto voluntarily 
being sent down from heaven, assuming 
human flesh, subjecting himself to all the 
infirmities of our frail nature, and to the 
worst inconveniences of our low condition ; 
therein meriting God's favour to us, by a 
perfect obedience to the law, and satisfying 
God's justice by a most patient endurance 
of pains in our behalf; in completion of all, 
willingly laying down his life for the ran- 
som of our souls, and pouring forth his 
blood in sacrifice for our sins.' 

Jesus Christ, then, by dying for us, hath 
made peace between God and us ; hath 
procured us admittance into his family and 
service ; hath, both by precept and example, 
by his sabbaths, his sacraments, his minis- 
ters, taught us how to serve him ; hath, by 
his grace, enabled us to perform whatsoever 
in that service is above our natural strength ; 
hath, by an assurance of eternal rewards and 
punishments, brought over desire and fear, 
our strongest springs of action, to assist in 
the struggles of virtue against temptation. 
In the agony of that death, by which sin 
and the old creature are destroyed, he cries 
out, * It is finished !' the great work of 



RED 



REF 



rooting out evil, and subduing its author, is 
finished: and immediately on his rising 
from the dead, he cries, ' Behold ! I make 
all things new.' No sooner is the moral 
world made over again, than ' a new heaven 
and a new earth,' are fitted to it. Man is 
a new creature, and consequently all other 
things, that were made for him, are become 
new to him. These things that lately 
tempted him to sin, now no less powerfully 
prompt him to gratitude, to love, to good- 
ness, and to a new life. Clapham's Ser- 
mons, vol. i. pp. 475 — 478; Dr. Barrow's 
Works, vol. i. p. 467, edit. 1683. 
RED HEIFER. See Heifer. 
REFORMATION, that great change in 
the corrupted system of Christianity, begun 
by Luther in the year 1517- To overturn a 
system of religious belief, founded on ancient 
and deep-rooted prejudices, supported by 
power, and defended with no less art than 
industry ; to establish in its room doctrines 
of the most contrary genius and tendency ; 
and to accomplish all this, not by external 
violence or the force of arms ; are opera- 
tions which historians, the least prone to 
credulity and superstition, ascribe to that 
Divine Providence which, with infinite ease, 
can bring about events which to human 
sagacity appear impossible. The interpo- 
sition of Heaven, in favour of the Christian 
religion at its first publication, was mani- 
fested by miracles and prophecies wrought 
and uttered in confirmation of it. Though 
none of the reformers possessed, or pre- 
tended tc possess, these supernatural gifts, 
yet that wonderful preparation of circum- 
stances which disposed the minds of men for 
receiving their doctrines, that singular com- 
bination of causes which secured their suc- 
cess, and enabled men, destitute of power 
and of policy, to triumph over those who 
employed against them extraordinary efforts 
of both, may be considered as no slight 
proof, that the same hand which planted 
the Christian religion, protected the re- 
formed faith, and reared it, from beginnings 
extremely feeble, to an amazing degree of 
vigour and maturity. It was from causes 
seemingly fortuitous, and from a source 
very inconsiderable, that all the mighty 
effects of the reformation flowed. Leo X., 
when raised to the papal throne, found the 
revenues of the church exhausted by the 
vast projects of his two ambitious pre- 
decessors, Alexander VI. and Julius II. 
His own temper, naturally liberal and en- 
terprising, rendered him incapable of that 
severe and patient economy which the situ- 
ation of his finances required. On the con- 
trary, his schemes for aggrandizing the 
family of Medici, his love of splendour, his 
taste for pleasure, and his magnificence in 
rewarding men of genius, involved him 
daily in new expenses ; in order to provide 
a fund for which, he tried every device that 
the fertile invention of priests had fallen 
859 



upon to drain the credulous multitude 01 
their wealth. Among others he had recourse 
to a sale of indulgences. 

The right of promulgating these indul- 
gences in Germany, together with a share 
in the profits arising from the sale of them, 
was granted to Albert, elector of Mentz 
and archbishop of Magdeburg, who, as his 
chief agent for retailing them in Saxony, 
employed Tetzel, a Dominican friar of 
licentious morals, but of an active spirit, 
and remarkable for his noisy and popular 
eloquence. He, assisted by the monks of 
his order, executed the commission with 
great zeal and success, but with little dis- 
cretion or decency ; and though by magni- 
fying excessively the benefit of their indul- 
gences, and by disposing of them at a very 
low price, they carried on for some time an 
extensive and lucrative traffic among the 
credulous and the ignorant; the extra- 
vagance of their assertions, as well as the 
irregularities in their conduct, came at last 
to give general offence. Whilst Luther was 
at the height of his reputation and autho- 
rity, Tetzel began to publish indulgences 
in the neighbourhood of Wittemberg, and 
to ascribe to them the same imaginary vir- 
tues which had, in other places, imposed 
on the credulity of the people. As Saxony 
was not more enlightened than the other 
provinces of Germany, Tetzel met with 
prodigious success there. It was with the 
utmost concern that Luther beheld the ar- 
tifices of those who sold, and the simplicity 
of those who bought indulgences. The 
opinions of Thomas Aquinas and the other 
schoolmen, on which the doctrine of in- 
dulgences was founded, had already lost 
much of their authority with him ; and the 
Scriptures, which he began to consider as 
the great standard of theological truth, 
afforded no countenance to a practice, equally 
subversive of faith and of morals. His warm 
and impetuous temper did not suffer him 
long to conceal such important discoveries, 
or to continue a silent spectator of the de- 
lusion of his countrymen. From the pulpit, 
in the great church at Wittemberg, he in- 
veighed bitterly against the irregularities 
and vices of the monks who published in- 
dulgences ; he ventured to examine the 
doctrines which they taught, and pointed 
out to the people the danger of relying for 
salvation upon any other means than those 
appointed by God in his word. The bold- 
ness and novelty of these opinions drew 
great attention ; and being recommended by 
the authority of Luther's personal character, 
and delivered with a popular and persuasive 
eloquence, they made a deep impression on 
his hearers. Encouraged by tlu> favourable 
reception of his doctrines among the people, 
be wrote to Albert, elector of Menu and 
archbishop of Magdeburg, to whose juris- 
diction that part of Saxony u ;s subject, and 
remonstrated warmly against the false opi- 



REF 



REF 



nions, as well as wicked lives, of the preachers 
of indulgences ; but he found that prelate 
too deeply interested in their success to cor- 
rect their abuses. His next attempt was to 
gain, the suffrage of men of learning. For 
this purpose he published ninety-five theses, 
containing his sentiments with regard to 
indulgences. These he proposed, not as 
points fully established, or of undoubted 
certainty, but as subjects of inquiry and dis- 
putation ; he appointed a day, on which the 
learned were invited to impugn them, either 
in person or by writing; to the whole he 
subjoined solemn protestations of his high 
respect for the apostolic see, and of his im- 
plicit submission to its authority. No oppo- 
nent appeared at the time prefixed; the 
theses spread over Germany with astonishing 
rapidity ; they were read with the greatest 
eagerness ; and all admired the boldness of 
the man, who had ventured not only to call 
in question the plenitude of papal power, 
but to attack the Dominicans, armed with 
all the terrors of inquisitorial authority. 

The friars of St. Augustin, Luther's own 
order, gave no check to the publication of 
these uncommon opinions. Luther had, by 
his piety and learning, acquired extraor- 
dinary authority among his brethren ; he 
professed the highest regard for the authority 
of the pope ; his professions were at that 
time sincere ; and as a secret enmity subsists 
among all the monastic orders of the Komish 
church, the Augustins were highly pleased 
with his invectives against the Dominicans, 
and hoped to see them exposed to the hatred 
and scorn of the people. His sovereign, the 
elector of Saxony, the wisest prince at that 
time in Germany, secretly encouraged his 
attempts, and flattered himself that this 
dispute among the ecclesiastics themselves 
might give some check to the exactions of 
the court of Rome, which the secular princes 
had long, though without success, been en- 
deavouring to oppose. Several theses ap- 
peared in opposition to the ninety-five 
published by Luther; and the arguments 
produced for his confutation were the senti- 
ments of schoolmen, the conclusions of the 
canon law, and the decrees of popes. The 
decision of judges so partial and interested 
did not satisfy the people, who began to call 
in question the authority even of these 
venerable guides, when they found them 
standing in direct opposition to the dictates 
of reason, and the determinations of the 
divine law. 

In the mean time, these novelties in Lu- 
ther's doctrines, which interested all Ger- 
many, excited little attention and no alarm 
in the court of Rome. Leo, fond of ele- 
gant and refined pleasures, intent upon great 
schemes of policy, a stranger to theological 
controversies, and apt to despise them, re- 
garded with the utmost indifference the 
operations of an obscure friar, who, in the 
heart of Germany, carried on a scholastic 
86'0 



disputation in a barbarous style. He im- 
puted the whole to monastic enmity and 
emulation, and seemed inclined not to in- 
terpose in the contest, but to allow the Au- 
gustins and Dominicans to wrangle about 
the matter with their usual animosity. 

The solicitations, however, of Luther's 
adversaries, together with the surprising 
progress which his opinions made in different 
parts of Germany, roused at last the atten- 
tion of the court of Rome, and obliged Leo 
to take measures for the security of the 
church against an attack that now appeared 
too serious to be despised. For this end he 
summoned Luther to appear at Rome, within 
sixty days, before the auditor of the chamber, 
and the inquisitor-general, Prierias, who had 
written against him, whom he empowered 
jointly to examine his doctrines, and to 
decide concerning them. He wrote, at the 
same time, to the elector of Saxony, be- 
seeching him not to protect a man whose 
heretical and profane tenets were so shocking 
to pious ears ; and enjoined the provincial 
of the Augustins to check, by his authority, 
the rashness of an arrogant monk, which 
brought disgrace upon the order of St. Au- 
gustin, and gave offence and disturbance to 
the whole church. The professors in the 
university of Wittemberg, anxious for Lu- 
ther's safety, wrote to the pope, and, after 
employing several pretexts to excuse Luther 
from appearing at Rome, intreated Leo to 
commit the examination of his doctrines to 
some persons of learning and authority in 
Germany. The elector requested the same 
thing of the pope's legate at the diet of 
Augsburg; and as Luther himself, who at 
that time did not even entertain the smallest 
suspicion concerning the divine origin of 
papal authority, had written to Leo a sub- 
missive letter, promising an unreserved 
compliance with his will, the pope gratified 
them so far as to empower his legate in Ger- 
many, cardinal Cajetan, a Dominican, emi- 
nent for scholastic learning, and passionately 
devoted to the Roman see, to hear and de- 
termine the cause. 

Luther, having obtained the emperor's 
safe conduct, immediately repaired to Augs- 
burg. The cardinal required him, by virtue 
of the apostolic powers with which he was 
clothed, to retract his errors with regard to 
indulgences and the nature of faith, and to 
abstain for the future from the publication 
of new and dangerous opinions. Luther, 
fully persuaded of the truth of his own te- 
nets, and confirmed in the belief of them by 
the approbation which they had met with 
among persons conspicuous both for learning 
and piety, was surprised at this abrupt 
mention of a recantation, before any endea- 
vours were used to convince him that he was 
mistaken. He declared, with the utmost 
firmness, that he could not, with a safe con- 
science, renounce opinions which he believed 
to be true ; nor should any consideration 



REF 



REF 



ever induce him to do what would be so 
base in itself, and so offensive to God. At 
the same time, he continued to express no 
less reverence than formerly for the autho- 
rity of the apostolic see ; he signified his 
willingness to submit the whole controversy 
to certain universities which he named, and 
promised neither to write nor preach con- 
cerning indulgences for the future, provided 
his adversaries were likewise enjoined to be 
silent with respect to them. All these offers 
Cajetan disregarded or rejected, and still in- 
sisted, peremptorily, on a simple recantation ; 
threatening him with ecclesiastical censures, 
and forbidding him to appear again in his 
presence, unless he resolved instantly to 
comply with what he had required. This 
haughty and violent proceeding, as well as 
other circumstances, gave Luther's friends 
such strong reasons to suspect that even the 
imperial safe conduct would not be able to 
protect him from the legate's power and re- 
sentment, that they prevailed on him to 
withdraw secretly from Augsburg, and to 
return to his own country. But before his 
departure he prepared a solemn appeal from 
the legate, ill-informed at that time concern- 
ing his cause, to the pope, who indeed ought 
not to have committed a cause of this im- 
portance to an inferior agent. 

The judges before whom Luther had been 
required to appear at Rome, without waiting 
for the expiration of the sixty days allowed 
him in the citation, had already condemned 
him as an heretic. Leo had, in several of 
his briefs and letters, stigmatized him as a 
child of iniquity, and a man given up to a 
reprobate sense. As every step which was 
taken by the court of Rome convinced Lu- 
ther that Leo would soon proceed to the 
most violent measures against him, he had 
recourse to the only expedient in his power, 
in order to prevent the effect of the papal 
censures. He appealed to a general council, 
which he affirmed to be the representative of 
the catholic church, and superior in power 
to the pope, who, being a fallible man, might 
err, as St. Peter, the most perfect of his pre- 
decessors, had erred. 

It soon appeared that Luther had not 
formed rash conjectures concerning the 
intentions of the Church of Rome. A bull, 
of a date prior to his appeal, was issued 
by the pope, in which he magnified the 
virtue and efficacy of indulgences ; he re- 
quired all Christians to assent to what he 
delivered as the doctrine of the Catholic 
church, and subjected those, who should 
hold or teach any contrary opinion, to the 
heaviest ecclesiastical censures. Among 
Luther's followers,, this bull, which they 
considered as an unjustifiable effort of the 
pope in order to preserve that rich branch 
of his revenue which arose from indul- 
gences, produced little effect. But among 
the rest of his countrymen, such a clear 
decision of the sovereign pontiff against 

861 



him, and enforced by such dreadful penal- 
ties, must have been attended with conse- 
quences very fatal to his cause, if these 
had not been prevented, in a great mea- 
sure, by the death of the emperor Maximi- 
lian, whom both his principles and his in- 
terest prompted to support the authority of 
the holy see. To this event was owing the 
suspension of any further proceedings against 
Luther for eighteen months. Perpetual ne- 
gotiations, however, in order to bring the 
matter to some amicable issue, were car- 
ried on during that space. The manner 
in which these were conducted having given 
Luther many opportunities of observing 
the corruption of the court of Rome, he 
began to utter some doubts with regard 
to the divine original of the papal authority. 
A public disputation was held upon this im- 
portant question at Leipsic, between Luther 
and Eccius, one of his most learned and 
formidable antagonists ; but it was as fruit- 
less and indecisive as such scholastic com- 
bats usually prove. 

Nor did this spirit of opposition to the 
doctrines and usurpations of the Romish 
Church break out in Saxony alone ; an at- 
tack no less violent, and occasioned by the 
same causes, was made upon them about 
this time in Switzerland. The Franciscans, 
being entrusted with the promulgation of 
indulgences in that country, executed their 
commission with the same indiscretion 
and rapaciousness, which had rendered the 
Dominicans so odious in Germany. They 
proceeded, nevertheless, with uninterrupted 
success till they arrived at Zurich. There 
Zuinglius, a man not inferior to Luther in 
zeal and intrepidity, ventured to oppose 
them ; and, being animated with a repub- 
lican boldness, he advanced with more dar- 
ing and rapid steps to overturn the whole 
fabric of the established religion. The 
appearance of such a vigorous auxiliary, 
and the progress which he made, was at 
first matter of great joy to Luther. On 
the other hand, the decrees of the univer- 
sities of Cologne and Louvain, which pro- 
nounced his opinions to be erroneous, af- 
forded great cause of triumph to his adver- 
saries. 

But the undaunted spirit of Luther ac- 
quired additional fortitude from every in- 
stance of opposition ; and he began to 
shake the firmest foundations on which the 
wealth or power of the church was esta- 
blished. At last, on the loth of June 1520, 
the bull, so fatal to the church of Rome, 
was issued. Forty-one propositions, ex- 
tracted out of Luther's works, are therein 
condemned as heretical, scandalous, and 
offensive to pious ears ; all persons are 
forbidden to read his writings, upon pain 
of excommunication ; such as had any of 
them in their custody, are commanded to 

commit them to the flames ; he himself, if 
he did not, within sixty days, publicly re- 



REF 



REF 



cant his errors, and burn his books, is pro- 
nounced an obstinate heretic; is excom- 
municated, and delivered unto Satan for 
the destruction of his flesh ; and all secular 
princes are required, under pain of incur- 
ring the same censure, to seize his person, 
that he might be punished as his crimes 
deserved. 

This sentence, which he had for some 
time expected, did not disconcert or intimi- 
date Luther. After renewing his appeal 
to the general council, he published re- 
marks upon the bull of excommunication ; 
and being now persuaded that Leo had 
been guilty both of impiety and injustice 
in his proceedings against him, he boldly 
declared the pope to be that man of sin, 
or antichrist, whose appearance is foretold 
in the New Testament ; he declaimed against 
his tyranny and usurpations with greater 
violence than ever ; he exhorted all Christ- 
ian princes to shake off such an ignomi- 
nious yoke ; and boasted of his own hap- 
piness in being marked out as the object of 
ecclesiastical indignation, because he had 
ventured to assert the liberty of mankind. 

In the following year, he was requested 
to appear before his avowed enemy, the 
emperor Charles V., in the diet at Worms, 
when, unmoved by the apprehensions of 
his friends, who reminded him of the fate 
of Huss, he instantly obeyed, and there 
acknowledged that his writings had occa- 
sionally been violent and acrimonious; but 
he refused to retract his opinions, until 
they should be proved erroneous by the 
Scriptures. An edict, pronouncing him an 
excommunicated criminal, and command- 
ing the seizure of his person as soon as 
the duration of the safe conduct which he 
had obtained should have expired, was 
immediately promulgated. Frederic the 
Wise, elector of Saxony, who had all along 
countenanced him without professing his 
doctrines, now withdrew him from the 
storm. As Luther was returning from 
Worms, a troop of horsemen in masks, 
rushed from a wood, seized him, and con- 
veyed him to the castle of Wartenberg, 
where he was concealed nine months, en- 
couraging his adherents by his pen, and 
cheered in return by accounts of the rapid 
diffusion of his doctrines. John, the suc- 
cessor of Frederic, took a decisive step, and 
established the reformed religion in 1527 
throughout his dominions. 

In a diet at Spires, held about the same 
time, the execution of the edict of Worms 
against the Lutherans, now too formidable to 
be oppressed with impunity, was suspended 
until the convocation of a general coun- 
cil, to remedy the disorders of the Church. 
But in another diet held at the same place, 
in 1529, the suspension was revoked by a 
decree obtained through the influence of 
Charles ; who then found himself at more 
leisure to push forward his views against 
862 



the supporters of the Reformation. Against 
this new decree six princes, and the de- 
puties of thirteen imperial cities and towns, 
solemnly protested ; and from this the ap- 
pellation of Protestants became common to 
all who embraced the reformed religion. 
At the diet of Augsburg, in Suabia, the 
following year, a clear statement of the 
reformed faith, drawn up by Luther and 
Melancthon, was presented to Charles and 
the diet, on behalf of the Protestant mem- 
bers of the empire ; and hence it obtained 
the name of ' the Confession of Augs- 
burg.' This Confession was received as 
the standard of the Protestant faith in Ger- 
man)'. 

The same or next year, the Protestant 
princes made the famous league of Smal- 
kalde, for the mutual defence of their re- 
ligion, which obliged the emperor to grant 
the Protestant Lutherans a toleration, till 
the differences in religion should be settled 
in a council, which he engaged himself to 
call in six months. The Protestant party 
gaining strength every day, instead of 
being viewed only as a religious sect, as 
hitherto, soon became to be considered as 
a political body of no small consequence ; 
and having refused the bull for convening 
a council at Mantua, Charles summoned 
a general diet at Ratisbon, where a scheme 
of religion, for reconciling the two parties, 
was examined and proposed, but without 
effect. At length in 1545, the famous 
Council of Trent was opened for accommo- 
dating the differences in religion ; but the 
Protestants refused to attend or obey a 
council convoked in the name, and by the 
authority of the pope, and governed by his 
legates. 

The following year Luther died, but the 
work of Reformation which he had begun 
did not die with him ; for though Charles, 
having concluded a treaty with the pope 
for the destruction of the reformed religion 
and its adherents, assembled troops on all 
sides, and was at first successful in the field, 
yet on the appearance of Maurice, elector 
of Saxony, in arms against him, with a 
force which he was wholly unprepared to 
resist, he was checked in his career, and 
the consequences were, the 'Religious 
Peace,' concluded at Passau, in Bavaria, 
in 1552, and the complete security of reli- 
gious freedom to the Protestant States in 
Germany, which they have enjoyed ever 
since. 

During the course of these events, the 
reformed opinions were extending their 
influence in various other countries. Be- 
fore this time they were completely adopted 
in Sweden, and had likewise obtained per- 
fect toleration in Denmark, where they 
were adopted soon after as the doctrines of 
the national church. They were also daily 
gaining converts in other kingdoms of Eu- 
rope. They acquired many friends even 



REF 

in Italy. They privately diffused them- 
selves in Spain, notwithstanding the crowded 
dungeons and busy flames of the Inquisition. 
In France, they had still more ample suc- 
cess, where their abettors have long been 
contemptuously termed Huguenots. This 
appellation was given to the Protestants in 
France in 1560, and is supposed by some 
to be derived from a gate in Tours, called 
Hugon, where they first assembled. Ac- 
cording to others, the name is taken from 
the first words of their original protest, or 
confession of faith, Hue nos venimus, &c. 
At Geneva they were firmly established 
by Calvin ; but their principal triumph 
was in Great Britain, where the papal 
power and jurisdiction were abolished by 
Parliament, the king was declared supreme 
head of the church, and all the authority 
of which the popes were deprived was 
vested in him. -In England that vast fabric 
of ecclesiastical dominion, which had been 
raised with such art, and of which the 
foundations seemed to have been laid so 
deep, being no longer supported by the 
veneration of the people, was overturned 
in a moment. In the reign of Edward VI. 
a total separation was made from the 
Church of Rome in articles of doctrine, 
as well as in matters of discipline and ju- 
risdiction. 

The Roman Catholics themselves are 
ready to admit, that the papal doctrines and 
authority would soon have fallen into ruin 
in all parts of the world, in consequence 
of the opposition made to them hy Luther 
and his adherents, had not the force of the 
secular arm, and the fire of the Inquisition, 
been employed to support the tottering 
edifice. In the Netherlands, particularly, 
the most grievous persecutions took place ; 
so that, by the emperor Charles V., upwards 
of 100,000 were destroyed, whilst still 
greater cruelties were exercised upon the 
people there, by his son Philip II. The for- 
midable ministers of the Inquisition put so 
many to death, and perpetrated such hor- 
rible acts of cruelty and oppression in Italy, 
&c. that most of the reformed consulted their 
safety by a voluntary exile, while others re- 
turned to the religion of Rome, at least in 
external appearance. In France, too, the 
Huguenots were persecuted with unparalleled 
fury ; and though many princes of the blood, 
and of the first nobility, had embraced their 
sentiments, yet in no part of the world did 
the reformers suffer more. See Protest- 
ant and Lutiieranism. Robertson's His- 
tory of Charles V., vol. ii. pp. 00, &C. ; 
vol. iii. p. 60; Adam's Religions World Dis- 
played, vol. ii. pp. 83, 64, &c. ; .'52."), &c. 

REFUGE, cities or. To provide se- 
curity for those who, undesignedly, should 
happen to kill a man, in whatever manner, 
the Lord commanded Moses to appoint six 
cities of refuge, or asyla, that whoever, 
against his will, should have spilt blood, 
863 



REF 

might retire thither, and have time to pre- 
pare his defence before the judges ; so that 
the kinsman of the deceased might not 
pursue him thither and kill him. (Exod. 
xx. 13. Numb. xxxv. 11, 12, 13. &c.) Of 
these cities there were three on each side 
Jordan. On this side Jordan were Kedesh 
of Naphtali, Hebron, and Shechem ; be- 
yond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, and Ra- 
moth-Gilead. (Josh. xx. 7, 8.) They served 
not only for Hebrews, but for all strangers 
who might dwell in their country. The 
Rabbins confine the name strangers to pro- 
selytes ; but in this, Calmet thinks they 
depart from the design of the law. (Deut. 
xix. 1 — 8.) The Lord also commanded, 
that when the Hebrews should multiply, and 
enlarge their country, they should add three 
other cities of refuge. As this command 
was never fulfilled, the Rabbins say, that 
the Messiah will accomplish it. 

These cities were to be of easy access ; 
to have good roads leading to them, and 
bridges wherever there was occasion. The 
width of these roads was to be, at least, 
thirty-two cubits, or forty-eight feet. At 
cross-roads, they set up posts, with inscrip- 
tions, directing the way to the city of refuge. 
Every year, on the fifteenth of Adar (Fe- 
bruary), the magistrates of the cities in- 
spected the roads, to see that they were in 
good condition. The city was to be well 
supplied with water and provisions. It was 
not allowed to make any weapons there, 
that the relations of the deceased might not 
procure arms to gratify their revenge. 
Lastly; it was necessary that whoever took 
refuge there, should understand a trade or 
calling, that he might not be chargeable. 
They used to send some prudent and 
moderate persons, to meet those who were 
pursuing their revenge for their relations, 
in order to dispose them to clemency and 
forgiveness, and to await the decision of 
justice. 

Though the manslayer had fled to the 
city of refuge, yet he was not therefore 
exempt from the pursuit of justice, (Numb. 
xxxv. 12.); an information was lodged 
against him ; he was summoned before the 
judges and the people, to prove that the 
murder was truly casual and involuntary. 
If found innocent, he dwelt safely in the 
city to which he had retired ; if otherwise, 
he was put to death, according to the law. 
The Scripture is not very express, whether 
the affair was under the cognizance of the 
judges of the place where the murder was 
committed, or of the judges of the city of 
refuge to which the murderer had tied ; and 

commentators are at variance on this matter. 
(Deut. xix. 11, 12. Josh. xx. 4, o, 6. Numb, 
xxxv. 2.").) But it appears to us, from the 
passage of Joshua, that the fugitive under- 
went two trials: first in the citj oi' refuge, 
where the judges summarily examined the 
affair; secondly] in his own city, where the 



REG 



REG 



magistrates examined the cause more 
strictly. If the latter judges declared him 
innocent, they reconducted him under a 
good guard to the city of refuge. 

To inspire the greater horror, even of 
involuntary bloodshed, the law punished it 
by a kind of banishment : for the manslayer 
was obliged to dwell in this city, without 
going out of it, till the death of the high 
priest : but after the high priest's death, he 
was free to go safely where he pleased. 

' The institution of the cities of refuge 
not only gave opportunity to the aggressor 
to escape, and to the avenger to cool ; but 
took from either the determination of the 
case, and, after a proper hearing, adjudged 
the slayer to security, yet to confinement, 
till the high priest died : at which period, 
not only might the oft'ence be in part forgot, 
but be regularly and honourably passed 
over : especially among the general mourn- 
ing on that event, and the general interest 
of the nation in it. We see the spirit of 
revenge inquiets both parties: but on such 
a solemn occasion, both parties might ho- 
nourably forego their animosity, without 
any ' fear of fighting, or any disturbance of 
sleep ;' so that this appointment was of, 
perhaps, equal advantage to both culprit 
and avenger.' Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Dictionary of the Holy Bible, No. X. p. 24. 

REGENERATION, a new birth. ' Re- 
generation, or the new birth,' says a late 
divine, ' consists of two parts ; an outward 
baptism, which includes a profession of 
Christ's religion, and an inward sancti- 
fication, or holiness of heart and life. This 
is expressly told us by our Saviour and 
St. Paul. The former said to Nicodemus, 
that " except a man be born again, he 
cannot see the kingdom of God;" and in 
the next words, our Saviour explains what 
he means by this new birth ; " except a 
man be born of water and of the Spirit, he 
cannot enter into the kingdom of God." So 
that to a man's being born again, there 
must be the baptism of water, and the 
renewing of the Spirit. To the same purpose 
speaks St. Paul : " God, according to his 
mercies hath saved us, not by works of 
righteousness, which we have done> but by 
the washing of regeneration, and the re- 
newing of the Holy Ghost." The washing 
of regeneration is the outward part ; the 
renewing of the Holy Ghost, the inward. 
Well, therefore, might our church teach in 
her offices, that infants are regenerated by 
baptism, since both Scripture and antiquity 
speak the same. The truth is, this term of 
regeneration or th? new birth, cannot be 
properly understood without having respect 
to baptism. 

' Our Saviour seems to take this expres- 
sion from the Jews, by whom it denoted 
a man's becoming a proselyte to their 
religion, and being admitted to it by bap- 
tism ; which was the way of receiving 
864 



proselytes into the Church, with the addi- 
tion of circumcision to some. Whoever 
was thus admitted into the Jewish Church, 
was said to be new-born, or regenerate ; and 
they esteemed a proselyte to be so really 
new-born, that they considered him ever 
after as a stranger to all his natural relations. 
When our Saviour says, ' except a man be 
born again, he cannot see the kingdom of 
heaven,' he means to express the absolute 
necessity incumbent on every one, whether 
Jew or Gentile, to become a proselyte, 
a disciple of his doctrine, if he wishes to 
obtain the happiness of heaven. Indeed, 
our Saviour's idea of regeneration was more 
extensive than that of the Jews, who thought 
an outward baptism, or profession, suffi- 
cient to entitle a man to the name of new- 
born. But our Saviour requires that a man 
be born of the Spirit, as well as of water, 
in order to his entering the kingdom of 
heaven ; that is, besides an outward baptism 
and profession, an inward principle of vir- 
tue and holiness must be wrought in the 
person by the Spirit of God. Yet both these 
may be united ; for whoever hath the out- 
ward regeneration of baptism, may have 
also the inward regeneration of the Spirit, 
if he be not false to God and to himself.' 

When our Saviour says, that ' except a man 
be born of water and of the Spirit, he can- 
not enter into the kingdom of God,' we are 
to understand in this place, with the liturgy, 
articles, and the ablest divines of the Church 
of England, that by water is meant water- 
baptism, and not merely, with some persons, 
symbolical purification in general, for the 
following reasons: — 1. Our Lord here states 
the necessity of a higher baptism than that 
of John, with which Nicodemus must have 
been acquainted, and the insufficiency of 
which, as ministering only to repentance, 
John himself acknowledged ; whereas, the 
ensuing baptism of Christ was to be more 
efficacious, as being the baptism of the 
Holy Spirit unto regeneration. 2. This is 
confirmed by the analogy between our Lord's 
doctrine in this place, and in his last com- 
mission to his Apostles ; in which they were 
expressly required to baptize all nations with 
water, in the name of the Holy Trinity, to 
entitle them to initiation into the kingdom 
of heaven, or to the privileges of the Chris- 
tian covenant, of which this peculiar mode 
of baptism was to be the instrument, or 
stipulated condition on God's part, of grant- 
ing salvation, as faith is required on our 
part, as the indispensable condition of re- 
ceiving it. 3. If we look to th"e practice 
of the Apostles as the best explanation of 
this precept, we shall find that all the con- 
verts who professed their faith or belief in 
the efficacy of Christ's atonement for the 
sins of mankind, were invariably baptized 
in token of their conversion. 4. The uni- 
versality of the practice satisfactorily ex- 
plains also the meaning of the indefinite 



REG 



REG 



term rig ' any one,' in our Lord's answer, 
by showing that it must be understood 
universally, as equivalent to ttclq, ' every 
one,' corresponding with his last commission 
to the Apostles to publish the Gospel to all 
the creation : — ' He that believeth, and is bap- 
tized, shall be saved ; but he that believeth not, 
shall be damned :' for the word 'he,' in this 
place signifies ' whosoever,' or ' every one.' 

Though baptism is here considered as a 
necessary condition of salvation, in addition 
to belief, yet, it is remarkable, that damna- 
tion is threatened only to disbelief, or ob- 
stinate unbelief, without including the omis- 
sion of baptism. This, Waterland remarks, 
may perhaps be a reserved case, in which God 
may dispense with the general rule of bap- 
tism, in favour of such as may not have the 
means or opportunity of receiving this rite ; 
as in the penitent malefactor on the cross, 
or in sudden emergencies. At the same 
time, since the Christian covenant holds 
forth no engagement to save mankind, or 
make them heirs of eternal life, without the 
performance of this rite, baptism must be 
considered as the ordinary standing instru- 
ment, or conveyance of Gospel salvation on 
God's part ; and, therefore, no person who 
neglects or despises it can properly be enti- 
tled to those privileges. Hence, our church 
rightly considers the baptized, whether in- 
fants or adulls, immediately after the cere- 
mony is performed, as ' regenerate and 
grafted into the body of Christ's Church.' 

It was the opinion of several early fathers 
of the church, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyril, 
Nazianzen, &c. that the water applied in 
baptism secured or sealed, at it were, the 
body to a happy resurrection ; whilst the 
Spirit more immediately sealed the soul : 
and thus the whole man was understood to 
be cleansed, sanctified, and accepted by 
God in baptism. The rite of baptism once 
administered, is effectual unto regeneration, 
on God's parr, and need not be repeated. 
As there is but one Lord, and one faith, 
so there is but one baptism once performed, 
(Ephes. iv. 5.) ; for as the natural birth hap- 
pens only once, so does the spiritual. The 
grant of regeneration subsists in force after 
baptism, though its efficacy depends on per- 
forming the conditions of the covenant 
then made, namely, repentance, faith, and 
obedience ; for the privileges may be vacated, 
or forfeited, unless we walk in newness of 
life. Lapsed converts in Scripture, such as 
Simon Magus, (Acts viii. 22.) the revolting 
churches of Asia Minor, (Rev. ii. 5 — 16. ; 
iii. 3 — 19.) the wicked prophetess Jezebel, 
(Rev. ii. 20, 21, &c.) are no where exhorted 
to be born anew or regenerated, after they 
had been once baptized ; but frequently to 
repent, to he converted, to be renewed in the 
spirit of their mind, or transformed by the 
renewing of their mind, (Actsiii. 19. Ephea 
iv. 23. Rom. xii 2.) upon which they may be 
reinstated in their former privileges. 
865 



Regeneration and sanctification are only 
different expressions of the same thing. 
Regeneration is a metaphor used in Scrip- 
ture to express our translation and change 
from one state to another, from a state of 
sin and wickedness to that of grace and 
holiness ; and sanctification is our being 
made holy, purified, and cleansed from 
sin and impurity. Hence regeneration and 
sanctification are attributed to the same 
causes, the Spirit and word of God ; we are 
said to be born of the Spirit, to be sancti- 
fied of the Holy Ghost, to be begotten, and 
to be sanctified by the word of truth, that is, 
the word of God. So that the Scriptures 
speak of them as the same thing ; which they 
really are : for if sanctification be the mak- 
ing of us holy, as well as regeneration, then 
they are both the same. Another mistake 
is, that in regeneration and conversion, 
some think all the habits of grace are in- 
fused together, and at once ; that is, for 
men who were vicious before in several 
kinds, to be in an instant, by an omnipo- 
tent act of God's grace, and by a new prin- 
ciple infused into them, endued with the 
habits of the contrary graces and virtues ; 
and to be as chaste, temperate, just, meek, 
and humble, as if they became so by the 
frequent practice of these virtues. I do 
not deny that this may sometimes be the 
case ; for some men, by an extraordinary 
power of God's grace, are suddenly changed, 
and strangely reclaimed from a wicked and 
vicious, to a religious and virtuous life. 
This may in some sense be called the infu- 
sion of the habits of grace and virtue toge- 
ther at once ; but even in such I doubt 
not but that the habits of several graces 
and virtues are afterwards attained by the 
frequent practice of them. This was com- 
mon and visible in many of the first converts 
to Christianity, especially of those who were 
reclaimed from the abominable idolatry and 
impiety of heathenism. The Spirit of God 
did then work miraculously in the cures 
of both spiritual and bodily diseases. But 
to make this the rule and standard of 
God's ordinary proceedings in the conver- 
sion and regeneration of men, is equally as 
unreasonable, as still to expect miracles for 
the cure of diseases. 

If a man be baptized, and sincerely en- 
deavour to lead a good life; if his faith in 
Jesus Christ be so strong as by it to over- 
come the world, and the evil customs of the 
world ; if he so conform himself to the laws 
of our Saviour, as not to live in any wilful 
transgression of them, but, in the general 
course of his life, walks honestly and pi- 
ously, and keeps a good conscience towards 

Cod and man; such a person, however he 

came into this state, and with whatever UK 
linnities it may he attended, provided that 
he prays ami strives against them, is a good 

man, ami gives a true evidence of his re- 
generation, though he may not have all the 
'A K 



REH 

marks and qualifications that may be re- 
quired by some ; such a man, if he per- 
severe in this religious course, will, without 
doubt, at last be justified before God, and 
find an admission into the everlasting king- 
dom of our Lord Jesus Christ. See Con- 
version and Renovation. Warner's 
System of Divinity and Morality, vol. iii. pp. 
329—342 ; Hales' s New Analysis of Chro- 
nology, vol. ii. book ii. pp. 975—978. 

REHOBO'AM, oynm, signifies who sets 
the people at liberty ; otherwise, space of the 
people ; otherwise, that lets the people breathe 
or blow. Rehoboam was son and successor 
of Solomon ; and his mother was Naamah, 
an Ammonitess. (1 Kings xiv. 20, 21.) 
He was forty-one years old when he 
began to reign ; and, consequently, he was 
born in the first year of his father's 
reign. It seems, indeed, to be customary 
in the East, for the eldest son, born after the 
father's accession to the throne, to succeed 
him as king. Rehoboam began to reign in 
the year of the world 3029. His father Solo- 
mon was eighteen, or nineteen, years old 
when Rehoboam was born. This prince 
reigned seventeen years at Jerusalem, and 
died in the year of the world 3046. 

After the death of Solomon, Rehoboam 
came to Shechem, where all Israel was as- 
sembled. Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who 
had headed a sedition against Solomon, and 
had been forced to take refuge in Egypt, 
when he heard of Solomon's death, returned 
into Judea, and was at the assembly of the 
people at Shechem. The Israelites would 
have made terms with Rehoboam, and said 
to him, Diminish the weight of your father's 
yoke, and we will serve you, as we have 
served your father. This proposal makes 
it plain, that the succession to the kingdom 
was not then fully established in the house 
of David. Rehoboam postponed his answer 
for three days. In the mean time, he ad- 
vised with the ancient counsellors of his 
father's council, who represented to him, 
that, by an obliging answer, he would fix the 
people in his interest for ever. But Reho- 
boam chose rather to follow the advice of 
his young counsellors, and answered the 
people roughly : which he had soon reason 
to repent of; for the multitude began to 
cry out, What part have we in David? What 
interest have we in the son of David ? To 
your tents, O Israel ; David look to your 
own house. The tribes of Judah and Ben- 
jamin continued faithful to king Rehoboam ; 
but the other ten tribes acknowledged Jero- 
boam, the son of Nebat. Hence originated 
the kingdom of Israel. 

Rehoboam, being come to Jerusalem, as- 
sembled the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, 
to the number of 180,000 men, to reduce 
the revolted ten tribes. But the prophet 
Shemaiah forbade the expedition. Then 
Rehoboam, continuing at Jerusalem, began 
to apply himself to the strengthening of his 



REL 






kingdom against Jeroboam. He fortified 
and stored, &c. several cities; as Beth- 
lehem, Etam, Tekoa, Beth-zur, Shoco, 
Adullam, Gath, Mareshah, Ziph, Adoraim, 
Lachish, Azekah, Zorah, Aijalon, Hebron. 

The number of his subjects was consi- 
derably increased by the priests and Levites, 
from the cities and territories of Jeroboam, 
who, seeing that king had abolished the 
established worship of the Lord, and made 
priests for his golden calves, withdrew 
into the land of Judah and Benjamin, that 
they might attend their functions in the 
temple at Jerusalem. But Rehoboam and 
his people did not continue faithful to the 
Lord above three years. After this short 
space of time, Judah also did evil before 
the Lord, and provoked him by their wick- 
edness, more than their fathers had done : 
and, in short, they committed all the wick- 
edness and abominations that had been com- 
mitted by the Canaanites, whom the Lord 
had driven out. 

Rehoboam married eighteen wives, and 
had sixty concubines ; by these he had 
twenty- eight sons, and sixty daughters. In 
the fifth year of Rehoboam, God sent against 
Judah, Shishak, (or Sesac) king of Egypt, 
who took away all the treasure of the house 
of the Lord, the king's treasures, the golden 
bucklers made by king Solomon, and laid 
waste the whole country. (2 Chron. xii. 1, 
2, 3, &c. 1 Kings xiv. 25.) The prophet 
Shemaiah went to attend Rehoboam, and 
the princes of Judah that were with him at 
Jerusalem, and said to them from the Lord; 
You have forsaken me, and I, in my turn, 
have forsaken you, and have delivered you 
into the hands of Shishak. The princes, 
being convinced of these reproaches, hum- 
bled themselves ; and God said to Shemaiah, 
that he would not utterly abandon them, but 
only make them sensible of the difference 
between serving the Lord, and being sub- 
ject to a foreign power. 

After the departure of Shishak, Reho- 
boam caused brazen bucklers to be made, in 
the room of those of gold, which the king of 
Egypt had taken away ; and when he went 
to the temple, his guards carried these 
brazen bucklers before him. The history 
of Rehoboam had been written at length 
by the prophets Shemaiah and Iddo; but 
these accounts are not come to our hands ; 
nor any particulars of those constant wars 
which were between Rehoboam and Jero- 
boam. Rehoboam died after a reign of 
seventeen years, was buried in the city of 
David, and left his son Abijah, his suc- 
cessor. 

RELICS, in the Roman Church, the re- 
mains of the bodies or clothes of saints or 
martyrs, and the instruments by which they 
were put to death, were devoutly preserved, 
in honour to their memory ; kissed, revered, 
and carried in procession. In the early 
ages of the Gospel, when its professors were 



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exposed to every species of danger and per- 
secution, it was natural for Christians to 
show every mark of respect hotli to the 
bodies, and to the memory, of those who had 
suffered death in its cause. They collected 
their remains, and buried them, not only 
with decency, but with all the solemnity 
and honour which circumstances would 
allow. A remarkable fact of this kind is 
recorded by Eusebius, which is of itself 
sufficient to prove the practice of the second 
century ; he tells us that the Christians of 
Smyrna were very careful to seek for and 
bury the bones and ashes of their illustrious 
bishop and martyr, the aged Polycarp, who 
had been put to death, and his body burnt 
by his implacable enemies. It was also the 
custom for Christians to hold their religious 
meetings at the places where their martyrs 
were buried, by which they seemed, as it 
were, united with them ; and to display 
their attachment to their departed brethren 
by such rites as were dictated by the fer- 
vour of their devout affection, and were 
consistent with the principles of their reli- 
gion. It does not appear that this boun- 
dary was ever transgressed in the first three 
centuries : but in the fourth century, when 
the pure and simple worship of the Gospel 
began to be debased by superstitious prac- 
tices, we find strong proofs of an excessive 
love for every thing which had belonged to 
those who had distinguished themselves by 
their exertions or their sufferings for the 
truth of Christianity, and especially for any 
part of their garments, hair, or bones. Au- 
gustine in Africa, and Virgilantius in Spain, 
complained loudly of this culpable fondness 
for relics, which they speak of as a new cor- 
ruption, then first appearing in the Christian 
world ; but the warm disposition of Jerome 
led him to stand forward in their defence, 
with more zeal than discretion. How- 
ever, this learned father, even while he 
leans to the opinion that miracles were 
sometimes wrought by relics, explicitly 
declaims all idea of offering them worship : 
but when superstition has once made its 
way into the minds of men, it gradually 
gains ground, and it is difficult to set limits 
to it, particularly when there is a set of 
persons respected for their piety, who are 
studious to encourage it. 

Monks carried about relics; and with 
great ease, and no small advantage to them- 
selves, persuaded that ignorant age of their 
value and importance. Under their recom- 
mendation and patronage, they were soon 
considered as the best preservatives against 
every possible evil of soul and body ; and 
when the worshipping of images came to be 
established, the enshrining of relics was a 
natural consequence of that doctrine. This 
led the way to absolute worship, which was 
now preached by the Romish clergy as a 
Christian duty. Every one thought it 
necessary to possess a relic of some saint 
8G7 



or martyr, as the effectual means of securing 
his care and protection ; and fraud and im- 
position did not fail to furnish a supply 
proportionable to the demand. The dis- 
covery of the catacombs at Rome was an 
inexhaustible source of relics ; and thus the 
popes themselves became directly inte- 
rested in maintaining this superstitious wor- 
ship. The Council of Trent authorized the 
adoration of relics ; and they are still held in 
high estimation among the Roman Catholics. 

It is, however, said, that the Roman 
Catholics show respect to the bodies or 
bones of the dead for the following reasons : 
' 1. Because they have been the victims, 
and the living temples of God, in which his 
Divine Majesty has, in a particular manner, 
inhabited, and which he has sanctified by 
his presence and grace ; and, therefore, if 
God required of Moses, (Exod. iii. 5.) and 
of Joshua, (Josh. v. 15.) to loose their shoes 
from off their feet, in respect to the ground 
on which they stood, as being rendered holy 
by his presence, or that of his angels, we 
must think that it is agreeable to his Divine 
Majesty, that we should testify the like 
honour to that venerable earth of the bodies 
of his saints, which he in such an extraor- 
dinary manner has sanctified, by abiding in 
them as in his temples. 2. We know the 
bodies of the saints are pre-ordained to a 
happy resurrection and eternal glory, and 
upon this account also deserve our respect. 
3. The bodies and other relics of the saints 
have been, and are daily, the instruments of 
the power of God for the working of innu- 
merable miracles, which God, who is truth 
and sanctity itself, would never have 
effected, if it had not been agreeable to him 
that we should honour and respect these 
precious remnants of his servants. 4. The 
relics and shrines of the martyrs and other 
saints serve very much to encourage the 
faithful to an imitation of their virtues, and 
to help to raise their souls from the love of 
things present and temporal, to the love of 
things eternal. 

But, as Bishop Burnet observes, ' there 
was cause given in St. Austin's time to 
suspect that many of the bones which were 
carried about by monks, were none of 
their bones, but impostures, which very 
much shakes the credit of the miracles 
wrought by them, since we have no reason 
to think that God would support such im- 
postures with miracles ; as on the other 
hand, there is no reason to think that false 
relics would have passed upon the world, if 
miracles had been believed to accompany 
true ones, unless they had their miracles 
likewise to attest their value: so let this 
matter be turned which way it may, the 
credit both of relics, and of the miracles 
wrought by them, is not a little shaken 

by it. But in the following ages we have 

more than presumptions, that tin re was 
much of this false coin that went abroad 

:* k 2 



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RE1. 



in the world. It was not possible to dis- 
tinguish the false from the true.' Burnet's 
Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, p. 303 ; 
Nightingale's Portraiture of the Roman Ca- 
tholic Religion, pp. 398, 399 ; Bishop Tom- 
line's Elements of Christian Theology, vol. ii. 
pp. 358-361. 

RELIEF KIRK. The members of the 
Relief Kirk are a species of Dissenters 
in Scotland, whose chief ground of dissent 
from the establishment is, the liberty and 
privilege which they maintain of choosing 
their own ministers. 

It would appear that, since the act re- 
storing patronage in the end of Queen Anne's 
reign, there have always been a number 
of ministers in the establishment who stea- 
dily opposed the rigorous exercise of pa- 
tronage, or the settlements of ministers by 
presentations, where the concurrence of 
the generality of the parishioners could 
not be obtained. But the sect now under 
consideration, whick took its rise from this 
opposition, had no separate existence until 
1752, when Mr. Thomas Gillespie, minister 
of Carnock, in the presbytery of Dunferm- 
line, was deposed by the General Assembly, 
for refusing to assist at the admission of 
Mr. Andrew Richardson, in the parish of 
Inverkeithing, the parishioners, in general, 
being unwilling to receive him as their 
pastor. 

The Assembly of that year not only ap- 
pointed Mr. Richardson's admission, in 
Inverkeithing, contrary to the wishes of the 
inhabitants, but also required every mem- 
ber of the presbytery to attend and witness 
the execution of the sentence, when Mr. 
Gillespie, and other five ministers, still de- 
clined countenancing that admission ; in 
consequence of .which, he, as the most obsti- 
nate offender, was deposed from the office 
of the ministry, and his kirk declared va- 
cant. 

The manner and despatch with which this 
affair was conducted is truly, as a minister, 
formerly of the Relief, but now in the es- 
tablishment, has observed, ' very remark- 
able ;' for, ' on Monday, the Assembly gave 
out this appointment ; the day fixed for 
ordination was Thursday, at eleven o'clock ; 
every member of the presbytery was sum- 
moned to appear at the Assembly's bar on 
Friday, and Mr. Gillespie, who disobeyed 
the appointment, but obeyed the summons, 
was deposed on Saturday, all in one week!' 

When the presbytery appeared at the bar 
of the Assembly on the Friday, Mr. G. and 
his five brethren confessed that they had 
not obeyed the Assembly's appointment, 
and gave in an humble representation, 
signed by them, and Mr. Stark, of Torrie- 
burn, as a vindication of their conduct, in 
which they stated their scruples, and ob- 
served, that settlements, where there was 
but a small concurrence of the parishioners, 
had already produced a train of the most 



unhappy consequences, greatly affecting the 
interests of religion ; and, if turned into 
the stated and fixed rules of procedure, 
would, in all probability, be attended with 
very fatal effects. As an argument in their 
favour, they likewise remind the Assem- 
bly, that that body had themselves declared, 
in 1736, ' that it is, and has been ever 
since the Reformation, the principle of 
the Church, that no minister shall be in- 
truded into any parish contrary to the will 
of the congregation ; and, therefore, it is 
seriously recommended to all judicatories 
of this Church, to have a due regard to the 
said principle, in planting vacant congrega- 
tions, so as none be intruded into such pa- 
rishes, as they regard the glory of God, and 
the edification of the body of Christ.' 

But this argument, instead of giving the 
desired satisfaction, ' highly displeased the 
Church,' and may be considered as having 
laid a foundation for the erection of the 
Relief Kirk, as a distinct and independent 
society. Though the other five transgres- 
sors were involved in the same offence with 
Mr. G., the Assembly, ' desirous to mix 
mercy and lenity with their judgment,' only 
suspended them from the exercise of their 
office in judicatories : but after the sen- 
tence of deposition was issued against him, 
he still claimed his pastoral relation to the 
people of Carnock ; and, convinced that it 
was still his duty to preach the Gospel, he 
determined not to be silent. When cast 
out of his kirk, he went to the fields, and 
warmly spoke to the people, from these 
words of St. Paul, ' For necessity is laid 
upon me ; yea, woe is unto me, if I preach 
not the Gospel.' (1 Cor. ix. 16.) His 
situation now rendered him more conspicu- 
ous and popular than before ; and a chapel 
was soon built for him in Dunfermline, 
where he continued to preach to a congre- 
gation that was much attached to him, and 
to oppose the law of patronage in the Kirk. 
Nor was it long before he was joined by 
Mr. Thomas Boston, minister of Oxnam, 
who, being refused the presentation, when 
the town-council, kirk-session, and a great 
body of the people in Jedburgh, declared 
in his favour, on a vacancy in their kirk, 
gave in his demission to the presbytery 
of Jedburgh, and undertook the pastoral 
care of that people, in connexion with 
Mr. G. 

Mr. Boston's cause was brought before 
the General Assembly, who declared him 
incapable of receiving a presentation, or 
even of preaching in a parish church ; and 
all its members were prohibited from hold- 
ing ministerial communion with him. Be- 
ing thus excluded from the communion 
of the Kirk, these two gentlemen, and a 
Mr. Collier, originally from Fife, who had 
been for some time officiating among the 
dissenters in England, but was now recalled 
to take charge of a congregation at Colins- 



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burgh, together with some ordained elders, 
constituted themselves into a presbytery 
at this last place, whose inhabitants were 
the first who formerly applied to them for 
relief, hence called ' The Presbytery of 
Relief;' being willing, say they, to afford 
relief from the rigorous execution of the 
act of patronage, to all ' who adhered to the 
constitution of the Church of Scotland, as 
exhibited in her creeds, canons, confessions, 
and forms of worship.' 

Such is the account which is generally 
given of the origin and name of this sect of 
Dissenters from the establishment in Scot- 
land. Others, however, pretend to say, 
that the chief ground of their separation 
was the Armenian tenets, and the moral, or, 
as they call it, the legal preaching of many 
of the established clergy, and that the foun- 
dation of the schism was laid by the late 
Dr. Witherspoon, before he set out from 
this country for America. He, we are 
told, ' collected together as many of the 
popular clergy who had poor livings as he 
could, and told them, that if they would 
leave their churches, without joining the 
Seceders, they would find a powerful assist- 
ance from many of the people. They 
would build them meetings, and their liv- 
ings would be doubled.' Accordingly, many 
left the churches, and had some meetings 
built for them. It was some time before 
they could fix upon what name they should 
assume ; and, therefore, as they were to 
give relief to those people who were plagued 
by the moral preachers, they took upon 
themselves the name of the Presbytery of 
Relief. However, this representation of 
the cause of their dissent, and final separa- 
tion from the establishment, is said by a 
respectable minister of this denomination, 
to be incorrect, if not wholly groundless. 

But whatever may have been the real 
grounds upon which they acted, and the 
true motives by which they were influenced, 
in constituting this denomination, that it 
has actually existed from the time here 
specified cannot be questioned ; and not- 
withstanding the great numbers that have 
gone off from the establishment of late years 
to the New Independents, its members have 
all along been gradually increasing, inso- 
much that they reckon in their communion 
upwards of 70 congregations, and about 
40,000 members. 

In regard to doctrines, worship, church- 
government, and discipline, the members 
of the Relief Kirk differ in little or nothing 
from the establishment. Their presbyte- 
ries require from every new member of 
their own body, as the terms of admission, 
a solemn and public profession of his faith 
in God, his belief of the Scriptures, his ap- 
probation of presbytery, • according to re- 
formation principles, and his adherence 
to the constitution of the Church of Scot- 
land, as exhibited in her creeds, canons. 
869 



confessions, and forms of worship.' This 
profession he solemnly makes to the pres- 
bytery before his people, and promises to 
abide by these, in subjection to his brethren. 
Such hath been their uniform practice, at 
the admission of every new pastor, from the 
date of their separation from the Kirk to 
the present day ; and, consistently with this 
profession, in all deliberations in church 
courts, the established laws of presbytery 
are consulted, and by them their transac- 
tions are regulated. Their Synod, consist- 
ing of all the ministers, and one lay-elder, 
deputed from each congregation, meets for 
two years successively in Edinburgh, and 
every third year in Glasgow, in the month 
of May ; and under it are six presbyteries, 
namely, those of Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. 
Ninians, Dysart, Perth, and Dumfries. 

They have no academies of their own, 
like the Seceders ; but their licentiates, 
or candidates for the ministry, are educated 
under the professors of divinity in the dif- 
ferent Scottish Universities, whose cer- 
tificates they acknowledge. Hence they 
are unwilling to be reckoned Seceders or 
Dissenters ; and yet the members of the 
establishment seem but little disposed to 
own them as brethren; for, by a late act 
of the General Assembly, their ministers 
are excluded from their communion, until 
they have undergone a fresh examination. 

Their views of church-communion are 
not so contracted as those of the Seceders, 
for they permit their members, in the ab- 
sence of their pastor, or when they are 
at a distance from any chapel in their own 
communion, ' to join in any other society 
of sound Presbyterians, where the speaker 
is known to be orthodox, of good report, 
and regularly called to the ministry.' 
Many of their people receive the sacra- 
ment of the Lord's Supper with equal rea- 
diness in the established Kirk as in their 
own, and they admit to communion, not 
only Presbyterians, but Christians of every 
denomination, who, ' as far as they can 
judge, have a competent measure of "know- 
ledge, are sound in the faith, and unblam- 
able in their lives, though not their fol- 
lowers.' 

Mr. Gillespie assured the public, that 
'his views were to hold communion with 
all who appear to hold communion with 
the head our Lord Jesus Christ, and with 
such only ;' and their synod has determined, 
' that it is agreeable to the principles of the 
Presbytery of Relief to hold connuinion with 
visible saints in the Episcopalian and Inde- 
pendent churches.' sldam's Religious World 
Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 223—232; Hurd's 
View of all Religions, p. (>91. 

RELIGION has been defined the love of 
God kindled in our souls, and producing 
obedience to his will. 

All religion supposes and takes for granted 
tlie clear and undoubted principles of na- 



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tural religion. By natural religion is meant 
obedience to the natural law, and the per- 
formance of such duties as natural light, 
without any express and supernatural re- 
velation, dictates to men. Such as, that 
we should believe all God's revelations, de- 
pend on him, implore his aid and assistance 
in all our necessities and distresses, and 
acknowledge our obligations to him for 
all the blessings and benefits which we re- 
ceive ; that we should moderate our appe- 
tites, with respect to the pleasures and 
enjoyments of this world, and use them 
temperately and chastely ; that we should 
be just and upright in all our dealings, 
true to our word, faithful to our trust, and 
act by others as we would they should 
act by us ; that we should be kind and cha- 
ritable, merciful and compassionate, ready 
to do good to all, and not only to pity, 
but relieve, if we can, the miserable and 
necessitous. These and such-like par- 
ticulars are what we call moral duties ; and 
they are of eternal obligation, because they 
naturally oblige men, without any express 
revelation from God. And these great and 
fundamental duties are the foundation of 
revealed and instituted religion; for all reve- 
lation from God supposes us to be men, 
and alters none of those duties to which 
we were before naturally obliged. The 
Scripture constantly speaks of these moral 
or natural duties, as the main and funda- 
mental parts of the Jewish religion. Our 
Saviour told the Jews, that the first and 
great commandment of the law, was to 
love the Lord our God with all our heart, 
and our neighbour as ourselves. Sacri- 
fice, circumcision, and the law of the sab- 
bath, on which the Jews laid great stress, 
he regarded as things very inconsiderable ; 
he mentions only two moral duties, the 
1 love of God, and of our neighbour,' which 
are of a natural and perpetual obligation, 
comprehending all other moral duties. The 
New Testament declares it to be the great de- 
sign of the Gospel to instruct us in those du- 
ties, and engage us to the practice of them. 

Christianity, however, is to be considered 
in a further view, as containing an account 
of a dispensation of things, not at all dis- 
coverable by reason, in consequence of 
which several distinct precepts are enjoined 
us. Christianity is not only an external 
institution of natural religion, and a new 
promulgation of God's general providence, 
as righteous governor and judge of the 
world ; but it contains also a revelation of a 
particular dispensation of Providence, car- 
rying on by his Son and Spirit, for the recovery 
and salvation of mankind, who are repre- 
sented, in Scripture, to be in a state of ruin. 
And in consequence of this revelation being 
made, we are commanded ' to be baptized,' 
not only ' in the name of the Father,' but 
also ' of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost ;' 
and other obligations of duty, unknown 
870 



before, to the Son and the Holy Ghost, are 
revealed. Now the importance of these 
duties may be judged of, by observing, that 
they arise, not from positive command 
merely, but also from the offices which ap- 
pear, from Scripture, to belong to those 
Divine Persons in the Gospel dispensation, 
or from the relations in which, we are there 
informed, they stand to us. By reason is 
revealed the relation in which God the 
Father stands to us. Hence arises the obli- 
gation of duty which we are under to him. In 
Scripture are revealed the relations in which 
the Son and the Holy Spirit stand to us. 
Hence arise the obligations of duty which 
we are under to them. The truth of the case, 
as one may speak, in each of these three 
respects being admitted, that God is the 
governor of the world, on the evidence of 
reason ; that Christ is the Mediator between 
God and man, and the Holy Ghost our 
Guide and Sanctifier, on the evidence of 
revelation ; the truth of the case in each of 
these respects being admitted, it is no more 
a question why it should be commanded 
that we be baptized in the name of the Holy 
Ghost, than that we be baptized in the name 
of the Father. 

Let it be remembered, then, that religion 
comes under the two-fold consideration of 
internal and external ; for the latter is as 
real a part of religion, of true religion, as 
the former. Now, when religion is con- 
sidered under the first notion, as an inward 
principle, to be exerted in such and such 
inward acts of the mind and heart, the es- 
sence of natural religion may be said to 
consist in religious regards to 'God the 
Father Almighty ;' and the essence of re- 
vealed religion, as distinguished from na- 
tural, to consist in religious regards to ' the 
Son,' and to ' the Holy Ghost.' And the 
obligation we are under of paying these re- 
ligious regards to each of these Divine Per- 
sons respectively, arises from the respective 
relations in which they stand to us. The 
manner in which these relations are made 
known, whether by reason or revelation, 
makes no alteration in the case ; because 
the duties arise from the relations them- 
selves, not from the manner in which we are 
informed of them. The Son and the Spirit 
have each his proper office in that great dis- 
pensation of Providence, the redemption of 
the world : the one our Mediator, the other 
our Sanctifier. Does not, then, the duty of 
religious regards to both these Divine Per- 
sons as immediately arise to the view of 
reason, out of the very nature of these of- 
fices and relations, as the inward good-will 
and kind intention, which we owe to our 
fellow- creatures, arise out of the common 
relations between us and them ? But it 
will be asked, ' What are the inward reli- 
gious regards, appearing thus obviously due 
to the Son and the Holy Spirit, as arising, 
not merely from command in Scripture, but 



REL 



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from the very nature of the revealed rela- 
tions in which they stand to us ?' To this 
it is answered, that they are the religious 
regards of reverence, honour, love, trust, 
gratitude, fear, hope. In what external 
manner this inward worship is to be ex- 
pressed, is a matter of pure revealed com- 
mand ; as, perhaps, the external manner in 
which God the Father is to be worshipped, 
may be more so than we are ready to think ; 
but the worship, the internal worship itself, 
to the Son and the Holy Ghost, is no farther 
matter of pure revealed command, than as 
the relations in which they stand to us are 
matter of pure revelation ; for the relations 
being known, the obligations to such inter- 
nal worship are obligations of reason, aris- 
ing out of those relations themselves. In 
short, the history of the Gospel as imme- 
diately shows us the reason of these obli- 
gations, as it shows us the meaning of the 
words, Son and Holy Ghost. Butler's Ana- 
logy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, pp. 
188 — 191 ; Warner's System of Divinity and 
Morality, vol. i. pp. 79 — 81. 

RELLYANISTS, or Rellyan Univer- 
salists, the followers of Mr. James Relly. 
He first commenced his ministerial character 
in connexion with Mr. Whitfield, and was 
received with great popularity : upon a 
change of his views, he encountered re- 
proach, and was pronounced by many as 
an enemy to godliness. He believed that 
Christ as a Mediator was sn united to man- 
kind, that his actions were theirs, his obe- 
dience and sufferings theirs ; and, conse- 
quently, that he has as fully restored the 
whole human race to the divine favour, as 
if all had obeyed and suffered in their own 
persons ; and upon this persuasion he 
preached a finished salvation, called by the 
apostle Jude, • the common salvation.' Many 
of his followers are removed to the world of 
spirits ; but a branch still survives and meets 
at the chapel in Windmill-street, Moorfields, 
London, where there are different, brethren 
who speak. They are not observers of or- 
dinances, such as water-baptism and the sa- 
crament ; professing to believe only in one 
baptism, which they call an immersion of 
the mind or conscience into truth by the 
teaching of the Spirit of God ; and by the 
same Spirit they are enabled to feed on Christ 
as the bread of life, professing that in and 
with Jesus they possess all things. They 
inculcate and maintain good works for ne- 
cessary purposes ; but contend that the 
principal and only works which ought to be 
attended to, is the doing real good without 
religious ostentation ; that to relieve the 
miseries and distresses of mankind accord- 
ing to our ability, is doing more real good 
than the superstitious observances of re- 
ligious ceremonies. In general, they ap- 
pear to believe that there will be a resur- 
rection to life, and a resurrection to con- 
demnation , that believers only will he among 
871 



the former, who, as first fruits, and kings 
and priests, will have part in the first resur- 
rection, and shall reign with Christ in his 
kingdom of the millennium ; that unbe- 
lievers, who are after raised, must wait the 
manifestation of the Saviour of the world, 
under that condemnation of conscience 
which a mind in darkness and wrath must 
necessarily feel ; that believers, called kings 
and priests, will be made the medium of 
communication to their condemned breth- 
ren ; and like Joseph to his brethren, though 
he spoke roughly to them, in reality over- 
flowed with affection and tenderness ; that, 
ultimately, every knee shall bow, and every 
tongue confess, that in the Lord they have 
righteousness and strength ; and thus every 
enemy shall be subdued to the kingdom and 
glory of the great Mediator. A Mr. Mur- 
ray, belonging to this society, emigrated 
to America, and preached these sentiments 
at Boston, and elsewhere. Mr. Relly pub- 
lished several works, the principal of which 
were, ' Union,' ' The Trial of Spirits,' ' Christ- 
ian Liberty,' ' One Baptism,' ' The Salt of 
Sacrifice,' ' Antichrist Resisted,' ' Letters on 
Universal Salvation,' and ' The Cherubimi- 
cal Mystery.' Evans's Sketch of the Denomi- 
nations of the Christian World, pp. 191 — 193; 
Adams's View of Religions, pp. 319 — 329. 

REMONSTRANTS. See Arminians 
and Dort. 

REM'PHAN, ro, psfupa, signifies an 
idol, according to the Septuagint. Amos 
(v. 26.) upbraids the Hebrews with having 
carried, during their wanderings in the 
wilderness, ' the tabernacle of their Moloch 
and Chiun, their images, the star of their 
god, which they made to themselves,' ac- 
cording to our version of the Bible. St. 
Stephen, in the Acts (vii. 43.) quoting this 
passage of Amos, says, ' Ye took up the 
tabernacle of Moloch, and the star of your 
god Remphan,' which has given occasion 
to a variety of conjectures. Grotius thinks 
it to have been some deity, as Rimmon ; 
and Capellus and Hammond take this 
Remphan to be a king of Egypt deified 
by his subjects. A late writer also is of 
opinion, that God here refers to the idola- 
tries, to which, in succeeding ages, the Jews 
were gradually given up, after having begun 
to revolt in the wilderness by the sin of the 
golden calf. He proposes to render the 
passages in Amos and the Acts as follows : 
1 But you set up the — succoths, booths, taber- 
nacles, temporary residences — of your king 
[Moloch] and of that Chiun you set up your 
images : and the star of your divinities 
which ye made — formed— fashioned— had to 
do with — instituted to yourselves.' See 
Chiun. Fragments annexed to Cahnet's Dic- 
tionary of the Holy Bible, No. cexiii. p. 52. 

RENOVATION, a reformation of life. 
Renovation is not to be confounded with 
regeneration. We can be born anew only 
once, because we can Live onh once in this 



REN 



REN 



present world ; but we can rise and recover 
often, we can grow, and be nourished often 
with spiritual food, because we can fall often, 
and offend often. (Prov. xxiv. 16.) This 
distinction is expressly noticed in the New 
Testament : ' We are saved by the washing 
[or baptism] of regeneration, and by the 
renovation of the Holy Spirit.' (Titus iii. 
5.) We are exhorted, as Christians, after 
admission into the church, or regeneration, 
' to present our bodies a living sacrifice, 
holy, acceptable to God, which is our rea- 
sonable service : not to be conformed to this 
world, but to be transformed by the renew- 
ing of our mind, to prove what is the good, 
and acceptable, and perfect will of God.' 
(Rom. xii. 1, 2.) Agreeably to this, the 
Church of England, in her liturgy, directs 
us to pray, ' that we being regenerate, and 
made God's children by adoption and grace, 
may daily be renewed by his Holy Spirit.' 
This necessity of renovation after regenera- 
tion, results from the fleshly part of man's 
nature. ' Christ, indeed, in tbe truth of 
our nature, was made like unto us in all 
things, sin only except ; from which he was 
clearly void, both in his flesh, and in his 
Spirit.' — ' But all we the rest, although bap- 
tized, and born again in Christ, yet offend 
in many things.' — ' And this infection of 
nature doth remain, yea in them that are 
regenerated ; whereby the lust of the flesh, 
always contrary to the Spirit, (Rom. viii. 6, 
7-) is not subject to the law of God.' 

Thus does the cautious wisdom of our 
Church, in both her liturgy and articles, 
guard against two dangerous errors of en- 
thusiasm: 1. that regeneration is a sinless 
state of perfection ; and 2. that the work of 
conversion, or renovation, is instantaneous, 
produced by some sudden impulse of the 
Holy Spirit on the mind, and sensible or 
perceptible by the individual himself, at 
some particular time and place. 

Nothing can be more express, than the 
whole tenor of Scripture, against the pre- 
sumptuous doctrine of sinless perfection, so 
contrary to our just sense of the present 
imperfection of human nature, even in its 
most improved state. 

When, therefore, we meet with such 
counter-declarations in Scripture, as that, 
1 Noah was perfect in his generation,' (Gen. 
vi. 9.) ; that ' David followed God with all his 
heart, to do only what was right in his eyes,' 
(1 Kings xiv. 8.) ; that ' Zacharias and his 
wife Elisabeth were both righteous before 
God, walking in all the commandments and 
ordinances of the Lord blameless,' (Luke 
i. 6, &c.) ; such declarations must be under- 
stood in a qualified sense, as if those persons 
were comparatively, though not absolutely, 
perfect or blameless in their generation. 

When it is said, ' Every one that is born 

of God committeth not sin, because his 

seed remaineth in him , and he cannot sin, 

because he is born of God,' (1 John iii. 9.) 

872 



if we suppose the apostle to write consist- 
ently with his former declaration, he must 
mean, that whosoever is born of God, by spi- 
ritual regeneration at baptism, neither doth 
nor can live in the allowed commission of sin ; 
that he cannot sin, with allowance, continu- 
ance, and satisfaction to himself. For, as Dr. 
Doddridge justly observes, ' unless the words 
be understood in a qualified sense, they 
would prove not only the sinless perfection 
of every regenerate person, but the impos- 
sibility of his sinning any more; contrary to 
reason, Scripture, and experience.' — ' The 
perfect Christian, according to the repre- 
sentation of Holy Writ, is he, who, as far as 
the infirmity of his nature will admit, as- 
pires to universal holiness of life ; uniformly 
and habitually endeavouring to stand per- 
fect and complete in all the will of God, and 
to fulfil all righteousness, in humble imita- 
tion of his Redeemer ; who daily and fer- 
vently prays for increase of faith, like the 
apostles themselves, and strenuously labours 
to add to his faith virtue, and to virtue 
knowledge, and to knowledge temperance, 
and to temperance godliness, and to godli- 
ness brotherly kindness, and to brotherly 
kindness charity. Such is the assemblage 
of virtues necessary to constitute the cha- 
racter of the perfect Christian ; ever aiming 
at, though never attaining to, absolute or 
sinless perfection, in this present state of 
trial, probation, and preparation for a bet- 
ter ; and meekly resting all his hopes of fa- 
vour and acceptance with God, not on his 
own defective or imperfect righteousness, 
but on the free grace of God, through the 
redemption that is in Christ Jesus ; for by 
grace we are saved through faith ; and this, 
not of ourselves, " it is the gift of God ; not 
of works, lest any one should boast." ' 

The gradual growth of the spiritual life 
in the regenerate, as well as its impercepti- 
bility by the individual himself, is most 
happily illustrated in the following parable 
of our Lord : ' So is the [preparation for 
the] kingdom of heaven, as if a man should 
cast seed into the ground ; and though he 
sleep by night and rise by day, [following 
his ordinary occupation] yet the seed should 
spring, and grow up, himself knoweth not 
how. For the ground spontaneously bear- 
eth fruit ; first the blade, then the ear, then 
the full corn in the ear. But when the 
fruit [or grain] is produced, immediately he 
sendeth the [reapers] sickle, because the 
harvest is ready.' (Mark iv. 26—29.) In 
this beautiful agricultural imagery, the seed 
of grace and holiness is sown in the heart at 
baptism, by the Holy Spirit ; it vegetates 
and grows imperceptibly, the man himself 
knows not how, he being utterly uncon- 
scious of the way of the Spirit, or his mode 
of operation, and can only judge by the 
fruits, or by his spiritual improvement, till 
the harvest or general resurrection. But 
though the regenerate be utterly uncon- 



REP 



REP 



scious of the manner of his spiritual growth, 
he is not to be idle or inactive, as if the 
Holy Spirit was to do every thing, and him- 
self nothing. ' Giving all diligence, he must 
add to his faith virtue,' or morality, and all 
the Christian graces noticed as requisite to 
attain • a Divine nature,' (2 Pet. i. 4 — 8.) ; 
he must ' work out his own salvation with 
fear and trembling,' mindful of his own in- 
ability and insufficiency, without the Divine 
aid, and humbly acknowledging, that ' it is 
God that worketh in us, by his Spirit, both 
to will and do, what is right, of his own good 
pleasure.' (Phil. ii. 12, 13.) See Conver- 
sion and Regeneration. Hales's New 
dialysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book ii. pp. 
978-983. 

REPENTANCE signifies a sincere sor- 
row for all past transgressions of God's 
laws, an unfeigned disposition of mind to 
perforin the will of God better for the future, 
and an actual avoiding and resisting of those 
temptations to sin by which we have been 
overpowered. All are sufficiently willing 
to admit that repentance does suppose and 
imply sorrow for sin ; because a little sor- 
row, a short-lived passion, will not cost 
much pains and trouble. With this part of 
repentance the weak side of human nature 
is most pleased; but then, there must be 
also a change of disposition within. St. 
Paul does not reckon sorrow a part of re- 
pentance, but repentance an effect of sor- 
row. • Godly sorrow (of which I am speak- 
ing) worketh repentance to salvation not to 
be repented of;' that is, such a disposition 
of mind, as manifestly shows what it pro- 
duceth. If we are truly sorrowful, and 
heartily concerned, for having offended God, 
this will certainly be accompanied with a 
sincere disposition to please him, and obey 
his will for the future. No sorrow can be 
sincere without this. But this sorrow and 
change of mind, if real, will unavoidably 
produce in us a contrary behaviour to what 
caused this sorrow. Unless this is the effect 
of it, it will only tend to increase the con- 
demnation of those who pretend to it. For 
St. Paul's words properly signify a re- 
pentance, that supposes such a conduct 
and behaviour, of which there is no reason 
to repent. The truth of this we are ready 
enough to admit, when it concerns our- 
selves. We only judge of other persons' 
sincerity towards us, by their outward ac- 
tions and behaviour. We never take the 
professions of others to be the true repre- 
sentation of their inward affection for us, 
unless we see the effects and fruits of it in 
a suitable conduct. How then can we think 
ourselves sincere in our sorrow and inward 
repentance towards God, when we show it 
not in our lives and conversation? A good 
tree is known by its fruit. This is that re- 
pentance, which can alone avail any pro- 
fessed Christian. 

Hence we may learn not to place any 
873 



hopes in what is called a death-bed repent- 
ance. For this repentance, extorted from 
us by the prospect of death, is perhaps only 
a sorrow occasioned by our present fears ; 
which is no more than the first step to re- 
pentance, but is not complete in all its 
parts. It is true, these are favourable signs ; 
but it is to be declared that sorrow and 
good words, are not the end of the Gospel 
institution, but an holy life and conversa- 
tion. 

It is a fatal mistake to think that confes- 
sion and sorrow will entitle us to pardon, 
unless they be attended with resolutions of 
future obedience through the grace of God, 
and unless those good resolutions be car- 
ried into practice. All the instruments of 
humiliation are no otherwise pleasing to the 
Deity, than as they lead us to amendment. 
A Being of infinite goodness and mercy 
can feel no delight in the sorrow and misery 
of his creatures ; and he never inflicts misery 
on them, but for the sake of producing to 
them some greater good and happiness. 
Hence amendment is the chief thing, the 
most essential part of duty ; it is the end to 
which all acts of humiliation are intended 
to lead the offender. Let it, however, be 
observed, that repentance, like every other 
grace, is the gift of God. In the words of 
our Church, we are taught to ' beseech him 
to grant us true repentance and his Holy 
Spirit.' ' The virtue of repentance in the 
heart of man,' says Hooker, 'is God's handy- 
work, a fruit or effect of Divine grace, which 
grace continually offereth itself even unto 
them that have forsaken it, as may appear 
by the words of Christ in St. John's Reve- 
lation, — • I stand at the door and knock ;* 
nor doth he only knock without, but also 
within assist to open, whereby access and 
entrance are given to the heavenly pre- 
sence of that saving Power, which maketh 
man a repaired temple for God's good Spi- 
rit again to inhabit' 

The great danger and folly of deferring 
repentance from day to day ; of hazarding 
an immortal soul and the great concerns of 
eternity on a distant moment which is not 
at our disposal, is evident from many consi- 
derations. The shortness and uncertainty 
of human life are placed by the inspired 
writers in a striking point of view, and re- 
presented by a variety of strong and beau- 
tiful images. If a sinner propose to enjoy 
his pleasures for some years to come, and 
then to repent and be saved, can he be sur- 
prised if he were to receive a sudden mes- 
sage from the Author of his being ; ' Thou 
fool, this night, or this very instant, thy 
soul shall be required of thee?' If we re- 
fuse to bumble ourselves immediately be- 
fore our offended Sovereign, the act of in- 
demnity may, for aught we know, suddenly 

expire, and we be punwhed, as we justly 
deserve, for rebelling against bis authority. 

II we sin that grace may abound, it would 



REP 



REP 



be no wonder if he were to cut us off in the 
midst of our days, and hurry us into the 
other world, when we are ill prepared for 
so hasty a removal. Every moment of hu- 
man life is due to the great Author and 
Giver of it ; and, therefore, every moment 
which is employed in such a manner as a 
reasonable and religious creature cannot 
account for, is so much time misemployed, 
and contrary to the design of the Almighty 
in bringing us into existence. When we 
have unhappily sinned, and there is not a 
man on earth who sinneth not, bow good 
and gracious is God to pardon our sins, and 
to receive us again into favour, on our re- 
pentance and amendment ! 

' Confession is the first, the proper, tbe 
natural language of repentance. In this 
manner Job confessed, when God, appear- 
ing to him with Divine glory, discovered to 
him the corruption of his heart, and the 
guiltiness of his life. " I have heard of thee 
by the hearing of the ear, but now mine eye 
seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and 
repent in dust and ashes." In the same 
manner David also confessed : " I acknow- 
ledge my transgression, and my sin is ever 
before me." Thus also Nehemiah and his 
companions, the captives who had returned 
from Babylon, spent one fourth part of the 
day of their public humiliation in confessing 
their sins ; and they said, " Thou art just in 
all that is brought upon us : for thou art 
right ; but we have done wickedly." Thus 
the Lamentations of Jeremiah are exten- 
sively occupied in this employment. Thus 
Daniel in strong terms declared to God the 
sins of himself and his people. Thus, finally, 
have all sincere penitents done in every age 
and in every country. The heart, in the 
clear view of its sins, in the strong appre- 
hension of the wrongs which it has done to 
God and to mankind, is full and overflows ; 
and out of its abundance the mouth is com- 
pelled to " speak." Besides, confession is 
the first attempt towards making amends 
for the injury ; and the penitent is ready to 
adopt every measure, which may in his view 
contribute to the accomplishment of an end 
believed to be so important, and relished as 
desirable.' Dwighfs Theology, vol. iii. p. 
89 ; Richardson's Divine and Moral Essays, 
pp. 177 — 181 ; Warner's System of Divinity 
and Morality, vol. i. pp. 425 — 427. 

REPH'AIM, a s N3"), signifies giants ; 
otherwise, physic, or relaxatives. They 
were ancient giants of Canaan. There 
were several families of them in that coun- 
try. It is commonly thought, they were 
descended from one called Rephah, or 
Rapha ; but others imagine that the word 
Rephaim properly signified giants, in the 
ancient language of that people. There 
were Rephaim beyond Jordan, at Ashteroth 
Karnaim, in the time of Abraham ; (Gen. 
xiv. 5.) and some of them in the time of 
Moses. Og king of Bashan was of the pos- 
874 



terity of the Rephaim. In the time of 
Joshua there were some of their descend- 
ants in the land of Canaan. (Josh. xii. 4. ; 
xvii. 15.) Lastly, we hear of them in 
David's time, in the city of Gath. (1 Chron. 
xx. 4, 5, 6.) The giants Goliath, Sippai, 
Lahmi, and others, were remains of the 
Rephaim. Their magnitude and strength 
are well known in Scripture. See Giant. 

The valley of the Rephaim, or giants, was 
famous in Joshua's time, and also in that of 
David. (Josh. xv. 8. ; xviii. 16. 2 Sam. v. 
18. 22. 1 Chron. xi. 15. ; xiv. 9.) It is 
mentioned likewise by Isaiah, (xvii. 5.) 
It is also called in Greek, the valley of the 
Titans ; and in our translation and the Vul- 
gate, the valley of the giants. (2 Sam. xxiii. 
13.) Joshua places the valley of Rephaim 
as one limit of the portion of Judah. It 
was near Jerusalem, and it may be doubted 
whether it belonged to Judah or to Ben- 
jamin, because of the proximity of these 
two tribes. Eusebius places it in Benjamin ; 
but Joshua, (xviii. 16.) and those passages 
of the books of Samuel where it is men- 
tioned, hint that it belonged to Judah, and 
was south or west of Jerusalem. 

REPH'IDIM, on-m, signifies couches, or 
beds ; otherwise, the letting go of the hand, or 
medicine of the hands. Rephidim was a sta- 
tion or encampment of the Israelites in the 
desert. (Exod. xvii. 1.) Departing from 
the wilderness of Sin, they came to Rephi- 
dim, where the people wanted water ; they 
began therefore to murmur against Moses, 
saying, Why have you brought us out of 
Egypt, to kill us with thirst in this desert ? 
Moses then cried to the Lord, and God re- 
turned him this answer : Take the people 
to the rock of Horeb, with the elders ; I 
shall be there on the rock before you ; you 
shall strike it with your rod, and water shall 
gush out, that the people may drink. This 
Moses did. The place was called Tempta- 
tion, because of the complaints of Israel, 
who there tempted the Lord, saying, Is the 
Lord among us or not ? 

Rephidim was not far from Horeb, be- 
cause God ordered Moses to go from thence 
to the rock of Horeb, to give the people 
water. Dr. Shaw gives the following infor- 
mation respecting it : ' After we had de- 
scended, with no small difficulty, down the 
western side of this mountain, we came into 
the other plain that is formed by it, which is 
Rephidim. Here we still see that extra- 
ordinary antiquity, the rock of Meribah, 
which hath continued down to this day, 
without the least injury from time or acci- 
dents. It is a block of granite marble, 
about six yards square, lying tottering as it 
were and loose in the middle of the valley, 
and seems to have formerly belonged to 
Mount Sinai, which hangs in a variety of 
precipices, all over this plain.' It is thus 
described by Pococke : ' This rock is on 
the foot of Mount Serich, and is a red 



REP 



RES 



granite stone, fifteen feet long, ten wide, 
and about twelve high. On both sides of 
it, towards the south end, and at the top of 
the stone, for about the breadth of eight 
inches, it is discoloured, as if by the running 
of water ; and all down this part, on both 
sides, and at top, are a sort of openings, 
or mouths, some of which resemble the lion's 
mouth, that is sometimes cut in stone spouts, 
but appears not to be the work of a tool. 
There are about twelve on each side, and 
within every one is a horizontal crack, and 
in some also a crack down perpendicularly. 
There is also a crack from one of the mouths 
next the hill, that extends two or three feet 
to the north, and all round the south end. 
The Arabs call this the stone of Moses.' 
Pocccke's Travels, p. 1 48 ; Sacred Geography, 
Geographical Excursio?2S, p. 73. 

REPROBATION is equivalent to rejec- 
tion. Rejection, says a late writer, always 
implies a cause : ' reprobate silver shall 
men call them, inasmuch as the Lord 
hath rejected them, (Jerem. vi. 30.) ; that 
is, they are base metal, counterfeit coin. 
Where all are equally unworthy, if some be 
preferred to honour, the rest may be said, 
in a sense, to be reprobated, that is, left 
where they were ; their condition is not 
worse, but it is not improved. Yet those 
only can be said to be rejected, who have 
been offered, either by themselves or by 
others. God never rejects any who offer 
themselves ; but those who by continuing in 
sin reject the offered mercy of God, repro- 
bate themselves : they say unto God, ■ De- 
part from us, for we desire not the know- 
ledge of thy ways.' 

REPROOF, blame or reprehension spo- 
ken to a person's face. Just reproof sup- 
poses not only that what we reprove is not 
an ideal supposition, but an actual cer- 
tainty ; not only that it is, or has happened, 
but that it justly and morally deserves re- 
proof. Hence what we reprove ought to 
be morally and unequivocally an object of 
blame ; for, to reprove on account of things 
which are indifferent, or which, being neither 
good nor evil, are neither objects of praise 
nor blame, shows not only a want of discre- 
tion, but the presence of a censorious and 
malevolent disposition. Hence we ought 
always to observe the utmost moderation in 
our invectives and reproaches ; and rather 
blame less than we ought, than more than 
we ought; rather pass over some trivial 
neglects, or venial offences which deserve 
blame, than reprove men for those things 
for which no reproof is due. 

Though reproof may be deserved at one 
time as much as at another, yet there are 
times when it may be more patiently heard 
than at others ; and, consequently, it be- 
hoves us to watch and to embrace the fittest 
season for applying it. To what purpose is 
it to utter remonstrances, to make objec- 
tions, or express reproaches, to which men 
875 



will not attend, which strike only upon the 
ear like the hoarse murmurs of the tempest, 
without producing any wholesome conviction 
in the mind, or an useful persuasion in the 
heart ? To reprove a man for any parti- 
cular act, when he is under the influence of 
any violent emotion, is only to increase his 
rage. There are hours, when even the 
most unpalatable truths may gain admission, 
not only to men's ears, but to their hearts. 
These hours it behoves those diligently to 
watch and instantly to seize, who are stu- 
dious to reform the vices, or abolish the 
prejudices, of their fellow-creatures. The 
best intended reproof will fail of its effect 
unless it be well timed ; and, as the end of 
reproof is the correction of the individual, 
we ought to be careful that it be not con- 
veyed in harsh and offensive terms, such as 
provoke rather than convince, and exas- 
perate rather than persuade. ' A soft 
answer,' said the wise man, ' turneth away 
wrath ;' and certainly that rebuke which is 
mild and affectionate is most likely to effect 
the reformation of the individual. Even 
when we rebuke the most obstinate offend- 
ers, though our language may mark our 
abhorrence of the vice, we ought not to 
discard all fellow-feeling for the person ; 
for, the difference between the best men 
and the worst can never be so great as to 
exclude the feeling of compassion, justify 
the expression of contempt, or smother the 
sense of our common imperfections. Fel- 
lowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 396 — 
398. 

RESENTMENT is a sense of injury 
associated with a desire to retaliate it. 
This desire, in the first instance, is merely 
physical, and lasts no longer than the sen- 
sation of pain which produced it. Every 
sensation of pain, particularly when con- 
sidered as caused by a being willing, or 
capable of willing, to produce it, seems in- 
stinctively to cause not only a desire to get 
rid of the pain itself, but, in some measure, 
to transfer it to the author. The feeling of 
resentment is necessary, in many cases, to 
quicken the energies of resistance, and in- 
vigorate the self-preserving power. The 
passion, therefore, itself, though like other 
passions liable to be abused and perverted 
to ends very different from that for which 
it was bestowed, must be regarded in man, 
as in other animals, as a provision made by 
nature for our defence. It is, therefore, to 
be regarded as a preventive of evil ; and 
practically it ought never to be exerted, 
except with a view of producing good or 
counteracting evil. 

Though the feeling of resentment ope- 
rates to the prevention or the redress of 
evil, yet it must always be regarded as a 
painful remedy, to which DO benevolent 
being will have recourse, except for the 

Bake of producing some greater good, or 
some pleasure, which more than counter- 



RES 



RES 



balances the pain. The practice of revenge, 
if it be ever justifiable, can be so only when 
it is followed not for its own sake, or for 
any pleasure to be derived to the individual, 
from inflicting pain on one who has inflicted 
pain on him, but for the sake of some good 
to be derived to society from punishing 
offenders against those rules of conduct, the 
observance of which constitutes its security 
and happiness. 

The object of resentment is to cause pain, 
and the end of it is to counteract misery. 
Revenge thus differs from other particular 
passions and affections, that in the exertion 
of it not the object, but only the end, is to 
be considered. It is vicious to delight in 
giving pain ; but surely benevolence itself 
may be employed in averting evil either 
from others or ourselves. And as our 
nature must be considered as a whole made 
up of many parts, the feeling of resentment 
can be morally justified, only so far as it is 
kept subordinate to that general feeling of 
benevolence, which religion inspires, and 
which no other passion ought to be suffered 
to suppress. When resentment has not set- 
tled into rancour, it is not so incompatible 
with the feeling of benevolence, as may, at 
first sight, be imagined. A man may, in 
some measure, resent the improper conduct 
of his friends, or even his children ; and 
yet, at the same time, entertain the most 
affectionate concern for their welfare. 

Our good will to others is susceptible of 
various gradations, and, though our enemy 
may not enjoy a very high share of it, yet as 
a sentient being, capable of pleasure or 
pain, of happiness or misery, there always 
will be a share to which he is entitled ; and 
of which nothing can justify the deprivation, 
whatever may have been the enormities of 
his conduct or the bitterness of his hostility. 
We are all, in some measure, members one 
of another ; or we are parts of one great 
whole, connected by a multitude of sym- 
pathies and interests ; and the Scripture 
presses this consideration upon us in order 
to teach us that we ought to feel a repug- 
nance to inflict pain on others, as we do to 
inflict it on ourselves. But as, notwith- 
standing the reluctance of sensitive incli- 
nation, we often inflict various pains on 
ourselves, and even submit to the amputa- 
tion of our limbs and other grievous suffer- 
ings and privations, for the sake of some 
important benefit, so we ought never to 
inflict pain on any of our fellow-creatures, 
unless for the sake of promoting their 
greater good, or the good of the society of 
which they are one of the constituent parts. 
Fellowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. 205 — 210. 
RESURRECTION. There are many 
passages in the Old Testament which either 
obscurely hint at the resurrection, or imme- 
diately refer to it, (Job. xix. 23—27. Dan. 
xii. 2. Isai. xxv. 8. ; xxvi. 19. Hos. vi. 
2.; xiii. 14. Ezek. xxxvii. 1—14.); but 
876 



they are by no means such as produced a 
firm belief in the doctrine among the Jews. 
The doctrine of the Resurrection of the 
dead is, however, one of the great articles of 
the Christian faith. We believe that Jesus 
died and rose again ; we also believe, for so 
we are taught in the New Testament, that 
* them which sleep in Jesus will God bring 
with him,' that ' Christ by his rising became 
the first fruits of them that slept,' that ' the 
dead shall be raised incorruptible,' that 
' the grave and the sea shall give up their 
dead,' that, at this resurrection, * the dead in 
Christ shall rise first,' the Lord Jesus 
Christ will change our vile body, and fashion 
it like unto his glorious body, according to 
the working of that mighty power whereby 
he is able to subdue all things to himself.' 
(1 Thess. iv. 14. 16. 1 Cor. xv. 20—52. 
Rev. xx. 13. Philip, iii. 21.) 

From history we learn not merely that 
the body of Lazarus was reanimated after it 
had been interred four days, and that of 
Jesus Christ after it had lain in the grave 
part of three days ; but farther, that ' after 
his resurrection, many bodies of the saints 
which slept arose from their graves,' which 
had been thrown open by the earthquake at 
his crucifixion, ' and went into the holy city, 
and appeared unto many,' (Matt, xxvii. 52, 
53.) thus attesting the truth of his" resurrec- 
tion, and declaring their own rescue from 
the grave (in which some of them had long 
lain) by virtue of his power over death and 
corruption. So that to deny the pos- 
sibility of the resurrection, is to deny the 
truth of several matters of fact, all at least 
as well attested as any other facts in history ; 
and that in contradiction to some very ob- 
vious modes of reasoning, and some striking 
analogies. 

The restoring to life a body deprived of 
motion, animation, and sensation, is not 
beyond the power of God ; since the com- 
munication of any qualities to an organized 
body, or body capable of organization, which 
it had lost, cannot be imagined to require a 
greater exertion of power than the original 
creation of such body with certain appro- 
priate attributes. Indeed, cases occur 
almost daily in which human efforts lead 
to a change to all appearance as great as 
the deliverance of a dead man from the 
silence and inactivity of the grave. I 
allude to fainting-fits, and instances of sus- 
pended animation by drowning. In these 
the subject is often for a considerable time 
so completely void of motion, feeling, and, 
as it would seem, of life, that no one, who 
had never previously witnessed or heard of 
a similar suspension, could avoid concluding 
that it would be final and eternal. There 
is, it is true, a difference in the durations of 
lifelessness in the cases of swooning and 
apparent drowning, and of real death ; but 
that is more than compensated in the dif- 
ference of power and skill in the respective 



RES 



RES 



agents of restoration. Nearly allied to 
these are the examples of peculiar trans- 
formations undergone by various insects, 
and the state of rest and insensibility which 
precede those transformations. 

' That which thou sowest (says the apostle 
to the Corinthians) is not quickened except 
it die.' (1 Cor. xv. 37.) Seed maybe sown, 
but unless it lose its external configuration, 
and appear corrupted, no future vegetable 
will spring from it. The little infinitesimal 
or germen, which is to spring forth into 
new life, is fed by the death and corrup- 
tion of the rest ; a fact well known not only 
to scientific botanists, but to almost every 
gardener and husbandman. So that those, 
who deny the propriety and correctness of 
the analogy traced by the apostle, are as 
little supported by truth and nature as the 
Corinthian freethinkers, whose objection he 
thus philosophically refuted. The apparent 
corruption which a grain when deposited in 
the earth undergoes, may be considered as 
the casting of exuviae, whose removal and 
decay are necessary to the dawnings of 
latent life ; and thus, in like manner, may 
the future body be ripening through the 
mysterious process of dissolution, till the 
day of the general resurrection, when it 
shall come forth a glorious body, fitted for 
new union with the soul from which it had 
been separated, and so formed as thence- 
forward to endure for ever. The principal 
difference in the two cases relates to fre- 
quency of occurrence : the process of vege- 
tation from a corrupted grain is observed 
annually ; while the deliverance of a body 
from corruption in the grave will occur but 
once. Yet this ought rather to stimulate 
our hopes than to generate scepticism : the 
contrast between the sterility and death- 
like appearance of the vegetable world in 
the winter, and the gladsome verdure, 
vigour, and variety of spring, when God 
' renews the face of the earth,' (Psalm civ. 
30.) is admirably fitted to teach us what the 
Creator and Governor of the universe can 
effect, to convince us that he can ' loosen 
the bands of death,' as easily as he can 
educe vegetation from corruption, and, in 
conjunction with the promises of the Gospel, 
to excite a lively and rapturous anticipation 
of that delightful period, when ' one un- 
bounded spring' shall 'encircle all.' 

Objectors, however, have advanced still 
farther, and urge that after death the body 
may not merely become insensible, inactive, 
and undergo corruption, but, farther, may 
experience dispersion of particles and union 
with other bodies. Thus the body of a 
dead man may be burnt, its ashes scattered 
in the air, blown about by the wind, or ex- 
haled into the atmosphere, or, after it is re- 
solved into earthy or humid matter, it may 
be taken up by the vessels which supply 
plants with nutriment, and at length become 
constituent parts of the substance of those 
877 



plants. How can particles thus dispersed 
over half the earth, or thus intimately com- 
bined with other bodies, be recalled from 
their state of dispersion, or separated from 
the bodies of which they have subsequently 
formed constituent parts and re-united so 
as to form one body ? Here again we may 
deprive the objection of all force, by con- 
templating processes of daily occurrence. 
Chemists can intermix several liquids, of 
essentially different kinds, in such manner, 
that the smallest sensible particle of the re- 
sulting liquid shall partake of all the con- 
stituent liquids ; and then they can, by ana- 
lysis, separate the compound substance into 
all the simple liquids of which it was com- 
posed. They can detect, separate, and mea- 
sure, the several simple substances of which 
a certain compound natural mass shall be 
formed. Does the collecting together of 
the scattered particles of dead bodies, or the 
separation of them from other bodies with 
which they may have become combined, re- 
quire skill or energy so much greater than 
the operations of art to which I have just 
been adverting, that we must pronounce 
them too difficult for the Creator of the 
world to perform? Is his knowledge so 
circumscribed that he cannot tell what be- 
comes of every particle of every body he 
has created ? Or cannot matchless know- 
ledge, and unlimited power, know and ac- 
complish all things required by infinite 
wisdom, or promised by boundless love, as 
easily and successfully as a chemist can 
ascertain or separate the various substances 
in a compound mass ? 

Again it is said, ■ of men drowned in the 
sea, the bodies may be eaten by fishes, and 
they again by other men ; or, among canni- 
bals, men feast upon the flesh of men ; in 
such cases, where one man's body may be 
converted into part of the substance of an- 
other man's body, and so on, how shall each 
at the resurrection recover his own peculiar 
body V To this Dr. Calamy replies, ' that 
the body of man does not always continue 
in the same state, or consist of the same 
matter ; but is perpetually spending and re- 
newing itself, every day losing and gaining 
new matter. This is undeniably certain 
from experience. For so much as our bo- 
dies grow, so much new matter is added to 
them, over and besides the repairing of 
what is continually spent. And after a man 
comes to his full growth, he usually wastes 
and carries off, by insensible perspiration, 
every day, in the proportion of five parts to 
eight of what he eats and drinks. So that 
every man must change his body several 
times in a year. Indeed, the bones do not 
change so often as the fluid and fleshly parts 
of the body ; but they also change, because 
they grow ; for whatever grows, is nourished 
and spends, or otherwise it would not want 
repair. If the matter of a man's body, which 
he had at any time of his life, be raised, it 



RES 



RES 



is as much his own, and the same body, as 
that which he had at his death, and gene- 
rally much more perfect. Besides, it is a 
very small and inconsiderable part of what 
is eaten and descends into the stomach, that 
turns into nourishment ; the far greater 
quantity going off by excretions and perspi- 
rations. Or if it did not, to what a vast, 
monstrous bulk should we grow in a few 
years! So that was the body of a man 
eaten by cannibals, very little of it would 
pass into the substance of their bodies. Or, 
was it more, there cannot be so much as is 
before gone from the same man's body. If 
a man lives thirty or forty years, his body 
hath undergone many new repairs in that 
time, and yet in the sense of all mankind, 
it is the same body. Suppose a corpulent 
man to fall into a gradual consumption, 
must this man at the resurrection have no 
more of his body than he had, when at the 
hour of his death ? Would it not then be 
the same body, if made up of the parts it 
had at the beginning of his consumption ? 
If it be, then, the same holds as to other 
times of his life. And consequently this 
objection of cannibals devouring men, is 
of no force to destroy the possibility of the 
resurrection.' 

The great Head of the Church hath as- 
sured us, that ' the hour is coming in which 
all that are in their graves shall hear his 
voice, and come forth; they that have done 
good, unto the resurrection of life, and they that 
have done evil, unto the resurrection of dam- 
nation.'' At that great and solemn event, 
when we shall ' all be changed, in a mo- 
ment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last 
trump,' ' the dead shall be raised incorrup- 
tible ;' and it is probable, that the bodies of 
the righteous and the wicked, though each 
shall in some respects be the same as before, 
will each be in some respects not the same, 
each undergoing some change conforma- 
ble to the character of the individual, and 
suited to his future state of existence ; but 
both, as the passage just quoted clearly 
teaches, are then rendered indestructible. 
Respecting the good it is said, ' When 
Christ, who is our life, shall appear, we shall 
appear with him in glory,' ' we shall be like 
him, our body shall be fashioned like his 
glorious body,' (Col. iii. 4. 1 John iii. 2. 
Phil. iii. 21.) ; yet, notwithstanding this, 'it 
doth not yet fully appear what we shall be.' 
This is for a very obvious reason. Our pre- 
sent manner of knowing depends upon our 
present constitution, and we know not the 
exact relation which subsists between this 
constitution and the manner of being in a 
future world ; we derive our ideas through 
the medium of the senses ; the senses are 
necessarily conversant with terrestrial ob- 
jects only ; our language is suited to the 
communication of present ideas ; and thus 
it follows that the objects of the future world 
may in some respects (whether few or many 
878 



we cannot say) differ so extremely from ter- 
restrial objects, that language cannot com- 
municate to us any such ideas as would 
render those matters comprehensible. But 
language may suggest striking and pleasing 
analogies ; and with such we are presented 
by the philosophic apostle. ' All flesh (says 
he) is not the same flesh ; but there is one 
flesh of men, another of beasts, another of 
fishes, and another of birds ;' and yet all 
these are fashioned out of the same kind of 
substance, mere inert matter till God gives 
it life and activity. It is sown an animal 
body ; a body which previously existed with 
all the organs, faculties, and propensities, 
requisite to procure, receive, and appro- 
priate nutriment, as well as to perpetuate 
the species ; but it shall be raised a spiritual 
body, refined from the dregs of matter, freed 
from the organs and senses required only in 
its former state, and probably possessing 
the remaining senses in greater perfection, 
together with new and more exquisite fa- 
culties, fitted for the exalted state of exist- 
ence and enjoyment to which it is now 
rising. In the present state the organs and 
senses appointed to transmit the impres- 
sions of objects to the mind, have a mani- 
fest relation to the respective objects ; the 
eye and seeing, for example, to light ; the 
ear and hearing, to sound. In the refined 
and glorious state of existence to which good 
men are tending, where the objects which 
solicit attention will be infinitely more nu- 
merous, interesting, and delightful, may not 
the new organs, faculties, and senses, be 
proportionally refined, acute, susceptible, 
or penetrating ? Human industry and in- 
vention have placed us, in a manner, in new 
worlds ; what, then, may not a spiritual body, 
with sharpened faculties, and the grandest 
possible objects of contemplation, effect in 
the celestial regions to which Christians are 
invited ? There the senses will no longer 
degrade the affections, the imagination no 
longer corrupt the heart, the magnificent 
scenery thrown open to view will animate 
the attention, give a glow and vigour to the 
sentiments ; that roused attention will never 
tire, those glowing sentiments will never 
cloy ; but the man, now constituted of an 
indestructible body, as well as of an immor- 
tal soul, may visit in eternal succession ' the 
streets of the celestial city,' may ■ drink of 
the pure river of the water of life, clear as 
crystal, proceeding out of the throne of God, 
and of the Lamb ;' and dwell for ever in 
those abodes of harmony and peace, which, 
though ' eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, 
nor has it entered into the imagination of 
man to conceive,' we are assured ' God hath 
prepared for them that love him.' (1 Cor. 
ii. 9.) Dr. Olinthus Gregory's Letters on the 
Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christ- 
ian Religion, vol. ii. pp. 230 — 248 ; Warner's 
System of Divinity and Morality, vol. iv. pp. 
327, 328. 



REU 



REV 



RE'U, ijn, signifies his friend, his shep- 
herd; or his misfortune. Reu, or Ragau, son 
of Peleg, was born in the year of the world 
1787. His father was then thirty years old. 
He bagat Serug, being thirty-two years old, 
in the year of the world 1819, and died at 
the age of two hundred and thirty- nine 
years, in the year of the world 2026. It is 
not impossible, that the city of Ragae, and 
the plain of Ragau, might take their names 
from Reu, or Ragau ; for these are the same 
in the Hebrew. 

REU'BEN, pirn, signifies who sees the 
son, or vision of the son. Reuben or Ruben, 
the eldest son of Jacob and Leah, was born 
in the year of the world 2246. (Gen. xxix. 
32.) One day Reuben went into the field, 
being yet young, and found a fruit called in 
Hebrew, dudaim, generally interpreted man- 
drakes, which he brought to his mother 
Leah. (Gen. xxx. 14.) Rachel was de- 
sirous of having them, and asked them of 
Leah, who bargained with her for Jacob's 
company the night following. Long after 
this Jacob being returned into the land of 
Canaan, Reuben defiled his father's concu- 
bine, Bilhah ; for which he lost his birth- 
right, and all the privileges of primogeni- 
ture. 

When Joseph's brethren had taken a re- 
solution to destroy him, Reuben endea- 
voured by all means to deliver him. He 
proposed to them to let him down into an 
old water-pit, which had now no water, that 
afterwards he might take him up again, and 
restore him to his father Jacob. His bre- 
thren took the advice; but while Reuben 
was at some distance from them, they sold 
Joseph to a party of Ishmaelites. Reuben 
going to the pit, and not finding him there, 
tore his clothes, and said to his brethren ; 
1 The child is not to be found, and whither 
shall I go ?' 

Jacob, when dying, warmly reproaches 
Reuben with his crime committed with Bil- 
hah ; saying, ' Reuben, thou art my first- 
born, my might, but, unstable as water, 
thou shalt not excel, because thou wentest 
up to thy father's bed ; then defiledst thou 
it.' 

REVELATION. That a Divine reve- 
lation was not only expedient, but highly 
necessary, to be a sure guide in matters of 
religion, is fully apparent from the most 
successful efforts of mere natural reason, 
which could never discover Divine truths, 
nor the duties to be performed. If the an- 
cient philosophers, after all their searches, 
could not discover in what manner God was 
to be worshipped, or sinners reconciled to 
him; if they could never come to a certain 
knowledge concerning the immortality of 
the soul, and future rewards and punish- 
ments, which are the principal motives to 
the performance of our duty ; if the differ- 
ences among the philosophers, about points 
of the greatest importance in religion, who 
879 



so many, that, instead of informing mankind 
of their duty, they perplexed and disturbed 
them, no one in particular having authority 
to prescribe a fixed scheme of duty ; if, un- 
der the direction and discipline of the phi- 
losophers, the heathen world, and the gene- 
rality of persons, for several ages, actually 
remained in a state of gross idolatry, as un- 
cleanness, impiety, and immorality of all 
kinds, and this was the real case ; it then fol- 
lows, that mankind must either irrecoverably 
continue in such a state of ignorance and 
corruption, or have some Divine revelation 
to assist them. In truth, it is very absurd 
to suppose that philosophy, or any thing 
but Divine revelation, could give them this 
assistance. The ancient philosophers clearly 
saw a great degree of darkness and degene- 
racy, corruption and depravity, in the minds 
of men ; but they could find no remedy ; 
and therefore Socrates and Plato, two of 
the greatest of them, despaired of man's re- 
covery out of a state of error and corrup- 
tion, without some extraordinary assistance 
from God. 

No one who believes there is a God, and 
that he is a being of infinite power, wis- 
dom, and knowledge, can doubt whether 
he can make a revelation of his will to 
mankind, fully attested to come from him, 
either by miracles, predictions of future 
events, or other undeniable testimonies oi 
a divine mission ; because this would not 
only be in fact to deny a God, but to con- 
tradict the universal belief that we find in 
all ages and nations of divine communi- 
cations with man. This shows at least the 
general sense of mankind as to the pos- 
sibility of the thing; and considering the 
false and very corrupt notions the world 
had concerning God, and his worship, and 
the other duties we owe him, it was very 
agreeable to the natural notions we have 
of the divine goodness and wisdom, to sup- 
pose that he would make a farther reve- 
lation to mankind, which might give them 
a clearer knowledge, and a stronger sense 
of duty, unless we suppose that he had 
utterly abandoned them. They who think 
it had been most agreeable to the divine 
wisdom and goodness, to have given man- 
kind one certain rule from the beginning, 
which should have been a sufficient guide 
to all future generations, and that the want 
of a new revelation implies a defect of know- 
ledge and foresight in God, seem to forget 
that man was created a free agent, and as 
such, must have it in his power to do good 
or evil. And when the generality of men 
were actually fallen into a state of final 
corruption, the informing of them, by a 
special revelation, how they might be de- 
livered out of it, anil their natures rectified, 
and themselves restored to the favour of 
God, could not surely be any derogation 
to the infinite characters of goodness and 
wisdom. 



REV 



REV 



It may be proper to notice the extreme 
vanity and presumption of those, who think 
themselves at liberty to disregard the Gos- 
pel revelation, till God shall think fit to 
satisfy them, why he did not make it sooner, 
and at once to all mankind ; as if he were 
accountable to us for his proceedings and 
dispensations, and we at liberty to refuse 
the benefits or deliverances he sends, be- 
cause they come not at a time, nor in the 
manner, that we judge most proper. Such 
may as well ask, why he made us men, and 
not angels ? why he did not bring us into 
the world with the perfect use of our rea- 
son ? why he did not give to all men the 
same capacity and leisure, to know and learn 
their duty ? why he has appointed different 
degrees of happiness in the next life ? 

No less unreasonable are they, who plead, 
that a revelation ought to be made to every 
person, and in every age. For a rule of 
duty is one and the same thing to all per- 
sons, and in all ages ; and when a standing 
test is once given to distinguish truth from 
error, it is equally a test at all times, and in 
all places, supposing it to be conveyed to 
them with sufficient evidence of its coming 
from God. This being the case of the Gos- 
pel revelation, God having given such evi- 
dence as is abundantly sufficient to satisfy 
any ingenuous and unprejudiced mind, it is 
very unreasonable to suppose, that he is 
obliged to make, to every age and country, 
a scene of new miracles only to gratify the 
disingenuity and obstinacy of those who 
have already received ample evidence, and 
yet will not be convinced. Such ' if they 
hear not Moses and the prophets, neither 
will they be persuaded, though one rose 
from the dead.' The spirit of infidelity is 
proof against all arguments and conviction ; 
and the Jews are a lasting testimony, how 
little it avails to be eye-witnesses to mi- 
racles, when men have once resolved to be 
infidels. 

Could the doubts which envelope the sub- 
ject of natural religion be dispelled by any 
one philosopher, to his own satisfaction, 
yet he might want the inclination, or, if he 
possessed that, he must want the power, to 
make others adopt his views, and thus taste 
his enjoyments. Or, could the great doc- 
trines of religion and the rules of morality 
be settled, and proposed, and taught, ever 
so plainly or frequently, yet it would be dif- 
ficult, or indeed impossible, to enforce the 
practice of them. A system of ethics may 
be considered by those who acquaint them- 
selves with it, as extremely ingenious ; but 
it is entirely optional whether they will or 
will not adopt it as a rule of conduct ; and 
the experience of all ages shows that it is 
perfectly ridiculous to expect that any such 
system should ever be considered as bind- 
ing. Even were human laws established 
in aid of it, it would still be inefficacious ; 
for no secular power, however it may re- 
880 



strain from crimes, can produce a single 
action that shall be truly and essentially 
virtuous. Either, then, God himself must 
interpose and favour us with rules of virtue, 
and motives to the practice of it, such as it 
is difficult to withstand, or the world must 
necessarily sink deeper and deeper into 
vice and misery. To admit the latter, is to 
deny that the Supreme Being interests him- 
self about the welfare of those whom he 
created and governs. Since, therefore, God 
is a being of matchless justice, mercy, and 
bounty, it follows, irrefragably, that if the 
deficiencies of natural reason, or the inat- 
tention of mankind to the footsteps of his 
providence, were such at any time (and 
such they have been) that all the inhabit- 
ants of the world were in danger of being 
lost in ignorance, irreligion, and idolatry, 
then would God interpose by extraordi- 
nary instruction, by alarming instances of 
judgment or of mercy, by prophetical decla- 
rations of things to come, that is, by a su- 
pernatural revelation of his will, to make 
us better acquainted with his attributes and 
our own character, to point out to us the 
path of duty, to lead us from the vanities 
of the world, and to draw us to himself. 
Gregory's Letter son the Evidences, Doctrines, 
and Duties of the Christian Religion, vol. i. 
pp. 26, 27; Warner's System of Divinity and 
Morality, vol. i. pp.91 — 96 

RE'ZIN, l*sn> paoowv, signifies voluntary, 
or good-will ; otherwise runner. Rezin, or 
Rasin, king of Syria, agreed with Pekah, 
son of Remaliah, king of Israel, to invade 
Ahaz, king of Judah, and to make an irrup- 
tion into his kingdom, in the year of the 
world 3262. (2 Kings xv. 37, 38. j xvi. 5, 6. 
2 Chron. xxviii. 5, 6, 7.) The first year of 
his reign they besieged Jerusalem ; but not 
being able to take it, they wasted the coun- 
try round about, and went away. The year 
following they returned into Judah, and the 
Lord delivered up to them the army and 
the country of Ahaz. After this they sepa- 
rated their armies ; and that of Rezin plun- 
dered every where, and carried away cap- 
tives to Damascus. 

About the same time Rezin took Elath 
on the Red Sea ; he drove out the Jews, and 
settled the Idumeans in their room ; who, 
probably, had engaged him to undertake 
this war. The Hebrew text, our version, 
and the Vulgate, intimate that Rezin, king 
of Syria, made a conquest of Elath for the 
Syrians. But the tenor of the discourse 
sufficiently shows that it ought to be read, 
for the Idumeans ; and that in the Hebrew 
it should be read Edom, instead of Aram. 
The difference between these two words in 
the original, is scarcely to be perceived. 

Ahaz, finding himself not strong enough 
to withstand Rezin and Pekah, applied to 
Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, and with a 
very large sum of money bought his assist- 
ance. Tiglath-pileser marched against Da- 



REZ 



RHO 



mascus, took the city, and slew Rezin ; 
he also carried away his people to Kir, 
probably the river Cyrus, in Iberia. (2 Kings 
xvi. 9.) 

RE'ZON, fin, ptZ<jJv, signifies lean, or 
small ; otherwise secret ; otherwise prince. 
Rezon, or Razon, son of Eliadah, revolted 
from his master Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 
while David made war against him, and 
heading a band of robbers, made excursions 
into the country about Damascus. (1 Kings 
xi. 23.) He at last became master of this 
city, and was acknowledged king. It 
should seem that he could not settle here, 
till toward the end of Solomon's reign ; for 
David conquered Damascus, as well as the 
rest of Syria ; and Solomon maintained his 
command over all the provinces David had 
subjected. But if Rezon did not rule at 
Damascus till toward the end of Solomon's 
reign, he must have lived very long ; for 
from David's war with Hadadezer, about 
the year of the world 2960, to the end of 
the reign of Solomon, who died in the 
year of the world 3029, must be sixty- 
nine years. Rezon must at least be 
five-and-twenty or thirty years of age, at 
the time of the first wars ; since he was 
then a general of Hadadezer's army, and 
presently became head to a troop of free- 
booters ; so that he must have been about 
ninety years of age when he began to go- 
vern at Damascus. If this seems hardly 
credible, it may be allowed, that Rezon 
might have reigned at Damascus under 
David and Solomon, as a tributary to these 
princes ; and that he did not begin to revolt 
till towards the end of Solomon's reign. 

RHE'GIUM ptjyiov, signifies rupture, 
or fracture. Rhegium (now Rheggio) is a 
city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples. 
St. Paul landed here when he went to 
Rome, A.D. 61. (Acts xxviii. 13, 14.) St. 
Luke being then of his company, and 
having said nothing of those miracles that 
are pretended to have been performed by 
St. Paul in this place, his silence ought at 
least to render them very much suspected ; 
or rather, to put a total negative upon 
them. 

RHO'DES, podog, signifies rose. Rhodes 
is an island and famous city of the Levant : 
its ancient name was Asteria, Ophiusa, 
and ./Ethrea. The name « Rhodes' is from 
the great quantity and beauty of the roses 
that grew there. This city is chiefly fa- 
mous for its brazen Colossus, which was one 
hundred and five feet high, and was made 
by Chares, of Lindus : it continued per- 
fect only fifty-six years, being thrown down 
by an earthquake, under the reign of Pto- 
lemy III. Euergetes, king of Egypt, who 
began to reign in the year of the world, 
3758. When St. Paul went to Jerusalem, 
A.D. 58, he went from Miletus to Coos, 
from Coos to the Isle of Rhodes, ami thence 
tol*atara, in Lycia. (Acts xxi. 1.) 
881 



The Septuagint (Gen. x. 4.) put the Rho- 
dians among the children of Javan. They 
probably read Rodanim, instead of Doda- 
nim in the Hebrew. The Samaritan reads 
also Rhodanim in Genesis ; Eusebius, 
Jerome, and Isidore followed the Septua- 
gint, and think the Isle of Rhodes to have 
been peopled by the Rhodanim, the poste- 
rity of Javan. The Arabic of the Polyglots 
reads neither Rhodanim nor Dodanim, but 
Adana, which is a town in Cilicia, not far 
from Tarsus. If Dodanim be the true 
reading here, then it points to Dodona, an 
extremely ancient oracle in Epirus, which 
equally applies to a son of Javan, in Greece. 
If Rhodanim be the true reading, then the 
Isle of Rhodes is the most obvious station for 
the Rhodanim. To this it has been objected, 
that this island is one of those which have 
been raised from the bottom of the sea, as 
Pliny asserts ; and therefore was not extant 
in the time of Moses. These principles 
may be reconciled by supposing, that, as 
other cities, Tyre, Aradus, &c. were origi- 
nally built on the opposite and almost ad- 
joining continent, yet were afterwards re- 
moved to islands close by, so Rhodes was a 
truly ancient city, on the continent first, 
but at length removed to the island where 
it still continued to assert its antiquity. 

' Rhodes,' says Chateaubriand, ' exhibited 
to me, at every step, traces of our manners, 
and memorials of my country. I found 
here a little France in the midst of Greece. 
I walked through a long street, still called 
the street of the Knights. It consists of 
Gothic houses, the walls of which are 
studded with Gallic devices, and the arms 
of families that figure in our annals. I re- 
marked the lilies of France crowned, and 
as fresh as if they had just come from the 
hands of the sculptor. The Turks, who 
have every where mutilated the monuments 
of Greece, have spared those of chivalry; 
Christian honour astonished infidel bravery, 
and the Saladins felt respect for the Coucis. 
The commercial port of Rhodes would be 
very safe, if the ancient works which de- 
fended it were rebuilt. At the extremity 
of this harbour stands a wall, flanked with 
two towers. These towers, according to a 
tradition current in the country, occupy the 
site of the two rocks which served as a 
base for the Colossus. — The coast of Rhodes, 
opposite to Caramania, the ancient Doris 
and Caria, is nearly upon a level with the 
sea : but the land rises in the interior ; 
and a lofty mountain, with a Hat summit, 
mentioned by all the geopraphers of anti« 
quity, appears very conspicuous. At Lin- 
dus are yet left some vestiges of the temple 
of Minerva; hut Caniirns and lalysus have 

totally disappeared. Rhodes formerly sup- 
plied all Anatolia with oil ; at present it 

has not enougD for its own consumption. 
It still exports a small quantity of corn. 
The vineyards yield an excellent wine, 
3 L 



RIB 

resembling those of the Rhone.' Chateau- 
briand's Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, 
and Barbary, vol. i. pp. 346 — 348 ; Sacred 
Geography. 

RIB'LAH, nbm, signifies wrangling, or 
their magnitude; otherwise, the yoke of the 
inveterate, or restless, or the yoke of the 
flowing. Riblah was a city of Syria, in the 
country of Hamath, which, according to 
Jerome, was the same as what was after- 
wards Antioch of Syria. However this may 
be, Riblah, as a residence, was one of the 
most agreeable of all Syria ; whence it was 
a favourite abode of the kings of Babylon. 
Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, made a stop 
here at his return from the expedition of 
Carchemish, (2 Kings xxiii. 33.) ; and having 
sent for Jehoahaz, king of Judah, hither, he 
deprived him of the royal dignity, and put 
Jehoiakim in his place. Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, continued at Riblah, while 
his general, Nebuzaradan, besieged Jeru- 
salem ; and after the reduction of the place, 
king Zedekiah, and the rest of the pri- 
soners, were brought to Nebuchadnezzar at 
Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar caused Ze- 
dekiah's eyes to be put out, &c. (2 Kings 
xxv. 6. 20, 21. Jer. xxix. 21.; lii. 9.) 

RIM'MON, pan, signifies exalted, pome- 
granate. Rimmon was the name of an idol 
of the people of Damascus. Naaman the 
Syrian confesses to Elisha that he had 
often been in the temple of Rimmon with 
the king of Damascus, his master, who 
leaned on his arm, while he paid his ador- 
ations to Rimmon. (2 Kings v. 18.) It is 
thought this god was the sun, and that the 
name of Rimmon, or high, was given to 
him, because of his elevation. Grotius 
takes it for Saturn, because this planet is 
the most elevated. Selden will have it to 
be the God most high, the god Elion of the 
Phoenicians. Sarrarius believes it to be 
the goddess Venus. We know no other god 
in all antiquity, than this, by the name 
Rimmon. 

This idol, says a late writer, was a ser- 
pent idol : for as the serpent was originally 
considered as an emblem of infinite wisdom, 
as well as the wisdom or subtilty of the 
sensual principle in man ; so also the word 
Rimmon was used to signify the elevation 
and springing forth of wisdom in man. 
Bellamy's History of all Religions, p. 39. 

RINGS. The antiquity of rings appears 
from Scripture and from profane authors. 
Judah left his ring with Tamar. (Gen. 
xxxviii. 18.) When Pharaoh committed 
the government of Egypt to Joseph, he 
took his ring from his finger and gave it to 
Joseph. (Gen. xli. 42.) After the victory 
of the Israelites over the Midianites, they 
offered to the Lord the rings, the bracelets, 
and the golden necklaces, taken from the 
enemy. (Numb. xxxi. 50.) The Israelitish 
women wore rings, not only on their fingers, 
but also in their nostrils and their ears. 
882 



RIZ 






St. James distinguishes a man of wealth 
and dignity by the ring of gold on his finger. 
(James ii. 2.) At the return of the prodigal 
son, his father orders him to be dressed in a 
new suit of clothes, and to have a ring put 
on his finger. (Luke xv. 22.) When the 
Lord threatened Jeconiah with the utmost 
effects of his anger, he tells him, that though 
he were the signet or ring on his finger, yet 
he should be torn off. (Jer. xxii. 24.) 

RI'PHATH, na*-), signifies remedy, or 
medicine, or release, or pardon ; otherwise 
stable. Riphath, or Riphat, second son of 
Gomer, and grandson of Japhet, (Gen. x. 3.) 
nsi. He is called Diphath, (1 Chron.i. 6.) 
rO"r. The resemblance of the two He- 
brew letters 1 (Resh) and t (Daleth) is so 
close, that they are very often confounded. 
But the translators of our English version 
have restored the original reading, and 
rendered it Riphath. The learned are not 
agreed what country was peopled by the 
descendants of Riphath. The Chaldee and 
Arabic take it for France ; Eusebius for the 
country of the Sauromatae , the Chronicon 
Alexandrinum for that of the Garamantae ; 
Josephus for Paphlagonia. Mela assures 
us, that anciently the people of this pro- 
vince were called Riphataei, or Riphaces : 
and in Bithynia, bordering on Paphlagonia, 
are the river Rhebeus, a people called Rhe- 
banites, and a district of the same name. 
For these reasons Bochart believed that 
Riphath peopled Paphlagonia. Others 
think he peopled the Montes Riphei ; and 
this opinion seems the most reasonable, be- 
cause the other sons of Gomer peopled the 
northern countries towards Scythia, and 
beyond the Euxine Sea. 

RIVER. The Hebrews give the name 
of the river, without addition, sometimes to 
the Nile, sometimes to the Euphrates, and 
sometimes to the Jordan. The tenor of 
the discourse must determine the sense of 
this uncertain and undeterminate way of 
speaking. They give also the name of 
river to brooks and rivulets that are not 
very considerable. The name of river is 
sometimes given to the sea. Habakkuk 
(iii. 8, 9.), speaking of the passage through 
the Red Sea, says, The Lord was displeased 
against the rivers ; and the Psalmist (lxxiv. 
15.) that the Lord dried up the mighty 
rivers. 

RIZ'PAH, nsri, signifies bed, or exten- 
sion, or coal, or fire- stone. Rizpah was the 
daughter of Aiah, concubine to king Saul. 
That prince having put to death a great 
number of the Gibeonites, on what occasion 
is not known, God, to punish this massacre, 
sent a famine into the land of Israel, which 
lasted three years. (2 Sam. xxi. 1. 3. &c.) 
To expiate this, David, who was then king, 
gave up to the Gibeonites, Armoni and 
Mephibosheth, two sons of Saul by Rizpah, 
the daughter of Aiah ; also five sons of 
Michah the daughter of Saul, by Adriel, 



ROL 



ROM 



the son of Barzillai, or rather by Phaltiel. 
(2 Sam. xxi. 9.) These they hanged on 
the mountain near Gibeah, at the beginning 
of barley-harvest. 

Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah, took a 
sackcloth and spread it upon the rock ; and 
continued there from the beginning of har- 
vest, till water from heaven fell on them ; 
or till the Lord sent his rain on the earth, 
and restored its former fertility. She hin- 
dered the birds from tearing the bodies by 
day, and the ravenous beasts from devour- 
ing them by night. When this action of 
Rizpah was related to David, he was moved 
with compassion, and sent to fetch the bones 
of Saul and Jonathan, which were at Ja- 
besh-gilead, brought them to Gibeah, and 
put them in the tomb of Kish, the father 
of Saul ; together with the bones of the 
seven men who had been executed by the 
Gibeonites. 

On this occasion they acted contrary to 
the law of Deuteronomy, (xxi. 23.) which 
orders that they should take the bodies 
down from the cross or gibbet before the 
setting of the sun. But these unhappy re- 
mains of the family of Saul were left there, 
probably from the beginning of the spring 
to autumn : whether because the crime of 
their father deserved this severe treatment, 
or because the Gibeonites, being only pro- 
selytes of habitation, were not obliged to 
the observance of this law of Moses. Lastly, 
whereas God had ordered David to give 
satisfaction to the Gibeonites, this prince 
thought fit to leave the management of it to 
themselves. But, perhaps, this statement 
may be doubted. It might not be long 
before their bodies were wetted by rain ; 
and it is not improbable, that the phrase 
' waters from heaven' may signify copious 
dews. 

Soon after the death of Saul, Abner, the 
general of his army, fell in love with 
Rizpah, and took her. Ishbosheth, son of 
Saul, who reigned at Mahanaim beyond 
Jordan, and who was supported in his regal 
state only by the credit of Abner's valour, 
resented this, and upbraided him with it. 
Abner was so provoked at this reproach, 
that he vowed the ruin of Ishbosheth, and 
leagued with David to bring over to his in- 
terest all the adherents of Ishbosheth. 
(2 Sam. iii. 7- 11.) 

ROLL is taken for record. ' Search was 
made in the house of the rolls,' (Ezra vi. 1.) 
and a roll was found, containing Cyrus's 
decree in favour of the Jews. Ezekiel was 
commanded to eat ' a roll,' or small volume 
of a book, to signify the information about 
to be communicated to his mind. But it 
must be owned that foreknowledge in ge- 
neral, is like the roll of this prophet in the 
preceding chapter, J written within and 
without : full of lamentation, and mourning, 
and woe.' This makes the author of the 
Revelation say, the book which he ate, was 
883 



in his mouth sweet as honey, that is, in his 
first taste, or knowledge communicated ; 
but in his belly, bitter as gall, that is, in 
digestion and rumination, foreknowledge is 
little more than the anticipation of evils. 

The prophet Zechariah (v. 1.) saw a 
flying roll, in length twenty cubits, or thirty 
feet, in breadth ten cubits, or fifteen feet ; 
it appears also to have been written on both 
sides ; ' for every one that stealeth shall be 
cut off, according to the curse or penalty of 
the law, written on this side : and every one 
that sweareth according to the curse, or 
penalty, written on that side.' That curses 
when written, &c. were metaphorically very 
efficacious, see the instances of the curses 
washed into water and drank by the woman 
under the ordeal on account of jealousy. 
(Numb.v. 14. &c.) 

ROMAN CATHOLICS. Names— By 
a Roman Catholic, the members of the 
Church of Rome understand one who, 
being in communion with the pope, believes 
every truth revealed by God, and proposed 
to him as such by the church, because 
God, the unerring truth, has revealed them. 
Popery and Papists were the names by 
which the Roman Catholic religion and its 
professors were distinguished by the first 
reformers, and the law, in this country, 
designated them afterwards by the same 
names. But these appellations were con- 
sidered by themselves as nick-names, or 
terms of reproach, intended to hold forth 
to popular odium their communion with 
the pope, as the fundamental article of 
their religion, and to obliterate that of 
Catholic, to which they claimed an exclu- 
sive right. In law, however, they are now 
called Roman Catholics. The Church of 
Rome has also been called the Latin Church, 
because the service is read in Latin. 

Rise, Progress. — The pope is the supreme 
head of the Church of Rome. The appel- 
lation of pope was, anciently, given to all 
Christian bishops ; but, about the latter end 
of the eleventh century, in the pontificate 
of Gregory VII. it was usurped by the 
bishop of Rome, whose peculiar title it has 
ever since continued. 

The spiritual monarchy of Rome sprang 
up soon after the decline of the Roman 
empire ; and one great, though remote, in- 
strument, in promoting the increase of 
this monarchy, so pernicious to the supreme 
civil power, was the barbarity and igno- 
rance, which from that time spread over 
the western parts. Rome was chosen for 
the place of residence of the ecclesiastical 
monarchy, because this city had the par- 
ticular prerogative of being the capital city 
of the Roman empire, where the Christian 
religion had its first rise and increase. For 
what is related concerning St. Peter's chair, 
is nothing but a vain pretence, which may 
easily be seen from hence, that afterwards 
the bishop of Constantinople had the next 

3 l a 



ROM 



ROM 



place assigned him after the bishop of Rome, 
only because that city was then the place 
of the emperor's residence, and called New 
Rome. When afterwards the Western Em- 
pire was come to decay, and the city of 
Rome had lost its former lustre, the bishop 
of Constantinople disputed the precedency 
with the Roman bishop. It is true the 
emperor Phocas granted the right of pre- 
cedency to Boniface III. then bishop of 
Rome, who, on that account, took upon him 
the title of (Ecumenical Bishop; but this 
did not imply any power or jurisdiction 
over the rest ; for the other patriarchs never 
acknowledged any. So that here are no 
marks of divine institution to be found, 
the Papal power being purely human, and 
an usurpation of the rights of other sees. 

The bishops of Rome did not extend 
their power over the western parts all at 
once; but it was introduced from time to 
time, by degrees, by various artifices, and 
under various pretences. What chiefly 
contributed to its growth, was, first, the 
emperors choosing other places of residence 
besides Rome ; for by their constant pre- 
sence there, they might easily have kept 
under the ambitious design of the bishops. 
In the next place, the Western Empire was 
divided into several new kingdoms, erected 
by the several barbarous and Pagan na- 
tions; and these, having been converted to 
the Christian faith by the direction of 
the Church of Rome, thought themselves 
obliged to pay her the most profound re- 
spect. 

In the fifth century, the bishops on this 
side the Alps began to go to Rome, to visit 
the sepulchres of St. Peter and St. Paul. 
This voluntary devotion insensibly grew 
into a necessity. Hence it was easy for 
the popes afterwards to pretend that the 
bishops ought to receive their confirmation 
from Rome. Besides, some other bishops 
and churches, that were novices in compa- 
rison with the ancient Roman church, used 
to refer themselves to, and ask the advice 
of, the Church of Rome, concerning mat- 
ters of great consequence, and the true 
interpretation of the canons. Hence the 
bishops of Rome, perceiving their answers 
were received as decisions, began to send 
their decrees before they were demanded. 

Hence, also, they set themselves up as 
judges of the differences arising between 
the bishops, and, encroaching on the right 
and jurisdiction of the metropolitans, pro- 
ceeded to suspend and depose whom they 
thought fit. At the same time, by making 
void the decisions of the provincial synods, 
they so diminished their authority, that by 
degrees they were quite abolished. Add 
to this, that Gregory VII. forced the 
bishops to take an oath of fealty to the 
popes, and by a decree enacted that none 
should dare to condemn any one, who had 
appealed to the pope. Nor did they forget 
884 



to send legates or nuncios to all places; 
whose business was to exercise, in the 
pope's name, the same authority, which had 
formerly belonged to the bishops, and pro- 
vincial synods. 

At length, the popes began to grow 
weary of the imperial protection, because 
the emperor's consent was required in the 
election of a pope, and, if they were mutin- 
ous, the emperors checked them, and some- 
times turned them out of the chair. The 
popes, therefore, for a long time employed 
various artifices, to exempt themselves from 
the power of the emperors. To this end 
they frequently raised intestine commotions 
against them. But the reign of Henry IV. 
furnished them with an opportunity of put- 
ting their designs in execution. For pope 
Gregory VII. surnamed Hildebrand, had 
the boldness to excommunicate this em- 
peror, on the pretence that he made traffic 
of church benefices, by selling them to all 
sorts of persons, whom he installed before 
they had taken orders. Not satisfied with 
this, he cited the emperor before him, to 
answer to the complaints of his subjects, 
and declared him to have forfeited all right 
and title to the empire. This obliged the 
emperor to renounce the right of constitu- 
ting bishops. The succeeding emperors 
found so much work in Germany, that they 
were not in a condition to look after Italy ; 
by which means the pope had sufficient 
leisure to render himself sovereign, not only 
over his own possessions, but over all pos- 
sessions pertaining to the church. 

But the pope, not satisfied with this 
degree of grandeur, quickly set on foot a 
pretension of far greater consequence. For 
now he pretended to an authority over 
princes themselves, to command a truce 
between such as were at war together, to 
take cognizance of their differences, to put 
their kingdom under an interdict, and, if 
they refused submission to the see of Rome, 
to absolve their subjects from their alle- 
giance, and to deprive them of their crowns. 
For this abominable pretension they plead 
their fictitious Decretals, which grant to the 
popes an unlimited power over all Chris- 
tians whatever. When, however, the eccle- 
siastical monarchy seemed to be arrived at 
the height of its grandeur, and all the west- 
ern parts were either in communion with, 
or in obedience to the Church of Rome, a 
revolt took place from the papal chair, 
which, though at first commenced from a 
trifling occasion, arose to such a pitch, 
that a great part of Europe withdrew its 
obedience from the pope, who, by that 
means, was in danger of losing the whole. 
This was the schism of Luther, which gave 
rise to Protestantism. 

Distinguishing Tenets. — The members of 
the Church of Rome are bound to believe 
that 'this church is always one, by all its 
members professing one faith, in one com- 



ROM 



ROM 



munion, under one chief pastor succeeding 
the apostle Peter, to whom Christ com- 
mitted his flock.' 

The best summary of the doctrines of 
this church is the famous creed of pope 
Pius IV. which may be considered as a 
true and unquestionable body of Popery. 
It consists of twenty-four articles. The 
first twelve are the articles of the Nicene 
Creed, universally admitted by all Chris- 
tian churches. The last twelve are the 
additional doctrines, which the Church of 
Rome has added to the Christian faith, and 
which are as follow : — 

13. * I most stedfastly admit and embrace 
the apostolic and ecclesiastical traditions, 
and all other observances and constitutions 
of the same church. 

14. • I also admit the Holy Scriptures, 
according to that sense which our holy 
mother the church has held, and does hold, 
to which it belongs to judge of the true 
sense and interpretation of the Scriptures : 
neither will I ever take and interpret them 
otherwise, than according to the unanimous 
consent of the Fathers. 

15. ' I also profess that there are truly 
and properly seven Sacraments of the new 
law instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, 
and necessary for the salvation of mankind, 
though not all for every one, namely, Bap- 
tism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Ex- 
treme Unction, Orders, and Matrimony ; and 
that they confer grace ; and that of these 
Baptism, Confirmation, and Orders, can- 
not be reiterated without sacrilege. I also 
receive and admit the received and approved 
ceremonies of the Catholic church, used in 
the solemn administration of the aforesaid 
sacraments. 

16. 'I embrace and receive all and every 
one of the things which have been defined 
and declared in the holy Council of Trent, 
concerning original si?i and justification. 

17- ' I profess likewise, that in the Mass, 
there is offered to God, a true, proper, and 
propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the 
dead ; and that in the most holy sacrament 
of the Eucharist, there is truly, really, and 
substantially, the body and blood, together 
with the soul and divinity of our Lord 
Jesus Christ ; and that there is made a con- 
version of the whole substance of the bread 
into the body, and of the whole substance 
of the wine into the blood, which conver- 
sion the Catholic church calls transubstan- 
tiation. 

18. ' I also confess that under either 
kind alone, Christ whole and entire, and a 
true sacrament, is received. 

19. ' I constantly hold that there is a 
purgatory, and that the souls therein de- 
tained) are helped by the suffrages of the 
faithful. 

20. ' Likewise, that the saints reigning 
together with Christ are to be honoured 
(Uid invoked ; and that they oiler prayers to 

885 



God for us, and that their relics are to be 
had in veneration. 

21. ' I most firmly assert, that the images 
of Christ, of the mother of God, ever Virgin, 
and also of the other saints, ought to be had 
and retained, and that due honour and vene- 
ration is to be given them. 

22. • I also affirm, that the power of 
indulgences was left by Christ in the church, 
and that the use of them is most wholesome 
to Christian people. 

23. ' I acknowledge the holy, Catholic, 
Apostolic, Roman church, for the mother 
and mistress of all churches ; and I pro- 
mise true obedience to the bishop of Rome, 
successor to St. Peter, prince of the Apos- 
tles, and vicar of Jesus Christ. 

24. ' I likewise undoubtedly receive and 
profess all other things delivered, defined, 
and declared, by the sacred Canons and 
General Councils, and particularly by the 
holy Council of Trent: and I condemn, 
reject, and anathematize, all things con- 
trary thereto, and all heresies which the 
church has condemned, rejected, and ana- 
thematized. 

' I, the same N. promise, vow, and swear, 
through God's help, to hold and confess 
most constantly, to my last breath, this true 
Catholic faith, entire and inviolable, which 
at present I willingly profess and truly 
hold, and out of which none can be saved ; 
and that I will take care, in as far as I can, 
that the same shall be held, taught, and 
professed by those who are under me, or 
of whom I shall have charge by my office. 
So help me God, and these Gospels of God. 
Amen.' 

The author of the Profession of Catholic 
faith, on the article of Scripture and tra- 
dition, asks, ' Q. What do you believe con- 
cerning the Scriptures? — A. That they are 
to be received by all Christians as the in- 
fallible word of God. Q. Do you look upon 
the Scriptures to be clear and plain in 
all points necessary to salvation ? — A. No. 
Q. How then is the danger to be avoided ? — 
A. By taking the meaning and interpre- 
tation of the Scripture from the church, 
and by apostolical and ecclesiastical tra- 
dition. Q. What do you mean by apos- 
tolical tradition? — A. All such points of 
faith or church discipline which were taught 
or established by the apostles. Q. What 
difference is there between apostolical and 
ecclesiastical traditions ? — A. Apostolical 
traditions are those which had their origin 
or institution from the apostles, such as 
infant- baptism, the Lord's day (or first 
day of the week), receiving the sacrament, 
fasting, iSrc. Ecclesiastical traditions are 
such as received their institution from the 
church, such as holidays, feasts, and fasts. 
Q. How are we to know what traditions are 
apostolical, and what not ?— A. In the same 
manner, and by the same authority, by 
which we know what Scriptures are apos- 



ROM 



ROM 



tolical, and what not : that is, by the au- 
thority of the apostolical church, guided by 
the unerring Spirit of God. Q. But why 
should not the Scripture alone be the rule 
of our faith, without having recourse to apos- 
tolical traditions? — A. First, Because with- 
out the help of apostolical traditions we 
cannot so much as tell what is Scripture, 
and what not. Secondly, Because infant- 
baptism, and several other necessary articles, 
are either not at all contained in Scripture, 
or at least are not plain in the Scripture 
without the help of tradition. For Christ has 
left his church, and her pastors and teachers, 
to be our guides in all controversies relating 
to religion, and consequently of holy writ.' 

Church-Government and Discipline. — The 
government of the Roman Catholic church 
is episcopal. A metropolitan bishop, be- 
sides the jurisdiction common to him with 
other bishops in his own diocese, has also 
a jurisdiction over all the bishops of his 
province; summons them every third year 
to a provincial synod ; and the constitutions 
framed in it affect all the churches in the 
province. In like manner, primates and 
patriarchs have a jurisdiction over all the 
metropolitans, and other bishops of the 
kingdoms, or nations, where they hold their 
dignified rank. 

Above all these is the Pope, who is said 
to have the power of feeding, ruling, and 
governing the whole church, and exercises 
his jurisdiction over all clergy as well as 
laity. His care and solicitude extend to 
all Roman Catholic churches throughout 
the world. He makes laws for what is called 
the universal church, dispenses with some 
of them when he sees proper, punishes 
those who do not obey them, passes sen- 
tence upon ecclesiastical causes referred 
to him, (which ought to be the case with 
all those of great importance,) and receives 
appeals from all Roman Catholic bishops in 
the world. It is he who convokes a general 
council ; invites to it all the Roman Catholic 
bishops dispersed throughout the globe ; 
presides in it personally, or by his legates, 
and confirms its decrees. The pope's sen- 
tence, however, in certain cases is not 
definitive ; but the party has a right of ap- 
peal to a General Council. He constitutes 
new bishopricks, and makes bishops ; de- 
prives bishops of their sees for their crimes ; 
and those unjustly deprived of them he re- 
stores. The pope has a council composed 
of cardinals, who assist him in the govern- 
ment of the universal church. 

Worship, Rites, Sfc. — The Roman Catholics 
say, that the worship of the church of Rome 
consists chiefly in the solemn oblation, con- 
secration, and participation of the body and 
blood of Christ, by the ministers of the 
church, accompanied with the prayers ap- 
pointed by her for that purpose ; in her 
liturgy, commonly called the Mass, which 
the whole congregation present offer up to 



God with the priest. They say that, this 
sacrifice alone excepted, no other external 
act is used among Christians, which of its 
own nature expresses the divine worship due 
to the Supreme Being ; for all other exter- 
nal acts are promiscuously used to signify 
natural, civil, religious, and divine worship ; 
and the kind of worship or honour given by 
them, is determined only by the intention of 
the person who gives it. This public ser- 
vice of the church, which the Latins call the 
mass, is by the Greeks termed public minis- 
try or service. 

Besides the prayers which the people use 
to worship God in time of Mass, they have 
many others, some of which they practise 
daily for the same end ; and the clergy, be- 
sides their other devotions, are obliged 
every day to recite the church office, con- 
sisting of psalms, prayers, portions of the 
Old and New Testament, with an abstract 
of the lives of the saints. 

The members of this church profess that 
a vow of perpetual celibacy was required 
in the ancient church as a condition of 
ordination, even from the apostolic age. 
But Protestants insist that the contrary is 
evident, from numerous examples of bishops 
and archbishops, who lived in a state of 
matrimony, without any prejudice to their 
ordination or their function. 

Besides the Lord's day, Roman Catholics 
keep several holidays annually. Among 
these the feasts of our Saviour hold the 
first rank ; and on them the principal mys- 
teries of our redemption are publicly com- 
memorated and explained to the faithful. 
St. Augustin says, that the feasts of Easter, 
Pentecost, and the Ascension, were kept by 
the apostles. On the feasts of the blessed 
Virgin, of the apostles, and other saints and 
martyrs, their heroic virtues and triumphs 
are pointed out by the church of Rome to 
her children for their imitation. 

The grandeur of some of the churches 
and altars, with their ornaments, in Catholic 
countries, is great ; and in the time of divine 
service, church music is occasionally used, 
incense burned, and candles lighted in token 
of joy ; and it is the practice of the congre- 
gation to kneel almost all the time. 

There are several orders of monks in 
Catholic countries in every quarter of the 
globe at this day. There are Basilians, Bene- 
dictines, Augustinians, Dominicans, Fran- 
ciscans, Canon Regulars, and others. All 
these different orders take the solemn vows 
of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and all 
hold the Roman Catholic faith. They dif- 
fer only in their rules of discipline, in their 
dress, in the particular privileges granted 
by the pope to each order in their names, 
which they generally take from that of their 
founder, and such like distinctions pertain- 
ing merely to discipline. In general, they 
are exempt from the jurisdiction of the bishop, 
and are immediately under that of the pope. 



ROM 



ROM 



Countries where found. — The greatest part 
of Europe continues to profess the Roman 
Catholic religion. In Italy, Spain, and 
Portugal, it is the established and only re- 
ligion. In France it was, and now again 
is, the established, though not the only, re- 
ligion. In several of the German States, 
and in Poland, the far greatest number of 
the inhabitants are Catholics, intermixed in 
the former country with a few Protestants 
and Jews ; and, in the latter, some of the 
Greek church, as well as a few Protestants 
and Jews, are to be found. Even in those 
countries where the Protestant religion 
prevails, there are more or fewer Ca- 
tholics to be found. A considerable por- 
tion of His Majesty's subjects in the united 
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland are 
Catholics. From returns of the number 
of Roman Catholics in England and Wales, 
made to Parliament in 1767 and 1780, it 
appeared that there were 67,916 in 1767, 
and 69,317 in 1780. They had therefore 
increased 1401 in thirteen years. The dis- 
cussions as to the relative numbers of the 
Protestants and Roman Catholics in Ireland, 
seem to be set at rest by the official state- 
ments in the report to the House of Lords, 
in June 1825. It there appears, that, of 
the 6,801,000 which constituted in 1821 
the entire population, 4,980,000 were Ca- 
tholics, and 1,769,000 Protestants ; of which 
last there were 1,135,000 belonging to the 
Established Church. The proportion of 
Protestants to Catholics is, in Ulster, as 
1 to 1 ; in Leinster, as 1 to 4£ ; in Munster, 
as 1 to 91 ; in Connaught, as 1 to 7f ; all 
over Ireland as 1 to 2|. Many Roman 
Catholics are to be found in Holland ; 
a few in Denmark and Sweden; and a 
great majority will be found in some, and 
a part in all, the Protestant States in 
Germany. In the southern part of Ame- 
rica, the whole of the inhabitants, both 
natives and colonists, are, like those of the 
mother country, Catholics : which is like- 
wise the case with the Spanish settlements 
in North America. In the United States 
are some Catholics intermixed with the 
Protestants, in every province ; and one 
of them, namely, Maryland, was origi- 
nally Catholic. This is also the case in 
Canada ; for though there are many Pro- 
testants settled there, since it became a 
British province, their number bears no 
proportion to that of the Roman Catholics, 
who there enjoy the privileges of an esta- 
blishment. 

Archbishop Tillotson says, that the Re- 
formed, by which he means Protestants of 
all denominations, are ' not much unequal 
to the Romanists' in point of numbers ; but 
this is far beyond the common calculation, 
which allows only from 44 to 50,000,000 
to the number of Protestants, while the 
members of the church of Rome ON 
reckoned at about twice that number. The 
887 



truth, it is likely, may be found between 
these ; and perhaps there might be no great 
mistake in supposing their numbers to stand 
nearly in the ratio of three to four ; or in 
reckoning the Protestants to be about 
65,000,000, and the Roman Catholics about 
80,000,000. 

Miscellaneous Remarks. — The laws which 
rendered the Roman Catholics incapable of 
filling offices in the State of this empire, 
have been repealed by a late Act of Parlia- 
ment ; and the Roman Catholics are now 
eligible to all civil offices, with the excep- 
tion of the office of Lord Lieutenant of 
Ireland, of the Lord High Chancellor, or 
Lord Keeper of England, and of His Ma- 
jesty's High Commissioner to the General 
Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Whe- 
ther this measure be prudent or not, time 
will develope. At any rate, the interests of 
the Protestant part of the community have 
been little regarded by this measure ; and 
as little have the wishes and petitions of 
the Protestants been consulted, by the 
manner in which the fundamental laws of 
the State have been abrogated, and the 
measure in favour of the Roman Catholics 
carried into effect. 

By the tenth of George the Fourth, cap. 
vii., the declaration against transubstan- 
tiation, and the invocation of saints, and 
the sacrifice of the mass, as practised in the 
Church of Rome, are now repealed ; and in- 
stead of the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, 
and abjuration, every Roman Catholic, be- 
fore he can sit and vote in parliament, or 
exercise any civil office, must take and sub- 
scribe the following oath : 

' I, A. B., do sincerely promise and swear, 
that I will be faithful, and bear true alle- 
giance to His Majesty, King George the 
Fourth, and will defend him to the utmost 
of my power, against all conspiracies and 
attempts whatever, which shall be made 
against his person, crown, or dignity ; and I 
will do my utmost endeavour to disclose and 
make known to His Majesty, his heirs, and 
successors, all treasons and traitorous con- 
spiracies which may be formed against him 
or them : and I do faithfully promise to 
maintain, support, and defend, to the ut- 
most of my power, the succession of the 
crown, which succession, by an Act, inti- 
tuled, " An Act for the further limitation of 
the Crown, and better securing the rights 
and liberties of the Subject," is, and stands 
limited to the Princess Sophia, electress of 
Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being 
Protestants ; hereby utterly renouncing and 
abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto 
any other person, claiming or pretending a 
right to the crown of this realm ; and I do 
further declare, that it is not an article of 
my faith, and that 1 do renounce, reject, and 
abjure, the opinion that princes excommu- 
nicated, or deprived by the pope, or anv 
Other authority of ihe see of Home, may he 



ROM 



ROM 



deposed or murdered by their subjects, or 
by any person whatsoever : and I do declare 
that I do not believe that the pope of Rome, 
or any other foreign prince, prelate, per- 
son, state, or potentate, hath or ought to 
have any temporal or civil jurisdiction, 
power, superiority or pre-eminence, directly 
or indirectly, within this realm. I do swear, 
that I will defend, to the utmost of my 
power, the settlement of property within 
this realm, as established by the laws ; and 
I do hereby disclaim, disavow, and solemnly 
abjure, any intention to subvert the present 
church-establishment as settled by law within 
this realm : and I do solemnly swear, that I 
never will exercise any privilege to which I 
am or may become entitled, to disturb or 
weaken the Protestant religion, or Protest- 
ant government in the United Kingdom : 
and I do solemnly, in the presence of God, 
profess, testify, and declare, that I do make 
this declaration, and every part thereof, in 
the plain and ordinary sense of the words 
of this oath, without any evasion, equivoca- 
tion, or mental reservation whatsoever. So 
help me God.' Adam's Religious World Dis- 
played, vol. ii. pp. I — 80 ; Broughton's His- 
torical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 258 — 260 ; 
Nightingale's Portraiture of the Roman Ca- 
tholic Religion. 

ROME, 'Pw/ijj, signifies strength, power. 
The city of Rome was founded by Remus 
and Romulus, according to Usher, in the 
year of the world 3966 of the Julian period, 
in the year of the world 3256, towards the 
close of the reign of Hezekiah, king of Ju- 
dah. This city is so well known, that it is 
needless to give any account of it here. The 
sacred authors of the Old Testament have 
never mentioned it, that we know of; but 
it is well known in the Books of the Macca- 
bees, and in the New Testament. St. Peter, 
(1 Epist. v. 13.) has denoted it by the figu- 
rative name of Babylon : S The church that 
is at Babylon elected together with you, 
saluteth you.' St. John in his Revelation, 
(xiv. 8. ; xvi. 19. ; xvii. 5. ; xviii. 2. 10. 21.) 
points it out by the same name, and de- 
scribes it in such a manner, as can only 
agree to Rome ; 1. By its command over all 
nations ; 2. By its cruelty towards the saints ; 
and 3. By its situation upon seven hills. 
(Rev. xvii. 9.) 

Jerome translates the Hebrew Tubal by 
Italy, (Isaiah xlvi. 19.) which, according to 
some, signifies Spain, according to others, 
the Tibarenians. He has also rendered the 
Hebrew Chittim by Romans, which in other 
places he has translated by Italy ; and Bo- 
chart has displayed all his learning to sup- 
port this opinion. See Chittim. 

It is certain that the Jews had some 
knowledge of the Romans in early ages ; 
that afterwards this people subdued Judea, 
and at last destroyed Jerusalem and the 
temple, A.D. 70. They reduced Judea 
into a province ; that is, they took from it 
888 



the privilege of being a kingdom, and of 
having kingly government : first, after the 
banishment of king Archelaus, son of He- 
rod the Great, A.D. 16; and this state 
continued to A.D. 37- It was again re- 
duced to a province after the death of 
king Agrippa, A.D. 43; and it remained in 
this condition till it was entirely overthrown. 

Epistle to the Romans. This was 
placed before the other epistles of St. Paul, 
not because it was first in order of time, 
but, because of the dignity of the imperial 
city, to which it is directed, or because of 
the excellence of the matter which it con- 
tains ; or, because of the magnificence and 
sublimity of the mysteries, which are in it 
treated of, and explained. It passes for 
the most exalted, and the most difficult, of 
all St. Paul's epistles. Jerome was of opi- 
nion, that not one book only, but many vo- 
lumes were necessary, for a full explanation 
of it. And some have thought, that St. 
Peter had chiefly this epistle in his eye, 
when he said, (2 Pet. iii. 15, 16.) 'As our 
beloved brother Paul also, according to the 
wisdom given unto him, hath written unto 
you. As also in all his epistles, speaking 
in them of these things ; in which are some 
things hard to be understood, which they 
that are unlearned and unstable wrest, as 
they do also the other Scriptures, unto their 
own destruction.' But others with good 
reason think St. Peter rather refers to St. 
Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews. 

St. Paul's design in his epistle to the 
Romans, is to heal certain domestic dis- 
putes, which then prevailed among the 
believers at Rome, and divided the con- 
verted Jews and Gentiles. The Jews were 
opiniated concerning their birthright, and 
the promises made to their fathers ; and 
because of this, they pretended to a cer- 
tain priority or preference over the con- 
verted Gentiles, whom they looked on as 
foreigners and interlopers, out of pure fa- 
vour admitted into the society of the faith- 
ful, and to the participation of the prero- 
gatives of Christianity. The Gentiles, on 
the other hand, irritated by these reproaches 
of the Jews, maintained the merit of their 
sages and philosophers, the prudence of 
their legislators, the purity of their mora- 
lity, and their exactness in following the law 
of nature. They accused the Jews of infi- 
delity toward God, and of a violation of 
his laws. They aggravated their faults, and 
those of their fathers, which had excluded 
the greater part of them from the inhe- 
ritance of the saints, and from the faith, &c. 

To end these contentions, St. Paul ap- 
plies himself to restrain the presumption of 
both parties. He shows that neither of 
them could pretend to any merits, or had 
any reason to glory, or boast of their voca- 
tion ; which proceeded from the mere grace 
and mercy of God. He proves that all 
mankind, both Jews and Gentiles, were 



ROS 



RUT 



equally ' under sin,' and liable to the wrath 
and punishment of God ; that therefore there 
was a necessity for an universal propitia- 
tion and redemption, which were now of- 
fered to the whole race of men without any 
preference or exception, by the mercy of 
him who is God of the Gentiles as well as 
of the Jews ; that faith in Jesus Christ, the 
universal Redeemer, was the only means of 
obtaining this salvation, which the deeds of 
the law were wholly incompetent to pro- 
cure ; that as the sins of the whole world 
originated from the disobedience of Adam, 
so the justification from those sins was to be 
derived from the obedience of Christ ; that 
all distinction between Jew and Gentile was 
now abolished, and the ceremonial law en- 
tirely abrogated ; that the unbelieving Jews 
would be excluded from the benefits of the 
Gospel, while the believing Gentiles would 
be partakers of them ; and that this rejec- 
tion of the Jews, and call of the Gentiles, 
were predicted by the Jewish prophets Ho- 
sea and Isaiah. He then points out the 
superiority of the Christian over the Jewish 
religion, and earnestly exhorts the Romans 
to abandon every species of wickedness, 
and to practise the duties of holiness and 
righteousness, which were now enjoined 
upon higher sanctions, and enforced by more 
powerful motives. St. Paul, when he wrote 
this epistle, had not been at Rome (Rom. 
i. 13. ; xv. 23.) ; but he had heard an ac- 
count of the state of the church in that city 
from Aquila and Priscilla, two Christians, 
who were banished from thence by the edict 
of Claudius, and with whom he lived during 
his first visit to Corinth. Whether any 
other apostle had at this time preached the 
Gospel at Rome, cannot now be ascer- 
tained. 

It was written from Corinth, A.D. 58, 
being the fourth year of the emperor Nero, 
just before St. Paul set out for Jerusalem 
with the contributions, which the Christians 
of Macedonia and Achaia had made for the 
relief of their poor brethren in Judaea. 
(Horn. xv. 25, 26. Acts xx 1.) It was 
transcribed, or written as St. Paul dictated 
it, by Tertius (Rom. xvi. 22.) ; and the 
person who conveyed it to Rome was Phoebe, 
(Rom. xvi. 1.) a deaconncss of the church 
at Cenchrea. Bishop Tomlines Elem. of 
Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 385—389 ; 
Bishop Watsons Thcolog. Tracts, vol. ii. p. 
254. 

ROS II, irjo, signifies the hea'l, or the top, 
or the beginning. Rosh, or Ros, was son of 
Benjamin. (Gen. xlvi. 21.) We find in the 
Hebrew of Ezekiel, (xxxviii. 2, 3.) the word 
Rosh, which several copies have retained, 
as signifying the name of a people : but the 
author of the Vulgate, as well as our trans- 
lators of the Bible, has taken it in an 
appellative sense, to signify the head or the 
prince. In Genesis (x. 2.) mention is made 
"(Tubal and Meshech ; we find also Tina, 

889 



which has some relation to Rosh. The 
Septuagint have followed the Hebrew in 
Ezekiel ; and the best interpreters make no 
question, but that Rosh is the name of a 
people ; but they are not agreed about the 
country they inhabited, nor their present 
name. 

The Orientals hold that Japheth had an 
eighth son called Rous, who is not men- 
tioned in Moses, and who peopled the 
Russia we now call Muscovy. They add 
that Rous was of a very uneasy and turbu- 
lent disposition. He possessed the country 
beyond the Esel or the Volga, and often 
made inroads into his brother's territories, 
called Khozar, who, to live in peace with 
him, was forced to make a cession of all the 
islands of this great river, which empties 
itself into the Caspian Sea. 

RUTH, mi, signifies drunk, satisfied. 
Ruth, a Moabitess, having married Chilion, 
the son of Elimelech and Naomi, who had 
settled in Moab, dwelt some time with him 
without having children. Naomi having 
lost her husband and her two sons, and de- 
siring to return to Bethlehem, her own 
country, her two daughters-in-law being, 
now widows, offered to attend her. But she 
assuring them of her inability to provide 
for them there, Orpah was persuaded to 
continue in the land of Moab, but Ruth 
would accompany Naomi to Bethlehem. 
This happened at the close of the time of 
the Judges, and under the government of 
Eli, if we may believe Josephus. The Rab- 
bins pretend that Boaz, who married Ruth, 
was the same as Ibsan, judge of Israel, who 
governed seven years, about the year of the 
world 2823, between Jephthah and Elon. 
The greater chronology of the Hebrews places 
this history in the time of Ehud, and of the 
servitude of the Israelites under Eglon, 
king of Moab. Some place it under Barak 
and Deborah ; some, under Gideon ; others 
under Abimelech. Usher, whom we follow, 
places it under Shamgar, about one hundred 
and twenty years after Joshua. 

When Naomi came to Bethlehem, Ruth 
went to glean for their support. By chance 
she entered the field of a rich citizen of 
Bethlehem, named Boaz, who was related 
to Elimelech her father-in- law. When Boaz 
came to see his harvesters, he found Ruth, 
commended her, and favoured her. Ruth 
returned home at evening, told Naomi of 
the civilities of Boaz, who had also bid her 
glean only in his field. Naomi blessed God, 
who had put such sentiments of humanity 
in lioa/.'s heart, and acquainted Ruth that 
this was their kinsman. 

At the end of harvest, Naomi said to 
Etttth, Ob this night, ami lie at the feet of 
Boa/, who winnows his corn ; and do what 
he advises you. Ruth went accordingly, in 
the (right* and lay down at his feet. Boa/, 
awaking, was alarmed. But lxutb said, f I 
am Kulli thine handmaid ; spread therefore 



RUT 



RUT 



thy skirt over thine handmaid, for thou art 
a near kinsman.' Boaz acknowledged that 
indeed he was a near kinsman, yet there was 
another nearer than himself; but if he 
should refuse to marry her, he himself 
would take her to wife. Rising very early, 
before it was day-light, he filled Ruth's ker- 
chief with corn, and sent her to Naomi. 

Boaz went to the gate of Bethlehem, and, 
before the elders of the city, cited him to 
appear, who was the nearest kinsman to 
Elimelech ; that he might marry Ruth, the 
widow of Chilion, his son. This person 
declining it, Boaz then insisted that he 
should renounce his right to it. This he 
willingly did ; and then Boaz declared that 
he intended to marry her himself. Thus 
Ruth became the wife of Boaz, by whom 
she had a son called Obed, who was father 
to Jesse, and grandfather to king David. 

The book of Ruth, which contains this 



history, is placed, in our Bibles, between 
the book of Judges and the books of 
Samuel, as being the sequel of the former, 
and an introduction to the latter. The scope 
of the author of this book is to relate the 
genealogy of David ; and, in all probability, 
he was the same author who composed the 
first book of Samuel ; in which because he 
could not conveniently place this genealogy 
of David, he chose rather to give it by 
itself. The writer observes, at the beginning 
of his work, that the history he was going to 
relate, happened when the judges governed 
Israel ; therefore they ceased to govern it 
when he wrote. He also speaks of David 
at the end of his book ; which shows that, 
at soonest, it must have been written in the 
time of David. The canonicalness of this 
book has never been disputed. Ruth the 
Moabitess is in the genealogy of our Savi- 
our. (Matt. L 5.) 



SAB 



S. 



SAB 



S AB'AOTH, mNltf, signifies armies, flocks, 
fights. Sabaoth, or rather Zabaoth, is an 
Hebrew word, signifying hosts or armies : 
whether we understand the host of heaven, 
or the angels and ministers of the Lord ; or 
the stars and planets, which as an army, 
ranged in battle array, perform the will of 
God ; or lastly, the people of the Lord, both 
of the old and new covenant, which is truly 
a great army, of which God is the general 
and commander. 

SABBATARIANS are so called from 
their keeping the seventh day of the week as 
the Sabbath ; whilst Christians in general 
keep the first day of the week, or Sunday, 
in memory of our Saviour's having risen 
that day from the dead. On the Continent 
they are generally, but improperly, called 
Israelites. It is uncertain when they first 
made their appearance in the Protestant 
church ; but we learn from Fuller that there 
were Sabbatarians in 1633. 

They object to the reasons which are ge- 
nerally, alleged for keeping the first day ; 
and they insist that the change of the Sab- 
bath from the seventh to the first day of the 
week did not take place till the beginning 
of the fourth century, when it was effected 
by the emperor Constantine, on his con- 
version to Christianity. A summary of their 
principles, as to this article of the Sabbath, 
by which they stand distinguished, is con- 
890 



tained in the three following propositions : 
— 1. That God hath required the observance 
of the seventh, or last day of every week, 
to be observed by mankind universally for 
the weekly sabbath. 2. That this command 
of God is perpetually binding on man till 
time shall be no more. And, 3. That this 
sacred rest of the seventh day Sabbath is 
not changed, by divine authority, from the 
seventh and last to the first day of the week ; 
or, that the Scripture doth no where require 
the observation of any other day of the 
week, for the weekly Sabbath, but the 
seventh day only, which is still kept by the 
Jews, to whom the law on this subject was 
given. 

The Sabbatarians are to be found chiefly, 
if not wholly, among the Baptists ; whence 
they are sometimes called the Seventh-Day 
Baptists ; and they hold, in other respects, 
the distinguishing doctrines of Christianity, 
in common with other Christians. Some of 
them keep our Sunday, or the first day of 
the week, as well as the Jewish Sabbath, or 
Saturday ; and indeed both these days were 
days of assembling, and were long held in 
great veneration among the primitive Chris- 
tians. The ancient canons seem to have 
made them equal, by equally prohibiting 
fasts on either of them. 

The Sabbatarians are only few in number, 
but they deserve to be distinctly noticed, on 



SAB 



SAB 



account of their integrity and respectability. 
There are two congregations of them in 
London ; one among the General Baptists, 
meeting in Mill- Yard, the other among the 
Particular Baptists, in Cripplegate. There 
is also a family or small society of them in 
the neighbourhood of Oxford, and a few to 
be found in some other parts of the kingdom. 
They are to be met with in various parts of 
the Continent ; and it appears that our Sa- 
turday and Sunday are both kept holy by 
the Abyssinian Christians, and some mem- 
bers of the Greek church. We are told by 
Mr. Morse, in his ' American Geography,' 
that there are many Sabbatarians likewise 
in America, as in Rhode Island and New 
Jersey ; and that their doctrine is held by 
the remains of the Keithian, or Quaker Bap- 
tists, and by the Bunkers, or one congre- 
gation of Dunkers, at Ephrata, in Pennsyl- 
vania. See Sabbath. Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 416 — 420. 

SABBATH, row, Gafifiarov, signifies ces- 
sation from labour, rest, repose. This word, 
in Hebrew, signifies rest. God, having 
created the world in six days, rested on the 
seventh (Gen. ii. 2, 3.) ; that is, he ceased 
from producing new beings, in this creation ; 
and because he had rested upon it, he 
blessed this day, that is, sanctified it, and 
appointed it in a peculiar manner for his 
worship. The Hebrews, afterwards, incon- 
sequence of this designation, and to pre- 
serve the memory of the creation, sanctified, 
by his order, the Sabbath-day, or the se- 
venth day of the week, abstaining from all 
work, labour, and servile employments, and 
applying themselves to the service of the 
Lord, to the study of his law, and to prayer. 

As to the institution of the Sabbath, a 
difference of opinion exists among learned 
men. Some refer its beginning to the pro- 
mulgation of the law, or, at farthest, to the 
sending of manna to the Israelites ; and 
they found their notion upon this, that till 
that time we do not read, in all the history 
of the patriarchs and first ages of the 
world, of any sabbath observed and sanc- 
tified by the fathers of those days, which 
would not have been neglected had any 
such command been given. Others, who 
to me seem nearer the truth, place its 
origin so high as the creation of the world, 
from these words, ' On the seventh day 
God ended his work which he had made ; 
and God blessed the seventh day and sanc- 
tified it.' Here God is said to sanctify the 
day when he rested ; which was precisely on 
the seventh day after the creation. Though 
we find no other mention of the Sabbath, 
till Moses had conducted the children of 
Israel in the wilderness, which was about 
2450 years after the creation ; yet it is not 
to be supposed, that among the people of 
God, who were very careful in observing 
the law, and delivering it to their poste- 
rity, the observance of keeping this duv 
891 



utterly ceased, but rather was continued 
among those who feared God, till again in- 
vigorated with new authority from Mount 
Sinai. 

With good reason, and on good authority, 
the sabbath was changed from the last day 
of the week to the first ; from Saturday to 
Sunday, called now the Lord's day, because 
it was the day of the week on which our 
Lord and Saviour rose from the dead. In 
memory of this, and as a thankful acknow- 
ledgment of the great mercy of our redemp- 
tion, fully completed by his resurrection, 
the sabbath hath been translated to this day, 
on which it is now celebrated by all the 
churches of Christ. As the first institution 
of the sabbath was by divine authority, so 
was its change. For as God rested from 
his labour on the last day of the week, so 
did Christ from all his sorrows and afflic- 
tions on the first, when he had fully com- 
pleted the work of our redemption. Christ 
not only sanctified this day by his resurrec- 
tion ; and the apostles confirmed the ob- 
servance of it, by their writings and prac- 
tice ; but the apostles themselves required 
the first Christians to meet together on the 
first day of the week; which was at that 
time honoured with the name of the Lord's 
day, and has been ever since, in all ages of 
the Christian Church, observed as the day 
dedicated to the service and worship of 
God, and to the celebrating of our Lord's 
resurrection from the dead. It is evident 
that our Saviour favoured his disciples with 
his presence on that day more than once, 
when they were assembled for divine wor- 
ship ; and it may be reasonably presumed, 
that, if he had disapproved of their conduct 
in this particular, he would have reproved 
them for it. The most ancient Christian 
writers assure us that the observance of 
the first day of the week prevailed early, 
and constantly, in the church. Thus, Igna- 
tius calls it the queen of days ; and Melito 
wrote a book concerning it. Justin Martyr, 
and Tertullian, in their Apologies, speak 
very expressly of stated Christian assem- 
blies held on this day, not to mention Cle- 
mens Alexandrinus, and many more. Pliny 
likewise speaks of it as the sacred day of 
the Christians, a very few years after the 
death of St. John. Now, is it likely that 
such an observance should have so early and 
so universally prevailed (for it does not ap- 
pear that it was then disputed), had not 
the apostles directed to it? Christians, 
therefore, perceive that their Sabbath has 
its foundation in Scripture, in the example 
and practice, if not command, of the apostles 
themselves ; and they believe that the 
change of the day by them, from the seventh 
to the first, without any alteration that we 
know of, as to the main purpose and design 
of it, virtually implies, if not proves, a com- 
mand for its continuance, as it has accord- 
ingly been continued and observed from 



SAB 



SAB 



the primitive times through all succeeding 
ages of the church, because the chief ends 
of its institution are always, and ever will 
be, the same. 

The proper means of sanctifying the 
Sabbath are, first, the spending of some 
considerable portion of time in our secret 
meditations, prayers, and studies. We 
ought also to review the past week, and 
observe how far we have been endeavouriag 
to do our duty to God, and our neighbour ; 
to examine in what we have failed, of what 
sins or errors we have been guilty, what 
former vows and resolutions we have broken, 
into which of our former sins we have re- 
lapsed, or into what new ones we have 
fallen, and whom we have any way injured 
in word or deed. All these things we ought 
to call to mind, that we may humbly con- 
fess them before God, be truly grieved for 
them, sincerely repent of and forsake them. 
We ought also to observe what particular 
providences of God have occurred to us the 
past week, either such as tend to awaken 
and quicken us in our duty, or oblige us to 
offer up our prayers and thanksgivings to 
God. When a man has thus employed 
some part of the morning, in fitting himself 
to appear before God, he ought then to go 
to the house of prayer, remembering that 
the Scriptures join these two together : ' Ye 
shall keep my sabbaths, and reverence my 
sanctuary.' We ought to consider the 
prayers and praises of the church, as the 
public services which we offer up to God, 
and in which we must remember, what a 
terrible condemnation they fall under, who 
' draw near to God with their mouth, and 
honour him with their lips, when their 
minds and hearts are far from him.' When 
the public worship is ended, every one of us 
ought, for some time, to recollect his 
thoughts, and renew his vows and good 
resolutions; and remembering what we 
have learned, either from the word of God, 
or the sermon, to raise in our minds a pro- 
per sense of things. Masters of families 
ought also to bring their families together to 
prayer, to the reading of some portions of 
Scripture, and of other good books; and 
we ought to edify and admonish one ano- 
ther, by singing psalms, and by serious godly 
discourses. It is also an act of charity, 
highly becoming this day, to ' visit the sick, 
the widows, and the fatherless, in their af- 
fliction,' to comfort the afflicted, to recon- 
cile differences between neighbours, and to 
do such other acts of love and kindness, 
without disturbing too much our own devo- 
tion, as may tend to their good ; by which 
peace, kindness, and love, may be preserved 
among friends, neighbours, and acquaint- 
ance. The neglect or profaning of the Sab- 
bath is one great occasion of that forgetful- 
ness of God, that immorality and impiety, 
which so much abound. For if men on 
this day do not regard their souls, and the 
892 



concerns of religion, when they are at lei- 
sure, and not engaged about their ordinary 
affairs ; how is it to be expected they should 
have much thoughts of religion, when their 
minds are distracted with their temporal 
concerns, and their bodies fatigued with la- 
bour ? We ought then to think it one of the 
greatest blessings to a nation, that God gives 
them his Sabbaths : and those who neglect or 
despise this day, may provoke God to shut 
them out of his rest, even that rest, or 
' keeping of the Sabbath, which remains for 
the people of God.' Warner's System of Di- 
vinity and Morality, vol. ii. pp. 29 — 31 ; 
Richardson's Divine and Moral Essays, pp. 
Ill, 112 ; Adam's Religious World Displayed, 
vol. iii. pp. 417, 418. 

SABELLIANS, were so called from 
Sabellius, a presbyter, or, according to 
others, a bishop, of Upper Egypt, who was 
the founder of the sect. As, from their doc- 
trine, it follows that God the Father suf- 
fered, they were hence called, by their ad- 
versaries, Patripassians ; and, as their idea 
of the Trinity was by some called a Modal 
Trinity, they have likewise been called Mo- 
dalists. Sabellius having been a disciple of 
Noe'tus, Noetians is another name by which 
his followers have sometimes been known ; 
and as, from their fears of infringing on the 
fundamental doctrine of all true religion, 
the unity of God, they neglected all dis- 
tinctions of persons, and taught the notion 
of one God with three names, they may hence 
be also considered as a species of Unita- 
rians. 

Sabellius flourished about the middle of 
the third century ; and his doctrine seems to 
have had many followers for a short time. 
Its growth, however, was soon checked by 
the opposition made to it by Dionysius, bi- 
shop of Alexandria, and the sentence of 
condemnation pronounced upon its author 
by pope Dionysius, in a council held at 
Rome, A.D. 263. 

Sabellius taught, that there is but one 
Person in the Godhead ; and, in confirma- 
tion of this doctrine, he made use of this 
comparison : — as man, though composed of 
body and soul, is but one person, so God, 
though he is Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, 
is but one Person. Hence the Sabellians 
reduced the Three Persons in the Trinity 
to three characters or relations, and main- 
tained that the Word and Holy Spirit are 
only virtues, emanations, or functions, of the 
Deity ; that he who is in heaven is the Fa- 
ther of all things ; — that he descended into 
the Virgin, became a child, and was born of 
her as a Son ; and that, having accomplished 
the mystery of our redemption, he diffused 
himself upon the apostles in tongues of fire, 
and was then denominated the Holy Ghost. 
This they explained by resembling God to 
the sun, the illuminative virtue or quality 
of which was the Word, and its warming 
virtue the Holy Spirit. The Word, accord- 



SAB 



SAC 



ing to their doctrine, was darted, like a 
Divine ray, to accomplish the work of re- 
demption ; and, having re-ascended to hea- 
ven, the influences of the Father were 
communicated, after a like manner, to the 
apostles. They also attempted to illustrate 
this mystery by one light kindled by an- 
other ; by the fountain and stream, and by 
the stock and branch. 

With respect to the sentiments of Sabel- 
lius himself, the accounts are various. Ac- 
cording to some, he taught, that the Fa- 
ther, Son, and Holy Ghost, were one sub- 
sistence, and one Person, with three names ; 
and that, in the Old Testament, the Deity 
delivered the law as Father ; in the New 
Testament dwelt among men as the Son; and 
descended on the apostles as the Holy Spi- 
rit : and this is said to be the opinion which 
gains ground among the Baptists in Wales. 
According to Mosheim, his sentiments dif- 
fered from those of Noetus, in this, that the 
latter was of opinion that the person of the 
Father had assumed the human nature of 
Christ ; whereas Sabellius maintained ' that 
a certain energy only proceeding from the 
Supreme Parent, or a certain portion of the 
Divine nature, was united to the Son of 
God, the man Jesus ; and he considered, in 
the same manner, the Holy Ghost as a por- 
tion of the everlasting Father.' 

In proving the divinity and personality 
of the Son and Holy Ghost, against the Sa- 
bellians, Trinitarians argue thus : — There 
is nothing more certain, than that Christ- 
ians have always adored Jesus Christ as 
their God. This is evident from the Apo- 
logies, the Acts of the Martyrs, and the tes- 
timonies of the heathens themselves, as 
Pliny's letter to Trajan, and the objections 
of Celsus, and Julian the Apostate. It is 
also certain, that the Christians never wor- 
shipped but one God only ; so that Jesus 
Christ is the same God with the Father who 
created the universe. But it is further 
certain, that Jesus Christ is the Son of God ; 
and the same cannot be Father and Son, 
with respect to himself, as Tertullian very 
well demonstrates against Praxeas ; for in 
this case, what Jesus Christ says of himself, 
as that he proceeds from the Father, that 
the Father has sent him, and that he and 
the Father are one, would be wild and ab- 
surd. It were in effect to say, I proceed 
from myself, — have sent myself, — and I and I 
are one. Nor can sound reason admit any 
other interpretation of these, and such like 
expressions, than that which owns Jesus 
Christ as a person distinct from the Father, 
though he be the same God. Again, it is 
no less certain, that the Holy Ghost pro- 
ceeds from the Father, and is sent by the 
Father as well as the Son, but distinct from 
the Son, since it is no where said that he is 
the Son, or begotten. He is equally named 
with them in the form of baptism, — ' Go, 
&c. and baptize them in the name of the 
893 



Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost :' — he is therefore a third Person, but 
the same God. 

Between the system of Sabellianism, and 
what is termed the indwelling scheme, there 
appears to be a considerable resemblance, 
if it be not precisely the same, differently 
explained. The indwelling scheme is 
chiefly founded on that passage in the New 
Testament, where the Apostle, speaking of 
Christ, says, — ' In him dwelleth all the ful- 
ness of the Godhead bodily.' Dr. Watts, 
towards the close of his life, became a 
Sabellian, and wrote several pieces in its 
defence. His sentiments on the Trinity 
appear to have been, that 'the Godhead, 
the Deity itself, personally distinguished as 
the Father, was united to the man Christ 
Jesus, in consequence of which union or 
indwelling of the Godhead, he became pro- 
perly God.' Mr. Palmer observes, that Dr. 
Watts conceived this union to have sub- 
sisted before the Saviour's appearance in 
the flesh, and that the human soul of Christ 
existed with the Father from before the foun- 
dation of the world : on which ground he 
maintains the real descent of Christ from 
heaven to earth, and the whole scene of his 
humiliation, which he thought incompa- 
tible with the common opinion concern- 
ing him. Dr. Doddridge is supposed to 
have entertained the same sentiments, and 
also Mr. Benjamin Fawcett, of Kidder- 
minster, who published a valuable piece, 
entitled ' Candid Reflections concerning the 
Doctrine of the Trinity.' Evans's Sketch of 
the Denominations of the Christian World, pp. 
54, 55 ; Adam's Religious World Displayed, 
vol. ii. pp. 115 — 122 ; Broughton's Historical 
Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 348, 349. 

SACRAMENT is an institution of 
Christ, in which some material thing is 
sanctified by the use of some form or words, 
in and by which federal acts of this religion 
do pass on both sides ; on our's by stipula- 
tions, professions, or vows; and on God's 
by his secret assistances : by these we are 
also united to the body of Christ, which is 
the church. There is no word in the Old 
and New Testament which corresponds to 
the word Sacrament. It is a Latin word ; 
and agreeably to its derivation it was ap- 
plied by the early writers of the western 
church to any ceremony of our holy reli- 
gion, especially if it were figurative or mys- 
tical. But a more confined signification of 
this word by degrees prevailed, and in that 
stricter sense it has been always used by 
the divines of our church. It is observable, 
that the true idea of sacraments is, that 
they are federal acts of religion. We, on 
our part, make certain professions and 
vows; and, if these be made in sincerity 
and truth, God promises to afford us his 
Becret assistance in performing the great 
work of our salvation. It is evident, that 
ordinances of this high importance must be 



SAC 



SAC 



instituted by the Founder himself of our 
religion, or by his apostles in his name. 
Rites and ceremonies, for the more conve- 
nient and decent celebration of public wor- 
ship, may be regulated by the church ; but 
federal acts, which imply a signification of 
the divine will, and a communication of the 
divine grace, must be authorized by God 
himself. He only can prescribe the con- 
ditions upon which he will bestow his bless- 
ings, and point out the channels by which 
he thinks fit to convey them. This, there- 
fore, is the test by which every pretended 
sacrament is to be tried ; and if it be not 
found in the New Testament, under the 
character of an outward and visible sign, 
accompanied with the conditional promise 
of an inward spiritual grace, it is to be 
rejected, as having no claim to the title of 
a sacrament. 

In the primitive ages of Christianity 
there was no dispute concerning the num- 
ber of sacraments, properly so called. The 
Recognitions, which were written at the end 
of the second century, allow of only two 
sacraments ; and Justin Martyr, Tertullian, 
Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine, and Chry- 
sostom, all mention two sacraments, namely, 
Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, and no 
more. That Christ, during his ministry, 
directed those who became his disciples to 
be baptized, is evident from a variety of 
passages (John iii. 22 — 26.; iv. ].) in the 
Gospels ; and after his resurrection he com- 
manded his Apostles to 'go and teach all 
nations, baptizing them in the name of the 
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost ; 5 and he added, ' Lo, I am with you 
alway, even unto the end of the world.' 
(Matt, xxviii. 20.) As by baptism, there- 
fore, we enter into the Christian covenant, 
so by the Lord's Supper we profess our 
continuance in it. That our Saviour, the 
night before his crucifixion, instituted the 
Lord's Supper, we have the testimony of 
the first three Evangelists. (Matt. xxvi. 
Mark xiv. Luke xxii.) 

Peter Lombard, a writer of the twelfth 
century, is the first that reckons seven sa- 
craments, adding to the above two, these 
five, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Ma- 
trimony, and Extreme Unction. Pope 
Eugenius IV. about the middle of the 
fifteenth century, pronounced, that these 
five, as well as the other two, ought to be 
considered as sacraments. In the following 
century, all seven were declared to be equally 
sacraments by the Council of Trent; and 
from that time they have always been 
acknowledged as such by the Church of 
Rome. It is, however, evident, that they 
are not to be reckoned sacraments, in the 
strict and proper sense of the word ; they 
were not instituted as such by Christ or his 
apostles, nor were they known by that 
name in the primitive age in the church. 
Confirmation and Orders we allow to be 



holy functions derived from the apostles, 
though they want the essential qualities of 
a Sacrament. Penance, as practised by 
Papists, is a corruption of a part of 
ancient ecclesiastical discipline, and was 
perverted into its present form of a sacra- 
ment, by the management and contrivance 
of the clergy in the times of darkness and 
ignorance. Matrimony has no claim what- 
ever to be considered as a Christian Sacra- 
ment, since it was not instituted by our 
Saviour, nor was its original character 
changed by the Gospel. It is indeed a 
divine institution, and a state of so much 
importance to the happiness of mankind, 
that it is very proper to be solemnized by 
prayer and other acts of religious worship. 
And lastly, we entirely reject Extreme Unc- 
tion, as having no other foundation than that 
of a symbolical rite, incidentally mentioned 
in Scripture, as accompanying the miracu- 
lous healing of bodily diseases in the apos- 
tolic age. Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. ii. pp. 408—433; 
Burnet's Exposition of the Thirty-nine Arti- 
cles, pp. 332, 333. 

SACRIFICE, an offering made to God 
on his altar, by the hand of a lawful minis- 
ter. Sacrifice differs from oblation, in this ; 
in a sacrifice there must be a real change 
or destruction of the thing offered, whereas 
an oblation is but a simple offering, or a 
gift. As men have always been under an 
obligation of acknowledging the supreme 
dominion of God over them, and over what- 
ever belongs to them, and as there have 
always been persons who have conscien- 
tiously acquitted themselves of this duty, we 
may affirm, that there have always been 
sacrifices in the world. 

Adam and his sons, Noah and his descen- 
dants, Abraham and his posterity, Job and 
Melchizedeck, before the Mosaic law, of- 
fered to God real sacrifices. The law did 
nothing more than ascertain the quality, 
the number, and other circumstances of 
sacrifices. Before that, they offered the 
fruits of the earth, the fat, or the milk of 
animals ; the fleeces of sheep ; or the blood, 
and the flesh of victims. Every one pur- 
sued his own acknowledgment, his zeal, or 
his devotion : but among the Jews, the law 
appointed what they were to offer, and in 
what quantities. Before the law, every one 
was priest and minister of his own sacrifice ; 
at least he was at liberty to choose what 
priest he pleased should offer his victim. 
Generally this honour belonged to the most 
ancient, or head of a family, to princes, or 
men of the greatest virtue and integrity. 
But after Moses, this was, among the Jews, 
confined to the family of Aaron. 

It is very probable, that sacrifice was 
instituted immediately after God had re- 
vealed the covenant of grace, by means of 
the promised ' Seed of the woman,' in his 
denunciation to the serpent. (Gen. iii. 15.) 



SAC 



SAC 



That promise was the first stone that was 
laid toward the erection of this glorious 
building, the work of Redemption, through 
Jesus Christ, ' the chief corner stone,' to 
crown and complete the whole at the con- 
summation of all things. (Ephes. ii. 20.) 
The next stone laid upon that, was the 
institution of sacrifice, to be a type or 
significant emblem of the great atonement, 
or all-sufficient sacrifice of ' the Lamb of 
God that taketh away the sins of the repen- 
tant and believing world,' (John i. 29.) 
thus ' slain for us, from the foundation of 
the world.' (Rev. xiii. 8.) After God had 
pronounced sentence on all the offending 
parties, we are next told, that 'the Lord 
God made to Adam and his wife coats of 
skins, and clothed them.' Instead of the 
slight and imperfect covering they had 
made for themselves, God now taught them 
to make one more substantial, to protect 
them from the inclemency of the weather 
in their new abode, when excluded from 
Paradise. These coats are supposed, by 
the generality of divines, to have been made 
of the skins of beasts slain in sacrifice, by 
the divine appointment. They could not 
have been slain for food : because in Para- 
dise man was allowed only to eat of its 
* fruits ;' and after his expulsion of ' the 
herb of the field ;' the grant of flesh meat 
was not given till after the deluge, to Noah 
and his family. (Gen. ix. 3.) For it, there- 
fore, no other reasonable cause can be 
assigned. What temptation could have in- 
duced our first parents to shed the blood of 
unoffending animals ? a deed so revolting 
to their feelings and their reason ; to which 
nothing short of a divine injunction would 
naturally have compelled them. In animal 
sacrifices, the blood, in which is the principle 
of life, was devoted to God, as an atonement 
for the forfeited life of the sacrificer. (Lev. 
xvii. 11.) But this symbolical atonement 
could only have been appointed by him 
with whom are ' the issues of life and 
death,' God himself, whose sole prerogative 
it is ' to kill and to make alive, to wound 
and to heal.' (Deut. xxxii. 39.) The death 
of the victim was also wisely appointed to 
be a mournful presage to our first parents, 
as often as they were required to sacrifice, 
of that death which they had incurred by 
their transgression, and to be inflicted on 
themselves, they knew not how soon. Sa- 
crifice, therefore, furnished a useful memento 
of their own death. 

Dr. Spencer observes, that ' sacrifices 
were looked upon as gifts, and that the ge- 
neral opinion was, that gifts would have the 
same effect with God as with man ; would 
appease wrath, conciliate favour with the 
Deity, and testify the gratitude and affec- 
tion of the sacrificer ; and that from this 
principle proceeded expiatory, precatory, 
and eucharistical offerings. This is all that 
is pretended from natural light to counte- 
895 



nance this practice. But, how well soever 
the comparison may be thought to hold 
between sacrifices and gifts, yet the opinion 
that sacrifices would prevail with God must 
proceed from an observation that gifts had 
prevailed with men; an observation this, 
which Cain and Abel had little opportunity 
of making. And if the coats of skins which 
God directed Adam to make were the re- 
mains of sacrifices, surely Adam could not 
sacrifice from this observation, when there 
were no subjects in the world upon which 
he could make these observations.' 

The great objection to the Divine origin 
of sacrifices is drawn from the Scriptures 
themselves, particularly the following: 'I 
spake not to your fathers, nor commanded 
them, at the time that I brought them out 
of Egypt, concerning the matters of burnt- 
offerings or sacrifices ; but only this very 
thing commanded I them, saying, Obey my 
voice, and I will be your God, and ye shall 
be my people.' (Jer. vii. 22, 23.) Dr. Ken- 
nicott explains this passage by referring to 
the transaction at Marah, (Exod. xv. 23 — 
26.) at which time God spake nothing con- 
cerning sacrifices. It certainly cannot be 
intended to contradict the whole Book of 
Leviticus, which is full of such appoint- 
ments. Bishop Lowth, to account for the 
above, and other similar passages, observes, 
1 The Jews were diligent in performing the 
external services of religion ; in offering 
prayers, incense, sacrifices, oblations : but 
these prayers were not offered with faith ; 
and their oblations were made more fre- 
quently to their idols than to the God of 
their fathers. The Hebrew idiom excludes 
with a general negative, in a comparative 
sense, one of two objects opposed to one 
another, thus : " I will have mercy and not 
sacrifice." (Hosea vi. 6.) " For I spake 
not to your fathers, nor commanded them, 
concerning burnt-offerings or sacrifices ; but 
this thing I commanded them, saying, Obey 
ray voice." ' Dr. Doddridge remarks, that, 
according to the genius of the Hebrew lan- 
guage, one thing seems to be forbidden, and 
another commanded, when the meaning 
only is, that the latter is greatly to be pre- 
ferred to the former. The text before us is 
a remarkable instance of this ; and many 
other passages are to be expounded in the 
same comparative sense. So that the whole 
may be resolved into the apophthegm of the 
wise man (Prov. xxi. 3.) : ' To do justice 
and judgment is more acceptable to the 
Lord than sacrifice.' 

The Hebrews had properly only three 
sorts of sacrifices ; 1. The burnt-offering, or 
holocaust ; 2. The sacrifice for sin, or sa- 
crifice of expiation ; 3. The pacific sacrifice, 
or sacrifice of thanksgiving. Besides these 
were several kinds of offerings, of corn, of 
meal, of cakes, of wine, of fruits ; and one 
manner of sacrificing, which has no relation 
to any now mentioned, that is, the settin . 



SAC 



SAC 



at liberty one of the two sparrows offered 
for the purification of leprous persons 
(Levit. xiv. 4, 5, 6, 7. 51, 52, 53.) ; and the 
scape-goat, which was taken to a distant 
and steep place, from whence it was thrown 
(Levit. xvi. 10. 26.) : these animals, thus 
left to themselves, were esteemed as victims 
of expiation, loaded with the sins of those 
who offered them. 

The holocaust was offered and burnt up, 
on the altar of burnt- offerings, without any 
reserve to the person who gave the victim, 
or to the priest who killed and sacrificed it ; 
only the priest had the skin : for, before the 
sacrifices were offered to the Lord, the skins 
were flayed off, and their feet and entrails 
were washed. (Levit. vii. 8.) 

The sacrifice for sin, or for expiation, or 
the purification of a man who had fallen 
into any offence against the law, was not 
entirely consumed on the fire of the altar. 
No part of it returned to him who had given 
it, but the sacrificing priest had a share of 
it. If it were the high-priest who had of- 
fended through ignorance, he offered a calf 
without blemish : he brought it to the door 
of the tabernacle, put his hand on the head 
of the sacrifice, confessed his sin, asked 
pardon for it, killed the calf, &c. (Lev. iv. 
v.) If it were the whole people which had 
offended, they were to offer a calf, in like 
manner. The elders shall bring it to the 
altar of the tabernacle, shall put their hands 
upon its head, and confess their offence, &c. 
If it be a prince of the people, who had 
offended, he shall offer a goat, shall bring it 
to the door of the tabernacle, shall put his 
hands upon its head, and shall confess his 
sin, &c. It is probable, that though Moses 
orders a goat, it is to be understood that 
they might offer a ram. (Lev. vii. 1, 2, 3, 
4. ; v. 6, 70 If it be a private person who 
has committed an offence, he shall offer a 
sheep, or a she-goat without blemish, shall 
present it to the priest at the door of the 
tabernacle, shall put his hands upon the 
head of the sacrifice. The priest shall sa- 
crifice it, &c. (Lev. iv. v.) But if he is 
not of ability to offer a sheep, or a she- 
goat, he shall offer two turtles, or two 
young pigeons; one for his sin, the other 
for a burnt-offering. That which is for 
the burnt- offering shall be entirely con- 
sumed on the fire of the altar. That which 
shall be offered for his sin, shall be pre- 
sented to the priest, who shall kill it, &c. 
If the person was extremely poor, he 
might offer the tenth part of an ephah of 
meal, that is a little more than a gallon of 
meal, without oil or spice. He presented 
it to the priest, who took a handful of it, 
and threw it on the fire ; the rest was for 
himself. There are some other circum- 
stances belonging to this subject, (Levit. 
v. 15, 16. ; vi. 1, 2, 3.) concerning the 
faults in which, besides the sin-offering 
and sacrifice of expiation, there is a kind 
896 



of amends to be made, or obligation of 
restitution to the Lord, or to the persons 
offended, according to the nature of the 
offence : for as to the rest, the ceremonies 
were always the same. As to the sacrifice 
for sin, when a ram was offered, his rump, 
or tail, was burnt also, which was very fat, 
along with the rest of the fat. But if it was 
a goat, the fat only was burnt. (Levit. vii. 
2,3.) 

The peace-offering was offered, to return 
thanks to God for benefits; or to solicit 
favours from him ; or to satisfy private 
devotion ; or, lastly, for the honour of 
God, only. The Israelites offered this 
when they pleased, and no law obliged 
them to it. They were free to present 
what animals they would, provided they 
were such as were allowed to be sacrificed. 
In these sacrifices no distinction was 
observed, either of age, or sex, of the 
victim, as was required in the burnt-sacri- 
fices, and the sacrifices for sin. (Levit. iii.) 
The law only required that the victim 
should be without blemish. He who pre- 
sented them came to the door of the taber- 
nacle, put his hand on the head of the 
victim, and killed it. The priest poured 
out the blood about the altar of burnt- 
sacrifices ; he burnt on the fire of the altar 
the fat which is in the lower belly, that 
which covers the kidneys, the liver, and the 
bowels. And if it were a lamb, or a ram, 
he added to it the rump of the animal, 
which is very fat in that country. Before 
these things were set in order on the fire 
of the altar, the priest put them into the 
hands of the person who provided the vic- 
tim, then made him lift them up on high, 
and wave them towards the four quarters 
of the world, the priest supporting and 
directing his hands. The breast and the 
right shoulder of the sacrifices belonged to 
the priest that performed the service ; and 
it appears that each of them were put into 
the hands of him who offered them ; though 
Moses mentions only the breast of the 
animal. After this, all the rest of the 
sacrifice belonged to him who presented 
it, and he might eat it with his family and 
friends, as any other meat. (Levit. viii. 30, 
31, &c.) 

The sacrifices or offerings of meal or 
liquors, which were offered for sin, were in 
favour of the poorer sort, who could not 
afford sacrifices of oxen, of goats, or of 
sheep. (Levit. vi. 14, 15, &c.) See Offer- 
ings. 

The sacrifices of birds were offered on 
three occasions. See Bird. 

For the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, see 
Passover. 

The perpetual sacrifice, called in He- 
brew thamid: the Lord had appointed, 
(Exod. xxix. 38, 39, 40. Numb, xxviii. 
3.) that they should offer every day two 
lambs on the altar of burnt-offerings ; one 



SAD 



SAD 



in the morning, the other in the evening. 
They were burnt as holocausts, but by a 
small fire, that they might continue burn- 
ing the longer. The lamb of the morning 
was offered about sun-rise ; after the incense 
was burnt on the golden altar, and before 
any other sacrifice. That in the evening 
was offered between the two evenings, that 
is, at the decline of day, and before night. 
With each of these victims were offered half 
a pint of wine, half a pint of the purest oil, 
and an assaron, or about three pints of the 
finest flour. 

Human Sacrifices. The natural notion 
common to mankind, that we must offer to 
God whatever we most value, has prevailed 
on several nations so far, as to induce them 
to offer human sacrifices. It is not agreed 
who first introduced this custom. Philo in- 
sinuates that the custom of offering such 
saci*ifices was known in Canaan before 
Abraham; and some learned men think 
that the example of these people took off 
much of that horror Abraham would other- 
wise have had at the intention of sacrificing 
his own son. But it is much more proba- 
ble, that Abraham was the first that at- 
tempted to sacrifice his own son ; and that 
his example misunderstood, and ill-applied, 
gave rise to this custom. Philo does not 
deny, indeed, that human sacrifices might 
obtain in Palestine before Abraham's time ; 
but he maintains that this patriarch had no 
intention to imitate these people, whose 
manners and idolatry he abhorred. What 
motives could prompt him to this action ? 
Was it fear, hope, vanity, ostentation, desire 
of praise, or of riches? Isaac was every 
thing to him. 

Human sacrifices were customary in Pa- 
lestine, Africa, Gaul, and in almost all parts 
of the world ; it must be owned, too, they 
were very ancient, and that men really 
were sacrificed to their false gods. Some 
learned men have thought that, among the 
Canaanites and Moabites, they contented 
themselves with making the children to 
pass through the flames, or between two 
fires, which they called lustrare per ignem ; 
and we doubt not but sometimes they did 
so. But often they really consumed them 
in the flames. Calmefs Dictionary of the 
Holy Bible ; Kennicott's second Dissertation 
on the Oblations of Cain and Abel, pp. 153. 
201. &c. ; Bishop Lowth on Isaiah, xlii. 22. 
24. ; Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, 
vol. ii. book i. pp. 23, 24. 

S AD'DUCEES, a famous sect among the 
Jews. It is said that the principles of the 
Sadducees were derived from Antigonus 
Sochaeus, president of the Sanhedrim, about 
250 years B. C, who, rejecting the tra- 
ditionary doctrines of the Scribes, taught 
that man ought to serve God out of pure 
love, and not from hope of reward, or fear 
of punishment : and that they derived their 
name from Sadoc, one of his followers, who, 
897 



mistaking or perverting this doctrine, main- 
tained that there was no future state of 
rewards and punishments. Whatever foun- 
dation there may be for this account of the 
origin of the sect, it is certain that in the 
time of our Saviour the Sadducees denied 
the resurrection of the dead (Acts xxiii. 8.), 
and the existence of angels and spirits, or 
souls of departed men ; though, Mr. Home 
observes, it is not easy to comprehend how 
they could at the same time admit the au- 
thority of the law of Moses. They carried 
their ideas of human freedom so far as to 
assert, that men were absolutely masters of 
their own actions, and at full liberty to do 
either good or evil. Josephus even says, 
that they denied the essential difference be- 
tween good and evil ; and though they be- 
lieved that God created and preserved the 
world, they seem to have denied his parti- 
cular providence. These tenets, which re- 
semble the Epicurean philosophy, led, as 
might be expected, to great profligacy of 
life ; and we find the licentious wickedness 
of the Sadducees frequently condemned in 
the New Testament: yet they professed 
themselves obliged to observe the Mosaic 
law, because of the temporal rewards and 
punishments annexed to such observance ; 
and hence they were always severe in their 
punishment of any crimes which tended to 
disturb the public tranquillity. 

The Sadducees rejected all tradition, and 
some authors have contended, that they ad- 
mitted only the books of Moses ; but there 
seems no ground for that opinion, either in 
the Scriptures, or in any ancient writer. 
Even Josephus, who was himself a Pharisee, 
and took every opportunity of reproaching 
the Sadducees, does not mention that they 
rejected any part of the Scriptures ; he only 
says that ' the Pharisees have delivered to 
the people many institutions as received 
from the fathers, which are not written in 
the law of Moses. For this reason, the 
Sadducees reject these things, asserting that 
those things are binding which are written, 
but that the things received by tradition 
from the fathers are not to be observed.' 
Besides, it is generally believed that the 
Sadducees expected the Messiah with great 
impatience ; which seems to imply their 
belief in the prophecies, though they mis- 
interpreted their meaning. Confining all 
their hopes to this present world, enjoying 
its riches, and devoting themselves to its 
pleasures, they might well be particularly 
anxious that their lot of life should be cast 
in the splendid reign of this expected tett 
poral king, with the hope of sharing in his 
conquests and glory : but this expectation 
was so contrary to the lowly appearance of 
our Saviour, that they joined their invete- 
rate enemies, the Pharisees, in persecuting 
him and his religion. Josephus says, that 
' the Sachlueees were able to draw over to 
them the rich onlv, the people not following 

3 M 



SAI 



SAI 



them ;' and he elsewhere mentions, that 
* this sect spread chiefly among the young.' 
The Sadducees were far less numerous than 
the Pharisees ; but they were, in general, 
persons of greater opulence and dignity. 
The council before whom both our Saviour 
and St. Paul were carried, consisted partly 
of Pharisees and partly of Sadducees. 

It is a question of some difficulty, how the 
Sadducees could disbelieve the existence of 
angels, and yet receive the five books of 
Moses as canonical Scripture, in which are 
so many narratives of the appearance of 
angels. Probably their opinion concerning 
angels was, that they were not permanent 
beings, but temporary phantoms, formed by 
the divine power for particular purposes, 
and again dissipated when these were an- 
swered. Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, book 
i. chap. xi. ; Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. i. pp. 255 — 258. 

SAINTS, invocation of. The Roman 
Catholics believe that the blessed saints in 
heaven, replenished with charity, pray for 
us their fellow-members here on earth ; that 
they rejoice at our conversion ; that seeing 
God., they see and know in him all things 
suitable to their happy state ; that God is 
inclinable to hear their requests made in 
our behalf, and for their sakes granteth us 
many favours ; that therefore it is good and 
profitable to desire their intercession ; and 
that this manner of invocation is no more 
injurious to Christ our mediator, nor super- 
abundant in itself, than it is for one Chris- 
tian to beg the prayers and assistance of 
another in this world. Notwithstanding all 
this, Catholics are taught not so to rely on 
the prayers of others, as to neglect their own 
duty to God ; in imploring his divine mercy 
and goodness ; in mortifying the deeds of 
the flesh ; in despising the world ; in loving 
and serving God and their neighbour ; in 
following the footsteps of Christ our Lord, 
who is ' the way, the truth, and the life.' 
,' We hold it,' say they, ' to be pious and 
profitable to apply ourselves to them, in the 
way of desiring them to pray to God for us ; 
but not so as to address ourselves to them 
as if they were the authors or disposers of 
pardon, grace, or salvation, or as if they had 
any power to help us independently of God's 
good will and pleasure.' 

It is, however, certain, that the practice 
of invoking saints was not known in the 
first three centuries, or in the middle of the 
fourth century ; for the invocation of Christ 
is urged by Athanasius, Cyril, Basil, and 
other fathers of that time, as an argument 
for his divinity, because they did not pray to 
angels or other creatures ; and Augustine, 
who died at the age of seventy- six, in the 
year 430, says, ' Let not the worship of dead 
men be any part of our religion ; they ought 
to be so honoured that we may imitate them, 
but not worshipped.' This passage seems 
to refer to the invocation of martyrs, which 
898 



probably began at the end of the fourth cen- 
tury. The primitive Christians commemo- 
rated the deaths of the first martyrs every 
year, on the day on which they suffered ; 
and the invocations of saints probably ori- 
ginated from the orations pronounced upon 
those occasions ; the earliest of which now 
extant are those of Gregory Nazianzen, who 
lived towards the end of the fourth cen- 
tury. 

In these orations, which were written 
with all the latitude of declamatory elo- 
quence, there was frequently a sort o'f rhe- 
torical address to the dead person, who was 
considered as enjoying happiness in heaven, 
and a kind of petition to intercede with God 
in favour of those who were paying that 
honour to his memory. This was at first 
ventured upon doubtfully, and always with 
some such qualification as this : — ' If there 
be any sense or knowledge of what we do 
below.' These qualifications were gradually 
omitted; the orators addressed the dead 
directly, and solicited their assistance with- 
out any reserve. In the fifth century, they 
prayed to God to listen to the intercessions 
of his saints and martyrs ; not long after- 
wards litanies were appropriated to them; 
and, at length, by an easy transition, prayers 
were offered to them in the same manner as 
to God and Christ. Thus the invocation of 
saints became an established practice of the 
Christian church ; it was continued through 
the dark ages ; and the council of Trent 
decreed, that ' all men are to be condemned 
who do not own that the saints reigning 
with Christ offer their prayers to God for 
men ; and that it is useful to invoke them 
to procure their asistance in asking God for 
blessings through Christ.' 

It is sufficiently clear, that there is no 
foundation whatever for this doctrine in 
Scripture. We are commanded to offer our 
prayers to God through Christ alone: — 
' There is one God, and one mediator be- 
tween God and men, the man Christ Jesus.' 
(1 Tim. ii. 5.) — ' Through him we have ac- 
cess to the Father.' (Eph. ii. 18.) No other 
person is mentioned by whom we can ap- 
proach the Father ; and the silence of Scrip- 
ture is decisive upon this subject : for we 
may rest assured, that every necessary di- 
rection is given to us relative to the impor- 
tant duty of prayer. The worshipping of 
angels is forbidden by St. Paul : *. Let no 
man beguile you of your reward in a volun- 
tary humility, and worshipping of angels,' 
(Col. ii. 18.) ; it must therefore be unlawful 
to worship men, who were ' made lower than 
the angels.' (Heb. ii. 7.) Several of the 
apostles and first Christians, particularly 
St. James the Great and St. Stephen, had 
suffered martyrdom when the Epistles were 
written, but no mention is made of offering 
prayers to them, or through them. Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, 
vol. ii. pp. 362 — 365; Nightingale's Por- 



SAL 



SAL 



traiture of the Roman Catholic Religion, pp. 
292. 397- 

SAL'AH, nbw, 2a\a, signifies mission, 
sending ; otherwise, branches, or dart ; ac- 
cording to the Syriac, that spoils, or is spoil- 
ed. Salah, the son of Arphaxad, was born 
in the thirty-fifth year of Arphaxad, and in 
the year of the world 1693. He begat 
Eber at thirty years old, and died aged 433 
years. (Gen. xi. 12, &c.) A town near 
Susa, called Sala or Sela, is supposed to be 
named from him. ., Hates' s New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. ii. booki. p. 46. 

SAL'AMIS, SaXa/xic, signifies shaken, 
tost, beaten. Salamis was once a famous 
city in the isle of Cyprus, opposite to Se- 
leucia, on the Syrian coast. Paul came 
hither with Barnabas, a. d. 45, and there 
converted Sergius Paulus. (Acts xiii. 5.) 
As it was the first place where the Gospel 
was preached, it was, in the primitive times, 
made the see of the primate or metropolitan 
of the whole island. In the reign of the 
emperor Trajan it was destroyed by the 
Jews, and rebuilt: but after that, being in 
the time of Herodius sacked and razed to 
the ground by the Saracens, it never re- 
covered its former splendour. However, 
out of its ruins is said to have arisen Fa- 
magusta, which was the chief place of the 
isle when the Turks took it from the Vene- 
tians, in the year 1570. Br. Wells's Geo- 
graphy of the Old and New Testament, vol. ii. 
p. 242. 

SALA'THIEL, bttnbttv, signifies / have 
asked of God, or loan of God. Salathiel was 
son of Jeconiah, and father of Zerubbabel. 
(1 Chron. iii. 17-) He died at Babylon dur- 
ing the captivity. Salathiel was also son of 
Neri, according to St. Luke. (iii. 27.) He 
descended from Solomon by Rehoboam, 
according to St. Matthew (i. 12.); and 
from Solomon by Nathan, according to St. 
Luke. In Salathiel were united the two 
branches of this illustrious genealogy ; so 
that Salathiel was son to Jeconiah, accord- 
ing to the flesh, as appears from the Chron- 
icles, which say, that Jeconiah had two sons, 
Assir and Salathiel, at Babylon. And he 
might be son of Neri by adoption, or by 
having married the heiress of Neri's family ; 
or, as proceeding from the widow of Neri, 
he being dead without children. For in 
any one of these cases he would pass for the 
son of Neri according to the law. St. Luke 
does not tell us in what sense he was son to 
Neri. Dr. Hales says, that Salathiel must 
have been the grandson of Neri, by his 
mothers side. 

Dr. Barrett has brought some satisfac- 
tory arguments to prove, that the wife of 
Jeconiah, and the mother of Salathiel, was 
the celebrated Susanna, the subject of the 
apochryphal book. Ilales's New Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. ii. book ii. p. 700, and 
Note. 

SALO'ME, XaXdj/JLt], signifies peaceable, 
899 



perfect; or, that rewards. Salome was the 
name of several Jewish women, and in par- 
ticular of the daughter of Herodias, or He- 
rod Philip, who is known in Scripture, 
though not by this name, to have, at the in- 
stigation of her mother, asked the head of 
John the Baptist of her uncle, Herod An- 
tipas, who had promised to give her what- 
ever she would ask. Salome married Herod 
the tetrarch, her uncle, the son of Herod the 
Great, and afterwards Aristobulus, the son 
of Herod king of Chalcis, by whom she had 
several children. 

Salome, wife of Zebedee, and mother of 
St. James the Great, and St. John the Evan- 
gelist. She was one of those holy women who 
attended our Saviour in his journeys, and 
ministered to him. (Matt, xxvii. 56.) She 
requested of Jesus, that her two sons, James 
and John, might sit one his right hand and 
the other on his left hand, when he should 
possess his kingdom. (Matt, xxvii. 56. 
Mark xv. 40.) But the Son of God an- 
swered her, and her two sons, Ye know not 
what ye ask : to sit on my right hand and on 
my left, is not mine to give, but it shall be 
given to them for whom it is prepared of 
my Father. 

Salome gave a great proof of her faith, 
when she followed Jesus Christ to Calvary, 
and did not forsake him even at the cross. 
(Mark xv. 40. Matt, xxvii. 55, 56.) She 
was also one of those holy women who 
brought perfumes to embalm him, and who 
came for this purpose to the sepulchre on 
Sunday morning early. (Mark xvi. 1, 2.) 
At the tomb they saw two angels, who in- 
formed them that Jesus was risen. Return- 
ing to Jerusalem, Jesus appeared to them 
on the way, and said to them, Be not afraid ; 
go tell my brethren, that they go into 
Galilee, and there shall they see me. This 
is what the Scripture informs us of Salome, 
the mother of the sons of Zebedee. 

Some give her the name of Mary Salome ; 
but there is no good proof of her being called 
Mary. 

SALVATION imports, in general, some 
great deliverance from any evil or danger. 
Thus God's conducting the Israelites through 
the Red Sea, and delivering them out of the 
hands of the Philistines, is called a great sal- 
vation. But salvation, by way of eminence, 
is applied to that wonderful deliverance, 
which our blessed Saviour procured for man- 
kind, by saving them from the punishment of 
their sins ; and in the New Testament is the 
same as our redemption by Christ. This is 
that salvation, referred to by St. Paul, 'How 
shall we escape if we neglect so great sal- 
vation V The salvation which Christ pur- 
chased, and the Gospel tenders to every 
creature, comprehends the greatest bless- 
ings God can bestow ; a deliverance from 
the most dreadful evils that mankind can 
Buffer. It contains all that ean make the 
nature of man perfect, or his life happy ; 
3 M 2 



SAL 



SAL 



and secures him from whatever can render 
his condition miserable. The blessings of it 
are inexpressible, and beyond imagination. 
' Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither 
hath it entered into the heart of man to 
conceive the things which God hath prepared 
for them that love him.' For, to be saved, 
as Christ saved the world, is to have all 
our innumerable sins and transgressions 
forgiven and blotted out ; all those heavy 
loads of guilt, which oppressed our souls, 
perfectly removed from our minds.. It is 
to be reconciled to God, and restored to 
his favour ; so that he will be no longer 
angry, terrible, and revengeful ; but a most 
kind, compassionate, and tender-hearted 
father. It is to be at peace with him, and 
with our consciences ; to have a title to 
his peculiar love, care, and protection, all 
our days to be rescued from the bondage and 
dominion of sin, and the tyranny of the 
devil. It is to be translated from the power 
of darkness into the kingdom of our dear 
Lord ; so that sin shall reign no longer in 
our mortal bodies, but we shall serve God in 
newness of spirit. It is to be placed in a 
state of true freedom and liberty, to be no 
longer under the control of blind passions, 
and hurried on by our impetuous lusts, to 
do what our reason condemns. It is to 
have a new principle of life infused in our 
souls, by which we shall be enabled to live 
up to the perfection of our nature, and in 
some degree partake of the divine. It is to 
have the Holy Spirit lodged in our hearts, 
whose comfortable influence will ever cheer 
and refresh us, and by whose wise counsels 
we shall be always advised, directed, and 
governed. It is to be transformed into the 
image of God ; to be like him in wisdom, 
righteousness, and all other perfections, of 
which man's nature is capable. 

To be saved as Christ came to save man- 
kind, is to be delivered from the wrath to 
come, and from that dreadful vengeance 
which shall one day be inflicted on the 
whole world; when the heaven shall pass 
away with a great noise, and the elements 
shall be burnt up with fervent heat, the 
earth also, and the works that are in it, 
shall be burnt up. To be saved as Christ 
came to save the world, is to be translated, 
after this life is ended, into a state of 
eternal felicity ; never more to die or suffer 
the uneasiness and infirmities of an earthly 
body ; never more to know pain and sick- 
ness, grief and sorrow, labour and weari- 
ness, disquiet or vexation ; but to live in 
perfect ease and peace, freedom and liberty ; 
and to enjoy ourselves and the greatest good, 
after the most perfect manner for ever. It 
is to have our bodies, that sleep in the dust, 
raised again and re-united to our souls; 
and to be no longer gross, earthly, cor- 
ruptible bodies, but spiritual, heavenly, im- 
mortal ones ; fashioned like unto Christ's 
glorious body, in which he now sits at the 
900 



right hand of God. It is to live in the city 
of the great King, the heavenly Jerusalem, 
where the glory of the Lord fills the place 
with perpetual light and bliss. It is to spend 
an eternity in the most noble and agreeable 
employments ; in viewing and contemplat- 
ing the wonderful works of God, admiring 
the wisdom of his providence, adoring his 
infinite love to the sons of men, reflecting 
on our own inexpressible happiness, and 
singing everlasting hymns of praise, joy, 
and triumph, to God and our Lord Jesus 
Christ, for vouchsafing all these blessings. 
It is to dwell for ever in a place, where 
no objects of pity or compassion, of anger 
or envy, of hatred or distrust, are to be 
found ; but where all will increase the hap- 
piness of each other, by mutual love and 
kindness. It is to converse with the most 
delightful company, to be restored to the 
society of our dear friends and relations, 
who died in the faith of Christ. Lastly, 
it is to be with Jesus Christ, to behold his 
glory, to live for ever in seeing and en- 
joying the great God, in whose presence 
is fulness of joy, and at whose right hand 
are pleasures for evermore. This is the 
salvation that Christ hath purchased for 
us ; this the salvation his Gospel offers to 
all mankind. 

When the Lord only requires us, to do 
justice, love mercy, and walk humbly with 
our God, which is our case; what excuse 
can be made for those who will neglect a sal- 
vation that may be so easily attained ? Cer- 
tain it is, that the terms of our future hap- 
piness, as proposed by our Saviour, are in 
themselves most agreeable to the make and 
frame of our nature, highly conducive to 
the improvement and perfection of our 
faculties, and very necessary even to our 
temporal felicity, if there had been no pro- 
mise annexed to them, of an eternal reward. 
And can we then think it severe treatment, 
to have all the glories of heaven offered us, 
upon such conditions as these ; namely, 
that we live up to the dignity of our nature, 
and endeavour to make our abode here as 
happy as we can, by the practice of virtue 
and righteousness ? These are the terms of 
salvation offered by the Gospel to mankind. 
The sensual and careless will be apt to 
take refuge, and say, What though heaven 
be a glorious place, and however easy and 
reasonable the course of life leading to it 
is represented, yet we find, by our own ex- 
perience, that it is very hard for flesh and 
blood to live in so regular and exact a man- 
ner. The temptations to sin are every 
where so many and powerful, and our own 
strength to resist them so little and incon- 
siderable, that we know not how to under- 
take such an affair. But, alas ! how vain 
are these pretences and suggestions ; as if 
we had no supports against these discourage- 
ments, and as if the work of our salvation 
was left entirely to our own strength. If 



SAM 



SAM 



we only apply to our blessed Saviour for his 
gracious aid and assistance, were the dif- 
ficulties with which we have to contend 
much more considerable than they are, yet 
they deserve not to be named, being so ex- 
ceedingly overbalanced by those divine 
powers and aids, with which God will supply 
us, if we seriously engage in this work. 
Christ Jesus hath not only purchased a king- 
dom for us, and instructed us in the way to 
it ; but he hath procured the Holy Spirit to 
be our continual assistant and guide thither. 
He hath not only given us a most excellent 
and glorious example, and bid us follow 
him ; but he hath sent the Holy Ghost, as 
his vicegerent on earth, to conduct us to the 
blessed place where he is. We have the 
grace of God always ready, if we seriously 
pray for it, to strengthen our weakness, to 
assist our endeavours, to enlighten our 
minds, to fortify our wills, to excite our af- 
fections, to support us under all temptations ; 
provided we are honest and sincere in the 
prosecution of that glorious warfare to which 
we are called. Warner's System of Divinity 
and Morality, vol. i. pp. 383 — 395. 

SAMA'RIA, THaw, Swjuepwv, Heb. 
Shomeron, signifies keepings; otherwise, a 
diamond, or brambles, or thorns, or his dregs. 
Samaria was the capital city of the kingdom 
of Samaria, that is, of the ten tribes. It 
was built by Omri, king of Israel, who 
began to reign in the year of the world 
3079, and died in 308G. (1 Kings xvi. 24.) 
He bought the hill Samaria of Shemer, or 
Shomeron, for two talents of silver, or £684. 
It took the name of Samaria from Shemer : 
though some think there were already some 
beginnings of a city, because, before the 
reign of Omri, mention is made of Samaria, 
(1 Kings xiii. 32.) in the year of the world 
3030, and consequently forty-nine years be- 
fore the reign of Omri. Others take this 
for a prolepsis, or an anticipation in the 
discourse of the man of God, who speaks of 
Samaria under the reign of Jeroboam. 

However, Samaria was not considerable, 
and did not become the capital city of the 
kingdom of Israel, until after the reign of 
Omri. Before him the kings of Israel dwelt 
at Shechem, or at Tirzah. Samaria was 
built on an agreeable and fruitful hill, in an 
advantageous situation, twelve miles from 
Dothaim, twelve from Merrom, and four 
from Atharoth. Josephus says, it was a 
day's journey from Jerusalem. Besides, 
though built on an eminence, yet it must 
have had water in abundance •, since we 
find medals struck in this city, whereon is 
represented the goddess Astarte, at whose 
feet is a river. Josephus observes, that 
when it was taken by John Hyrcanus, the 
prince of the Jews, he entirely demolished 
it, and caused even the brook to flow over 
its ruins, to obliterate all traces of it. 

The kings of Samaria omitted nothing to 
render this city the strongest, the finest, and 
901 



the richest, possible. Ahab built here a 
palace of ivory, that is, in which were many 
ornaments of ivory. (] Kings xxii. 39.) 
Amos (iii. 15. ; iv. 1, 2.) describes Samaria 
under Jeroboam II. as a city sunk into all 
excesses of luxury and effeminacy : ' I will 
smite (says he) the winter-house with the 
summer-house, and the houses of ivory shall 
perish, and the great houses shall have an 
end, saith the Lord. Hear this word, ye 
kine of Bashan, that are in the mountain of 
Samaria, which oppress the poor, which 
crush the needy ; which say to their masters, 
Bring, and let us drink, &c." 

Ben-hadad, king of Syria, built public 
places or streets in Samaria, probably for 
traffic where his people dwelt, to promote 
trade. (1 Kings xx. 34.) His son, Ben- 
hadad, besieged this place, under the reign of 
Ahab, in the year of the world 3103, but 
was defeated by a handful of young men. 
What is very remarkable, and yet very 
common, is, that the king of Syria's flat- 
terers would ascribe the shame of their 
defeat, not to the pride and drunkenness of 
their king, but to the interposition of the 
gods of the Jews ; ' their gods are gods of 
the hills, say they, therefore they were 
stronger than we ; but let us fight against 
them in the plain, and surely we shall be 
stronger than they.' The following year 
Ben-hadad brought an army into the field, 
probably with design to march against 
Samaria; but his army was again destroyed. 
(1 Kings xx. 26, 27-) Some years after 
this, (2 Kings vi. 24. ; vii. 1, 2, 3, 4.) in 
the year of the world 3119, Ben-hadad 
came again before Samaria, and reduced it 
to such necessities by famine, that a mother 
was forced to eat her own child ; but the 
city was relieved by a sensible effect o. 
divine Providence. It was besieged by 
Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, in the ninth 
year of Hoshea, king of Israel, which was the 
fourth of Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the 
year of the world 3280. It was taken three 
years after, in the year of the world 3283. 
(2 Kings xvii. 6, 7, &c.) The prophet 
Hosea (x. 4. 8, 9. ; xiv. 1.) speaks of the 
cruelties exercised by Shalmaneser ; and 
Micah says, (i. 6.) this city was reduced to 
a heap of stones. The Cuthites sent by 
Esarhaddon to inhabit the country of Sama- 
ria, did not think it worth their while to 
repair the ruins of this city ; they dwelt at 
Shechem, which they made their capital. 
They were on this footing, when Alexander 
the Great came into Phoenicia and Judea. 

However, the Cuthites had rebuilt some 
part of Samaria, from the time of the return 
from the captivity, since Ezra speaks of the 
inhabitants of Samaria. (Ezra iv. 17- Ne- 
ll em. iv. 2.) The Samaritans, being jealous 
of the favours Alexander the Great con- 
ferred on the Jews, revolted from him 
while he was in Egypt, and burnt alive 
Andromaehus, whom he had left governor. 



SAM 



SAM 



Alexander took Samaria, and settled Ma- 
cedonians to inhabit it, giving the coun- 
try around it to the Jews; and, to en- 
courage them to cultivate it, he granted 
them an exemption from tribute. The 
kings of Egypt and Syria, who succeeded 
Alexander, deprived them of this coun- 
try. 

But Alexander Balas, king of Syria, re- 
stored to Jonathan Maccabaeus, the cities of 
Lydda, Ephrem, and Ramatha, which he 
separated from the country of Samaria. 
And the Jews resumed the full possession of 
it under John Hyrcanus, who took Samaria, 
and ruined it, according to Josephus, so 
that he made the river run through its 
ruins. It continued in this condition to the 
year of the world 3947, when Aulus Gabi- 
nius, pro-consul ot Syria, rebuilt it, and 
named it Gabiniana. But it was very 
inconsiderable, till Herod the Great re- 
stored it to its ancient lustre, and gave it 
the Greek name of Sebaste (in Latin, Au- 
gusta,) in honour of the emperor Augustus, 
who had given him the propriety of this 
place. 

The New Testament speaks but little of 
Samaria ; and when it does mention it, it 
is rather in favour of the country round 
about it, than of the city. When it is said, 
(Luke xvii. 1 1. John "iv. 4.) ' He passed 
through the midst of Samaria,' the meaning 
is, through the midst of the country about 
Samaria. And again, i Then cometh he to 
a city of Samaria which is called Sychar.' 
Here Jesus had a conversation with a 
woman of Samaria, that is, with a Samaritan 
woman of the city of Sychar. After the 
death of Stephen, when the disciples were 
dispersed through the cities of Judea and 
Samaria, Philip the deacon withdrew into 
the city of Samaria, where he made con- 
verts. (Acts viii. 1, 2, 3.) When , the 
apostles heard that this city had received 
the word of God, they sent Peter and John 
thither to communicate the Holy Ghost. 
Here Simon Magus offered money to the 
apostles, in hopes of buying this power of 
communicating the Holy Ghost. Samaria 
is never called Sebaste in the New Testa- 
ment, though strangers hardly knew it by 
any other name. Jerome says, it was 
thought Obadiah was buried at Samaria. 
They also showed there the tombs of Elisha 
and St. John the Baptist. There are many 
ancient medals struck at Sebaste or Sama- 
ria. 

SAMARITANS, rnaw, people of Sa- 
maria. We have spoken of the Samaritans 
under the title Cuthites. The Samaritans 
are the inhabitants of the city of Samaria, 
and of that province of which Samaria was 
the capital. In this sense it should seem 
that we might give the name of Samaritans 
to the Israelites of the ten tribes, who lived 
in the city and territory of Samaria. How- 
ever, the sacred authors commonly give the 
902 



name of Samaritans only to those stranger 
people, the Cuthites, whom the kings of 
Assyria sent from beyond the Euphrates, to 
people the kingdom of Samaria, when they 
carried captive the Israelites who inhabited 
there before. Thus we may fix the epoch 
of the Samaritans, at the taking of Samaria, 
by Shalmaneser, in the year of the world 
3283. 

After Shalmaneser, Esar-haddon, being 
informed that the people sent to Samaria 
were infested by lions, which he imputed to 
their ignorance of the manner of worshipping 
the god of the country, sent a priest of the 
God of Israel to teach them the rites of the 
Hebrews. They thought they might blend 
this religion with that which they professed 
before ; so they continued to worship their 
idols in conjunction with the God of Israel ; 
not perceiving how incompatible these two 
religions were. 

It is not known how long they continued 
in this state; but at the return from the 
captivity of Babylon, it appears they had 
quitted the worship of the idols ; and when 
they asked permission of the Israelites to 
help them in rebuilding the temple of Jeru- 
salem, they affirmed, that from the time that 
Esar-haddon had brought them into this 
country, they had always worshipped the 
Lord. (Esra iv. 1, 2, 3.) And, indeed, 
after the return from the captivity, the 
Scripture does not reproach them with 
idolatrous worship, though it does not dis- 
semble either their jealousy against the 
Jews, or the ill offices they did them at the 
court of Persia, by their calumnies, or the 
stratagems they contrived to hinder the 
repairing of the walls of Jerusalem. (Nehem. 
ii. 10, 19. ; iv. 2, 7, &c. ; vi. 1, 2, &c.) 

It does not appear that there was any tem- 
ple in Samaria, common to all those people 
who came from beyond the Euphrates, before 
the coming of Alexander the Great into 
Judea. But every one had been left to his 
own discretion, and worshipped where he 
thought fit. They presently comprehended 
from the books of Moses, which they had in 
their hands, and from the example of the 
Jews their neighbours, that God was to be 
worshipped in that place only which he had 
chosen. Therefore, since they could not go 
to the temple of Jerusalem, from which the 
Jews forbad them, they thought of building 
a temple of their own upon Mount Gerizim, 
near Shechem, then their capital. There- 
fore Sanballat, governor of the Samaritans, 
applied to Alexander, and told him he had 
a son-in-law, called Manasses, son to Jaddus 
the high-priest of the Jews, who had retired 
to Samaria with many other persons of his 
own nation ; that he desired to build a tem- 
ple in his province, where he might exercise 
the high-priesthood; that this would be 
advantageous to the king's affairs, because 
by this means the nation of the Jews, who 
were a turbulent and seditious people, would 



SAM 



SAM 



be divided, and by such a division would be 
made weaker, &c. Alexander readily con- 
sented to Sanballat, and the Samaritans 
presently began building the temple of 
Gerizim, which from that time they have 
always frequented, and still frequent, as the 
place where the Lord intended to receive 
the adoration of his people. Of this moun- 
tain, and of this temple, the Samaritan 
woman of Sychar said to our Saviour, (John 
iv. 20.) ' Our fathers worshipped in this 
mountain, and ye say, that in Jerusalem is 
the place where men ought to worship.' 
See Gerizim. 

The Samaritans revolted from Alexander 
the very next year : Alexander drove them 
out of Samaria, put Macedonians in their 
room, and gave the province of Samaria 
to the Jews. This contributed not a little 
to increase the hatred and animosity be- 
tween these two people. When any Israelite 
had deserved punishment for the violation 
of some important point of the law, he 
presently took refuge in Samaria or She- 
chem, and embraced the worship at the 
temple of Gerizim. When the Jews' affairs 
were prosperous, the Samaritans did not 
fail to call themselves Hebrews, and of the 
race of Abraham. But were the Jews in 
discredit or persecution, the Samaritans 
immediately disowned them, and acknow- 
ledged themselves to be Phoenicians, ori- 
ginally, or descended from Joseph, and Ma- 
nasseh his son. This was their practice in 
the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. 

The Samaritans having received the Pen- 
tateuch, or the five books of Moses, from 
the priest sent by Esar-haddon, have pre- 
served it to this day, in the same language 
and character as it was then, that is, in the 
old Hebrew or Phoenician character ; which 
we call the Samaritan, to distinguish it 
from the modern Hebrew character, now 
used in the books of the Jews, which it is 
wrong to call the Hebrew character; for 
that can be said properly only of the Sama- 
ritan text. Critics have noticed some va- 
riations between the Pentateuch of the 
Jews and that of the Samaritans ; but these 
chiefly regard the word Gerizim, which the 
Samaritans seem to have introduced, to 
favour their pretensions, that Mount Geri- 
zim was the place in which the Lord was 
to be adored. The other various readings 
are of small importance. 

The religion of this people was at first 
Pagan. Each worshipped the deity he had 
been used to in his own country. (2 Kings 
xvii. 25.) The Babylonians worshipped 
Succoth-benoth ; the Cuthites, Nergal; the 
Hamathites, Ashima ; the Avites, Nibhaz, 
and Tartak; the Sepharvites, Adrammelech, 
and Anammelech. If we would enume- 
rate all the names pf false gods, to whom 
tbe Samaritans paid a sacrilegious worship, 
we should have enough to do. This mat- 
ter is sufficiently perplexed, on account 
903 



of the different names by which they were 
adored among different nations, insomuch 
that it would be almost impossible to clear 
up this affair. Afterwards, to this profane 
worship the Samaritans added that of the 
Lord, the God of Israel. (2 Kings xvii. 29, 
30, 31, 32.) They gave proof of their little 
regard to this worship, when under Antio- 
chus Epiphanes. They consecrated their 
temple at Gerizim to Jupiter Argivus. In 
the time of Alexander the Great, they cele- 
brated the sabbatical year, and consequently 
the year of Jubilee also : but we do not 
know whether they did it at the same time 
as the Jews. Under the kings of Syria they 
followed the epoch of the Greeks, or that 
of the Seleucidae, as other people did who 
were under the government of the Seleu- 
cidae. After Herod had re-established Sa- 
maria, and had given it the name of Sebaste, 
the inhabitants of this city, in their medals, 
and public acts, took the date of this new 
establishment. But these inhabitants of 
Samaria, of which the greater part were 
Pagans or Jews, were no rule to the other 
Samaritans, who, probably, reckoned their 
years according to the reigns of the empe- 
rors they were subject to, till they fell under 
the jurisdiction of the Mahometans, under 
which they live at this day ; and they reckon 
their year by the Hegira, or, as they speak, 
according to the reign of Ishmael, or the 
Ishmaelites. 

As to their belief, it is objected to them 
that they receive only the Pentateuch, 
and reject all the other books of Scripture, 
especially the prophets, who have more 
expressly declared the coming of the Mes- 
siah. However, they say, in their letter 
to Ludolph, that they admit the book cf 
Joshua ; but, probably, by this name they 
mean their own Chronicon. 

The Samaritan woman, (John iv. 25.) is 
sufficient testimony that the Samaritans 
expected a Messiah, who, they hoped, would 
dissipate all doubts. Several of the inhabit- 
ants of Shechem believed at the preaching 
of Jesus Christ, and many of Samaria be- 
lieved at that of St. Philip. 

Towards the close of the Jewish polity, 
the Samaritans suffered much from the 
Romans ; and though they received a little 
favourable treatment from one or two of 
the pagan emperors, yet they suffered con- 
siderably under some of the professing 
Christian emperors, especially Valentinian 
and Justinian. At present, the Samaritans 
are very much reduced in point of numbers. 
Their principal residence is at Sichem or 
Slieeliem, now called Xa/wlose or Xa/ilottse. 
In 1823, there were between twenty and 
thirty houses, and about sixty males paid 
the capitation tax to the Mahometan go- 
vernment. They celebrated divine service 
every Saturday. Formerly they went four 
times a year to the temple upon Mount 
Gerizim; and on these occasions they as- 



SAM 



SAM 



cended before sun-rise, and read the law 
till noon ; but of late years, they have not 
been allowed to do this. The Samaritans 
have one school at Napolose, where their 
language is taught. The head of this sect 
is stated to reside at Paris. The Sama- 
ritans at Napolose are in possession of a 
very ancient manuscript, which they assert 
to be 3500 years old ; but they reject the 
vowel points as a rabbinical invention. 
Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 377* 

Samaritan Pentateuch. This is the 
five books of Moses written in Samaritan 
characters, or the Hebrew characters used 
before the captivity of Babylon. Copies 
of the Samaritan Pentateuch were un- 
known in Europe till the sixteenth century. 
Archbishop Usher was the first, or at least 
one of the first, that procured it out of the 
East. This learned man having observed 
that Eusebius of Caesarea, Diodorus of Tar- 
sus, Jerome, Cyril of Alexandria, Procopius 
of Gaza, Georgius Syncellus, and others, 
had quoted the Samaritan Pentateuch, he 
could not rest till he had procured five or 
six copies out of Syria or Palestine. 

Pietro della Valle bought a very neat copy 
at Damascus, A.D. 1616, for M. de Sanci, 
then ambassador of France to Constanti- 
nople, and afterwards bishop of St. Maloes. 
This book was presented to the fathers of 
the Oratory, Rue St. Honore, where it is 
preserved. From this copy Father Mori- 
nus printed the Samaritan Pentateuch in 
1732, which is in M. le Jay's Polyglot, 
which was the first printed copy. It has 
been since printed more correctly in Wal- 
ton's Polyglot, from three Samaritan manu- 
scripts that belonged to Usher. A neat 
edition of this Pentateuch in Hebrew cha- 
racters was published by Dr. Blayney in 
1790. 

The generality of divines believe that 
the Samaritan Pentateuch, and that of the 
Jews, are but one and the same work, 
written in the same language, but in differ- 
ent characters ; and that the differences 
between them proceed only from the inad- 
vertency or inaccuracy of copiers, or from 
the affectation of the Samaritans, who have 
added some things favourable to their own 
interests and pretensions ; that the additions 
were inserted afterwards, but that, origi- 
nally, these two copies were the same. 
According to this opinion, it must be al- 
lowed that the Pentateuch of the Jews is 
preferable to that of the Samaritans, as 
being exempt from the alterations made 
in the latter. But, on the contrary, others 
prefer the Samaritan Pentateuch, as an 
original, preserved in the same character, 
and the same condition, in which Moses 
composed it. 

As to the variations, the additions, and 
transpositions, found in the Samaritan Pen- 
tateuch, when compared with the Hebrew, 
they are all carefully collected, with the 
904 



utmost exactness, in the book written by 
Hottinger against Father Morinus, and in 
the confronting of the two texts, which is 
inserted in the last volume of the English 
Polyglot, or by inspecting Kennicott's edi- 
tion on the Hebrew Bible, where the various 
readings are inserted. Of these interpola- 
tions, some are for the better understanding 
of the text ; some are a kind of paraphrase, 
expressing at length, what was only hinted at 
in the original : some are such changes as the 
Samaritans have purposely made, to favour 
their pretensions against the Jews ; as when, 
for example, they put Gerizim instead of 
Ebal. Other variations are only pure lapses 
of transcribers. 

Beside the Hebrew Pentateuch in Phoe- 
nician characters, of which we have been 
speaking, the Samaritans have another in 
the language which they spoke at the time 
when Manasseh took shelter among them. 
This language is a mixture of the Chaldaic, 
the Syrian, and the Hebrew, or Phoenician. 
It is called the Samaritan version, which 
differs from the Jewish paraphrases, they 
being glosses and explications ; whereas, 
the Samaritan version is literal, and ex- 
presses the text word for word : it is printed 
with the Samaritan text in the Polyglot of 
Paris, and also in that of London ; and be- 
cause of its great conformity with the text, 
they have given only one Latin version for 
both. Calmet's Dictionary. 

SA'MOS, Sa/zoc, signifies sand. Samos is 
an island in the Archipelago, on the coast 
of Asia Minor. The Romans wrote to the 
governor of Samos, in favour of the Jews, 
in the time of Simon Maccabaeus, in the 
year of the world 3865. (1 Mace. xv. 23.) 
St. Paul went ashore in the same island, 
as he went to Jerusalem, A.D. 58. (Acts 
xx. 15.) 

SAMOTHRA'CIA, Sa/toGoaK*/, an island 
so called because it was peopled by Samians 
and Thracians. (Acts xvi. 11.) It is an 
island in the iEgean Sea. St. Paul, depart- 
ing from Troas for Macedonia, arrived 
first at Samothracia, and then landed in 
Macedonia. (Acts xvi. 12.) 

SAM'SON, rwnw, signifies his sun; ac- 
cording to the Syriac, his service, or his 
ministry. Samson, son of Manoah, of the 
tribe of Dan, and of a mother whose name 
we do not find in Scripture, (Judg. xiii. 
2, 3, 4, &c.) was born in the year of the 
world 2848. This woman had been long 
barren, and an angel of the Lord appeared 
to her, telling her she should have a son ; 
but she must take care not to drink intox- 
icating liquor, or to eat any impure food : 
that she must take the same care with re- 
gard to her son, and must consecrate him 
to God from his infancy, as a Nazarite, 
and not let a razor come upon his head ; 
For, says the angel, he shall begin to de- 
liver Israel from the hands of the Philis- 
tines. Samson was born the year follow- 



SAM 



SAM 



ing, that is. in the year of the world 2848 ; 
and the Spirit of God gave him extraor- 
dinary strength of body. One day, as Sam- 
son went to Timnath, a city of the Philis- 
tines, he saw a young woman, whom he 
desired his father and mother to obtain for 
his wife. They remonstrated that she was 
not of their own nation, but he perse- 
vered; and the young woman was agreed 
to be given in marriage to Samson. 

As he was going to Timnath, Samson 
saw a young lion, which he seized and tore 
in pieces, as if he had been a kid. Some 
time after, returning thither, to celebrate 
his marriage there, he went to see the car- 
case of the lion. He found it dried up, and 
a swarm of bees lodged in it, which had 
there formed an honey-comb. When his 
wedding- feast was kept at Timnath, the in- 
habitants provided thirty young men for 
Samson to do him honour. Samson pro- 
posed to these companions a riddle, to this 
effect : ' out of the eater came forth meat, 
and out of the strong came forth sweetness.' 
They continued to the seventh day conjectur- 
ing the meaning of his riddle. Then, partly 
by threats, and partly by entreaties, they 
urged the bride to get the secret from her 
husband, which she told again to them. 
Before sunset they came to Samson, saying, 
' What is sweeter than honey, and what is 
stronger than a lion?' He told them that 
if they had not ploughed with his heifer, 
they could never have expounded his rid- 
dle ; intimating, that they had abused him in 
their too great familiarity with his wife, 
and that she had been unfaithful to him. 
He paid the fine expected on account of 
the riddle, but left his wife, and returned 
to his father. Some time after, the woman 
married the brideman of Samson at his 
wedding. Samson's anger being subsided, 
he returned to see his wife, bringing a kid 
with him. But her father would not let 
him go in, saying, I thought you had hated 
her, and therefore I have given her to 
another. Samson then went and caught 
three hundred foxes, or rather jackalls, 
which he tied tail to tail, and each pair 
had a fire-brand between. He set fire to 
the fire-brands, and turned them into the 
corn fields of the Philistines ; and the flame 
made a great havoc, not sparing even the 
vines and the olive trees. When the Phi- 
listines knew it was Samson who had 
done this, to revenge the affront received 
from his father-in-law at Timnath, they 
burned that man and his daughter. See 
Fox. 

Samson slew a great number of the Phi- 
listines. The expression in our translation 
is, ' that he smote them hip and thigh with 
a great slaughter.' Hip under thigh, say 
some ; leg under thigh, say others ; or leg 
against thigh, or leg over, or upon thigh, as 
the words literally express ; horse and foot, 
say some ; that is the foot trusting to their 
1)05 



legs are alluded to as leg men ; the horse- 
men sitting on their thighs, are alluded to 
as thigh men. A late writer observes, that 
certain travellers have mentioned a comical 
sort of wrestling among the Turks, in which 
the combatants challenge each other by 
clapping the palms of their hands first upon 
their own knees or thighs, then upon each 
other, and afterwards upon the palms of 
their respective antagonists ; that they both 
at once slap their hands on their thighs, 
and then clap together, and then lift them 
up as high as their shoulders, and cause the 
palms of their hands to meet, and with the 
same dash their heads one against another 
three times, so hard, that many times the 
blood runs down ; and that they will often 
come within five or six yards of each other, 
and clap their hands to each other, and then 
put forward the left leg, bowing their body, 
and leaning with the left elbow on the left 
knee, and after looking at one another for 
some time, the contest begins. This writer 
is of opinion that these challengers well de- 
serve the name of leg-and-thigh-men ; or 
shoulder- and-thigh-men ; and that the Phi- 
listines assembled their best wrestlers and 
most notorious combatants, to engage Sam- 
son. Hence he renders the passage as fol- 
lows : ' he smote the hip-and-thigh-men ; 
or, the arm-and-leg-men ; or the hip-and- 
shoulder-men ; that is, their best prize- 
fighters, with a great stroke.' 

After this exploit Samson retired into 
the cave of Etam, in Judah. When the 
Philistines knew this, they came in great 
numbers into the land of Judah, and the 
people of Judah bound him, and brought 
him, by .his sufferance, to the Philistines. 
No sooner did they see him thus bound, 
than they set up loud shouts, and were 
about to seize him. But the Spirit of the 
Lord animating Samson, he snapped the 
cords which bound him, and happening to 
find the jaw-bone of an ass, he, with this 
weapon, slew a thousand of the Philistines. 
Throwing away the jaw-bone, he gave that 
place the name of Ramath-lehi, that is, 
the lifting up of the jaw-bone. Being over- 
come with extreme thirst, and crying to the 
Lord, the Lord opened a rock which was in 
that place, called Maktesh, that is, the 
jaw-tooth, whence water gushed out to as- 
suage his thirst. 

After this, Samson went to Gaza, a city 
of the Philistines, and having there seen a 
harlot, or a woman who kept a public house, 
he went to lodge with her. The Philistines 
set a guard about this house, and another 
at the gates of the city, to kill him as he 
went out in the morning. But Samson, 
rising at midnight, went off, and took away 
the two gates of the city, and the gate-posts, 
bar and chain, and carried them up the hill 
which is near Hebron. 

Some time afterwards he fell in love with 
a woman called Delilah, who dwelt in the 



SAM 



SAM 



valley of Sorek. Many of the ancients 
thought that Samson had taken her as his 
wife ; but most maintain that she was 
never married to Samson, but was a public 
woman. The Philistines bribed this woman 
to discover in what his extraordinary strength 
consisted. He amused her for a consider- 
able time, pretending his strength consisted 
sometimes in one thing, and sometimes in 
another ; and when the Philistines were 
ready to seize him, he burst his bonds 
asunder. At last Delilah teazed him so 
much, that he told her his strength lay in his 
hair, which had never been shorn, because 
he was a Nazarite from his mother's womb. 
Delilah then cut off his hair as he lay sleep- 
ing in her lap, and the Philistines fell upon 
him, bound him, and put out his eyes. 
They took him to Gaza, shut him up in 
prison, and made him grind at the mill, as 
a base and contemptible slave. ' Samson,' 
observes a late writer, ' being blind, yet of 
great strength, they made him grinder for 
the prison. Grinding was women's work, 
therefore severely degrading to the hero; 
it was simple work, requiring no art ; it was 
laborious work, wherein his great strength 
was of service ; and thus by drudging for 
them, in this menial employment, he earned 
a mortifying livelihood for himself. In this 
view Samson was worse used than Job (xxxi. 
10.) supposes his wife might be; "let my 
wife be so degraded, that instead of having 
her corn ground for her, she shall perform 
that servile office herself; not for herself, or 
for me, but let her grind for another." Sam- 
son, the hero ! employed on women's work ! 
a vilely fit employment for Delilah's deluded 
lover : he ground too for others ! for those 
in prison with himself!' 

It is inquired whether Samson's hair was 
the natural and physical cause of his strength ; 
or whether it was only the moral cause, and, 
as it were, the pledge of the assistance of the 
Holy Spirit, who thought fit to endue him 
with this prodigious strength, as a perma- 
nent quality, so long as he should observe 
the laws of Nazariteship, and should keep 
his hair untouched, which was the visible 
token of it. The preservation of his hair 
was doubtless a sign of the obedience main- 
tained on his part, and his constant com- 
pliance with the divine orders. Whilst his 
compliance remained unbroken, God's ful- 
filment of his part, that is, the communi- 
cation of supernatural strength, continued 
unbroken also. But when Sampson had, 
by the loss of his hair, evidently betrayed 
his trust and forfeited his distinction, God 
thought proper to suspend his conditional 
donation, because the condition was broken 
by Samson ; he had lost the visible pledge of 
it on his part, and had now nothing to show 
in proof of his obedience ; and to allege, as 
any reason to expect, or to hope, for that 
reason, that gift should be continued to 
him. Samson's strength, therefore, was 
906 



evidently miraculous, and was withdrawn 
when the Lord forsook him on account of 
his vices. 

Samson continued in Gaza about a year. 
His hair growing again, and he becoming 
repentant, God restored him his strength. 
The princes of the Philistines met in a 
general assembly, in the temple of their 
god Dagon, to return him thanks for having 
delivered to them this their formidable 
enemy. After they had ended their feast, 
they ordered Samson to be sent for, that 
they might make sport with him, and be 
diverted by him. After they had insulted 
him as long as they thought fit, he desired 
the person who led him, to let him lean 
against the pillars that supported the tem- 
ple, that he might rest himself. The tem- 
ple was then full of people, both above and 
below the galleries. Samson, calling upon 
the name of the Lord, and laying hold of 
the two pillars by which the temple was sup- 
ported, one in his right hand, and the other 
in his left, he said, Let me also die with the 
Philistines. Then violently shaking the 
pillars, the temple fell on the princes and 
people, and killed about three thousand 
persons. ' Samson, therefore,' observes a 
late writer, ' must have been in a court or 
area below them, and consequently the tem- 
ple will be of the same kind with the ancient 
TZ]tevf\, or sacred enclosures, surrounded 
only in part or altogether with some plain 
or cloistered buildings.' Samson lived about 
thirty-eight years ; he was judge of Israel 
about twenty years, from the year of the 
world 2867 to 2887- (Judges xvi. 20.) 

' The case of Samson,' says Dr. Hales, 
'furnishes an instructive and awful ex- 
ample, that extraordinary gifts of the Spirit 
are not always accompanied with corres- 
ponding graces, or fruits of the Spirit. Ma- 
naoh and his wife appear to have been a 
pious couple, and likely to train up their 
son in the way that he should go, betimes, 
in the fear and nurture of the Lord ; but so 
early as twenty years of age, against his 
parents' wishes and remonstrances, he seeks 
a wife amongst the uncircumcised, (as he 
himself contemptuously styled the Philis- 
tines,) and after his disappointment in her, 
be spent the rest of his life in the company 
of strange and lewd women, which must 
have been a great grief of mind to his pa- 
rents and friends, who, from their solicitude 
to inter his dead body, could not have been 
inattentive to, nor unconcerned at, his con- 
duct when living. But he was stubborn 
and self-willed, and vain of his prodigious 
strength, infinitely surpassing any of the 
Philistine giants or sons of Anak, (Josh. xi. 
22.) who prided themselves on their strength 
and stature.' (1 Sam. xvii. 4, &c.) Hales' s 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
p. 330 ; Fragments Annexed to Calmefs 
Dictionary, No. cxliii. pp. 91, 92. No. cix. 
p. 16. 



SAM 



SAM 



SAM'UEL, btctow, signifies placed, or put, 
of God; otherwise, his name, which he lias 
received of God; otherwise, who is of God. 
Samuel was son of Elkanah and Hannah, 
of the tribe of Levi, and of the family of 
Kohath ; he was a prophet and judge of 
Israel for several years. (1 Sam. i. 1, 2, 3, 
&c. 1 Chron. vi. 23.) His father dwelt at 
Ramathaim-zophim, or the city of Ramah, 
inhabited by Levites of the family of Zophai, 
or Zuph, a descendant of Kohath. 

Elkanah had two wives, Peninnah and 
Hannah. Peninnah had children, but 
Hannah was barren. Elkanah loved Han- 
nah tenderly, and was much concerned that 
she had no children. One day when he 
went with his family to Shiloh, where the 
ark of the Lord then was, he there offered 
peace-offerings, and made an entertainment 
for his wives and children. Hannah seeing 
herself alone, while Peninnah was sur- 
rounded with a troop of children, began to 
lament ; rising from table, she went to the 
tabernacle, where she poured out her heart 
before the Lord, and made a vow, that if 
God would give her a son, she would dedi- 
cate him to his service all his life ; that she 
would make him a Nazarite, and would suf- 
fer no razor to come upon his head. Han- 
nah, being returned to Ramah, conceived, 
and had a son, whom she named Samuel, 
saying, Because I have asked him of the 
Lord. When the child was somewhat 
grown, she brought him to Shiloh, to the 
house of the Lord, with an offering, &c. 
See Hannah. 

Young Samuel officiated in the temple, 
and was clothed with a linen ephod. (1 
Sam. ii. 18, 19, 20.) Eli was now become 
very old, and his eye-sight was so dim 
that he could hardly see. He had heard 
of the irregularities of his two sons, Hophni 
and Phinehas, but had not courage to re- 
strain them, nor power to remove the scan- 
dal they caused to Israel. One morning 
when Samuel was in bed, near the taber- 
nacle of the Lord, he heard a voice, calling 
him by his name, very early. Samuel, 
thinking it was Eli, ran to him, and said 
Here am I. Eli bid him return, and lie 
down to sleep, for he had not called him. 
The same thing happened three times. 
The third time Eli, judging there must be 
something extraordinary in the matter, sent 
Samuel back, and said to him, Go and sleep, 
but if you are called any more, say, Speak, 
Lord, for thy servant heareth. Samuel 
obeyed ; and received a threatening pro- 
phecy against Eli and his house. When 
day was come, Eli called Samuel, and 
obliged him to discover what the Lord had 
said. Samuel told him the whole ; to which 
Eli answered, ' It is the Lord, let him do 
what seemeth him good.' 

After the death of Eli the high-priest, 
Samuel was acknowledged as judge and 
governor by all Israel. He insisted on the 
907 



reformation of the people ; and they re- 
nounced all their strange gods, and applied 
themselves wholly to serve the God of their 
fathers. Afterwards, Samuel convened 
another assembly at Mizpeh, where all the 
people met in arms. Samuel prayed for 
them : they fasted and prayed, poured out 
water before the Lord; confessed their sins, 
and Samuel judged them. The Philistines, 
hearing that Israel was assembled at Miz- 
peh, took the alarm, and came into the field 
against them, but were defeated so signally, 
that for a long time they durst not appear on 
the frontiers of Israel; but were obliged to 
restore such cities as they had taken. 

Samuel was about forty years of age 
when he began to judge Israel. He judged 
them the rest of his life ; for under the 
reign of Saul he preserved a great deal of 
authority, as well in respect of Saul him- 
self, as of the whole people. He went 
yearly to Bethel, then to Gilgal, then to 
Mizpeh ; afterwards he returned to his 
house at Ramah, and so distributed justice 
to all Israel. He also built an altar at 
Ramah, as well for his private devotion, as 
for the religion of the people, who flocked 
to him from all parts, to consult him, and 
to have their causes decided. When he 
grew old, he appointed his sons judges over 
Israel, and they discharged this office in 
Beersheba, a city lying on the southern 
limits of the land of Canaan. But they, 
instead of walking in the steps of their 
father, suffered themselves to be corrupted 
by bribery. 

Then the elders of Israel came to Samuel, 
and said, Set a king over us, as all other 
nations have, who may judge us. This 
proposal was not agreeable to Samuel, and 
he addressed himself to God in prayer. 
The Lord said to him ; Hear the voice of 
the people, and give them what they ask, 
for it is not you, but me, they have rejected, 
that I may not reign over them. But 
declare to them what they may expect un- 
der a king, that they may commit this folly 
after a full information. 

A short time after, Saul the son of Kish, 
of the tribe of Benjamin, being sent by his 
father to seek some asses that were strayed, 
came to advise with Samuel about them ; 
the prophet told him, that God had ap- 
pointed him king over his people; and he 
gave Saul the royal unction. See Saul. 
After this Samuel held an assembly of the 
people, at Mizpeh, that they might proceed 
to elect a king. The lot was cast, and 
fell upon Saul, the son of Kish. He was 
sought for immediately, but was not to be 
found. They ran therefore to where he 
had hid himself, and brought him forth 
among the people. Samuel then said. You 
see the man whom the Lord hath chosen. 
After this he wrote down the laws and con- 
stitutions of this new kingdom, and pub- 
lished them. 



SAM 



SAM 



A month was scarcely passed after Saul's 
election, when a war broke out between 
the Ammonites and the city Jabesh, in 
Gilead. Saul, with all Israel, marched 
against the Ammonites, and relieved Ja- 
besh. At their return from this expedition, 
Samuel said to the people, Let us go to 
Gilgal, and there confirm the election of 
the king. They did so ; offered peace-offer- 
ings, and made great rejoicings. Then 
Samuel addressed himself to the people 
and asked them, whether they had any 
fault to find with his conduct ? The people 
answered, No. Samuel proceeded, and said 
to them, The Lord is therefore my witness 
to-day, and so is also the king he has ap- 
pointed, that you have nothing to reproach 
me with. To this the people answered, 
We are witnesses. Samuel then exhorted 
them to loyalty and to obedience. To this 
he added, Is it not now wheat-harvest (a 
season in which rain is very rare in Pales- 
tine) ? Yet 1 shall call upon the Lord, 
and he will send out his thunder, and 
shower down his rain, that you may know 
how great an evil it is in the eyes of the 
Lord, that you have presumed to ask for a 
king. After this tempest every one returned 
to his own house. 

In the second year after his election, 
Saul being in arms against the Philistines, 
stayed at Gilgal six days, expecting Samuel, 
but seeing he did not come on the seventh 
day, he had the victims brought to him, and 
offered a burnt-saci-ifice. He had hardly 
completed his sacrifice, when Samuel came. 
Saul went out to meet him, and saluted 
him : Samuel inquired, What have you been 
doing? Saul replied, that, seeing him- 
self pressed by the Philistines, and almost 
abandoned by his soldiers, he had offered a 
burnt- offering. Samuel told him, that he 
had committed folly. If, says he, you had 
obeyed the commandment of the Lord, the 
Lord would have confirmed your kingdom 
over Israel for ever; but now your reign 
will not long continue. From thence 
Samuel went to Gibeah, and Saul followed 
him. 

After this Samuel came to Saul, by order 
from God, to bid him make war against the 
Amalekites. Spare none, says he, but 
destroy all ; they are all devoted to the 
curse of extirpation, both man, woman, and 
child, even those that suck the breast ; even 
their oxen, camels, sheep, and asses. Saul 
therefore marched against Amalek, de- 
stroyed them, and ravaged the whole coun- 
try ; but he thought fit to preserve the 
better part of their goods and cattle. Then 
God said to Samuel, I repent of having 
made Saul king. Samuel was much af- 
flicted at this, and cried to the Lord all 
night. The day following he visited Saul 
at Gilgal, where he was offering a sacrifice 
of the flocks taken from Amalek. Saul 
saluted him, and told him he had performed 
908 



the commands of the Lord. Whence, then, 
says Samuel, is this lowing of oxen, and 
bleating of sheep, in my ears? Saul an- 
swered him, The people brought away the 
prime, to offer in sacrifice to the Lord. 
Samuel upbraided him vehemently with his 
want of obedience, and Saul threw all the 
blame on the people. 

Then says Saul to Samuel, I have sinned 
in having had too great complaisance for 
the people ; but come with me, that we may 
worship the Lord. Samuel refused, and 
turned hastily away from him to be gone ; 
and Saul taking hold of Samuel's garment, 
it tore in his hands. On this, Samuel said 
to him, Thus has the Lord torn the kingdom 
out of your hands, to give it to another, who 
is better than you. Saul replied, I confess 
I have sinned ; but, however, do me the 
credit of appearing with me before the 
elders of the people, and before all Israel : 
and let us worship the Lord. Samuel com- 
plied, and they returned to the camp at 
Gilgal. There Samuel caused Agag, king 
of the Amalekites, whose life had been 
saved, to be brought out, and Samuel hewed 
him in pieces, telling him, that as his 
sword had made many mothers childless, 
so likewise should his mother be childless 
among women. Then Samuel returned to 
Ramah. From this time Samuel saw Saul 
no more ; nevertheless he continually be- 
wailed him. 

Some years after this, the Lord said to 
Samuel, How long will you mourn for Saul ? 
Arise and go to Bethlehem, and give the 
royal unction to one of the sons of Jesse, 
whom I have chosen to be king of my peo- 
ple. Samuel answered, How shall I go ? 
Saul will be informed of it, and will put me 
to death. The Lord said to him, Go thither, 
as if to sacrifice ; invite Jesse to partake of 
the sacrifice ; and there I will show you him 
whom you are to anoint. Samuel went 
therefore to Bethlehem, and all the elders 
of the place came to show their respect to 
him, and he invited them to the solemnity 
of the sacrifice. When he went into Jesse's 
house, all the sons of this venerable old 
man came to salute him. Samuel, seeing 
Eliab the eldest, said within himself, Surely 
this is he whom the Lord has chosen as his 
anointed. But the Lord answered, Have 
no regard to a good appearance, or an 
advantageous stature ; for this is not he 
whom I have chosen. Jesse caused his 
seven sons, one after another, to pay their 
respects; but Samuel found God had not 
chosen either of these. Jesse said he had 
still a younger son, but he was keeping the 
sheep. Send for him, says Samuel, for we 
will not sit down to table till he comes. 
The eighth son of Jesse was David, who 
was fetched out of the field ; and when he 
came in, the Lord said to Samuel, Anoint 
him, for this is he. Samuel poured on his 
head the oil he had brought with him ; and 



SAM 



SAM 



from that time the Spirit of the Lord de- 
parted from Saul, and rested on David. 

Samuel returned to Ramah, and dwelt 
there the rest of his life, among the pro- 
phets, who lived under his conduct in a 
kind of community. Several years after, 
when David was in disgrace with Saul, and 
had with difficulty escaped out of his hands, 
he took refuge with Samuel at Ramah. He 
acquainted him with Saul's behaviour to- 
wards him ; and they went together to 
Naioth. Saul had intelligence of this, and 
sent a party to surprise David. But the 
messengers finding Samuel, who was then 
prophesying in the midst of the prophets, 
they were also seized with the Spirit, and 
began to prophesy among them ; that is, 
perhaps, finding these prophets at their de- 
votion, they were seized by a spirit of devo- 
tion, and united their praises, &c. with 
those of the prophets. Saul sent a second, 
and a third, company of messengers, who 
were seized in like manner. Lastly, he 
went himself, and was seized with the spirit 
of devotion, during the time, and prophe- 
sied among the rest. This delay gave 
David an opportunity to escape. 

Samuel died at the age of ninety-eight, 
about two years before Saul, in the year of 
the world 2947. All Israel mourned for 
him, and he was buried at his own house at 
Ramah. (1 Sam. xxv. 1.) The author of 
Ecclesiasticus has consecrated an eulogy to 
his memory. (Ecclus. xlvi. 13. 17- 20.) 

About two years, after the death of Sa- 
muel, the Philistines having invaded the 
territories of Israel with a powerful army, 
Saul, with his troops, took possession of the 
eminences of Gilboa. This prince, being in 
great consternation at the multitude of his 
enemies, resolved at last to consult some 
witch or sorceress, to foreknow the event of 
this war. He was informed of an enchant- 
ress at Endor, about two or three leagues 
from Mount Gilboa. He disguised himself, 
and visited her with few attendants, 
that the witch might not know him ; be- 
cause, some years before, he had driven all 
of her profession out of the country. This 
woman he desired to raise the ghost of 
Samuel. She had recourse to her charms 
and spells, and, when she saw Samuel ap- 
pear, she made a great cry, and said to Saul, 
Why have you deceived me, for you are 
Saul ? Saul encouraged her, and asked her, 
what she saw ? I see, says she, gods [clohim, 
in the sense of a magistrate, or prince, &c] 
coming out of the earth. Saul asked her 
what sort of a man ? She said, An old man 
covered with a mantle. Saul knew it to be 
Samuel, and bowed himself to the earth. 
Samuel said, Why have you disturbed me ? 
Saul answered, that being in great straits, 
and not knowing whom to address, because 
God gave him no answer, he found himself 
necessitated to have recourse to him, by 
magic. Samuel told him, that the Lord 
000 



would deal with him as he had already pre- 
dicted, that the kingdom should be taken 
from him, and given to David his son-in- 
law ; that God would deliver Israel into 
the hands of their enemies the Philistines. 
To this he added, To-morrow you shall be 
with me, you and your sons, and the Lord 
shall abandon Israel to the Philistines. 

Upon this history a question has been 
moved, that has divided both ancients and 
moderns, that is, whether the ghost of 
Samuel did really appear to Saul ? or 
whether this was only a trick of the socer- 
ess, who herself spoke to Saul, and feigned 
the voice of Samuel ? It is asked also, 
whether this was done by the power of the 
devil, and by art magic ; or, whether God 
permitted that Samuel should appear, by 
the miraculous effect of his power ? ' What- 
ever ' says Dr. Hales, 'might have been the 
nature of this woman's art, or her design in 
undertaking to raise Samuel ; whether she 
meant to impose on Saul by getting some 
accomplice to personate Samuel, whom she 
must have often seen, and well known, 
during his long administration ; or whether 
she expected to raise a daemoniacal spirit, 
to give an answer ; it is evident from the 
original, more closely translated and com- 
pared throughout with itself, that " Samuel 
himself," or his spirit, was actually raised 
immediately, and before the witch had time 
to utter any incantations, by the power of 
God, in a glorified form, and wearing the 
appearance of the ominous mantle, in which 
was the rent that signified the rending of 
the kingdom from Saul's family. This opi- 
nion is founded on the following reasons : 
1. The woman herself was surprised at his 
unexpected appearance, and immediately 
concluded that the inquirer could be no 
other than Saul ; for that the venerable 
prophet would not probably answer any one 
inferior to the king. 2. Saul acknowledged 
his reality, when he prostrated himself be- 
fore him, and declared the cause of his evo- 
cation. 3. The very soul of Samuel seems 
to breathe in the keenness and severity of 
his reproaches, — " Why hast thou provoked 
me. to raise me ? — And why dost thou en- 
quire of me, since the Lord is departed 
from thee, and is with thy rival, David?" — 
whom he now expressly names, as " the 
neighbour," meant in his former prophecy, 
of which this is the terrific sequel ; fore- 
telling the impending defeat of his army, 
and death of himself and his sons in the 
battle ; and their going to join the prophet 
in Hades, or the region of departed spirits 
in general. 4. Saul gave the most unequi- 
vocal proof of the reality of the denunci- 
ation, which none surely but a prophet of 
the Lord could utter ; for he fell down in 
a swoon, overwhelmed with anguish and 
despair, when he heard his doom, and the 
just reward of his sacrilegious impiety ; and 
was with difficulty restored to his senses, 



SAN 



SAN 



and refreshed by the witch and his atten- 
dants ; who might also have been witnesses 
of the awful scene. He returned that night 
to his camp, and on the fated "morrow" 
rushed on his doom, after he was sore 
wounded by the Philistine archers, falling on 
his own sword. 5. The reality of Samuel's 
appearance on this occasion, was the 
doctrine of the primitive Jewish church.' 
(Ecclus. xlvi. 20.) 

To Samuel are ascribed the book of 
Judges, that of Ruth, and the first book of 
Samuel. There is, indeed, great probability 
that he composed the first twenty-four 
chapters of the first of Samuel, since they 
contain nothing but what he might have 
written, and in which he had not a great 
share. However, in these twenty-four 
chapters there are some small additions, 
probably inserted after his death. We read, 
(1 Chron. ix. 22.) that he assisted in regu- 
lating the distribution of the Levites made 
by David for the service of the temple. This 
may be explained by saying, that David 
pursued the order settled by Samuel, during 
his administration, after the death of the 
high-priest Eli. We read also, (1 Chron. 
xxvi. 28.) that Samuel enriched the taber- 
nacle of the Lord, by magnificent presents, 
and by rich spoils, taken from the enemies 
of Israel. It is also said, (1 Chron. xxix. 
29.) that he wrote the history of David, in 
conjunction with the prophets Nathan and 
Gad. Probably, he might write the begin- 
ning of his history, and the other prophets 
might write the conclusion of it ; for Samuel 
was dead before David came to the throne. 
The first two books of Kings bear the name 
of the books of Samuel ; but it must be 
allowed that he could not be the author of 
the second of these books, which contains 
transactions after his death. Neither could 
he write the latter end of the first, since his 
death is mentioned in chap. xxv. It is said 
(x. 25) in the first book of Samuel, that this 
prophet wrote in a book the manner of the 
kingdom, which was the rights, prerogatives, 
and revenues of the king, and the limits of 
his power and authority; a repetition of 
that which he had proposed, viva voce, a 
little before to the people. 

Samuel began the chain of the prophets, 
which was never broken from his time to 
that of Zechariah and Malachi. ' All the 
prophets from Samuel, and those that follow 
after, as many as have spoken, have likewise 
foretold of these days.' (Acts iii. 24.) Hales's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. 
pp. 356, 357 ; Calmef's Diet. 

SANBAL/LAT, tabnUD, signifies bush in 
secret ; or, according to the Hebrew and the 
Syriac, the enemy in secret. Sanballat was 
chief, or governor, of the Cuthites, or Sama- 
ritans ; a great enemy to the Jews. He 
was a native of Horon, or Horonaim, a city 
beyond Jordan, in the country of Moab. 
When Nehemiah came from Shushan to 
910 



Jerusalem, (Nehem. ii. 10. 19.) in the year 
of the world 3550, and began to rebuild the 
walls of Jerusalem, Sanballat, Tobiah, and 
Geshem taunted him, and sent to know on 
what authority he undertook this enterprise, 
and whether this was not a revolt against 
the king, &c. But Nehemiah proceeding 
with vigour in his undertaking, Sanballat 
was extremely provoked, and said, What 
are these poor Jews a-doing ? Will the peo- 
ple let them go on ? Will they finish their 
work, and dedicate it one day ? Will they 
build with these stones that the fire has 
destroyed and reduced to dust? Never- 
theless, at last, the walls of Jerusalem were 
completed. 

Then Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem, 
sent to Nehemiah, to desire him to meet 
them in the field, that they might make 
an alliance and swear inviolable friendship, 
in the year of the world 3550. But Nehemiah 
perceived that this was only a stratagem, 
and declined it. At last Sanballat wrote to 
him in such terms as these, There is a re- 
port spread among the people, and Geshem 
confidently affirms it, that you and the Jews 
intend a revolt, &c. Now, as all these 
things are to be represented to the king, it 
will be convenient for you to give us a 
meeting, that we may confer together about 
them. Sanballat also gained over to his 
interest a certain false prophet, called 
Shemaiah, who would have intimidated 
Nehemiah ; but Nehemiah by prudent 
boldness avoided the snare. 

Nehemiah being obliged to return to 
king Artaxerxes to Shushan, (Nehem. xiii. 
6. 28.) in the year of the world 3563, in his 
absence, the high-priest Eliashib married 
his grandson Manasseh, the son of Joiada, 
to a daughter of Sanballat, and he allowed 
one Tobiah, a kinsman of Sanballat, an 
apartment in the temple. However, Nehe- 
miah, at his return to Jerusalem, (the exact 
year of which is not known,) drove Tobiah 
out of the temple, and would not suffer 
Manasseh, the high-priest's grandson, to 
continue in the city, nor to perform the 
functions of the priesthood. Manasseh, 
being thus expelled, retired to his father- 
in-law Sanballat, who provided him the 
means of exercising his priestly office on 
Mount Gerizim, on the following occasion. 

When Alexander the Great came into 
Phoenicia, and invested the city of Tyre, 
Sanballat quitted the interests of Darius, 
king of Persia, and went at the head of 
8,000 men, to offer his service to Alexander. 
This prince readily entertained him, and 
gave him leave to erect a temple on Mount 
Gerizim, where he constituted his son-in- 
law Manasseh the high-priest. Sanballat 
must at this time be very old, for one hun- 
dred and twenty years before, in the year of 
the world 3550, he was governor of the 
Samaritans. Indeed, some have been of 
opinion, that the Sanballat who lived in the 



SAN 



SAN 



time of Alexander, was different from that 
Sanballat who so eagerly opposed Nehe- 
miah ; but we see no absolute necessity of 
admitting this. However, Josephus makes 
Sanballat a Cuthite originally, and makes 
no mention of him who withstood Nehe- 
miah. The wife of Manasseh he calls by 
the name of Nicaso, and says, that Sanballat 
died nine months after he had submitted to 
Alexander. 

Dr. Prideaux rejects the solution of this 
difficulty, by two Sanballats, and endeavours 
to reconcile the history to truth and proba- 
bility, by showing it to be a mistake of Jo- 
sephus. This author makes Sanballat to 
flourish in the time of Darius Codomannus, 
and to build his temple upon Mount Geri- 
zim, by licence from Alexander the Great; 
whereas it was performed by leave from 
Darius Nothus, in the fifteenth year of his 
reign. This takes away the difficulty aris- 
ing from the great age of Sanballat, and 
brings him to be contemporary with Nehe- 
miah, as the Scripture history requires. 
Prideaux' s Connection of the Histories of the 
Old and New Testament, part i. book v. pp. 
435—438. 

SANCTUARY. By this name was 
called that part of the temple of Jerusalem, 
which was the most secret and retired, in 
which was the ark of the covenant, and 
where none but the high-priest might enter, 
and he only once a year, on the day of so- 
lemn expiation. The same name was also 
given to the most sacred part of the taber- 
nacle, set up in the wilderness, which re- 
mained till some time after the building 
of the temple. See Tabernacle and 
Temple. 

Sometimes the word sanctuary is used 
generally for the temple or the holy place, 
the place appointed for the public worship 
of the Lord. It should seem also, that 
Moses uses it instead of the Holy Land : 
' Thou shalt bring them in, and plant them 
in the mountain of thine inheritance, in the 
place, O Lord, which thou hast made for 
thee to dwell in ; in the sanctuary, O Lord, 
which thy hands have established.' (Exod. 
xv. 17.) And he also says of those who 
offer their children to the god Moloch, they 
1 defile my sanctuary, and profane my holy 
name.' (Lev. xx. 3.) He forbids the high- 
priest to go out of the temple, to mourn for 
his relations (Lev. xxi. 12.) : ' Neither shall 
he go out of the sanctuary, nor profane the 
sanctuary of his God.' The temple is here 
denoted by its principal part. 

SANDALS, at first were only soles tied 
to the feet with strings or thongs ; after- 
wards they were covered, and at last they 
called even shoes sandals. When Judith 
went to the camp of Holofernes, she put 
sandals on her feet (Judith x. 4.) ; and 
(xvi. 9.) her sandals ravished his eyes. 
They were a magnificent kind of buskins, 
proper only to ladies of condition, and such 
911 



as dressed themselves for admiration. They 
had generally slaves to carry their sandals. 
But there were sandals also belonging to 
men, and of mean value. Jesus Christ al- 
lows the use of them to his disciples. (Mark 
vi. 9.) 

We read, (Deut. xxv. 7-) ' If the man 
like not to take his brother's wife, then let 
his brother's wife go up to the gate unto 
the elders, and say, My husband's brother 
— will not perform the duty of a husband's 
brother — then shall his brother's wife 
come unto him, in the presence of the 
elders, and loose his shoe from off his foot, 
aad spit in his face ; and shall say, ' So shall 
it be done unto that man that will not build 
up his brother's house. And his name 
shall be called in Israel, the house of him 
who hath had his shoe loosed.' A late 
writer observes, that the word nol, rendered 
shoe, usually means sandal, that is, a mere 
sole fastened on the foot in a very simple 
manner ; and that the primary and radical 
meaning of the word face is surface, the su- 
perficies of any thing. Hence he would sub- 
mit, that the passage may be to the follow- 
ing purpose : the brother's wife shall loose 
the sandal from off the foot of her husband's 
brother ; and shall spit upon its face or sur- 
face [that is, of the shoe] and shall say, &c. 
This ceremony is coincident with certain 
customs among the Turks. We are told 
that in a complaint against her own hus- 
band, for withholding himself from her in- 
timacy, the wife when before the judge takes 
off her own shoe, and spits upon it ; but in 
case of complaint against her husband's bro- 
ther for refusing to be his locum tenens, and 
declining her intimacy, she takes off his 
shoe and spits upon it. Besides, the text 
does not say— she shall turn up the sole, 
and spit upon it, (such inversion signifying 
a very different matter, if Busbequius be 
correct) but she shall spit upon the face or 
upper part of it, as affirmation, and evi- 
dence, of his refusal ' to build up his bro- 
ther's house.' It deserves notice that it is 
not said f the house of him who had his shoe 
loosed, and was spit upon' — but the refer- 
ence is to the loosing of the shoe only. This 
custom seems to be alluded to, with some 
variation, in the case of Ruth's kinsman 
(Ruth iv. 7-) ; and it seems clearly to have 
with it the force of an oath ' for to confirm 
all things.' Fragments annexed to Cahnet's 
Dictionary of the Holy Bible, No. ci. pp. 
2, 3. 

SANDEMANIANS, a name given in 
England to the followers of Mr. Robert 
Sandeman ; but in Scotland they are deno- 
minated Glassites, from Mr. John Glas, 
their founder, who was a minister of the 
established kirk. About the year 1727, 
Mr. Glas, having offended some of his bre- 
thren by certain peculiar notions, both of 
justifying faith, and of the nature of Christ's 
kingdom, as being not of this world, was ta- 



SAN 



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bled as an offender, before the presbytery 
of which he was a member, and afterwards 
prosecuted before the provincial synod of 
Angus and Mearns ; and having been in the 
course of that prosecution called on by the 
synod to answer certain queries in April 
1728, he gave such answers as were by his 
judges deemed inconsistent with the stan- 
dard of the national religion. Being inter- 
rogated, ' Is it your opinion, that there is 
no warrant for a national church under the 
New Testament?' He answered, ' It is my 
opinion : for I can see no churches insti- 
tuted by Christ in the New Testament, be- 
side the universal, but congregational 
churches. Neither do I see that a nation 
can be a church, unless it could be made a 
congregation, as was the nation of Israel,' 
&c. Being asked, ' Is it your opinion, that 
a single congregation of believers, with 
their pastor, are not under the ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction and authority of superior church 
judicatures, nor censurable by them, either 
as to doctrine, worship, or practice?' He 
answered, 'A congregation, or church of 
Jesus Christ, with its presbytery, is, in its 
discipline, subject to no jurisdiction under 
heaven.' — And being interrogated, ' Do you 
think yourself obliged, in conscience, to 
teach and publish these your opinions, dif- 
fering from the received doctrine of this 
church, unto the people?' — He answered, 
' I think myself obliged, in conscience, to 
declare every truth of Christ, and keep no- 
thing back ; but to speak all the words of 
this life ; and to teach his people to observe 
all things whatsoever he commands, as far 
as I can understand: and that, notwith- 
standing of others differing from me, and 
my being exposed to hazard in the declaring 
of them.' 

For these and other opinions of a similar 
nature and tendency, the synod suspended 
Mr. Glas from the exercise of his office, 
in April 1728; and in the same year he 
published ' An Explication of that Proposi- 
tion,' contained in the foregoing answer, 
' A congregation, or church of Jesus Christ, 
with its presbytery, is, in its discipline, 
subject to no jurisdiction under heaven.' 

Mr. Glas having persisted, not only in the 
exercise of his office as a minister of Christ, 
notwithstanding the sentence of suspension, 
but also in the opinions expressed in his 
answers above referred to, the synod of 
Angus and Mearns, after a great deal of 
previous procedure, by a plurality of votes, 
but not without protests entered by some 
of their brethren, in October 1728, ' de- 
posed him from the office of the holy mi- 
nistry ; prohibiting and discharging him to 
exercise the same, or any part thereof, in 
all time coming, under the pain of the 
highest censures of the church.' From this 
sentence Mr. Glas appealed to the General 
Assembly of the church of Scotland. That 
court, after hearing his speech in defence, 
912 



affirmed the sentence of deposition pro- 
nounced by the synod, March 12, 1730. 

Mr. Glas, after his deposition, continued 
the exercise of his ministry, though de- 
prived of his stipend, and not only preached 
occasionally in most of the principal towns 
in Scotland at different periods, but erected 
churches, wherever he found a competent 
number of persons who adopted and coin- 
cided with his opinions. The most nume- 
rous of these was the congregation which 
assembled at Dundee, composed of such 
of the inhabitants of Tealing as adhered to 
Mr. Glas after his deposition, and some of 
the inhabitants of Dundee and its vicinity, 
who followed their example ; all of whom, 
however, did not, for several years, amount 
to two hundred persons at any one time. 
But soon after the erection of that church 
at Dundee, smaller congregations were put 
into church order at different places ; such 
as Edinburgh, Perth, Dunkeld, Arbroath, 
Montrose, Aberdeen, Glasgow, Paisley, 
Galashields, Newcastle, &c. 

Mr. Glas published a variety of tracts 
and treatises at different periods, mostly in 
the polemical style ; and a Mr. Robert San- 
deman, originally educated and destined for 
the ministry of the established church, hav- 
ing embraced Mr. Glas's principles, was 
soon after ordained an elder of the church 
at Perth, from whence he afterward moved 
to Edinburgh. The writings of the late Mr. 
James Hervey, of Weston Favell, having 
attracted much attention, especially among 
those who held what are commonly called 
Calvinistic doctrines, and Mr. Sandeman 
considering some of Mr. Hervey's senti- 
ments, as well as those of various authors 
whom he recommended both in his Medi- 
tations, and in his Dialogues between The- 
ron and Aspasio, as erroneous and unscrip- 
tural ; the former, in a series of letters, en- 
titled Letters on Theron and Aspasio, com- 
bated not only the doctrines of Mr. Hervey, 
and other popular authors, but those of the 
more fashionable preachers, and even of 
some celebrated philosophers, as Locke, 
Hume, &c. These Letters, which Sandeman 
published under the signature of Palaemon, 
were written in a style more suited to at- 
tract general notice than that of Mr. Glas ; 
though the peculiar doctrines and tenets of 
both are in perfect unison. Sandeman's 
attacks were so pointed, or, as some said, 
executed with so much acrimony, that they 
gave great offence, especially to the devout 
on both sides of the Tweed ; and so gene- 
rally displeasing were they considered, that 
the celebrated Mr. George Whitfield, when 
preaching at Edinburgh, about the time of 
the first publication of these Letters, it was 
said, observed, that 'the author of those 
Letters ought to be called Ishmael, because 
his hand is against every man, and therefore 
every man's hand ought to be against him.' 
Chiefly, as it was commonly said, in conse- 



SAN 



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quence of reading those Letters, some per- 
sons in London became proselytes to the 
principles and opinions of Sandeman, and 
were, for that reason, there denominated 
Sandemanians ; and in the year 1762, a 
small congregation of those proselytes were 
put into church order, upon the principles 
of Glas and Sandeman ; as were also, some 
years after, smaller congregations in differ- 
ent parts of Yorkshire, at Nottingham, Li- 
verpool, Whitehaven, &c. all in communion 
upon the same principles, and after the 
same model of the congregations denomin- 
ated Glassites in Scotland. 

A summary of the faith of this sect may 
be taken from the following words of San- 
deman, who, speaking of his Letters, says, 
' The motto of the title-page of this work 
is One Thing is needful ; which he calls 
the sole requisite to justification, or accept- 
ance with God. By the sole requisite, he 
understands the work finished by Christ in 
his death, proved by his resurrection to be 
all-sufficient to justify the guilty ; that the 
whole benefit of this event is conveyed to 
men, only by the apostolic report concern- 
ing it ; that every one who understands this 
report to be true, or is persuaded that the 
event actually happened, as testified by the 
apostles, is justified, and finds relief to his 
guilty conscience ; that he is relieved, not 
by finding any favourable symptom about 
his own heart, but by finding their report 
to be true ; that the event itself, which is 
reported, becomes his relief, so soon as it 
stands true in his mind, and accordingly 
becomes his faith ; that all the divine power 
which operates on the minds of men, either 
to give the first relief to their consciences, 
or to influence them in every part of their 
obedience to the Gospel, is persuasive 
power, or the forcible conviction of truth; 
that all men are equally fit for justification, 
or equally destitute of any plea for accept- 
ance with God; that those called the stricter 
sort, cannot, by their utmost assiduity in 
devotion, contribute any more to this end, 
than the most notorious felons, ready to 
suffer for their crimes ; that, in this respect, 
no one of mankind has the least room to 
glory over another; that man's impotency 
to do what is pleasing to God lies in the 
aversion of his will ; and that all men are as 
able to please God as they are willing; that 
the supernatural facts recorded in the writ- 
ings of the Apostles open to view a further 
discovery of the Divine character than can 
be learned from any thing observable in the 
course of nature; that in the work finished 
by Christ on the cross, this new discovery of 
the Divine character was made ; that thence 
it appeared that God might be just in justi- 
fying the ungodly, or those who have no- 
thing about them but what fits them for 
condemnation ; that this is proved and de- 
monstrated, with evidence sufficient to coun- 
terbalance all objections, by the resurrection 
913 



of Christ from the dead ; that every one 
who is persuaded of the fact of Christ's re- 
surrection, as circumstanced in the Gospel 
History, even when he finds nothing about 
himself in the way of wish, desire, or other- 
wise, but what renders him obnoxious to the 
Divine displeasure, knows how God may be 
just in justifying him and receiving him into 
favour presently as he stands ; so finds 
relief from the disquieting fear, for which no 
remedy can be found by any argument drawn 
from any appearance of God in the course 
of nature. 

' That the great mistake of popular 
preachers, or the chief leaders in devotion, 
lies in this, that they cannot understand 
how God can appear to an unrighteous per- 
son, just in justifying him as he presently 
stands, without feeling some motion or ten- 
dency in his will towards a change to the 
better ; whether this motion be called some 
faint desire to close with Christ, to trust in 
him, to put forth an act of faith, or by any 
other name ; that, in effect, they make their 
acts of faith to stand, not only for the 
ground of acceptance with God, but also for 
the evidence and proof of one's being in 
favour with God ; that, accordingly, they 
show their disaffection, not only to the 
justifying work of Christ, but also to the 
works of self-denied obedience, wherein 
his people are called to be conformed to 
him, as a proof of their being his disciples 
indeed ; that the appropriation contended for 
in the popular doctrines is disagreeable to 
the Scripture, and productive of the worst 
consequences ; that no man can warrantably 
be assured that he is a Christian, a believer 
in Christ, or an object of the peculiar favour 
of God, any other way than by being assured, 
on good grounds, that his practice, in obe- 
dience to the peculiar precepts of Chris- 
tianity, is influenced by the love of that same 
truth which influenced the lives of the Apos- 
tles.' 

In fine, the Sandemanians hold no kind 
of communion with any church or society, 
nor even with any individuals, but such as 
profess perfect agreement with them on the 
absolute and unlimited sovereignty of God, 
and on the all-sufficiency of the work of 
Christ, to justify the most guilty of mankind. 
But while they thus contend for justification 
through the righteousness of Christ, im- 
puted to sinners without works, they no less 
strenuously contend for the strictest obe- 
dience of every one of their members to the 
peculiar precepts of Christianity, as practised 
in the churches planted by the Apostles. 

Hence they maintain it to be indispen- 
sably necessary to pay the strictest attention 
to the exercise of the law of love, as laid 
down in Matthew (xviii.): 'If thy brother 
shall trespass against thee, go tell him his 
fault between thee and him alone,' &c. ; and, 
therefore, when any one brother gives 
offence to another, either by word or deed, 
3 N 



SAN 



SAN 



or says or does any thing which occasions 
uneasiness of mind, or tends to cool the 
affection or esteem which they ought to hold 
for one another, the person so offending, 
whatever be his rank or station in civil life, 
is to be immediately told his fault by the 
brother offended, whatever may be the rank 
or station of the latter. If, in the con- 
ference between the two, the brother offended 
be satisfied by the profession of repentance 
of the offender, the fault is to be forgiven, 
and no more heard of. If otherwise, the 
cause of offence is to be told to one or two 
other brethren, in presence of the offender ; 
who, if his repentance satisfies them, is in 
like manner to be forgiven. But if the 
offender hear not them, or if they are dis- 
satisfied with his profession of repentance, 
the cause of offence must be stated to the 
whole church ; and if the church sustain the 
cause of offence, as supported by Scripture, 
the offender must be put away, or excom- 
municated by prayer. They also contend 
for the strict observance of the other rule 
of discipline prescribed by the Apostle 
(1 Cor. v.) ; which differs from the former 
rule in this respect, that where anyone who 
is called a brother, turns out to be by cha- 
racter a fornicator, or covetous, or an idola- 
ter, or a drunkard, or an extortioner, the 
offence occasioned by his practice is not to 
be the subject of private dealing, between 
two or three brethren, but must be directly 
laid before the whole church ; who, if the 
character be established, must put him away 
by excommunication, whatever may be his 
profession of repentance at the time. But 
in this, as well as in the former case, the 
offending brother is to be restored to com- 
munion with the church, and love con- 
firmed towards him, whenever it shall ap- 
pear, to the satisfaction of the church, that 
he repents, and is in danger of being swal- 
lowed up with over-much sorrow ; according 
to the apostolic precept. (2 Cor. ii. 6 — 8.) 
In both cases, the whole church must be 
unanimous ; nothing can be done by a ma- 
jority or plurality of votes ; for that these 
people think inconsistent with charity and 
brotherly love ; and all their acts of discip- 
line, whether in the reception, excommuni- 
cation, or restoration of members, or indeed 
in any other matters which come under the 
Consideration of the church, are preceded 
by prayer to God. It is rather by this 
strictness of discipline, than by any other 
peculiar tenet or usage, that this sect is to 
be distinguished from other dissenters ; for 
various classes of the latter profess to hold 
both the faith and other tenets held by 
them. 

The Sandemanians, or Glassites, hold it 
to be unlawful to have any familiar inter- 
course with persons excommunicated ; or to 
eat or drink with such, in the same way as 
they may do with those of the world who 
never made their profession. Persons de- 
sirous to be admitted members of these 
914 



churches, are received with prayer, and the 
imposition of the hands of the presbytery ; 
whatever may have been their former prac- 
tices and characters ; but only in case of 
their profession of the faith, and of obe- 
dience to the laws of Christ, satisfying every 
member of the church. They not only main- 
tain the lawfulness of baptizing the children 
of their members (as well as such professors 
as were not previously baptized), but refuse 
to hold communion with those who deny the 
lawfulness of infant baptism ; and they be- 
lieve that all children, without discrimina- 
tion, who die in a state of infancy, will be 
found among the living in the New Jeru- 
salem, or be subjects of the kingdom of hea- 
ven. (Markx. 13— 16. Acts ii. 39. xvi. 15. 
31. Rom. v. 19—21. 1 Cor. xv. 22. Rev. xx. 
12 — 15, &c ) They maintain the necessity of 
at least two bishops, pastors, or elders (which 
they hold to be different names for one and 
the same office) in each church ; insomuch 
that they cannot, according to their notions 
of the order of the churches planted by the 
apostles, either eat the Lord's Supper, or 
go about any act of discipline, in receiving, 
putting away, or restoring members, by 
prayer, without two or more elders being 
present. In calling persons to exercise the 
office of bishops or elders among them, this 
sect are guided by the instructions of Paul 
to Timothy and Titus, (1 Tim. iii. 1 — 7. 
Tit. i. 5 — 9.) according to the literal sig- 
nification of the apostle's words, without 
regard to the literature, rank, or station of 
the persons to be called. Engagements in 
trade, if they do not distract or entangle 
the man with the affairs and cares of this 
life, afford no objection to one's being called 
to the office. Their elders are ordained by 
prayer, with fasting, and by the imposition 
of the hands of the presbytery; and with 
giving the right hand of fellowship. 

They assemble every first day of the week, 
chiefly for the sake of breaking bread ; that 
is, partaking of the Lord's Supper ; of which 
every member, who can attend, must partake 
(Matt. xxvi. 26—28. Acts ii. 46. xx. 7. 
1 Cor. xi. 23—29, &c.) ; and they hold it to 
be both the duty and the privilege of every 
male member, both to pray in the church 
when called on by the presiding elder, and 
to exhort his brethren, according to the gifts 
bestowed on him. Besides this service on 
the first day of every week, they meet on 
other days, according as circumstances will 
permit, for reading the Scriptures, exhorta- 
tion, and discipline, &c. Every individual, 
desirous of being admitted as a member, 
must make a profession of his faith in pre- 
sence of the church ; and if, after having 
done so, and answered such questions as are 
put to him, for the purpose of ascertaining 
his oneness of mind with the church, all the 
members agree to his admission, he is re- 
ceived with prayer and the imposition of 
the hands of the presbytery (1 Tim. iv. 14. 
v. 22.), and then the brethren salute him with 



SAN 



SAN 



the kiss of charity. They hold it to be un- 
lawful to lay up treasure on earth, and pro- 
fess to consider themselves, and all that they 
have or possess, as liable to the calls of the 
poor, and the concerns of the kingdom of 
heaven. They hold it to be their duty also, 
to abstain from eating blood, and things 
strangled ; and, according to Acts (xv. 29. 
&c), they allow of public and private diver- 
sions and amusements, so far as not con- 
nected with things really sinful, or as not 
incapacitating them to give to those who 
need (Gal. vi. 10.) ; but holding the lot to 
be sacred, and the casting of it an appeal to 
God, (Prov. xvi. 33. &c.) they abstain from 
lotteries, playing at cards, dice, and all chance 
games, as well as from every species of 
swearing, unless when called on by lawful 
authority, in order to the confirmation of 
truth, and to put an end to strife. Adam's 
Religious World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 170 — 
191. 

SAN'HEDRIM ; from avvsSpiov, an as- 
sembly. Sanhedrim, or Sanhedria, is a cor- 
rupted word, from the Greek Synedrion, 
which signifies an assembly ; such as those 
of a parliament, or a sovereign court, where 
many judges and counsellors meet, to con- 
sult on, and to determine, great affairs. 
This council consisted of seventy senators. 
The room in which they met was a rotunda, 
half of which was built without the temple, 
and half within ; that is, one semicircle of 
the room was within the compass of the 
temple, and as it was never allowed to sit 
down in the temple, they tell us this part 
was for those who stood up ; the other half, 
or semicircle, extended without the holy 
place, and here the judges sat. The Nasi, 
or prince, sat on a throne at the end of the 
hall, having his deputy at his right hand, 
and sub-deputy at his left. The other sena- 
tors were ranged in order on each side. 

The Rabbins pretend, that the Sanhedrim 
has always subsisted in their nation from 
the time of Moses down to the destruction 
of the temple by the Romans. They date 
the establishment of it from what happened 
in the wilderness, some time after the people 
departed from Sinai, (Numb. xi. 16.) when 
seventy men were chosen as judges of lesser 
matters. The Sanhedrim was composed of 
seventy counsellors, six out of each tribe, 
and Moses, as president, made up the num- 
ber seventy-one. Six senators out of each 
tribe make in all seventy- two persons, which, 
with the president, constitute a council of 
seventy-three ; and accordingly the Sanhe- 
drim consisted of seventy-three counsellors, 
according to some. To prove the unin- 
terrupted succession of the judges of the 
Sanhedrim, there is nothing unattempted by 
the partisans of this opinion. They find a 
proof, where others cannot so much as per- 
ceive any appearance or shadow of it. 

As to the personal qualifications of the 
judges of this court, their birth was to be 
915 



untainted ; they were often of the race of 
the priests or Levites, or of the number of 
the inferior judges ; or from the lesser San- 
hedrim, which consisted of twenty-three 
judges. See Judges. They were to be 
skilful in the law, as well traditional as 
written. They were obliged to study magic, 
divination, fortune- telling, physic, astro- 
logy, arithmetic, and languages. The Jews 
say, they were to know to the number of 
seventy tongues ; that is, they were to know 
all the tongues ; for the Hebrews acknow- 
ledged but seventy in all ; and perhaps this 
is too many. Eunuchs were excluded from 
the Sanhedrim, usurers, decrepid persons, 
players at games of chance, those who had 
any bodily deformity, those who had brought 
up pigeons to decoy others to their pigeon- 
houses, and those who made a gain of their 
fruits in the sabbatical year. Some also 
excluded the high-priest and the king, be- 
cause of their too great power ; but others 
insist that the king always presided in the 
Sanhedrim, while there was a king in Israel. 
Lastly, it was required that the members of 
the Sanhedrim should be of mature age, 
rich, of good countenance and body. Such 
are the notions of the E,abbins. We pretend 
not to warrant their opinions. 

The authority of the great Sanhedrim was 
very extensive. This council decided causes 
brought before it by appeal from inferior 
courts. The king, the high-priest, the pro- 
phets, were under its jurisdiction. If the 
king offended against the law ; for example, 
if he married above eighteen wives, if he 
kept too many horses, if he hoarded up too 
much gold and silver ; the Sanhedrim had 
him stripped and whipped in their presence. 
But whipping, they say, among the He- 
brews, was not ignominious ; and the king 
bore this correction by way of penance, and 
himself made choice of the person who was 
to exercise this discipline. Also, the general 
affairs of the nation were brought before the 
Sanhedrim. The right of judging in capital 
cases belonged to this court ; and this sen- 
tence could not be pronounced in any other 
place, but in the hall called Lishchathagga- 
zith, or the hall paved with stones, supposed 
by some to be the AiOoorpwroe, or pave- 
ment. (John xix. 13.) Whence it came to 
pass, that the Jews were forced to quit this 
hall, when the power of life and death was 
taken out of their hands, forty years before 
the destruction of their temple, and three 
years before the death of Jesus Christ. 

In the time of Moses, this council was 
held at the door of the tabernacle of the 
testimony. As soon as the people were in 
possession of the Land of Promise, the San- 
hedrim followed the tabernacle. It was 
kept successively at Gilgal, at Shiloh, at 
Kirjath-jearim, at Nob, at Gibeon in the 
house of Obed-edom, and, lastly, at Jerusa- 
lem, till the Babylonish captivity. During 
the captivity it was kept at Babylon. After 
3 n 2 



SAN 



SAR 



the return from Babylon, it continued at 
Jerusalem, to the time of the sicarii, or as- 
sassins. Then, finding that these profligate 
wretches, whose number increased daily, 
sometimes escaped punishment by favour of 
the president or judges, it was removed to 
Hanoth ; which were certain abodes situated, 
say the Rabbins, on the mountain of the 
temple. From thence they came down into 
the city of Jerusalem, withdrawing them- 
selves by degrees from the temple. After- 
wards they removed to Jamnia ; thence to 
Jericho, to Uzzah, to Shepharvaim to Beth- 
sanim, to Sephoris; last of all to Tiberias, 
where they continued till their utter extinc- 
tion. This is the account the Jews give of 
their Sanhedrim. 

But the learned do not agree with them. 
Father Petan fixes the beginning of the 
Sanhedrim not till Gabinius was governor 
of Judea ; who erected tribunals in the five 
principal cities of Judea, at Jerusalem, at 
Gadara, at Amathus, at Jericho, at Sephora 
or Sephoris, a city of Galilee. Grotius places 
the beginning under Moses, as the Rabbins 
do ; but he makes it determine at the be- 
ginning of Herod's reign. Mr. Basnage, in 
his History of the Jews, at first thought that 
the Sanhedrim began under Gabinius, but 
afterwards he places it under Judas Macca- 
baeus, or under his brother Jonathan. We 
see, indeed, (1 Mace. xii. 6.) under Jonathan 
Maccabaeus, in the year of the world 3860, 
that the senate, with the high-priest, sent an 
embassy to the Romans. The Rabbins say, 
that Alexander Janneus, king of the Jews, 
of the race of the Asmoneans, appeared be- 
fore the Sanhedrim, and claimed a right of 
sitting there, whether the senators would or 
no. Josephus informs us, that when Herod 
was governor of Galilee, he was summoned 
before the senate, where he appeared. It 
must be therefore acknowledged, that the 
Sanhedrim was in being before the reign of 
Herod. It was in being afterwards, as we 
find from the Gospels and from the Acts. 
Jesus Christ (Matt. v. 22.) distinguishes 
two tribunals. ' Whosoever is angry with 
his brother without a cause, shall be in 
danger of the judgment ;' that is, they say, 
the tribunal of the twenty-three judges : 
' And whosoever shall say to his brother, 
Raca, shall be in danger of the council ;' 
that is, of the great Sanhedrim, which 'had 
the right of life and death, at least generally, 
and before this right was taken away by the 
Romans. Some think that the jurisdiction 
of the council of twenty-three extended to 
life and death also ; but it is certain that the 
Sanhedrim was superior to that council. See 
also Mark xiii. 9. xiv. 55. xv. 1. Luke 
xxii. 52. 66. John xi. 47- Acts iv. 15. 21. 
where mention is made of the Synedrion. 

From all this it may be concluded, 

that the origin of the Sanhedrim is by 

no means to be depended on ; for the 

council of the seventy elders established by 

916 



Moses, was not what the Hebrews under- 
stood by the name of Sanhedrim. Besides, 
we cannot perceive this establishment either 
under Joshua, the Judges, or the Kings. 
We find nothing of it after the captivity, 
till the time of Jonathan Maccabaeus. The 
tribunals erected by Gabinius were very 
different from the Sanhedrim. This was 
the only one of its kind, and fixed at Jeru- 
salem ; but Gabinius established five tribu- 
nals at five different cities ; which tribunals 
do not appear to be subordinate one to an- 
other. Lastly, it is certain that this senate 
was in being in the time of Jesus Christ, and 
when St. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 
wrote their Gospels ; since it is mentioned 
in their writings. But the Jews inform us 
themselves, that they then had not the 
power of life and death. (John xviii. 31.) 

SAPPHI'RA, ZcnrQdpr], signifies that 
relates or tells : otherwise, that writes or com- 
poses books; otherwise, handsome. Sap- 
phira was a Christian woman, and wife of* 
Ananias. Having conjointly sold a field, 
which was their property, they brought a 
part of the price of the field, and laid it at 
the feet of the apostles, as if it had been 
the whole price, reserving the rest for their 
own use. For this prevarication they were 
both struck with sudden death. (Acts v. 1, 
2, 3, &c) See Ananias. 

SA'RAH, mw, signifies lady, or princess : 
rnw, lady of scent ; otherwise, song; other- 
wise, the morning, the morning star. Sarah, 
or Sarai, or Sara, was wife of Abraham, 
daughter of Terah, father of Abraham, but 
by a mother different from Abraham's ; 
since Abraham himself asserts, (Gen. xii. 
13. ; xx. 12.) that she was really his sister, 
the daughter of his father, but not the 
daughter of his mother. Terah might have 
had several wives at once, according to the 
custom of the country ; or might have 
married again, after the death of Abraham's 
mother, by which last wife he might have 
had Sarai. This opinion seems to us better 
than that which makes Sarah the same as 
Iscah the daughter of Haran, the niece of 
Abraham, and grand-daughter of Terah. 
(Gen. xi. 29.) However, this is the opinion 
of Josephus, and of a great number of com- 
mentators. 

Sarai was born in the year of the world 
2018. She married Abraham before this 
patriarch left the city of Ur; and when 
Abraham quitted his country, he agreed 
with Sarah, that she should call herself his 
sister. For, being a woman of exquisite 
beauty, he was afraid she should be taken 
away from him, and that he might be put 
to death on her account, if she was known 
to be his wife. When the famine prevailed 
in Canaan, which was the year after Abra- 
ham came into this country, he was obliged 
to withdraw into Egypt, where the famine 
did not reach, (Gen. xii. 10, 11, 12, &c.) in 
the year of the world 2084. When Abra- 



SAR 



SAR 



ham came into that country, Sarah was 
taken from him, and carried to Pharaoh's 
palace. But the Lord visited this prince 
and all his family with great plagues, be- 
cause of Sarah. And Pharaoh at length 
knowing that she was Abraham's wife, re- 
proved him very sharply. He restored her 
to Abraham, and sent them out of Egypt. 
This conduct of Abraham and Sarah has 
occasioned many speculations among the 
learned. Abraham seems to expose Sarah 
to the danger of adultery ; and she seems 
too easily to consent to it, by passing only 
for the sister of Abraham, and not his wife. 
In Abraham there seems to have been 
lying, disguise, and too great easiness in 
hazarding his wife's chastity ; and in her, 
too great forwardness in consenting to it. 

Sarah, knowing on the one hand, that 
God had promised a numerous posterity, 
and on the other, finding herself barren, 
thought that possibly the promises of God 
were to be performed by the medium of 
some other woman ; she therefore desired 
Abraham to take her servant Hagar, that, 
by her means, she might see issue from 
Abraham. He complied, and took Hagar 
as a wife of the second order. But when 
Hagar found herself with child, she began 
to despise her mistress ; who, in conse- 
quence, used her harshly. Hagar fled from 
her ; but returned some time after. 

Some years after, God appeared to 
Abraham, made a covenant with him, insti- 
tuted circumcision ; changed his name ; 
and changed the name ofSarai, or My Prin- 
cess, into that of Sarah, or Princess ; and 
promised Abraham that he should have a 
son by Sarah. The same year three angels, 
whom he entertained in his tent, in the form 
of men, repeated to him the promise of the 
birth of a son, and assured him, that a full 
year should not expire, before he saw the 
completion of this promise. Sarah was 
behind the door of her tent, and hearing 
this, began to laugh within herself, saying, 
After I am become old, and my lord is old 
also, shall I receive pleasure ? Then the 
Lord said to Abraham, Why did Sarah 
laugh ? Is there any thing impossible to 
God ? Sarah indeed shall have a son within 
a year's time. Sarah denied that she had 
laughed ; but the Lord said to her, It is not 
so, for you surely did laugh. 

A short time after, Abraham went to 
dwell at Gerar, a city of the Philistines ; 
and Abimelech, king of this city, took away 
Sarah, who, though now fourscore and ten 
years old, and then with child of Isaac, was 
still a very handsome woman. But the 
Lord appeared to Abimelech in a dream, 
and threatened to punish him, if he did not 
restore her to her husband. The day after, 
early in the morning, this prince came to 
Abraham, and brought him his wife, re- 
proaching his dissimulation, in pretending 
she was his sister. Abraham excused him- 
017 



self, by explaining that she was indeed his 
sister, being born from the same father, 
though not from the same mother. Abi- 
melech made great presents to Abraham, 
and offered a thousand pieces of silver to 
Sarah, that she might purchase a veil to 
cover her face, and be no more exposed to 
similar dangers. 

The year following she brought forth a 
son, to whom she gave the name of Isaac, 
that is, Laughter, in allusion to her laugh- 
ing when God promised her a son, and to 
show the great joy that his birth produced 
in her : she suckled the child herself; and 
when it was to be weaned, about three years 
after, as the most probable opinion is, 
Abraham made a great feast for his friends. 
Sarah saw Ishmael at play with Isaac, or, 
according to St. Paul, (Gal. iv. 29.) Ishmael 
then persecuted or teazed Isaac, and she 
said to Abraham, Cast out this servant, with 
her son, for Ishmael shall not inherit with 
Isaac. Abraham made some difficulty at 
this request, but God ordered him to com- 
Pty- 

The Scripture tells us no more of Sarah 
till her death, (Gen. xxiii. 1. 19.) which 
happened some years after the famous trial 
that God made of Abraham's faith, by com- 
manding him to sacrifice Isaac. Sarah was 
an hundred and twenty-seven years old 
when she died. She was then in the valley 
of Hebron, and Abraham came toBeersheba 
to mourn for her. 

SAR'DIS, Sapcac, signifies the prince of 
joy, or song of joy ; otherwise, that which re- 
mains, or is left ; or, from the Syriac, a cur- 
tain. Sardis was a city of Asia Minor, for- 
merly the capital of Crcesus, king of the 
Lydians. St John (Rev. iii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 
writes, in behalf of Jesus Christ, to the angel 
or bishop of Sardis. 

This city being overthrown by a most 
terrible earthquake, it was rebuilt at the 
cost of Tiberius, and continued long to be 
the metropolis of the province of Lydia. 
Strabo tells us, that it was a great and 
ancient city ; but of later date than the 
state of the Trojans. It had in his time a 
castle well fortified. The mountain Tmolus 
hangs over the city : upon the top of which 
was erected a high tower of white stone, 
built after the Persian manner; whence is a 
pleasing prospect over all the • adjacent 
plains, and a view of the Cayster. Out of 
the Tmolus flows the Pactolus, whose stream 
anciently brought gold with its current ; 
whence Crcesus and his ancestors amassed 
their riches ; but these springs of gold have 
since failed. Whatever this city was in 
former days, it is now only a poor habita- 
tion of shepherds, who live in low and hum- 
ble cottages ; but the ancient pillars and 
ruins lift up their heads, as unwilling to 
lose the memory of their former glory. 
Indeed, considerable ruins still attest toe 
ancient splendour of this once celebrated 



SAR 



SAU 



capital of Croesus and the Lydian kings, 
which is now reduced to a wretched village 
called Sart, consisting of a few mud huts, 
occupied by Turkish herdsmen. No Christ- 
ians reside on the spot ; and in the year 
1826, two Greek servants of a Turkish 
miller were the only representatives of the 
church at Sardis. Home's Introduction, vol. 
iii. p. 621 ; Hartley's Visit, Miss. Register, 
1827; ArundelVs Visit; Wells's Geography, 
vol. ii. pp. 274, 275. 

SAREP'TA. See Zarephath. 
SA'TAN, ]uw, Sid(3o\og, aaravaq, signifies 
an adversary, an enemy, an accuser. It is 
often translated adversary in our translation 
of the Bible, and also in the Septuagint and 
the Vulgate. The princes of the Philistines 
say to Achish, send back David, ' lest in the 
battle he be an adversary to us,' and turn 
his arms against us. (1 Sam. xxix. 4.) The 
Lord stirred up adversaries to Solomon in 
the persons of Hadad and Rezon. (1 Kings 
xi. 14, 23, &c.) Sometimes Satan is put 
for the devil ; Satan presented himself 
among the sons of God. (Job i. 6, 7> &c.) 
'Let Satan stand at his right hand.' (Ps. 
cix. 6.) It is said, 'Satan standing at his 
right hand to resist him. And the Lord 
said unto Satan, The Lord rebuke thee, O 
Satan.' (Zechariah iii. 1, 2.) In the New 
Testament, the word Satan is taken both in 
the sense of an adversary, and for the devil ; 
Christ says to Peter, ' Get thee behind me, 
Satan ; thou art an offence unto me ;' (Matt, 
xvi. 23. Mark viii. 33.) that is, Begone, O 
my adversary, you that withstand what I 
most desire. But commonly Satan is taken 
for the devil. ' If Satan cast out Satan, he 
is divided against himself.' (Matt. xii. 26. 
Mark iii. 23.) And in the Revelation, (xx. 
2.) ' He laid hold on the dragon, that old 
serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and 
bound him a thousand years.' See Devil. 
To deliver up to Satan probably refers to 
the infliction of some bodily pains or dis- 
eases, in which Satan might act as the in- 
strument of divine justice, and bring the 
guilty person to a sense of duty. St. Paul 
delivered up to Satan Hymeneus and Alex- 
ander, that they might learn not to blas- 
pheme. (1 Tim. i. 20.) He also surren- 
dered up to him the incestuous person of 
Corinth, 'for the destruction of the flesh, 
that the spirit may be saved in the day of 
the Lord Jesus.' (1 Cor. v. 5.) The pas- 
sage is thus paraphrased by a late writer : 
' As the design of punishment is reforma- 
tion of the suffering party, / command you — 
not yourselves to molest the party, but — to 
deliver such a transgressor unto Satan, the 
proper angel of punishment, that he, by his 
castigations and afflictions, may bring the 
criminal to a sense of duty; even should 
those afflictions terminate in the destruction 
[of his person ; perhaps, rather of his fleshly 
powers, or appetite] of the flesh, in order 
that the more important part of the man, 
918 



the spirit, may be saved in the day of our 
Lord Jesus.' 

By collecting all these passages where 
Satan [or the devil] is mentioned, it may be 
observed, that he fell from Heaven, with all 
his company ; that God cast him down from 
thence for the punishment of his pride ; and 
by his envy and malice, death and all other 
evils came into the world ; that by the per- 
mission of God he exercises a sort of govern- 
ment in the world over his subordinates, 
over apostate angels like himself; that God 
makes use of him to prove good men, and 
to chastise bad ones ; that it is he, or some 
of his, that torment, obsess, or possess men, 
that inspire them with evil designs, as he 
did David, when he suggested to him to 
number his people, and to Judas to betray 
Jesus Christ, and to Ananias and Sapphira 
to conceal the price of their field. That he 
roves about full of rage, like a roaring lion, 
to tempt, to betray, to destroy, and to in- 
volve us in guilt and wickedness. Calmefs 
Dictionary ; Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Dictionary, No. cliii. p. 132. 

SAVIOUR, a name appropriated to our 
Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world, 
who was prefigured by all to whom the Old 
Testament gives the name of Saviour, as 
Joshua, the Judges of Israel, the kings 
David, Solomon, Josiah, and other great 
men raised up to deliver the people of God. 
The prophets had described Jesus Christ 
under the name of Saviour. ' The Lord 
shall send them a saviour, and a great one, 
and he shall deliver them.' (Isai. xix. 20.) 
* I, even I, am the Lord, and beside me 
there is no saviour.' (Isai xliii. 11.) The 
apostles and sacred writers of the New 
Testament generally give to Jesus Christ 
the name of Saviour, by way of eminence. 
When the angel foretold his birth, he said 
he should be called Jesus, that is, a Saviour; 
' for he shall save his people from their 
sins.' (Matt. i. 21. John iv. 42. Acts 
xiii. 23. Philipp. iii. 20, &c.) See Sal- 
vation. 

SAUL, biNW, signifies demanded, or lent, 
ditch, sepulchre, death, or hell. Saul, the 
son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, was 
the first king of the Israelites. Kish, having 
lost his she-asses, sent his son Saul to seek 
them. After he had in vain travelled over 
a considerable country, and was on the 
point of returning to Gibeah to his father, 
a servant who was with him said, Here is 
a very famous prophet hard by, let us con- 
sult him : so they went to Ramah, where 
they learned that the prophet Samuel was. 
Saul asked him where the seer or prophet 
lived? Samuel answered, It is I who am 
the seer : and Samuel made Saul and his 
servant enter the room where the feast was 
kept, placed them at the head of the table, 
and, by way of distinction, served up to Saul 
the shoulder of a sacrifice. After supper, 
Samuel conducted Saul to his lodging on 



SAU 



SAU 



the terrace of the house, and on the mor- 
row morning he brought him down, and 
came with him below the city of Ramah. 
Afterwards he anointed him, kissed him, 
and told him of the kingdom to which he 
was divinely appointed ; of the certainty 
of which he gave him several signs. All 
that Samuel had foretold him was fulfilled 
that same day, and God changed him into 
another man. All those who saw him said 
with wonder, What has happened to the son 
of Kish ? Is Saul also among the pro- 
phets ? And this afterwards became a kind 
of proverb. 

Some time after this, Samuel assembled 
the people at Mizpeh, to give them a king, 
as they had desired. He cast lots on all 
the tribes of Israel, and the lot fell on the 
tribe of Benjamin. He cast them on all 
the families of this tribe, and it fell on the 
family of Matri. Lastly, he cast them on 
the family of Kish, and the lot fell on the 
person of Saul. He was immediately sought 
for, but could not be found : they took him, 
however, from his concealment, and when 
he was among the people, he appeared 
taller than the rest by the whole head. 
The people shouted, and cried, God save 
the king ! and Samuel declared before the 
people the laws and conditions of the king- 
dom, and then dismissed the assembly. 
Saul returned to Gibeah, accompanied by a 
part of the army, consisting of men whose 
hearts the Lord had inclined to his interests. 
Others despised Saul, and said, How shall 
this man save us ? But Saul affected not 
to hear them. 

About a month afterwards, Nahash, king 
of the Ammonites, besieged the city of 
Jabesh-Gilead ; and messengers were sent 
from Jabesh to Gibeah, to acquaint the 
people, that the king of the Ammonites had 
attacked the city, and threatened to put out 
every man's right eye, and to make it a 
reproach to Israel. Saul happening to 
return from the field with his oxen, and 
seeing the people weep, he asked the rea- 
son of it. Then he took his oxen, and cut 
them in pieces, and sent them into all 
Israel, saying, Thus shall it be done to the 
oxen of whoever will not follow Saul and 
Samuel. Saul attacked the Ammonites in 
three places at once, killed a great number 
of them, and so dispersed them, that hardly 
two could be found together. After this, 
all the people returned to Gilgal, where 
they renewed the inauguration of king Saul. 
This happened in the first year of Saul. 
(1 Sam.xiii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) 

Two years afterwards, Saul chose three 
thousand men out of Israel, of whom he 
gave one thousand to his son Jonathan, 
and kept two thousand about his person. 
Jonathan defeated the Philistines at Gibeah ; 
on the news of which the people took cou- 
rage, and thought of shaking off the yoke of 
the Philistines. They assembled therefore 
919 



in great numbers, in arms, before Saul in 
Gilgal. The Philistines having intelligence 
of this, with a prodigious army, encamped 
at Michmash, east of Bethel. When the 
Israelites saw themselves thus enclosed, they 
began to withdraw themselves, some one 
way and some another. Saul continued 
seven days at Gilgal, expecting the arrival 
of the prophet Samuel : seeing he did not 
come, he began to offer sacrifices to God. 
But he had barely finished when Samuel 
arrived, and told him he had done ill ; so 
that, added he, your reign will not continue 
long. 

Samuel and Saul, and six hundred men 
with them, went from Gilgal to Gibeah ; 
and the Philistines from Michmash came 
and encamped at Gibeah. One day as Jona- 
than and his armour-bearer went towards 
the camp of the Philistines, suddenly the 
camp of the enemy was in confusion, and 
the sentinels of the army of Saul saw the 
ground covered with dead bodies. Saul 
with his people then began to pursue the 
enemy ; and the Israelites, who had fled 
away before, rallying, they killed a great 
number of the Philistines. 

Saul on this day had denounced a male- 
diction, and said, ' Cursed be he that shall 
eat any thing till evening.' Now Jonathan, 
being absent, knew not what had passed : 
as he went through a wood he found some 
honey, and taking some on the end of his 
staff he ate it. In the evening, when the 
people were gathered together after the 
victory, Saul discovered that God was of- 
fended by some crime committed among 
them, he ordered the lot to be cast on all 
the army; and the lot fell on Jonathan. 
Saul told him, that on this necessity he must 
die for his inadvertence ; but the people 
opposed it, and delivered him. 

When Saul had strengthened himself 
in the kingdom of Israel, he carried his 
arms abroad, among the enemies of his 
nation, against Moab, Amnion, Edom, 
against the kings of Zobah in Syria, and 
against the Philistines ; and which way 
soever he turned himself he remained vic- 
torious. The times and circumstances of 
these wars are unknown. 

After this, Samuel brought him orders 
from the Lord, that he should utterly ex- 
terminate the Amalekites, that he should 
spare neither man nor beast, nor any valu- 
able thing whatever. Saul therefore took 
the field against the Amalekites, and de- 
feated them ; but he saved their king, and 
the best of the cattle, and the best of the 
booty. Afterwards, he returned to Gilgal j 
but as he passed Mount Carmel, (south of 
Judah, and very different from Carmel on 
the Mediterranean,) he there ' set him up 
a place,' as it is in our translation; or 'he 
erected a triumphal arch,' as it is generally 
interpreted. He constructed to himself, to 
his own honour, glory, &c. a trophy of his 



SAU 



SAU 



victory over Amalek, and a token of his 
own complacency in his success. It is 
probable that this erection of a trophy 
was a vain-glorious disobedience in Saul ; 
he did not erect it to God, but to him- 
self. 

Samuel also coming to Gilgal, Saul went 
to meet him, and said, I have fulfilled the 
word of the Lord. Samuel answered, 
Whence then is this lowing of oxen and 
bleating of sheep, that sound in my ears ? 
Saul answered him, The people have 
brought of the best of the flocks of Ama- 
lek, to offer sacrifices to the Lord. But 
Samuel told him, it is not sacrifice that 
the Lord requires, but implicit submission 
to his commands. Obedience is better 
than burnt-offerings, &c. Samuel was about 
to leave Saul, but Saul laying hold of his 
garment, it tore in his hands.' Then Samuel 
said to him, ' The Lord hath rent the king- 
dom of Israel from thee this day, and hath 
given it to a neighbour of thine, that is 
better than thou.' However, Samuel re- 
turned with him to the camp at Gilgal. 

Some years afterwards Samuel went, by 
order from the Lord, to give the royal unc- 
tion to David ; the Spirit of the Lord with- 
drew from Saul, and God suffered an evil 
spirit to take occasion, from the bad dispo- 
sition of the humours of this prince, and 
his melancholy temperament, to move and 
agitate him, or possess him. Then his 
courtiers caused David to attend him, to 
soothe his distemper by the sound of musi- 
cal instruments, on which David could 
play very skilfully. Saul took an affection 
for David, and made him his armour- 
bearer. About eight years afterwards, the 
Philistines came and encamped between 
Shocoh and Azekah ; Saul with the army of 
Israel took their station in the vale of Elah. 
Now, in the army of the Philistines was 
a giant, by name Goliath, who came daily 
to insult the army of Israel, to challenge 
it. Saul had promised his daughter in 
marriage to any man who should overcome 
him. David, who had retired from court, 
and lived with his father at Bethlehem, 
was sent by him into the camp about this 
time ; and being offended at these insults 
of Goliath, he undertook to fight with him ; 
which he did, and slew him. See David. 

But Saul took a grudge against David, 
because, at his return, the women who 
sung and danced before the victorious army, 
chanted, that Saul had killed his thousands, 
and David his ten thousands. He several 
times attempted the life of David. He 
afterwards gave him the command of a 
thousand men, and promised him Merab, 
his eldest daughter ; though at the same 
time he had no intention to let him have 
her. He only sought an occasion of putting 
him to death by the hands of the Philistines. 
He afterwards married his daughter Merab 
to another, and promised him his second 
920 



ter, Michal ; then he acquainted 
David, that he required no other dowry for 
his daughter than a hundred foreskins of the 
Philistines. David soon performed this 
condition, and married Michal. 

Saul, seeing that David by his valour 
acquired reputation every day, resolved to 
put him to death. Jonathan for a time 
diverted him from his purpose ; but after- 
wards when Saul relapsed into his usual 
melancholy, he again attempted to pierce 
David with the lance he held in his hand. 
David escaped this also, and retired to his 
own house, which Saul ordered to be beset. 
In the night-time Michal let him down out 
of a window, by which means he escaped, 
and withdrew to Samuel at Naioth in Ra- 
mah. Saul sent messengers thither to ap- 
prehend him, but they were seized there with 
a prophetic spirit, and when Saul at last 
came thither himself, he also began to pro- 
phesy. See Samuel. 

David then came to Nob, and received 
a sword and some refreshments from the 
high-priest Ahimelech. Saul was informed 
of this some time afterwards by Doeg, the 
Idumean, who happened to be at Nob when 
David came thither. Saul immediately 
sent to Nob, to fetch all the priests before 
him ; he severely reproached them with 
having supported his enemy ; and had them 
slaughtered before his face, to the num- 
ber of fourscore and five persons. He went 
himself afterwards to Nob, and put all the 
inhabitants to the sword, man, woman, and 
child ; not so much as sparing the sucking 
infants, nor the cattle. 

Saul afterwards pursued David, who at 
length retired into the wilderness of En- 
gedi, and Saul went after him with his troops, 
but finding himself constrained by a neces- 
sity of nature, he entered a cave, where Da- 
vid and his people were hid. David com- 
ing softly behind him cut off the lappet of 
his coat, without his perceiving it. When 
he went out, and was at a distance, David 
went after him, showed him the lappet of 
his coat, which he had cut off, and told him 
it had been in his power to have killed him, 
but that he would never lift his hand against 
the Lord's anointed. Saul, moved with the 
generosity of David, could not forbear shed- 
ding tears ; acknowledging himself to be 
unjust. After this, he went back to his own 
house, and David retired into the wilder- 
ness of Ziph. When the Ziphites knew it, 
they went presently, and gave Saul notice, 
who came with his army on the hill of Ha- 
chilah. While he was encamped in this 
place, David went by night into his camp, and 
penetrated even into the king's tent, where 
having found every body asleep, he took 
the king's lance and cup, and then with- 
drew out of the camp : and thus he again 
reproved Saul, whom he forced to justify 
his integrity. 

Some years after this, the Philistines in- 



SAU 



SCE 



vaded Israel. Saul and his troops took the 
field, and encamped on the mountains of 
Gilboa. But when Saul saw the army of 
the Philistines, which was very formidable, 
his heart began to fail. He consulted the 
Lord by his priests and prophets, but the 
Lord returned him no answer ; not know- 
ing whom to address, he found out a witch, 
or enchantress, at Endor. 

Some time before, Saul had banished all 
wizards and magicians out of his dominions ; 
and, that he might not be known by this 
witch, he disguised himself, and went with 
two servants. He desired her to raise up 
Samuel. Saul bid her fear nothing, and 
asked her wbom she saw ascending ? She an- 
swered, I see gods, or a great man, a prince, 
a judge of Israel. (1 Sam. xxviii. 13.) Saul 
fell down at his feet ; and Samuel said to 
him, The Lord is withdrawn from you, and 
to-morrow you shall be with me, you and 
your sons, and the Lord will deliver Israel 
into the hands of the Philistines. Saul 
sunk immediately extended on the earth, 
for he had eaten nothing all that day. See 
Samuel. 

The next day the battle was fought, in 
which Israel was put to flight before the 
Philistines ; and the sons of Saul, Jonathan, 
Abinadab, and Melchi-shua, were slain. Saul 
himself was pressed very hard, the archers 
shooting at him, and wounding him dan- 
gerously. Seeing his state was desperate, 
he said to his armour-bearer, Draw your 
sword and kill me : but his armour-bearer 
refused. Saul then took his own sword 
and fell upon it, and his armour-bearer 
followed his example. Thus died Saul, the 
first king of Israel, after a reign of forty 
years. 

An Amalekite, who by chance was near, 
took off his crown and bracelet, and brought 
them to David. He also told David that he 
himself had slain Saul. 

The day after the battle, when the Phi- 
listines came to take the spoils of the dead, 
they found Saul and his three sons ex- 
tended upon the plain. They cut off Saul's 
head, and took away his armour, which 
was carried to the temple of Ashtaroth; 
and they hung up his body against the walls 
of Beth-shan, which probably were opposite 
to the chief street, because it is said (2 Sam. 
xxi. 12.) that his body was hung up in the 
street of this city. And we read (1 Chron. 
x. 10.) that his head was fastened in the 
temple of Dagon. When the inhabitants 
of Jabesh-Gilead were informed of these in- 
dignities, they went by night and took down 
the bodies, and brought them into their 
city beyond Jordan, where they burnt the 
remains of the flesh, and buried the bones. 
They fasted and mourned for the king seven 
days, in commemoration of the service he 
had done their city at the beginning of his 
reign. Several years after, David had these 
bones removed from the grave of Jabesh, 
921 



and put into the sepulchre of Kish, the 
father of Saul, at Gibeah. (2 Sam. xxi. 12, 
13, 14.) Ishbosheth, the fourth son of Saul, 
succeeded him in the kingdom, and reigned 
at Mahanaim, beyond Jordan, over the 
eleven tribes ; for David then began to reign 
over the tribe of Judah. 

The disease of Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14.) is 
thought by Dr. Mead to have been a true 
madness of the melancholic or atrabilarious 
kind, as the ancient physicians termed it; 
the fits of which returned on the unhappy 
monarch at uncertain periods, as is fre- 
quently the case in this sort of malady. The 
remedy applied, namely, playing on the 
harp, was an extremely proper one, in the 
judgment of experienced physicians. On 
the contrary, Dr. Hales is of opinion, that 
the obstinate infatuation of Saul, in con- 
tending against God, while he persisted in 
persecuting David, savours of something 
more than common frenzy or madness. 
It strongly resembles Pharaoh's case, after 
he had resisted all the means of grace, when 
the Lord at length hardened his heart to 
his destruction. The evil spirit from the 
Lord, which actuated Saul, also strongly re- 
sembles the demoniacal possessions of the 
New Testament, in the foregoing symptoms ; 
for they likewise raved and prophesied on 
several occasions. We may judge what 
manner of spirit Saul was of, when he cast 
a javelin to smite his most deservedly fa- 
vourite son Jonathan, because he presumed 
to plead for David, and assert his innocence 
(1 Sam. xx. 30 — 34.); and when he after- 
wards committed that sacrilegious massacre 
at Nob, and slew Ahimelech the high-priest, 
and eighty-five priests of Eli's house, and cut 
off (I Sam. xxii. 19.) ' and smote both men 
and women, children, and sucklings, and 
oxen, asses, and sheep, with the edge of the 
sword ;' because Ahimelech, not knowing of 
Saul's hatred to David, inquired of the Lord 
for him, and gave him victuals, and the 
sword of Goliath. (1 Sam. xxi. 1 — 9.; xxii. 
9 — 19.) Thus Saul showed less respect to 
God and his priests, and less mercy to his 
subjects, than he had done to Agag and the 
Amalekites, his devoted enemies. Hales' s 
Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. p. 353; 
Horne's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 514. 

SCEPTRE, Sceptrum, in Greek, Slcep- 
tron, in Hebrew, Shebet. This word pro- 
perly signifies, 1. a rod of command, a staff 
of authority, a sceptre which is placed in the 
hand of kings, of governors of a province, 
of the chief of a people. Jacob foretold to 
Judah (Gen. xlix. 10.) that ' the sceptre 
should not depart from Judah, nor a law-giver 
from between his feet, until Shiloh come, and 
unto him shall the gathering of the people 
be.' Balaam also, foretelling the coming of 
the Messiah, says (Numb. xxiv. 17-) 'A 
sceptre shall rise out of Israel.' They are 
given also to scribes, to commissaries, who 
keep a list of the troops. (Judg. v. 14.) The 



SCE 



SCH 



prophets also often speak of the sceptre of 
dominion, (Isa. xiv. 5.; Ezek. xix. 11. 14.) 
and Amos represents the sovereign power by 
him that holds the sceptre. (Amos i. 5. 8.) 
Ahasuerus carried in his hand a golden scep- 
tre, &c. (Esther viii. 4.) It is observed by 
a late writer, that the word shebet, besides 
denoting a staff, a rod of authority, a scep- 
tre, also signifies a pen, a reed to write with. 
' As the possession of the sceptre,' says he, 
' in the instance of lawful magistracy, means 
also the power of it, the power of ruling 
by it, the authority which attends it, so I 
conceive that the expression of the power, 
that is, authority — of the pen [the shebet] 
is as accurate and forcible an expression as 
the power of the sword, the power of the 
crown, of the sceptre, &c.' — ' To apply this 
power of the pen to the instance of Cyrenius 
(Luke ii. 2.) who was not a native Jew, but 
a foreigner ; who enrolled the Jews, not on 
account of, nor by authority from, their own 
king, but on account of, and by authority from, 
the Roman emperor ; who meant to tax them, 
not for any purpose originating in their own 
nation, but to augment the treasury of Au- 
gustus ; not with their good-will, but very 
much against it, and supported by Roman 
troops, and by Roman authority; such a 
person might well be said to possess the 
power of the pen, the shebet. He issues 
edicts, who dare disobey ? Is not this of- 
ficer in full possession of the power of the 
shebet ? Is not then the power of the she- 
bet departed from Judah, from the govern- 
ment of Judah, from its native or regular 
governors, to a foreign and domineering 
jurisdiction ? If this be the true import of 
the expression, then, under these circum- 
stances, amid this unusual, unnational, in- 
terference, we may expect the coming of the 
Shiloh foretold by Jacob. (Gen. xlix. 10.) 
It ought to be noticed that the govern- 
ment was not totally to depart from Judah, 
till the ' obedience of the peoples' had been 
rendered to Shiloh. Accordingly, the Ro- 
mans did not entirely destroy the Jewish 
* place and nation,' till after many parts of 
the Gentile world had yielded obedience to 
the name of Jesus ; but, so soon as Gentile 
nations had had sufficient opportunities of 
accepting the Gospel, the shebet of justice, 
and the staff of dignity, were wrested from the 
hand, and from between the feet, or standards 
of Judah.' See Cyrenius and Shiloh. 

2. The sceptre is put for the rod of 
correction, for the sovereign authority that 
punishes and humbles. ' Thou shalt break 
them with a rod of iron,' or an iron scep- 
tre. (Psalm ii. 9.) The wise man often uses 
the Hebrew word shebet to express the rod 
with which the disobedient son, and the in- 
tractable servant, are disciplined. (Prov. 
xxii. 15.) 

3. The sceptre is very often taken for 
a tribe; probably, because the princes of 
each tribe carried a sceptre, or a wand of 

922 



command, to show their dignity. The Sep- 
tuagint and Vulgate, as well as our inter- 
preters, generally translate this Hebrew 
word by tribe ; but sometimes they preserve 
the sceptre. (1 Sam. ix. 21. ; x. 19, 20, 21. ; 
xv. 17. 1 Kings viii. 16. ; xi. 13. 32. 35. ; 
xii. 20, 21.) 

4. The sceptre, or the Hebrew word 
shebet, signifies a shepherd's wand, (Lev. 
xxvii. 32.) the truncheon of a warrior, or 
any common staff, (2 Sam. xxiii. 21.) the 
dart, javelin, or lance of a soldier, (2 Sam. 
xviii. 14.) the rod or flail with which they 
thresh the smaller grain. (Isaiah xxviii. 27.) 
Fragments annexed to Calmefs Dictionary of 
the Holy Bible, No. cxxiii. pp. 36, 37. 

SCHEWENKFELDIANS, a denomina- 
tion in the sixteenth century; so called 
from one Gaspar Schewenkfeldt, a Silesian 
knight. He differed from Luther in the 
three following points. The first of these 
points related to the doctrine concerning 
the eucharist. Schewenkfeldt inverted the 
following words of Christ, this is my body ; 
and he insisted on their being thus under- 
stood : my body is this, that is, such as this 
bread which is broken and consumed, a 
true and real food, which nourisheth, satis- 
fieth, and delighteth the soul. My blood is 
this; that is, such its effects, as the wine 
which strengthens and refresheth the heart. 
Secondly, he denied that the external word 
which is committed to writing in the holy 
Scriptures, was endowed with the power of 
healing, illuminating, and renewing the 
mind: and he ascribed this power to the 
internal word, which, according to his no- 
tion, was Christ himself. Thirdly, he would 
not allow Christ's human nature, in its ex- 
alted state, to be called a creature, or a 
created substance ; as such a denomination 
appeared to him infinitely below its majestic 
dignity, united as it is in that glorious state 
with the divine essence. Mosheim's Eccles. 
Hist. vol. iv. pp. 317—319. 

SCHISM, axio~tia is a ' division' or ' rent' 
in the church. It is either partial or total ; 
partial, as in the disorderly mode of cele- 
brating the eucharist among the Corinthians, 
reprehended by Paul (I Cor. xi. 20 — 34.) ; 
or total, when it comes to the separating of 
congregations from the common rites and 
ordinances of religious worship, as of the 
reformed churches from the church of Rome. 
Schisms, therefore, may subsist in a true 
church as well as in a false ; where they only 
involve secondary points of doctrine or dis- 
cipline, without subverting the foundations 
of the Christian faith. Hence, Lutherans, 
Calvinists, Arminians, &c. and churchmen, 
ought not to separate from each other, nor 
break off communion, since they agree in 
fundamentals; no more than the different 
sects or parties in the church of Rome, Do- 
minicans, Franciscans, Carthusians, Thom- 
ists, Molinists, Jansenists, Jesuits, &c. who, 
notwithstanding the diversity of their tenets, 



SCH 



SCO 



and their mutual controversies, all live in 
communion with each other. 

Schism is a breach of that union which 
Christ has enjoined ; an opposition to that 
method of promoting religious knowledge, 
and exercising religious affections, which is 
prescribed by the Gospel, and therefore is a 
crime against God. There may be just and 
proper reasons for separation ; and it is our 
duty to entertain charitable sentiments to- 
wards those who do separate themselves from 
us, whether they have, or have not, a just 
reason for separation. But it is by no means 
a matter of indifference, whether a person 
adheres to the true religion plainly set forth 
in holy writ, or separates for the purpose of 
joining some newly-invented sect, whose 
opinions, or modes of worship, have nothing 
but the mere recommendation of novelty, or 
some such circumstance, and so happen to 
please his fancy. No one can depart from 
the religion of which he has been a member, 
without being guilty of the sin against which 
we are cautioned by the apostle, (1 Cor. i. 
10.) unless he be previously convinced in 
his conscience, that the terms of communion 
required of him are unlawful, the doctrines 
unscriptural, and the whole establishment 
inferior to that he joins ; being contrary to 
reason and the revealed will of God. 

Concord and union among Christians is a 
duty strictly implied and prescribed by the 
Gospel. Of this no man conversant with 
the apostolic writings can doubt. The pre- 
cepts of the Gospel plainly require an union 
of love and charity among its disciples ; a 
tenderness of affection ; a readiness to per- 
form all offices of humanity and benevolence 
towards each other. They require also, as 
the distinguishing union of Christians, that 
we have one faith, one baptism, one God and 
Father of all, and one mediator, Jesus Christ; 
that we worship the same God, trust in the 
same Redeemer, profess the same belief, 
and acknowledge the same sacraments. 
There is also a still further union required 
of us ; namely, a communication with each 
other in the outward offices and ordinances 
of the Christian religion. A careful pe- 
rusal of the first four chapters of St. Paul's 
First Epistle to the Corinthians will suffi- 
ciently show how much this last-men- 
tioned union is a duty required by the 
Gospel. 

Our own experience shows us how fatal 
a tendency divisions in religion have to 
alienate men's hearts from each other ; how 
naturally they produce strife and variance ; 
how much they put it in the power of artful 
men to divide us into worldly parties and 
uncharitable sects ; how destructive they 
are of public peace and of private charity. 
Consequently, on the other hand, to be 
united in religious community is, in like 
proportion, an effectual means to prevent 
and cure these evils, and to promote that 
love and charity, that peace and happiness, 
923 



which they destroy. If then it be our duty, 
by all lawful means to promote these good 
ends, we ought to be united in religious 
communion, ' if it be possible, and as far as 
lies in us.' Doubtless, Divine wisdom had 
these happy effects in view in commanding 
it. The duty, however, is incumbent on us, 
not only as the means to produce these 
good effects, but because it is enjoined us. 
For it is our duty to obey the commands of 
God, whether we can discover a reason for 
them or not. We may easily see, what is 
meant by that religious union, ' communion 
of saints,' which the Gospel commands, and 
the constitution of the Christian church 
enjoins its members. It is meant that all 
combinations of the church are bound, as 
members of the same body, to observe the 
common laws of Christian confederacy ; to 
profess the same rule of faith ; to acknow- 
ledge each other's administrations ; to be 
mutually disposed to communicate in wor- 
ship ; and, for that end, to agree in the same 
general terms of communion, and submit to 
such rules of peace and order, as are fixed 
by the consent and authority of the whole 
body. If such a union as this be a duty 
founded on the plain precepts of the Gos- 
pel, every breach of that union, where it 
might be preserved, must be a sin. Hales' 's 
New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book ii. 
pp. 1105, 1106. 

SCORPION. The scorpion is a small 
animal which has a bladder full of a dan- 
gerous poison. The head appears to be 
joined and continued to the breast: it has 
two eyes in the middle of its head, and two 
towards its extremity, between which come 
out, as it were, two arms, like the claws of 
a lobster. It has eight legs proceeding from 
its breast, each divided into six parts, co- 
vered with hair, at the end of which are six 
talons or claws. The belly is divided into 
seven rings, from the last of which the tail 
proceeds, which is divided into seven little 
beads, of which the last is armed with a 
sting. Some have six eyes, others eight. 
The tail is long, and formed after the man- 
ner of a string of beads tied end to end, the 
last bigger than the others, and longer, at 
the end of which are, sometimes, two stings, 
which are hollow, and filled with a cold 
poison, which it ejects into the part which 
it stings. 

The scorpion is of a blackish colour like 
soot ; it waddles as it goes, and fixes vio- 
lently with its snout, and by its feet, on 
such persons as it seizes, so that it cannot 
be plucked off but with difficulty. Sonic 
have wings like locusts, and fly from 
one region to another, and are something 
like bats, say Pliny and Strabo. They 
are also of several colours: the ancients 
mention black, yellow, ash-coloured, red, 
green, white, wine-coloured, of the colour 
of soot. 

' In the tropical climates it is a foot in 



SCO 



SCO 



length. No animal in the creation seems 
endued with such an irascible nature. 
When taken, they exert their utmost rage 
against the glass which contains them ; will 
attempt to sting a stick, when put near 
them ; will sting animals confined with 
them, without provocation ; are the crudest 
enemies to each other. Maupertuis put 100 
together in the same glass : instantly they 
vented their rage in mutual destruction, 
universal carnage! In a few days only four- 
teen remained, which had killed and de- 
voured all the others. It is even asserted, 
that, when in extremity or despair, the scor- 
pion will destroy itself. It is said to be a 
common experiment in Gibraltar [and 
Goldsmith says that he has been assured of 
such a fact, by many eye-witnesses] to take 
a scorpion newly caught, and surrounding 
him with burning charcoal, when he sees 
the impossibility of escaping, he stings him- 
self on the back of the head, and instantly 
expires. Surely Moses very properly men- 
tions scorpions among the dangers of the 
wilderness! (Deut. viii. 15.) And what 
shall we think of the hazardous situation of 
Ezekiel, who is said to dwell among scor- 
pions ? (ii. 6.) — people as irascible as this 
venomous insect. Could a fitter contrast 
be selected by our Lord — Will a father give 
a scorpion to his child instead of an egg ? 
(Luke xi. 12.) 

' The passage most descriptive of the 
scorpion is Rev. ix. 3, 4, 5. 10. which men- 
tions locusts, having power as scorpions ; 
not to kill men but to torment them, during 
five months — with the torment of a scor- 
pion when he striketh a man ; they had tails 
like scorpions, and stings in their tails. 
Contrary to the nature of locusts, they were 
not to destroy vegetation, but to infest men. 
1. These scorpions have the power of fly- 
ing. The ancients certainly described an 
insect of some kind, as a flying scorpion. 
Lucian says, " There are two kinds of scor- 
pions, one residing on the ground, large, 
having claws, and many articulations at the 
tail : the other flies in the air, and has in- 
ferior wings, like locusts, beetles, and bats." 
Strabo reports that in Mauritania are 
found many flying scorpions ; others without 
wings. Scheuzer mentions other testimo- 
nies. It is probable, therefore, that the 
ancients called that a " flying scorpion," 
which the moderns know under another 
name. 2. They did not kill men, but only 
torment them. It is not every scorpion 
whose sting is fatal. In Europe they are 
seldom deadly, though always dangerous. 
In some of the towns of Italy, and in the 
south of France, it is one of the greatest 
pests that torment mankind ; yet its malig- 
nancy in Europe is trifling, compared to its 
powers in Africa and the East. Mauper- 
tuis caused a dog to be stung— it died ; an- 
other dog did not die, though more severely 
stung, in appearance ; and it seems to be 
924 



generally true, that the stings of the old 
ones are the most dangerous, and during 
the heat of summer. This agrees with 3. 
the five months of the Apocalypse : that 
this was known to the ancients we have the 
evidence of Tertullian, who says, " The or- 
dinary time of danger is during the heats ; 
the winds of south and south-west excite its 
fury :" and Macrobius says, " The scorpion 
slumbers during winter ; but, when winter is 
over, its sting resumes its vigour, cf which 
winter had not deprived it." 4. As to the 
torment of a scorpion when he striketh a 
man, Dioscorides thus describes it : " When 
the scorpion has stung, the place becomes 
inflamed, and hardened ; it reddens by ten- 
sion, and is painful at intervals, being, now 
chilly, now burning. The pain soon rises 
high, and rages, sometimes more, some- 
times less. A sweating succeeds, attended 
by a shivering, and trembling; the extre- 
mities of the body become cold, the groin 
swells; the bowels expel their wind, the 
hair stands on end ; the members become 
pale, and the skin feels throughout it the 
sensation of a perpetual pricking, as if by 
needles." Such are the torments of a scor- 
pion when he striketh a man ! 5. As to the 
formation of the tail, and the sting at its 
point, the ancients had remarked this pe- 
culiarity. On the whole, we observe, that 
however metaphorical is the description of 
this depredator, by the apocalyptic writer, 
yet the foundation of his description may 
readily be discovered in nature.' Scripture 
Illustrated. 

Scorpions were also a kind of whip 
armed with points. When the Israelites 
complained to Rehoboam, of the weight of 
the yoke wherewith Solomon had loaded 
them, he returned them this answer, (1 
Kings xii. 11. 14. 2 Chron. x. 11. 14.); 
' My father hath chastised you with whips, 
but I will chastise you with scorpions,' that 
is, with rods or whips armed with points, 
or pointed thorns, like the tail of a scor- 
pion. Isidor. 

Scorpions were also machines of war, 
from which arrows were thrown. (1 Mace, 
vi. 51.) The name of scorpion was also 
given to the arrows themselves. 

SCOTLAND, church, or kirk of. 
Name, Rise, Progress, Sfc. — The word kirk, 
which signifies church, is of Saxon origin, 
or may be considered as a contraction of the 
two Greek words Kvpiov oIkoq, the house of 
God, and is still used in Scotland, where it 
is chiefly confined to the establishment, 
and the Relief Synod. 

The most eminent Scottish reformer, 
John Knox, was a man of considerable abi- 
lities, of no less courage and resolution, a 
disciple of Calvin, and a warm admirer of 
the constitution and discipline established 
at Geneva. Almost from the era of the Re- 
formation in Scotland, till that of the Revo- 
lution, a perpetual struggle existed between 



SCO 



SCO 



the court and the people, for the establish- 
ment of an episcopal or a presbyterian form 
of church-government. The former model 
of ecclesiastical polity was patronized by 
the House of Stuart, on account of the sup- 
port which it gave to the prerogatives of 
the crown; the latter was favoured by a 
majority of the people, doubtless not so 
much on account of its superior claim to 
apostolical institution, as because the laity 
are there mixed with the clergy in church 
judicatories, and the two orders, which un- 
der episcopacy are kept so distinct, incor- 
porated, as it were, into one body. John 
Knox and his brethren were violent re- 
formers. They laid it down as a principle, 
that, in new modelling their church, they 
could not recede too far from the Church of 
Rome : but it is not much known, that those 
men were not, in the proper sense of the 
word, Presbyterians ; for the first proposal 
of dividing the Church of Scotland into 
presbyteries, as it is now divided, was made 
in the General Assembly in 1579, though 
the reformation had been supported by the 
civil power from 1 560. During these nine- 
teen years, the Congregation, as the re- 
formed church was then styled, seems to 
have resembled, in its constitution, the Lu- 
theran churches in Germany. The king- 
dom was divided into districts, over which 
were placed superintendents with equal 
powers ; but each superintendent was ame- 
nable to the jurisdiction of the synod, of 
which he was appointed permanent mode- 
rator. This constitution was so very de- 
fective, that it could not well subsist. Ac- 
cordingly, the old ecclesiastical government 
by archbishops, bishops, &c. was restored 
in 1572, when the church assumed a more 
regular appearance of episcopacy. How- 
ever, in 1581, the presbytery of Edinburgh 
was erected, the first in Scotland ; but the 
courts called presbyteries were not gene- 
rally agreed to by the king till 1586, nor 
ratified by an Act of Parliament till 1592, 
when presbyterianism became the esta- 
blishment of Scotland. King James VI. ob- 
tained from the Scottish clergy an acknow- 
ledgment of the parliamentary jurisdiction 
of bishops ; and, after his accession to the 
throne of England, he prevailed with them, 
in 1606, to receive those who were styled 
bishops, as perpetual presidents or modera- 
tors in their ecclesiastical synods. It was 
not, however, till 1610, that there was in 
Scotland, a reformed episcopacy, such as the 
Church of England has always enjoyed, and 
such as Cyprian and the other luminaries of 
the third century would have acknowledged 
as regular and apostolical. By the General 
Assembly which was that year held in Glas- 
gow, Episcopacy was solemnly voted to be 
from that time the government of the Church 
of Scotland. 

Presbyterianism, thus rejected, was again 
set up on the ruins of Episcopacy by the 
925 



Covenanters in the reign of Charles I., and 
continued during the interregnum ; but the 
episcopal form was re-established by his son 
and successor in 1661; and this constitution 
of the church remained till the Revolution 
in 1688, when Presbyterianism was finally 
established, and in 1690 ratified by Act of 
Parliament. Thus Scotland and England 
having been separate kingdoms at the time 
of the Reformation, a difference of circum- 
stances in the two countries led to different 
sentiments on the subject of religion, and at 
last to different religious establishments. 
When they were incorporated into one 
kingdom by the Treaty of Union, the same 
regard to the inclinations of the common- 
alty of Scotland, to which Presbytery owed 
its first establishment in that country, pro- 
duced a declaration, to which both king- 
doms gave their assent, that ' Episcopacy 
shall continue in England, and that the 
Presbyterian church-government shall be 
the only government of Christ's church in 
that part of Great Britain called Scotland.' 
It is also guaranteed by the 5th Article of 
the Union with Ireland, not only • that 
the churches of England and Ireland, as 
now established, be united into one Protes- 
tant Episcopal church, to be called, The 
United Church of England and Ireland ;' but 
also that, ' in like manner, the doctrine, 
worship, discipline, and government of the 
Church of Scotland shall remain and be pre- 
served, as the same are now established by 
law, and by the acts for the union of the 
two kingdoms of England and Scotland.' 

Distinguishing Tenets. — The only confes- 
sion which appears to have been legally 
established before the Revolution, in 1688, 
is that published in the History of the Re- 
formation in Scotland, and attributed to 
John Knox. It was compiled in 1560 by 
that reformer himself, aided by several of 
his friends, and was ratified by Parliament 
in 1567- It consists of twenty-five articles, 
and was the confession, as well of the Epis- 
copal as of the Presbyterian church. The 
Covenanters, indeed, during the grand re- 
bellion, adopted the Westminster Confes- 
sion ; in the compilation of which some de- 
legates from their General Assembly had 
assisted. At the Revolution, this Confes- 
sion was received as the standard of the na- 
tional faith, and the same Acts of Parlia- 
ment which settled Presbyterian church- 
government in Scotland, ordain, ' That no 
person be admitted or continued hereafter 
to be a minister or preacher within this 
church, unless that he subscribe the Con- 
fession of Faith, declaring the same to be 
the Confession of his Faith.' By the Act 
of Union in 1707, the same is required of 
all ' Professors, Principals, Regents, Mas- 
ters, and others bearing office in any of 
the four Universities in Scotland. 11 once 
the Westminster Confession of Faith, and 
what are called The Larger and Shorter 



SCO 



SCO 



Catechisms, contain the public and avowed 
doctrines of this church; and it is well 
known that these formularies are Calvin- 
istic, if not Supralapsarian. 

But it is generally believed that many of 
the ministers of the establishment in Scot- 
land have departed widely from the national 
faith ; at least the Church of Scotland is 
well known to have been long ' divided into 
two parties, the one differing widely from 
the other in their ideas of ecclesiastical 
management. The one have declared them- 
selves abundantly zealous to confirm and 
even to extend the rights of patronage ; 
while the other wish either to abridge these 
rights, or to confine their operation so as to 
extend the influence and secure the consent 
of the people in the settlement of ministers. 
The popular party are considered as more 
zealous for the doctrines of grace, and for 
the articles of religion in all their strict- 
ness, as contained in the national Confes- 
sion of Faith. The opposing party again, 
who may be denominated the unpopular one, 
seem willing to allow a greater latitude of 
opinion, and generally preach in a style that 
seems less evangelical, and less fitted to 
affect the hearts and consciences of the 
hearers. They designate themselves mo- 
derate men, and therefore strenuously oppose 
what they call the wildness of orthodoxy, the 
madness of fanaticism, the frenzy of the people. 
To the conduct of their opposing moderate 
brethren, the popular clergy attribute most 
of the unhappy religious divisions which 
have taken place in Scotland ; and could 
they be but persuaded to relinquish their 
unpopular measures, it is believed that most 
of the Sectaries would in time be brought 
back to the communion of the established 
church.' 

Worship, Rites, and Ceremonies. — In this 
church the worship is extremely simple, and 
only few ceremonies are retained. John 
Knox, like Calvin, seems to have been less 
an enemy to liturgies and established forms, 
than his more modern followers ; for, though 
he laid aside the Book of Common Prayer 
about the year 1562, he then introduced 
one of his own composition, which more 
strongly resembled the liturgy of the Church 
of Geneva. There is, however, now no li- 
turgy or form in use in this church, and the 
minister's only guide is, The Directory for 
the Public Worship of God ; nor is it 
thought necessary to adhere strictly to it ; 
for, as in several other respects, what it en- 
joins with regard to reading the Holy Scrip- 
tures in public worship is, at this day, but 
seldom practised. 

By the ecclesiastical laws, ' the Sacra- 
ment of the Lord's Supper should be dis- 
pensed in every parish four times in the 
year ;' but this law is now seldom adhered 
to, unless in most chapels of ease. In 
country parishes it is often administered not 
above once a year, and in towns generally 
926 



only twice a year. The people are pre- 
pared for that holy ordinance by a fast on 
some day of the preceding week, generally 
on Thursday, and by a sermon on the Sa- 
turday ; and they meet again on the Mon- 
day morning for public thanksgiving. They 
have no altars in the kirks, and the com- 
munion tables are not fixed, but introduced 
for the occasion, and are sometimes two 
or more in number, and of considerable 
length. 

In the exercise of public worship this 
church has no Creed — no Ten Command- 
ments, — no Lord's Prayer, — no Doxology, 
— no reading of the Scriptures ; nor does 
she observe any of the festivals of the church, 
that are so well calculated to refresh the 
minds, and to awaken the devotion of Christ- 
ians. She has no instrumental music, — 
no consecration of churches, or of burying- 
grounds, — no funeral service or ceremony, 
— no sign of the cross in baptism, — and no 
administration of the Holy Communion in 
private houses, not even to the sick or 
dying. 

The members of this church reject, but 
do not condemn, confirmation. ( We endea- 
vour,' says Dr. Hill, ' to supply the want 
of it in a manner which appears to us to 
answer the same purpose. We account 
ourselves bound to exercise a continued 
inspection over the Christian education of 
those who have been baptized, that, as 
far as our authority and exertions can be 
of any avail, parents may not neglect to 
fulfil their vow; and when young persons 
partake, for the first time, of the Lord's 
Supper, we are careful, by private con- 
ference and public instruction, to impress 
upon their minds such a sense of the na- 
ture of that action, that they may consider 
themselves as then making that declaration 
of faith, and entering into those engage- 
ments, which would have accompanied 
their baptism had it been delayed till riper 
years ? 

By the first book of Discipline, which 
was compiled by Knox and his associates, 
and ratified by an act of council in 1560, 
the apostolical rite of ordination by the 
imposition of hands was laid aside as su- 
perstitious ; but it is now restored and 
practised as formerly in the Kirk of Scot- 
land, where, as in other Presbyterian 
churches, ordination is vested in the pres- 
bytery. 

Discipline and Church-government. — The 
discipline of the Church of Scotland, though 
now rather relaxed, was never so rigorous 
as that of Geneva, the church on whose 
model it was formed. It was formerly the 
practice to oblige fornicators to present 
themselves in the Kirk, for three different 
Sundays, on a bench, known by the name 
of the stool of repentance, when they were 
publicly rebuked by the minister, in the 
face of the congregation : but this punish- 



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ment is now frequently changed into a 
pecuniary fine, though seldom by consci- 
entious clergymen. For this change, how- 
ever, there seems to be no law ; and the 
old practice of publicly rebuking fornica- 
tors and adulterers, though very much dis- 
liked and cried down by the gentry, &c. is 
still continued in a great majority of the 
parishes of Scotland. 

Of the societies at present formed upon 
the Presbyterian model, it may safely be 
affirmed, that the Church of Scotland is by 
much the most respectable. In this church, 
every regulation of public worship, every 
act of discipline, and every ecclesiastical 
censure, which in episcopal churches flows 
from the authority of a diocesan bishop, or 
from a convocation of the clergy, is the 
joint work of a certain number of ministers 
and laymen acting together with equal 
authority, and deciding every question by a 
plurality of voices. The laymen who thus 
form an essential part of the ecclesiastical 
courts of Scotland, are called elders, and 
ruling elders. See Elders. 

The Kirk Session, which is the lowest 
ecclesiastical judicatory, or court, consists 
of the minister and those elders of the 
congregation. The minister is, ex officio, 
moderator, but has no negative voice over 
the decision of the session ; nor indeed has 
he a right to vote at all, unless when the 
voices of the elders are equal and opposite. 
The next judicatory is the Presbytery, which 
consists of all the pastors, within a certain 
district, and one ruling elder from each 
parish, commissioned by his brethren to 
represent, in conjunction with the minister, 
the session of that parish. The Presbytery 
treats of such matters as concern the parti- 
cular churches within its bounds ; as the 
examination, admission, ordination, and 
censuring of ministers ; the licensing of 
probationers, rebuking of gross or contu- 
macious sinners, the directing of the sen- 
tence of excommunication, the deciding 
upon references and appeals from kirk 
sessions, resolving cases of conscience, ex- 
plaining difficulties in doctrine or discipline, 
and censuring, according to the word of God, 
any heresy or erroneous doctrine, which 
hath either been publicly or privately main- 
tained within the bounds of its jurisdiction. 
That part of the constitution of this church 
which gave an, equal vote, in questions of 
heresy, to an illiterate mechanic and his 
learned pastor, has not been universally 
approved, but has been considered by some 
as having been the source of much trouble 
to many a pious clergyman, who, from the 
laudable desire of explaining the Scriptures, 
and declaring to his flock all the counsel of 
God, has employed a variety of expressions, 
of the same import, to illustrate those arti- 
cles of faith, which may be obscurely ex- 
pressed in the established standards. The 
number of Presbyteries in Scotland is 78. 
927 



From the judgment of the presbytery 
there lies an appeal to the Provincial Synod, 
which ordinarily meets twice in the year, 
and exercises over the presbyteries within 
the province a jurisdiction similar to that 
which is vested in each Presbytery over the 
several kirk sessions within its bounds. 
Of these Synods there are in the Church of 
Scotland fifteen, which are composed of the 
members of the several presbyteries within 
the respective provinces which give names 
to the Synods. 

The highest ecclesiastical court is the 
General Assembly, which consists of a cer- 
tain number of ministers and ruling elders, 
delegated from each presbytery, and of 
commissioners from the royal boroughs. 
By Act 5th of the Assembly, 1694, 'A pres- 
bytery in which there are fewer than twelve 
parishes sends to the General Assembly 
two ministers and one ruling elder; if it 
contain between twelve and eighteen mi- 
nisters, it sends three of these, and one 
ruling elder ; if it contain between eighteen 
and twenty-four ministers, it sends four 
ministers, and two ruling elders ; and of 
twenty-four ministers, when it contains so 
many, it sends five, with two ruling elders. 
Every royal borough sends one ruling elder 
(and Edinburgh two,) whose election must 
be attested by the kirk sessions of their re- 
spective boroughs ; and every university 
sends one commissioner from its own body. 
This Assembly is honoured with a repre- 
sentative of the sovereign, in the person 
of the Lord High Commissioner, who is 
always a nobleman, and presides, and has 
a salary of 1500/. per annum ; but he has 
no voice in their deliberations. The As- 
sembly continues to sit for ten days ; at the 
end of which time it is dissolved, first by 
the moderator, who appoints another As- 
sembly to be held upon a certain day of 
the month of May, in the following year ; 
and then by the Lord High Commissioner, 
who, in his Majesty's name, appoints ano- 
ther Assembly to be held upon the day 
which had been mentioned by the mode- 
rator. Appeals are brought from all the 
other ecclesiastical courts in Scotland, to 
the General Assembly ; and in questions 
purely religious, no appeal lies from its 
determinations. To the laws already made 
no new one can be added, till it has been 
proposed in one General Assembly, and 
by them transmitted to every presbytery 
for their consent. If this, or at least the 
consent of the majority, be obtained, the 
Assembly next year may pass it into an 
act, which henceforth must be regarded as 
a constitutional law of the Kirk. 

In the subordination of these assemblies 
and courts of review, parochial, presbyte- 
rial, provincial, and national, the less unto 
the greater, consist the external order, 
strength, and stedfastness of the Church of 
Scotland. 



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Bounds, Numbers, Duties, fyc. — This church 
is now confined to Scotland and the islands 
of Scotland, and contains within its bounds 
nearly 900 parishes. The number of minis- 
ters belonging to it who enjoy benefices, 
and possess ecclesiastical authority, is 
936. Of this number seventy-seven are 
placed in collegiate charges, mostly in the 
proportion of two ministers for each of these 
charges ; and the remaining eight hundred 
and fifty-nine ministers are settled in single 
charges, each of them having the superin- 
tendence of a whole parish. In very popu- 
lous parishes, chapels of ease are erected 
with consent of the Kirk, and are sup- 
ported by voluntary subscriptions; but the 
ministers who officiate in them are not 
included in this number, as they are not 
members of any ecclesiastical courts. 

f The duties of the Scotch clergy are 
numerous and laborious. They officiate 
regularly in the public worship of God ; 
and, in general, they must go through 
this duty twice every Sunday (exclusively 
of other occasional appearances), delivering 
every Sunday a lecture and a sermon, with 
prayers. It is also expected, throughout 
Scotland, that the prayers and discourses 
shall be of the minister's own composition ; 
and the prayers, in all cases, and the dis- 
courses in most instances, are delivered 
without the use of papers.' ' They are ex- 
pected to perform the alternate duties of 
examining their people from the Scriptures, 
and catechisms of the church, and of visit- 
ing them from house to house, with prayers 
and exhortations. This is done commonly 
once in the year, being omitted only in 
those cases in which the ministers deem it 
impracticable, or not acceptable, or at least, 
not necessary.' ' The charge of the poor 
devolves in a very particular manner on 
the clergy, and in them also is vested the 
superintendence of all schools within their 
bounds.' 

The provision made by the law of Scot- 
land for the support of the established 
clergy consists in a stipend, payable in vic- 
tual or money, or partly in each, — a small 
glebe of land, and in a manse (parsonage- 
house) and office-houses. The legislature in- 
tended the highest stipend to exceed the 
lowest, only as two to one ; but the present 
state of the stipends paid to the clergy of 
this church is said to exhibit great inequa- 
lities. In some parishes, where there are 
plenty of teinds, or tithes of land, the 
stipends are much more liberal than in 
others where the valued teinds are scanty. 
In cities and towns, the stipends are gene- 
rally paid in money ; in ' landward ' (that 
is, country) parishes, they are, for the most 
part, liquidated in money and victual. 
When the teinds are exhausted and surren- 
dered, the stipend is exactly the whole of 
the valued teinds ; when not exhausted, 
augmentations are granted from time to 
928 



time by the Court of Session, which is the 
court of teinds. ' The clergy in Edinburgh 
have their stipends paid in money, and 
receive 300/. each, liable to a deduction of 
10 per cent, for tax on income. In land- 
ward parishes, the stipends, at an average, 
may be stated at six chalders of victual, 
worth 161. per chalder, communibus annis, 
and 50/. in money ; in all, 146/. sterling. 
Some of the clergy enjoy a more liberal 
provision, rising to about 200/. a-year, or 
thereabouts ; but others are still far below the 
above-stated average, not a few of them 
being under 60/. and many below 100/. 
a-year of stipend. The average is, there- 
fore, considered as hardly rising to 150/. 
a-year at the present time.' 

The whole church establishment, 'as a 
burden on land, may be stated in one view, 
as follows, namely, a glebe, of perhaps 
about six or seven acres, out of nearly 
21,000, and the grass, where it is allowed ; 
a stipend of about 9d. in the pound of the 
land rents ; and buildings and communion 
charges, amounting to 4d. or 5d. more in 
the pound of these land rents. All these, 
put together, constitute the burdens of the 
Scottish ecclesiastical establishment, in so 
far as proprietors of land are affected by 
them.' 

The ministers of this church have long 
maintained a very respectable character for 
piety, learning, liberality of sentiment, and 
regularity of conduct ; and those of the 
present day cannot well be said to yield in 
these respects to any of their predecessors. 
Among her more distinguished members, 
this church ranks the names of Robert- 
son, Henry, Leechman, Blacklock, Gerard, 
M'Knight, Blair, and Campbell. But surely 
Dr. Campbell, however able a scholar, and 
however eminent and respectable in other 
respects, could not be much her friend, 
when he taught her sons that her constitu- 
tion was at variance with the institution of 
Christ, and the practice of the apostles. 
Adam's Religious World Displayed, vol. iii. 
pp. 1—29. 

Scotland, Episcopal Church in. 
This church holds spiritual communion 
with the United Church of England and 
Ireland, and also with the Episcopal church 
in America, but disclaiming all foreign ju- 
risdiction : its members are united, in all 
matters of ecclesiastical concern, under the 
regular successors of those Scottish bishops, 
who, in consequence of the Revolution, in 
1688, were deprived of their temporal ho- 
nours and privileges, but still continued to 
exercise their spiritual powers for the be- 
nefit of that part of the Church of Christ 
which had been committed to their charge. 
The title of Non-jurors, by which they were 
chiefly known for about a century from the 
above era, and which was imposed on all 
those, both in Britain and Ireland, who re- 
fused to swear allegiance to King William 



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and Queen Mary, and their successors, is 
now very justly dropt, the occasion of it 
having ceased, at least as far as this church 
is concerned. For, on the death of the last 
person who maintained his claim to the 
crown of Britain, in opposition to the reign- 
ing family and existing government, its 
members offered their dutiful allegiance to 
the then reigning sovereign. 

This religious society has subsisted in 
various circumstances of prosperity and ad- 
versity ; it has been blessed with good for- 
tune, and fostered by the hand of earthly 
power ; and, through the instability of hu- 
man authority and grandeur, it has likewise 
been plunged into the very depth of adver- 
sity, there to learn the lesson of patient 
endurance for conscience' sake, and to give 
glory to God, by humbly acquiescing in the 
justice and righteousness of his judgments. 
Almost ever since the Reformation, and 
particularly for about a century from the 
era of the Revolution, its history, like the 
mystic scroll of the prophet, is inscribed, 
within and without, ' with lamentation, and 
mourning, and woe.' No portion, indeed, 
of the Catholic church of Christ, has under- 
gone a greater variety of fortune ; nor, per- 
haps, is there at this day any religious so- 
ciety that has been more conformed to 
primitive Christianity, either in its external 
or internal condition. 

The Church of Scotland had no regular 
confession of faith, nor any articles of re- 
ligion in the beginning of her Reformation ; 
but, in 1561, John Knox, assisted by some 
other divines, drew up a Confession of Faith, 
which was adopted, and afterwards ratified 
in 1567 ; and it continued to be the uniform 
standard of her doctrine, under all her 
forms, for upwards of eighty years. This 
system differs little in essentials from the 
articles of most other reformed churches ; 
in every thing unconnected with Popery, it 
is moderate, if not unexceptionable ; and in 
those points that are disputed among Pro- 
testants, it is certainly less dogmatical than 
that of the Westminster Assembly which 
succeeded it, and which is now the legal 
standard in Scotland. It was indeed so 
well received by all parties, that it was con- 
stantly subscribed both by Episcopalians 
and Presbyterians, till 1645, when some of 
the Scotch members of the Westminster 
Assembly, who were violent in their tem- 
pers, and high in their notions, objected to 
it as favouring the Arminian scheme ; but 
certainly without reason. The Westminster 
Confession was in consequence adopted, and 
was ratified by the Parliament of Scotland 
in 1649, but was rejected at the Restora- 
tion. When Episcopacy, however, was re- 
established in 1662, nothing was said con- 
cerning a system of articles, and yet this 
neglect was never called in question till 1 682, 
when, after much debate, that of 1561, which 
was all along acknowledged by the Epfsco- 
929 



palians, though not formally adopted and 
subscribed, was made choice of, and con- 
tinued to be the public formulary till the 
Revolution. 

From that period, which forms a memo- 
rable era in the history of this church, no 
subscription was required from her clergy 
to any regular system of Christian prin- 
ciples, for upwards of a century. They 
were only required at their ordinations 
solemnly to profess their belief of all 
the canonical books of the Old and New 
Testaments, and to declax-e their persua- 
sion that those books contain every thing 
necessary to salvation, through faith in 
Christ. 

This practice continued till 1792, when 
the Act of Parliament, which was passed in 
their favour, required them to subscribe the 
Thirty-nine Articles of the church of Eng- 
land ; in dutiful compliance with which, as well 
as to exhibit a public testimony of their faith, 
and of their agreement in doctrine with the 
United church of England and Ireland, 
they unanimously and heartily subscribed 
them in a general convocation called for that 
purpose, and holden at Lawrence-kirk, in 
the county of Kincardine, on the 24th of 
October 1804. 

Some of the bishops and clergy of this 
church are disposed to favour the peculiar 
doctrines of Mr. Hutchinson ; but the dis- 
tinguishing tenets of their society may be 
said to be the apostolical institution of Epis- 
copacy, and the independency of the church 
upon the state in the exercise of those 
powers which are purely spiritual. 

It cannot be supposed, that, in the infant 
state of the Reformed Church of Scotland, 
her form of worship could be regular ; and 
yet we find that the first reformers made use 
of a Book of Common Prayer so early as 
1557, which is generally thought to have 
been the Liturgy of the Church of England. 
A form of prayer compiled by Knox, and 
called John Knox's Liturgy, was adopted in 
1564, and continued till 1580. But, not- 
withstanding this acknowledged form, it 
would appear that the ministers were not 
restricted, on ordinary occasions, to the use 
of it, and that public worship was performed, 
during that period, sometimes in one form, 
sometimes in another, and that confusion 
in the state occasioned confusion in the 
church. When Presbyterianism began to 
prevail in 1580, the form of worship adopted 
by the leaders of that party was plain and 
simple, and differed in some, but in ft w 
material points, from the former; and both 
the Presbyterians and Episcopalians com- 
plied with it, without making any objections 
till towards the latter end of the reign of 
king Charles I. By this time Andrew Mel- 
vil's abhorrence to every appearance of 
liturgical worship had been so widely ex- 
tended, and become so deeply rooted in 
the minds of the people, that an attempt, in 
30 



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1637, to introduce nto this Church a book 
of Common Prayer, copied with some alter- 
ations from that of England, produced the 
' Solemn League and Covenant,' which in- 
volved in one common ruin that unfortunate 
prince, with the constitution both of church 
and state. From 1645, till the Restoration 
in 1662, the Westminster Directory was 
adopted, but by no means strictly adhered 
to, in various instances, as in that of praying 
for the civil government; for though it en- 
joins that duty, no such prayers were put 
up during that long night of innovation and 
confusion. When Episcopacy was restored, 
together with the monarchy, it was not 
thought advisable to renew the attempt to 
introduce a public liturgy ; and except at 
ordinations, when the English forms were 
used, as far as local circumstances would 
admit, no regular form of prayer was in 
general use while Episcopacy continued to 
be the established church. Many, indeed, of 
the Episcopal clergy compiled forms to be 
used by themselves in their particular con- 
gregations, with some petitions and collects 
taken out of the English book ; and all of 
them uniformly concluded their prayers with 
the Lord's Prayer, and their singing with the 
Doxology, both of which the zealots of the 
other side decried as superstitious and for- 
mal. In this state the form of worship con- 
tinued till 1712, when the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer of the Church of England was 
adopted. This Liturgy, then introduced, has 
ever since been uniformly used, not only in 
the morning and evening services, but also 
in all other occasional offices, with as little 
variation as the difference of circumstances 
will admit, excepting in the celebration of the 
Holy Eucharist. This office, as adopted by 
this church, is not only agreeable to that 
authorized by king Charles I., which made 
part of the only reformed Liturgy that ever 
had the sanction of a legal establishment in 
Scotland, but is likewise formed on the 
model of the office in the first Liturgy of 
Edward VI., which was composed by the 
learned and venerable fathers of the En- 
glish Reformation. 

The late learned and pious bishop of Nor- 
wich, Dr. Home, said, that if the great apos- 
tle of the Gentiles were upon earth, and it 
were put to his choice with what denomi- 
nation of Christians he would communicate, 
the preference would probably be given to 
the Episcopalians of Scotland. Such com- 
mendation of this religious society, from 
such a man as Bishop Home, is truly ' lau- 
dari a laudato viro ;' is no small compen- 
sation, in the opinion of its members, for all 
the obloquy that has been cast upon it by 
its adversaries, whose cry, for many years, 
seems to have been, ' down with it, down 
with it, even to the ground.' 

The Scottish Episcopalians now retain all 
the essence of Episcopacy, without its mo- 
dern appendages ; and while they maintain 
930 



the independency of the church upon the 
state, in the exercise of those powers which 
are purely spiritual, they do by no means 
deny the propriety or the utility of a na- 
tional establishment of religion. They be- 
lieve that the Church of Christ is not a sect, 
but a society ; in other words, that it is made 
up of a set of men, not merely professing 
the same Christian faith, but likewise united 
together by certain particular laws, and un- 
der a particular form of government ; that 
all the benefits of Christ's death are appro- 
priated, and all God's promises of mercy and 
grace to mankind are made, to them that are 
in the church. They insist that their opi- 
nions respecting the nature and constitution 
of the church, and the consequent necessity 
of church communion, however unfashion- 
able in the present day, are primitive and 
apostolical. 

The Episcopalians are the only society 
of dissenters from the establishment in Scot- 
land that has as yet been recognised by law ; 
and they have ever been most numerous on 
the east coast of Scotland, and particularly 
in the councy of Aberdeen. There are now 
about sixty congregations in the commu- 
nion of their church, and about the same 
number of clergy of all orders ; and the num- 
ber of Episcopalians in Scotland, including 
the eight or nine congregations that have 
not yet returned, together with their pastors, 
into the bosom of the church, perhaps does 
not exceed 25,000. But though they are 
not numerous, it will not be denied that 
they are highly respectable ; for, in this 
number they can rank many of the most dis- 
tinguished both of the nobility and gentry, 
who avail themselves of the Act of Parlia- 
ment lately passed in favour of this church, 
and cordially join in her communion. 

This church can produce a very respect- 
able list of learned names, among which 
may be ranked those of Spotswood, Forbes, 
Leighton, Wishart, Keith, Guthrie, Scougal, 
Campbell, Sage, Rattray, Skinner, &c. &c. 
The education of the clergy of this church 
is not worse, and in several instances it is 
even better, than what the clergy of the 
establishment usually receive ; and some of 
them would do credit to any church. As 
a body, they are certainly men of very dis- 
tinguished learning, piety, and worth. 
Adam's Religious World Displayed, vol. ii. 
pp. 399—443. 

SCOURGE, or whip. This punishment 
was very common among the Jews. Moses 
ordains, (Deut. xxv. 1, 2, 3.) that 'if there 
be a controversy between men, and they 
come unto judgment, that the judges may 
judge them ; then they shall justify the 
righteous and condemn the wicked. And 
it shall be, if the wicked man be worthy to 
be beaten, that the judge shall cause him to 
lie down, and to be beaten before his face, 
according to his fault, by a certain number. 
Forty stripes he may give him, and not ex- 



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ceed; lest if he should exceed, and beat 
him above these with many stripes, then 
thy brother should seem vile unto thee.' 
There were two ways of giving the lash: one 
with thongs or whips made of rope's-ends, 
or straps of leather; the other with rods, 
twigs, or branches of some tree. 

The Rabbins think that ordinary faults 
committed against the law, and scourged, 
were punished not with blows from a rod, 
but from a whip. They enumerate one 
hundred and sixty- eight faults liable to this 
penalty. They hold that all punishable 
faults, to which the law has not annexed the 
penalty of death, must be punished by the 
scourge. The offender was stripped from his 
shoulders to his middle ; and he was tied by 
his arms to a pretty low pillar that he might 
lean forward, and the executioner might 
more easily come at his back. Some main- 
tain that they never gave more nor less 
than thirty-nine strokes, but that in greater 
faults they struck with proportionate vio- 
lence. Others think that, when the fault 
and circumstances required it, they might 
increase the number of blows. St. Paul 
informs us, (2 Cor. xi. 24.) that at five 
different times he received thirty-nine blows 
from the Jews : which would insinuate, that 
this was a fixed number, that they never 
exceeded. 

The same apostle clearly shows in the 
same place, that the correction with rods 
was different from that with a whip ; for he 
says ' thrice was I beaten with rods.' And 
when he was seized by the Jews in the tem- 
ple, the tribune of the Roman soldiers ran, 
and took him out of the hands of the Jews ; 
and desiring to know the reason of the 
tumult, he ordered him to be tied and 
stretched on the ground, to put him to the 
question, and to be beaten with rods, (Acts 
xxii. 24, 25.) ; for so commonly the Romans 
put to the question. 

The bastinado is sometimes given on the 
back, and at this day, among the eastern 
people, is given on the soles of the feet 
raised aloft, while the patient lies down on 
his belly ; this punishment is different from 
that of the scourge or the whip. 

The Rabbins teach, that the penalty of 
the scourge was not ignominious ; and that 
it could not be objected as a disgrace to 
those who had suffered it. They pretend 
that no Israelite, not even the king or high 
priest, was exempted from this law ; but this 
must be understood of the punishment of 
whipping inflicted in their synagogues, 
which was rather a legal and particular 
penalty, than a public and shameful correc- 
tion. Philo, speaking of the manner in 
which Flaccus treated the Jews of Alex- 
andria, says, He made them suffer the 
punishment of the whip, which (says he) is 
not less insupportable to a free-man, than 
death itself. Our Saviour, speaking of the 
pains and ignominy of his passion, com- 
931 



monly puts his scourging in the second 
place. (Matt. xx. 19. Mark x. 34. Luke 
xviii. 33.) 

SCRIBE, in Hebrew "iSD, sepher ; in 
Greek, rpafifiartvg, Grammateus. The 
word scribe is very common in Scripture, 
and has several significations. 

1. A clerk, writer, or secretary. This 
was a very considerable employment in the 
court of the kings of Judah ; in which 
Scripture often mentions the secretaries, 
as the first officers of the crown. Seraiah 
was scribe or secretary to King David. 
(2 Sam. viii. 170 Shevah and Shemaiah 
exercised the same office under the same 
prince. (1 Chron. xxiv. 6.) In Solomon's 
time we find Elihoreph and Ahiah secre- 
taries to the king, (1 Kings iv. 3.); Sheb- 
na, under Hezekiah, (2 Kings xix. 2.) ; 
and Shaphan under Josiah, (2 Kings xxii. 
8, 9, 10.) As there were but few in those 
times who could write well, the employ- 
ment of a scribe, or writer, was very con- 
siderable. 

2. A scribe is put for a commissary or 
muster-master of an army, who reviews the 
troops, keeps the list of roll, and calls them 
over. In the reign of Uzziah, king of 
Judah, is found Jeiel the scribe, who had 
under his hand the king's armies. (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 11.) At the time of the captivity, it 
is said, the captain of the guard, among 
other considerable persons, took the prin- 
cipal scribe of the host, or secretary at war, 
who mustered the people of the land. (2 
Kings xxv. 19.) 

3. Scribe, is put for an able and skilful 
man, a doctor of the law, a man of learning, 
one who understands affairs. Jonathan, 
David's uncle by the father's side, was a 
counsellor, a wise-man, and a scribe. (1 
Chron. xxvii. 32.) Baruch, the disciple 
and secretary of Jeremiah, is also called a 
scribe ; so is Gemariah, the son of Shaphan. 
(Jer. xxxvi. 26.) Ezra is celebrated as a 
skilful .scribe in the law of God. (Ezra vii. 
6.) 

The scribes of the people, frequently 
mentioned in the Gospel, were public 
writers, and professed doctors of the law, 
which they read, and explained, to the peo- 
ple. Some place the origin of scribes under 
Moses ; but their name does not appear till 
under the Judges. (Judg. v. 14.) Others 
think that David first instituted them, when 
he established the several classes of the 
priests and Levites. (1 Chron. xxiv. 0.) 
Epiphanius places their origin at the same 
time with the sect of the Sadducees. Men- 
tion is made in Acts, (xxiii. 9.) of scribes 
that were of the party of the Pharisees; 
which has made some believe that all the 
scribes were Pharisees. But they did not 
espouse any particular sect; there were 
some of all sects. 

Scribes, and doctors of the law, in Scrip- 
ture-phrase, mean the same thing. He 
3 o 2 



SCR, 



SCR 



that in Matthew (xxiii. 34.) is called a 
doctor of the law, in Mark (xii. 28.) is named 
a Scribe, or one of the Scribes. As the 
knowledge of the Jews, at that time, chiefly 
consisted in pharisaical traditions, and in 
the use of them to explain Scripture, the 
greater number of the doctors of the law, 
or of the Scribes, were Pharisees; and we 
almost always find them united in Scripture. 
They all valued themselves on their know- 
ledge of the law, on their studying and 
teaching it : they had the key of knowledge, 
and sat in Moses's chair. (Luke xi. 52. 
Matt. ' xxiii. 2.) Epiphanius, and the 
author of the Recognitions, imputed to St. 
Clement, reckon the Scribes among the 
sects of the Jews ; but it is certain, they 
made no sect by themselves; they were 
only distinguished by the study of the law. 

SCRIPTURE is commonly used to de- 
note the writings of the Old and New Tes- 
tament, which are sometimes called the 
Scriptures, sometimes the sacred or holy 
Scriptures, and sometimes canonical Scrip- 
ture. 'When we say that the sacred Scrip- 
ture is the word of God, we do not mean 
that it was all spoken by him, or that it was 
written by him, or that all that is contained 
therein is the word of God ; but a distinc- 
tion is to be made between those pre- 
cepts which inculcate justice, mercy, and 
holiness of life, and the historical parts which 
show the consequence of a life in opposition 
to those principles. The first are properly 
sacred, because they not only lead man to 
happiness, even in this life, but give him an 
' evidence of things not seen,' in the life to 
come ; and thus are called the word of God, 
as these perfections can only have their 
origin from the Fountain of all goodness. 
The last, though some are the words of good 
men — wicked men — the speeches of Satan ; 
or, in other words, the personification of an 
evil spirit, and on this account cannot be 
called the word or words of God ; yet even 
these parts have a similar tendency, as they 
show the malice, pride, and blasphemy of 
the spirit of wickedness ; and, on the other 
hand, the beauty of that spirit of divine 
philanthropy, which, throughout the whole 
Bible, breathes nothing but ' peace on earth, 
and good-will towards men.' 

1 There is one argument to prove the 
authority of the word of God, which cannot 
be overturned by all the Deists in the world. 
If the Bible be not the word of God, it must 
have been written, or invented, either by 
good men, or wicked men ; but if it can be 
proved that it was neither written nor in- 
vented, either by good men, or wicked men, 
it must be the word of God. That it was 
not written, or compiled by wicked men, 
will appear from its own evidence ; for if it 
is to be judged, we must suffer that evi- 
dence to appear in its defence. Can any 
Deist be so weak as to suppose that wicked 
men, who were in the love and practice of 
932 



evil, would frame laws to punish their own 
vices in this world, and condemn them- 
selves to everlasting punishment by de- 
claring, ' the wicked shall be turned into 
hell, with all the nations that forget God V 
And again, ' Thou shalt not covet ;' this 
reaches the thoughts and desires of the 
heart. These restrictions and declarations 
are opposite to those things which are con- 
tained in the religious books of the Maho- 
metan and Pagan nations, which are the 
production of men, and in which permission 
is given to indulge in sensuality. This, so 
far, is a certain proof of the divine origin of 
the Bible. As evident it is, that good men 
could not be the authors of the Bible. For, 
had it been compiled by good men, the 
same good men neither could, nor would 
have given a lie to their profession, by 
calling it ' the word of God,' as it would 
only have been the word of men ; conse- 
quently, the Bible must be the word of God, 
inspired by him, and thus given to man. 

' It must be allowed, that God created 
the first of men ; this being admitted, as it 
cannot be denied, we cannot doubt but he 
would give him a law, or knowledge to con- 
duct himself in life. Now, whether the 
divine Author of our being condescended to 
speak it with an audible voice, to write it 
on the heart, as is said in Scripture, or 
whether he commissioned man by that 
spoken law, or from that writing on the 
heart, to write it in a book for the instruc- 
tion of posterity, it amounts to the same ; 
for the law, or word of God, first spoken, or 
written on the heart, and from thence 
written in a book, still remains to be the 
word of God, first given by him. The pos- 
sibility of such inspiration must necessarily 
be allowed ; for certainly it was no more 
wonderful for God to inspire man to write 
his will in a book, than it was to inspire 
him, or enable him to receive, by continual 
influx, a regular train of ideas. 

' The question has long been asked by 
Deists, how shall we know that the Bible 
is the word of God ? First, by being con- 
vinced from the Bible that the precepts 
therein contained are worthy of God ; that 
the pure spirit which runs through the 
whole, inculcates nothing but love to God, 
and charity to all mankind, namely, ' thou 
shalt love the Lord thy God, with all thy 
heart.' (Deut. vi. 5.) ' Thou shalt love thy 
neighbour as thyself.' (Levit. xix. 18. Matt, 
vii. 12. Luke x. 27-) These are the two 
great commandments which pervade every 
page of the Bible, which, on this account, is 
truly called sacred ; these are sacred duties. 
For the recorded wickedness of the Jews, or 
of any other nation mentioned in the Bible, 
makes no part of the word of God, any far- 
ther than it shows that a departure from those 
precepts of true religion recorded therein, 
necessarily draws after it that train of fatal 
consequences, which is the result of that 



SCR 



SCR 



disobedience to the Divine command, when 
the whole sum and substance of true reli- 
gion contained in those two great proposi- 
tions, ' thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
with all thy heart, and thy neighbour as thy- 
self,' are not manifested in the life of man. 
Secondly, from the accomplishment of those 
things foretold by the prophets, beginning 
with Moses, and which, to the astonishment 
of every impartial man, have been fulfilling 
from their times to the present day. Now, 
as it must be evident that none but God 
could open to man those scenes of futurity, 
which have been realizing for the space of 
3300 years, and as those precepts of mora- 
lity contained in the Bible could never be 
gathered from the book of nature, as man 
must have been totally ignorant in a savage 
state ; and as it is clear that he could not 
have been reformed, or civilized, without a 
knowledge of those precepts, they must 
have been given by the Creator ; conse- 
quently, as far as demonstration can make 
truth appear, it is undeniably true that the 
sacred Scripture is the word of God.' 

That die Scriptures were actually dic- 
tated by inspiration, may be inferred both 
from the reasonableness and from the ne- 
cessity of the thing. It is reasonable that 
the sentiments and doctrines, developed in 
the Scriptures, should be suggested to the 
minds of the writers by the Supreme Being 
himself. They relate principally to matters 
concerning which the communicating of in- 
formation to men is worthy of God ; and the 
more important the information communi- 
cated, the more it is calculated to impress 
mankind, to preserve from moral error, to 
stimulate to holiness, to guide to happiness, 
the more reasonable it is to expect that 
God should make the communication in a 
manner free from every admixture or risk 
of error. Indeed, the notion of inspiration 
enters essentially into our ideas of a reve- 
lation from God ; so that to deny inspira- 
tion, is tantamount to affirming there is no 
revelation. And why should it be denied ? 
Is man out of the reach of Him who cre- 
ated him ? Has He, who gave man his in- 
tellect, no means of enlarging or illumi- 
nating that intellect? And is it beyond 
His power to illuminate and inform, in an 
especial manner, the intellects of some 
chosen individuals, — or contrary to his wis- 
dom, to preserve them from error when 
they communicate to others, either orally 
or by writing, the knowledge He imparted 
to them, not merely for their own benefit, 
but for that of the world at large, in all ge- 
nerations ? But farther, the subjects of 
Scripture render inspiration necessary. — 
Some past facts recorded in the Bible could 
not possibly have been known, had not God 
revealed them. Many things are recorded 
there as future, that is, are predicted, which 
God alone could foreknow and foretell, which, 
notwithstanding, came to pass, and which, 
033 



therefore, were foretold under Divine in- 
spiration. Others, again, are far above hu- 
man capacity, and could never have been 
discovered by men ; these, therefore, must 
have been delivered by Divine inspiration. 
The authoritative language of Scripture, 
too, argues the necessity of inspiration, ad- 
mitting the veracity of the writers. They 
propose things not as matters for conside- 
ration, but for adoption ; they do not leave 
us the alternative of receiving or rejecting; 
do not present us with their own thoughts ; 
but exclaim, ' Thus srith the Lord,' and on 
that ground demand our assent. They 
must, of necessity, therefore, speak and 
write as they ' were inspired by the Holy 
Ghost' 

A late writer recommends that the Scrip- 
tures be perused with the following disposi- 
tions : ' In the first place,' he observes, 
' study them devoutly. Remember that they 
are the word of God ; that they were written 
under the superintendence of his Spirit; 
and that their great purpose was to intro- 
duce and extend over the whole earth the 
Gospel and the kingdom of his Son. Re- 
member, also, that they were written to con- 
duct you to salvation through faith in Christ 
Jesus. Read them, therefore, with reve- 
rence and holy fear; and make it your earn- 
est and constant prayer to Him, from whom 
alone cometh every good and perfect gift, 
that His grace may open your understand- 
ing, enable you clearly to comprehend the 
import of the Sacred Writings, and deeply 
impress it upon your heart. Secondly, 
study the Scriptures with humility ; with a 
sincere desire to receive instruction from 
them, and to submit your own opinions to 
the declared will of your Maker and your 
Saviour. If we may judge, by the manner 
in which some persons speak concerning 
the Scriptures, of the temper and spirit with 
which they read them, we may almost con- 
clude that they read them for the purpose 
of cavilling, finding fault, and raising diffi- 
culties and objections* Be not thus blind 
and presumptuous. If you take up your 
Bible with Christian humility, you will not 
say concerning any doctrine, " This is a 
strange and unreasonable doctrine, and 1 
cannot receive it." Your language will be, 
" This doctrine is clearly contained in the 
. word of God, and therefore must be true." 
You will not say, concerning any rule of 
practice, "This is a hard and grievous com- 
mandment, and I may be excused from re- 
garding it very strictly." Your language 
will be, " This commandment is positively 
enjoined by my Lord and Judge, and I 
must obey it, if I would prove my lew to 

him, or escape condemnation at the last 
day." Finally, read the Scriptures with a 
full purpose of heart, not merely to learn 
what they require of you, but faithfully to 
practise it, through God's blessed assist i^ce, 
every day of your life. " Not every one 



SEA 



SEA 



that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter 
into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that 
doeth the will of my Father." (Matt. vii. 
21.) " Not the hearers of the law are just 
before God ; but the doers of the law shall 
be justified." (Rom. ii. 13.) If you read 
the Scriptures carelessly, or merely from 
custom, or rather from a spirit of curiosity 
than from anxiety to profit by them, and to 
grow in grace ; you do not read them as you 
ought to read the word of your Maker. You 
do not read them like a person solicitous 
above all things to obtain through Christ 
the kingdom of heaven ; and conscious that 
it will be bestowed by Christ on those only, 
who strive according to their power to learn 
from the Scriptures the way of his com- 
mandments, and faithfully to walk in it, by 
his help, unto death.' See Bible, Canon, 
Inspiration, Prophecy, and Revela- 
tion. Gisborne's Familiar Survey of the 
Christian Religion, p. 231 ; Dr. Olinthus Gre- 
gory's Letters on the Evidences, Doctrines, 
and Duties of the Christian Religion, vol. i. 
pp. 265 — 267 ; Bellamy's History of all Reli- 
gions, pp. 321—328. 

SEA, in Latin, Mare; in Hebrew Q\ 
Jam ; in Greek, Qakaaoa, Thalassa. The 
Hebrews give the name of Sea to all great 
collections of water, to lakes, or pools. The 
Sea of Galilee, or of Tiberias, or of Cinne- 
reth, is the Lake of Tiberias, or Gennesa- 
reth, in Galilee. The Red Sea, the Sea of 
the Wilderness, the Sea of the East, the 
Sea of Sodom, the Salt Sea, the Sea of As- 
phaltites, or of Bitumen, is the Lake As- 
phaltites, or the Lake of Sodom. The Sea 
of Semechon is the lake of that name. The 
Sea of Jazer is the lake near the city of 
Jazer, beyond Jordan. The Sea of Suph or 
Zuph, is the Red Sea. The Western Sea, 
or the Great Sea, or Hindermost Sea, is the 
Mediterranean. 

Sea was also the name given to a very 
great brazen basin, that Solomon caused to 
be made for the temple, for the convenience 
of the priests, who there washed the feet 
and bowels of the sacrifices, and the instru- 
ments used in sacrificing. 

The Arabians and Orientals sometimes 
give the name of Sea to the great rivers, as 
the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and 
others, which, by their magnitude, and by 
the extent of their overflowings, seem as 
little seas, or great lakes. There are seve- 
ral passages in Scripture, whose explication 
would be almost impossible without this 
principle. Isaiah (xi. 15.) says, ' The 
Lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the 
Egyptian Sea, and with his mighty wind 
shall he shake his hand over the river, and 
shall smite it in the seven streams, and 
make men go over dry-shod.' The Nile is 
here called the Egyptian Sea, and the whole 
description of the prophet marks out the 
Nile, and its seven mouths. 

The country of Babylon, which was wa- 
934 



tered by the Euphrates, is called by the 
same prophet, 'the desert of the sea.' 
(Isaiah xxi. 1.) Jeremiah (li. 36.) speaks 
of the city of Babylon in the same manner: 
1 I will dry up her sea* and make her 
springs dry.' Isaiah, (xxvii. 1.) speaking 
of the king of Babylon, calls him leviathan, 
or ' the dragon that is in the sea.' Ezekiel 
gives the same name to the king of Egypt, 
(xxxii. 2.): 'Thou art as a whale in the 
seas,' because his habitation was on the 
banks of the Nile. 

The Great Sea, or the Western Sea, the 
Hindermost Sea, the Sea of the Philistines, 
generally expresses the Mediterranean, 
which lay west of the Land of Promise, and 
was considered as behind a man who should 
look toward the sun-rising, having his left 
hand to the north, and his right hand to 
the south. The sea is often put for the 
west, as the right is put for the south. On 
the Mediterranean Jonah embarked ; and 
on this sea they floated the timber cut 
down from Mount Libanus, which was 
brought to Joppa, for building the tem- 
ple. 

The Red Sea, called by the ancients Si- 
nus Arabicus, and now Gulfo de Mecca, is that 
part or branch of the Southern Sea which 
interposes itself between Egypt on the west, 
Arabia Felix and some part of Arabia Pe- 
trsea on the east, while the northern bounds 
of it touch on Idumaea, or the coast of 
Edom. Edom, in the Hebrew tongue, sig- 
nifies red, and was the name given to Esau 
for selling his birthright for a mess of pot- 
tage. This country, which his posterity 
possessed, was called after his name, and so 
was the sea which adjoined to it; but the 
Greeks, not understanding the reason of 
the appellation, translated it into their 
tongue, and called it epvSpd OaKdaatj; 
thence the Latins mare rubrum, and we the 
Red Sea. 

It is called Yam Suph, ' the weedy sea,' 
in several passages, (Numb, xxxiii. 10. 
Psalm cvi. 9. &c.) which are improperly 
rendered ' the Red Sea.' Some learned au- 
thors have supposed that it was so named 
from the quantity of weeds in it. ' But, in 
contradiction to this,' says Bruce, ' I must 
confess, that I never in my life (and I have 
seen the whole extent of it) saw a weed of 
any sort in it. And, indeed, upon the 
slightest consideration, it will appear to any 
one, that a narrow gulf, under the imme- 
diate influence of monsoons, blowing from 
contrary points six months each year, would 
have too much agitation to produce such 
vegetables, seldom found but in stagnant 
water, and seldomer, if ever, found in salt 
ones. My opinion, then, is, that it is from 
the large trees, or plants, of white coral, per- 
fectly in imitation of plants on land, that 
the sea has taken its name. I saw one of 
these, which, from a root nearly central, 
threw out ramifications in a nearly circular 



SEA 



SEA 



form, measuring twenty-six feet diameter 
every way.' 

The Arabs at this day name it Bahrel 
Chalzem, that is, the Sea of Clysma, from a 
town situated on its western coast, much 
about the place where the Israelites passed 
over from the Egyptian to the Arabian shore. 
But as the word Clysma may denote a 
drowning or overflowing with water, it is not 
improbable that the town built in this place, 
as well as this part of the sea, might have 
such a name given it in memory of the 
fate of the Egyptians, who were drowned 
in it. 

Every one knows the famous miracle of 
the passage over the Red Sea, when the 
Lord opened this sea, dried it up, and made 
the Israelites pass through it, dry-shod, to 
the number of 600,000, without reckoning 
old men, women, or children. Some ancient 
authors have advanced, that Moses, having 
lived long near the Red Sea, in the country 
of Midian, had observed that it kept its 
regular ebbing and flowing like the ocean ; 
so that, taking advantage of the time of 
the ebb, he led the Hebrews over; but the 
Egyptians, not knowing the nature of the 
sea, and rashly entering it just before the 
return of the tide, were all swallowed up 
and drowned, as Moses relates. Thus the 
priests of Memphis explained it ; and this 
opinion has been adopted by a great number 
of moderns. In the queries of Michaelis, 
sent to Niebuhr, when in Egypt, it was pro- 
posed to him to inquire upon the spot, 
' whether there were not some ridges of rocks 
where the water was shallow, so that an 
army at particular times may pass over? 
Secondly, whether the Etesian winds, which 
blow strongly all summer from the north- 
west, could not blow so violently against 
the sea as to keep it back on a heap ; so 
that the Israelites might have passed without 
a miracle V A copy of these queries was 
left also for Mr. Bruce, the traveller, who 
justly observed as follows : ' I must confess, 
however learned the gentlemen were who 
proposed these doubts, I did not think they 
merited any attention to solve them. This 
passage is told us by Scripture to be a mi- 
raculous one ; and if so, we have nothing to 
do with natural causes. If we do not be- 
lieve Moses, we need not believe the trans- 
action at all, seeing that it is from his 
authority alone we derive it. If we believe 
in God, that he made the sea, we must be- 
lieve he could divide it when he sees proper 
reason ; and of that he must be the only 
judge. It is no greater miracle to divide 
the Red Sea than to divide the river Jordan. 
If the Etesian wind, blowing from the 
north-west in summer, could keep up the 
sea as a wall on the right, or to the south, 
of fifty feet high ; still the difficulty would 
remain of building the wall on the left 
hand, or to the north. Besides, water 
standing in that position for a day, must 
935 



have lost the nature of fluid. Whence 
came that cohesion of particles which hin- 
dered that wall to escape at the sides ? This 
is as great a miracle as that of Moses. If 
the Etesian winds had done this once, they 
must have repeated it many a time before 
and since, from the same causes.' It ap- 
pears, however, from the accurate observa- 
tions of Niebuhr and Bruce, that there is 
no ledge of rocks running across the gulf 
any where, to afford a shallow passage. 
The second query, about the Etesian, or 
northerly wind, is refuted by the express 
mention of a strong easterly wind blowing 
across, and scooping out a dry passage ; not 
that it was necessary for Omnipotence to 
employ it there as an instrument, any more 
than at Jordan ; but it seems to be intro- 
duced in the sacred history by way of anti- 
cipation, to exclude the natural agency that 
might in after times be employed for solv- 
ing the miracle. It is remarkable, that the 
monsoon in the Red Sea blows the summer 
half of the year from the north, the winter 
half from the south ; neither of which could 
produce the miracle in question. The 
tides in this sea are moderate. At Suez 
the difference between high and low water 
did not exceed from three to four feet, ac- 
cording to Niebuhr's observations on the 
tides in that gulf, during the years 1762 
and 1763. 

It is evident from the text of Moses, and 
other sacred authors, who have mentioned 
this miraculous passage, that no other ac- 
count is supportable, than that which sup- 
poses the Hebrews to cross over the sea 
from shore to shore, in a vast space of dry 
ground, which was left void by the waters 
at their retiring. (Exod. xiv. 16, 17- &c.) 
In the canticle that Moses sang at their 
coming out of the Red Sea, he says, (Exod. 
xv. 8.) ' With the blast of thy nostrils (or, 
with the wind of thy fury), the waters were 
gathered together ; the flood stood upright 
as an heap, and the depths were congealed 
in the heart of the sea.' The Psalmist says, 
(Psalm lxxviii. 13.), ' He divided the sea, 
and caused them to pass through, and he 
made the waters to stand as on a heap.' He 
says, in another place, that the sea fled at 
the sight of God, (Psalm cxiv. 3. 5.) ; that 
the Lord made himself a path in the sea ; 
that he walked in the midst of the waters, 
(Psalm lxxvii. 19.) Isaiah (lxiii. 11, &c.) 
says, that the Lord divided the waves before 
his people ; that he conducted them through 
the bottom of the abyss, as a horse is led 
through the midst of a field. Habakkuk 
(iii. 15.) says, that the Lord made himself a 
road to drive his chariot and horses across 
the sea, across the mud of great waters. 
Lastly, the author of the book of Wisdom 
(xix. 7, 8. ; x. 17, 18.) says, that the dry 
land appeared all on a sudden in a place 
where water was before ; that a lire passage 
was opened in a moment through the midst 



SEA 



SEA 



of the Red S ea ; and that a green field was 
seen in the midst of the abyss, &c. 

It is thought that the place where the He- 
brews passed the Red Sea is two or three 
leagues below its northern point, at tbe place 
called Kolsum, or Clysma. Dr. Hales ob- 
serves, that 'it sufficiently appears, even from 
Niebubr's own statement, that the passage 
of the Israelites could not have taken place 
near Suez: for, 1. he evidently confounded 
the town of Kolsum, the ruins of which he 
places near Suez, and where he supposed 
the passage to be made, with the bay of 
Kolsum, which began about 45 miles lower 
down; as Bryant has satisfactorily proved 
from the astronomical observations of Pto- 
lemy and Ulug Beigh, made at Heroum, the 
ancient head of the gulf. 2. Instead of 
crossing the sea at or near Etham, their 
second station, the Israelites "turned" south- 
wards, along the western shore ; and their 
third station at Pihahiroth or Bedea, was at 
least a full day's journey below Etham; as 
Bryant has satisfactorily proved from Scrip- 
ture.' (Exod. xiv. 2.) Hales' s New Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. i. pp. 388—394 ; Wells's 
Geography of the Old and New Testament, 
vol. i. p. 240. 

The Dead Sea, Salt Sea, Eastern Sea, Sea of 
Sodom, Sea of the Wilderness, or of the Plain. 
This is the lake Asphaltites, to which Jose- 
phus allows five hundred and fourscore fur- 
longs in length, and one hundred and fifty 
furlongs in breadth, that is, about twenty- 
five leagues long, and five or six broad. See 
Asphar. 

The brazen or molten Sea, that Solomon 
made for the temple, was ten cubits in dia- 
meter from side to side, and therefore about 
thirty cubits in circumference. Taking the 
Hebrew cubit at twenty inches and a half, 
the ten cubits make seventeen feet and an 
inch ; and the thirty cubits make fifty-one 
feet and three inches. This vessel was 
round, and in depth five cubits. The brim 
was adorned with an edging, and embellish- 
ed with lilies, and knobs, and oxens' heads 
in demi-relief. It contained three thousand 
baths, (2 Chron. iv. 5.) or two thousand 
baths, (1 Kings vii. 26.) This, says Calmet, 
may be reconciled, by saying, that the cup 
or bowl contained two thousand baths, and 
the foot, which was hollow, contained a 
thousand more. Thus this great vessel was 
but of one capacity within, though it seemed 
without to be double. This sea was sup- 
ported by its foot now mentioned, which was 
a thick hollow column; besides which, it 
was supported by twelve oxen of brass, dis- 
posed into four groups, by three in a group, 
and leaving four passages between, by which 
the priests went to draw Water by three 
cocks fixed to the foot of this vessel. 
(1 Kings vii. 23, &c. 2 Chron. iv. 2, 3, 4, 
5. &c.) 

In the Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Dictionary, another solution is offered. The 
936 



writer observes that the Jerusalem Talmud 
and Maimonides agree, that a pipe of water 
came into the Brazen Sea out of the well or 
fountain Etam ; and that the construction 
of a fountain implies pipes, &c. for forcing 
the water upwards, and corresponding pipes, 
for passing the water through (or at least 
among) the oxen, &c. around this basin. 
Hence he thinks that the author of Chro- 
nicles does not merely state the quantity of 
water which this basin held, but that also 
which was necessary to work it, to keep it 
flowing as a fountain ; that which was ne- 
cessary to fill the basin, and its accom- 
paniments. ' I support this opinion,' says 
he, ' by observing the different phraseology 
used in the two passages : in 1 Kings vii. 
26. "it contained — comprehended — held 
(b-Z", icil) 2,000 baths ;" but in 2 Chron. 
iv. 5. we have two words used ; one, as be- 
fore, " it held," {icil), — the other (p"intt, me- 
chetzik), i( it received." Now the writer 
would not have used two words, adding an- 
other word, merely to signify the same 
thing: there is, then, a difference between 
this receiving, and this holding. It received, 
when playing as a fountain; and when all 
its parts were filled for that purpose, they, 
together with the sea itself, received 3,000 
baths ; whereas it only held 2,000 baths, that 
is, the sea exclusively, and when its con- 
tents Were restricted to those of the circular 
basin. It received — and held — three thou- 
sand baths.' Fragments annexed to Calmet's 
Dictionary of the Holy Bible, No. ccliv. pp. 
154, 155. 

The Sea of Egypt (Isa. xi. 15.) means that 
part of the Mediterranean along the coasts 
of Egypt. 

The tongue of the Sea. The Hebrews and 
Arabians call that a tongue of the sea which 
runs into the land ; as we call that a tongue, 
or neck of land, which advances into the 
sea. (Josh. xv. 5. ; xviii. 19. Isa. xi. 15.) 

SEAH, a kind of measure among the 
Hebrews. Its capacity was about two gal- 
lons and a half, liquid measure ; or about a 
peck, dry measure. 

SEAL. The ancient Hebrews wore their 
seals, or signets, in rings on their fingers ; 
or in bracelets on their arms (as is now the 
custom in the East). Haman sealed the 
decree of king Ahasuerus against the Jews 
with the king's seal. (Esth. iii. 12.) The 
priests of Bel desired the king to seal the 
door of their temple with his own seal. 
The spouse in the Canticles (viii. 6.) wishes 
that his spouse would wear him as a signet 
on her arm. 

Pliny observes, that the use of seals, or 
signets, was rare at the time of the Trojan 
war, and that they were under the necessity 
of closing their letters with several knots. 
But among the Hebrews they are much 
more ancient. Judah left his seal as a 
pledge with Tamar. (Gen. xxxviii. 25). 
Moses says, (Deut. xxxii. 34.) that God 



SEA. 



SEC 



keeps sealed up in his treasuries, under his 
own seal, the instruments of his vengeance. 
Job says, (ix. 7-) that he keeps the stars as 
under his seal ; and allows them to appear 
when he thinks proper. He says also, ' My 
transgression is sealed up in a bag.' (Job 
xiv. 17.) 

When they intended to seal up a letter, 
or a book, they wrapped it round with flax, 
or thread, then applied the wax to it, and 
afterwards the seal. The Lord commanded 
Isaiah to tie up or wrap up the book in 
which his prophecies were written, and to 
seal them till the time he should bid him 
publish them. (Isaiah viii. 16, 17.) 

He gives the same command to Daniel, 
(xii. 4.) The book that was shown to St. 
John the Evangelist, (Rev. v. 1. ; vi. 1, 2, 
&c.) was sealed with seven seals. It was a 
rare thing to put such a number of seals ; 
but that indicated the great importance 
and secrecy of the matter. 

In civil contracts they generally made two 
originals ; one continued open, and was 
kept by him for whose interest the contract 
was made ; the other was sealed, and de- 
posited in some public office. It was sealed 
up to prevent any fraud or falsification. 
Jeremiah (xxxii. 10, 11. 14.) bought a field 
in his country of Anathoth, of one called 
Hananeel ; he himself wrote the contract, 
called witnesses, and sealed it up : he put it 
into the hands of his disciple Baruch, and 
said, ' Take these evidences, this evidence 
of the purchase, both which is sealed, and 
this evidence which is open ; and put them 
in an earthen vessel, that they may continue 
many days.' A late writer asks, ' Was Je- 
remiah's earthen pot, which might last 
t without becoming rotten" many days, 
destined to inclose the purchase-deeds of 
this field, to be buried somewhere in the 
field itself, if possible, in order to be pre- 
served for production at a future period, as 
evidence of the purchase ? This seems to 
be strengthened by the consideration, that, 
at a future period likewise foretold, and as- 
certained by this prophet, the inhabitants 
should be restored to their own lands, and, 
in order to resume them, they should seek 
after such tokens of their forefathers' pos- 
session ; at which time, being able to de- 
scribe the contents of such vessels, the 
identity of their persons and families, and 
the truth of their claims, should appear un- 
deniable. If this pot was buried in the 
city of Jerusalem, the same end would be 
answered (though not so completely), since 
Baruch might inform the proper heirs where 
to seek for it, and how to describe its con- 
tents. The method of sealing, and the word 
here rendered seal, does not restrictively 
imply a waxen seal, or a seal for evidence 
only, but to close up, to secure, by some 
solid or some glutinous matter. (Deut. 
xxxii. 34.) In Job (xxxviii. 14.) a seal is 
mentioned as being made of day ; which, 
937 



indeed, is customary in the East Suppose, 
then, this deed were enclosed in a roll of 
some strong substance, pitched over, to pro- 
tect it from water, or surrounded with a 
coat of firm clay, for the same purpose, and 
placed at the bottom of an earthen vessel ; 
while the writing not thus enclosed, or 
coated over, was laid among a quantity of 
dry matters, ' stones, bricks, or sea-sand,' 
at the top of the vessel. In this case, both, 
or very probably one of them, in an earthen 
vessel well closed up, and carefully buried, 
might last a much longer time than seventy 
years ; and the peculiarity of its contents 
might be much longer remembered by those 
to whom it was communicated. As Jere- 
miah could not himself go out of his prison, 
he delivers these deeds to Baruch, for the 
purpose of their preservation from the ge- 
neral pillage, burning, &c. of the city, when 
taken ; in which otherwise they had little 
chance of escaping total destruction ; and, 
probably, for the purpose of being buried.' 

That clay is still used for the purpose of 
sealing, the following from Norden is a 
proof: ' The doors are shut only with wooden 
locks ; but the inspectors of this granary, 
after having shut the door, put on it their 
seal, on a handful of clay, which they make 
use of as wax.' W T as this the kind of seal 
used to seal our Lord's sepulchre? (Matt, 
xxvii. 66.) ' Securing the sepulchre, by 
sealing the stone, and setting a watch.' 
(Dan.ix. 24. ; xii. 4. 9. Job xiv. 17.) Frag- 
ments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, No. 
lxxx. pp.138, 139. 

SECEDERS. The appellation Seceder 
is derived from the Latin word secedo, to 
separate, or to withdraw from any body of 
men with which we have been united; and 
the Seceders are a numerous body of Pres- 
byterians, whose predecessors first broke off" 
from the established kirk in Scotland about 
the year 1733. 

This secession arose from various circum- 
stances, which the Seceders conceived to be 
great defections from the established con- 
stitution of the kirk. Among others, it was 
enacted by the General Assembly, that no 
notice should be taken, in their records, of 
any dissents or protests against their de- 
cisions; and in 1732, the Assembly had 
under their consideration an overture, which 
proposed to give the power of electing 
ministers for vacant parishes, when the pa- 
tron should not exercise his right, to the 
majority of heritors and elders, on the 
simple condition of the heritors being Pro- 
testants ; their non-residence, or their at- 
tachment to Episcopacy, and the exiled 
family, being considered as no disquali- 
fication. Many presbyteries opposed this 
overture ; and remonstrances were pre- 
sented against it, subscribed by fort\-two 
ministers, and more than seventeen hundred 
private Christians. However, it was passed 
into an act : soon after which, Mr. Ebenezei 



SEC 



SEC 



Erskine, minister at Stirling, in a sermon, 
preached at the opening of the synod of 
Perth and Stirling, testified against some 
things which he considered as public evils ; 
particularly this act, and the conduct of 
church-courts in the mode of settling minis- 
ters. The synod pronounced him worthy of 
censure : upon which he, with several other 
ministers, protested and appealed to the 
General Assembly ; which sustained the de- 
cision of the synod. Mr. E. then protested 
against this sentence also, as infringing on 
the right of ministers to testify against sinful 
courses, and as subjecting him to censure 
for what he conceived to be his duty. Three 
other ministers, namely, Messrs. William 
Wilson of Perth, Alexander Moncrieff of 
Abernethy, and James Fisher of Kinclaven, 
adhered to this protest. All the four were 
afterwards suspended, and eventually loosed 
from their relation to their respective 
charges, because they refused to withdraw 
their protest, and profess their sorrow for 
what they had done. In their protest 
against the latter decision, they declared, 
that ' they were laid under the necessity of 
making a secession, not from the principles 
of the Church of Scotland, as stated in her 
tests of orthodoxy, but from the prevailing 
party in that church, till they should see 
and amend their errors.' They accordingly, 
in 1733, formed themselves into a presby- 
tery, to which they gave the name of Asso- 
ciate, that they might consistently adhere 
to their principles, and afford assistance to 
oppressed congregations. 

They soon after published what they called 
' A Testimony to the doctrine, worship, go- 
vernment, and discipline of the Church of 
Scotland ;' in which they state their seces- 
sion on the following grounds : — 1. That 
the prevailing party were breaking down 
the Presbyterian constitution, by trampling 
on those fundamental rules of the church, 
which limit the mode of procedure in the 
framing of new acts ; by their tyranny 
with respect to the settlement of vacant pa- 
rishes ; by their ejection of ministers, merely 
for protesting against an act of Assembly ; 
and by their threatening with the highest 
censures those who should admit to com- 
munion such as could not in conscience ac- 
knowledge the ministry of intruders. 2. 
That their conduct had a direct tendency to 
corrupt the doctrine of the church ; par- 
ticularly, in dismissing Professor Simson of 
Glasgow, without any adequate censure ; 
though it had been proved, that, besides 
several other dangerous errors, he had 
taught, that the Son is not God equal with 
the Father; and in caressing Professor 
Campbell of St. Andrews, though, in his 
writings, he had taught that self-love is the 
chief motive to all virtuous actions ; and 
had ridiculed practical religion as enthu- 
siasm. 3. That sinful silence was imposed 
upon ministers, as a term of communion, in 
938 



direct opposition to their vows at ordination. 
4. That they disregarded all means used for 
reclaiming them from their sinful courses. 
And, 5. That the brethren, who made this 
secession, found themselves otherwise pre- 
cluded from maintaining a proper testimony 
against these and other evils. 

In 1734, the General Assembly empow- 
ered the Synod of Perth and Stirling to 
restore these ministers to their parishes; 
and they have been blamed for not return- 
ing to the establishment on this occasion. 
But they judged that the principal grounds 
of their secession were yet remaining, as 
this appointment neither condemned the 
act of the preceding Assembly, nor the 
conduct of the commission ; as there had 
been no sufficient testimony against in- 
trusions, or against the corrupt doctrine 
taught in the church; and as there had 
been no vindication of the right of ministers 
to testify against defections. This appoint- 
ment they therefore considered to be rather 
an act of grace than of justice ; and, no pro- 
per preparation having been made for the 
injury done to truth, they conceived they 
could not return to the church-courts on 
this ground. They afterwards published 
what was called a Judicial Testimony, Act, 
Declaration, &c. more particularly express- 
ing their adherence to former reformations, 
and their condemnation of various courses 
of defection. This was enacted in 1736, and 
to this it has been the custom to require 
an accession from all those who are ad- 
mitted to communion with the society. 

The leaders in the establishment being 
greatly provoked by the plainness of this 
second Testimony, and the success with 
which it was attended ; as it was followed 
by the accession of several ministers, and 
of a great body of private Christians ; the 
seceding ministers were libelled, and cited 
to appear before the Assembly, in 1739. 
But when they appeared, as the Assembly 
chiefly consisted of intruders, and of others 
deeply engaged in defection, they declined 
its authority, as not being a rightly consti- 
tuted court of Christ. In consequence of 
this, without any charge, either of error or 
of immorality, they were deposed by the 
next Assembly, in 1740, from the ministe- 
rial office, as to the exercise of it in the 
establishment. As they declared their ad- 
herence to the covenants of their ancestors, 
they proceeded in 1743, to renew them, in a 
bond, or engagement, suited to their circum- 
stances. In this, they tell us, they did not 
intermeddle with civil matters, but entirely 
confined themselves to those that are sa- 
cred, or such things as are properly con- 
nected with religion. In 1745, the seced- 
ing ministers were become so numerous, 
that they divided themselves into three dif- 
ferent presbyteries, under one synod. 

In their synod every thing was conducted 
with the greatest harmony, till they entered 



SEC 



SEC 



on the consideration of the following clause 
contained in the Burgess-oath, administered 
in several of the royal boroughs of Scot- 
land.— 'I protest before God, and your 
lordships, that I profess, and allow with my 
heart, the true religion, presently professed 
within this realm, and authorized by the laws 
thereof: I shall abide thereat, and defend the 
same to my life's end, renouncing the Ro- 
man religion called Papistry.'— Messrs. Ebe - 
nezer and Ralph Erskine, James Fisher, and 
others, maintained that there was no incon- 
sistency in Seceders swearing this oath, be- 
cause the religion established in Scotland 
was still the true religion, notwithstanding 
all the faults in the manner of professing 
or settling it ; and these, on account of their 
sentiments, were called Burghers. Messrs. 
Alexander Moncrieff, Thomas Mair, Adam 
Gib, and others, no less warmly contended 
that this clause could not be sworn by 
Seceders, without a renunciation of their 
Testimony; because swearing to the true 
religion presently professed and authorized 
by the laws, imported a swearing to it as 
professed and authorized; and, therefore, 
an approbation, under the solemnity of an 
oath, of those very corruptions which they 
had already condemned; and hence they 
were denominated Antiburghers. 

This rupture took place in 1747. since 
which period they have met in different 
synods, and no attempts to effect a reunion 
have yet been successful. They still hold 
separate communion, although much of 
their former hostility has been laid aside ; 
and each of the societies, thus divided, has 
still claimed to itself the lawful constitu- 
tion of the Associate Synod. The Anti- 
burghers consider the Burghers as too lax, 
and not sufficiently stedfast to their testi- 
mony. • The Burghers, on the other hand, 
contend that the Antiburghers are too rigid, 
in that they have introduced new terms of 
communion into the society. 

Both parties tell us that the established 
Kirk of Scotland still perseveres in a 
course of defection from her professed 
principles; and the grounds of secession, 
which at first were sufficient to justify a 
separation from her communion, have been 
increasing, say they, in number and in 
strength to the present day. 

Both parties of Seceders avow their ad- 
herence to the Scriptures as the only rule 
of faith and practice ; and as they believe 
that few decry confessions of faith for sub- 
ordinate standards, but in order to vent 
some erroneous dream, they also avow 
their adherence to the Westminster Con- 
fession of Faith, the Assembly's Catechisms, 
larger and shorter, and to the Directory 
for Worship, and Form of Presbyterian 
Church-government, thereto subjoined, and 
to the National Covenant of Scotland, and 
Solemn League of the Three Kingdoms. 
So that their church-government is presby- 
93<> 



terian, and their tenets are strictly Cal- 
vinistic. 

In the year 1742, the Associate Presby- 
tery published An Act concerning the Doc- 
trine of Grace, vindicating it against dif- 
ferent acts of Assembly, passed in preju- 
dice of it. Their form of worship is the 
same as in the established Kirk ; and their 
discipline ' is much the same as what was 
once universally practised in the Church of 
Scotland, but now almost generally disused. 
Hence sundry of the less conscientious 
Seceders falling into scandal, return to 
the established church, that they may 
altogether avoid, or only receive a very 
slight censure.' 

Seceders, Burgher. — For thirty years 
past the increase of both parties in the 
secession has been rapid and extensive, 
and the congregations belonging to both 
are now about two hundred, or more ; some 
of which consist of upwards of one thou- 
sand members. Which party has the great- 
est number of followers, is not ascertained ; 
but the Antiburghers have all along had 
the greatest number of ministers, though 
even in this respect the Burghers seem to 
gain ground. The supreme court among 
the Burghers is styled The Burgher Asso- 
ciate Synod, of which there is one in Scot- 
land, and another in Ireland. The Synod 
in Scotland, which commonly meets in 
Edinburgh in May and September, is sub- 
divided into ten, and that of Ireland into 
four presbyteries. They have also a pres- 
bytery in Nova Scotia. The number of 
their ministers in Britain, was, in 1802, 
almost an hundred, besides vacant charges, 
which were then upwards of twenty. They 
are legally tolerated in Ireland ; and go- 
vernment lately granted 500/. per annum, 
and have now added other 500/. for their 
ministers ; which, when divided among 
them, affords about 20/. to each, over and 
above the stipend which he receives from 
his hearers. 

Seceders, Antiburgher. — The con- 
stitution of the Antiburgher society differs 
very little from that of the Burghers. The 
supreme court among them is designated 
The General Associate or Antiburgher Synod ; 
having under its jurisdiction three provin- 
cial synods in Scotland, and one in Ireland. 
They have also several presbyteries lately 
formed into a synod, within the bounds of 
the United States of North America ; and 
a presbytery in Nova Scotia, immediately 
depending on the General Synod. The 
three Synods of Edinburgh, Perth, and 
Glasgow, in Scotland, consist of three pres- 
byteries each ; and besides these, those of 
Elgin and Aberdeen are in immediate sub- 
ordination to the General Synod. The 
Synod of Ireland consists of five presby- 
teries, namely, Markethill, Belfast, Temple- 
Patrick, and Ahoghill, Derry, and N owton 
Limavady. They have also a few congrega- 



SEC 



SEC 



tions in England, under the inspection of 
different presbyteries in Scotland. 

In this branch of the secession, covenant- 
ing is practised in particular congregations 
occasionally, when a considerable number 
of individuals testify their desire of an op- 
portunity to satisfy their ministers with 
respect to their knowledge of the nature 
and circumstances of the duty. It is not, 
however, imposed upon any ; nor is it com- 
monly repeated by the same persons. On 
the other hand, the Burghers acknowledge, 
that covenanting is a moral duty, and that 
the solemn vows of their ancestors are obli- 
gatory. But since the separation, they 
have never engaged in the work ; and the 
reason they have assigned for not doing it, 
is, that this is not the proper season. 

The General Associate Synod have pub- 
lished a display of their principles in a 
Testimony, and Narrative prefixed ; in 
which they are exhibited in a more simple 
form than before, as they had till that time 
been dispersed through a variety of differ- 
ent publications. * The simplification of her 
principles did not seem to be all that was 
necessary in the secession church. She 
had been charged by other societies with 
persecuting principles. Many of her mem- 
bers, both in public and private stations, 
had, for many years, found the difficulty 
even of satisfying their own minds on this 
head. Private Christians had often felt 
scruples with respect to the usual engage- 
ments at receiving baptism for their chil- 
dren. Candidates for the ministry had sub- 
mitted to be licensed, or to be ordained, 
only in the way of having liberty granted 
them to express to the court in what sense 
only they could be viewed as giving their 
assent to some articles in the public pro- 
fession. 

' It was admitted, that, so far back as the 
year 1743, the Associate Presbytery had 
given such an account of the origin and 
nature of magistracy, as to secure the rights 
of conscience. For they taught, that the 
whole institution and end of the office of 
civil rulers, "lie within the compass of natu- 
ral principles." But a variety of other 
assertions, in their public papers, did not 
seem perfectly to tally with this doctrine. 
Particularly, they were at a loss to recon- 
cile with this a clause in what was commonly 
called The Judicial Act and Testimony, 
enacted in 1736, in which the presbytery 
condemn as sinful the toleration granted to 
Episcopalian Dissenters in Scotland, by the 
act of Queen Anne, 1712, calling it "an 
almost boundless toleration, by which the 
government and discipline of this church 
were exceedingly weakened, and a wide 
door was opened for laxness in principle ; 
as a stroke and judgment upon this church 
and land." The same language was used in 
the former Acknowledgment of Sins, with this 
addition, that, " in consequence of this tolera- 
940 



Hon, the superstitious and corrupt worshiy 
of the Church of England is set up in all 
the corners of the land." 

' They also found it necessary to extend 
the limitation with which the General 
Assembly of the Church of Scotland had at 
first received the Westminster Confession of 
Faith, especially with respect to that article, 
in which it is declared, that though "the 
civil magistrate may not assume the power 
of the keys of the kingdom of heaven, yet 
he hath authority, and it is his duty, to take 
order that all blasphemies and heresies be 
suppressed," &c. ; and that which declares, 
that those " who publish erroneous opinions, 
which are destructive to the external peace 
and order that Christ hath established in the 
church — may lawfully be called to account, 
and proceeded against," not only "by the 
censures of the church," but " by the power 
of the civil magistrate." 

' As they acknowledge the obligation of 
the covenants of their ancestors, they also 
found it necessary to be more explicit than 
they had formerly been, in declaring in what 
sense they adhered to them; and parti- 
cularly, as the term extirpation, used in the 
Solemn League, had been generally under- 
stood as implying a resolution to employ 
carnal power, they found it necessary to 
declare (as they have actually done in the 
New Display of their Testimony,) that 
" whatever means any persons, either in 
former or present times, might think them- 
selves bound to employ for the extirpation 
of these evils (popery, prelacy, &c.) ; yet 
they, "in adhering to the religious refor- 
mation engaged to in this covenant, utterly 
disclaim all obligation to use any methods 
inconsistent with liberty of conscience in 
prosecuting the ends of it." 
• ' As some seemed to have their minds 
warped with the idea of covenant-obligation 
arising from civil deeds and acts of parlia- 
ments, it seemed also necessary to rest it on 
its proper ground — the voluntary act of the 
Church of Christ. 

'While the overture, containing a new 
statement of the principles of the secession, 
was before the supreme court, several mem- 
bers opposed the proposed alteration ; 
although it is a well-known fact, that some 
of these had formerly the very same scruples 
with their brethren. Even when this over- 
ture was enacted, with very few dissenting 
voices, the General Synod wished to exer- 
cise all tenderness towards those who dif- 
fered from them. They could not, indeed, 
admit the use of two Formulas, or of two 
Acknowledgments of Sins. But they were 
willing, as far as possible, to dispense with 
any concurrence on the part of their dis- 
senting brethren, in giving licence or ordi- 
nation. Nor did they enforce any proce- 
dure in covenanting on any of them. They 
carried their forbearance so far, indeed, as 
to allow their brethren to receive acces- 



SEE 



SEL 



sions to the former Testimony, if they did 
not reject those persons who preferred the 
other. Four ministers, however, protested 
against the synod, and afterwards formed 
themselves into a presbytery. In their 
protest, they assert, that the synod, because 
they prohibited the use of the former Ac- 
knowledgment and Formula, had excluded 
them from communion by the new terms 
and constitution which they had adopted. 
But the forbearance of the synod shows on 
what a slender foundation this charge is 
founded. They also affirmed, that the 
system of doctrine formerly held, " expli- 
citly avows a right of private judgment 
competent to every man in all moral or 
religious concerns ; so as not, however, to 
be incompatible with the right of rulers, 
civil or ecclesiastical, to judge and act in 
subordination to divine laws, natural or 
revealed, for promoting the public good." 
But it is obvious, that here the "right of 
private judgment" is so clogged, that there 
is I'eason to suspect that those who should 
claim the benefit of it might be permitted 
only to think for themselves ; and that the 
free exercise oi their religion might be 
reckoned inconsistent with the public good. 
' They charged the General Synod with 
Independent and sectarian principles, for 
no other reason, as far as appeared, but 
because, in former times, the doctrine of tole- 
ration was accounted a sectarian error by too 
many who called themselves Presbyterians. 
' The Synod were also represented as op- 
posing public reformation, merely because 
they did not see the propriety of carrying 
on this by means of carnal weapons, or of 
blending civil and sacred things in the same 
covenant. It was also affirmed that the 
Synod had " raised a new partition wall be- 
tween the secession and the established 
church, which would prevent a re-union, 
even although the corruptions were removed 
of which the Seceders at first complained." ' 
The agitation of these and other ques- 
tions respecting the connexion between 
Church and State, and national covenants, 
and the introduction of changes into the 
public formularies, occasioned a division in 
this branch also of the secession, and the 
establishment of a new presbytery, called 
the Constitutional Associate Presbytery, the 
name by which they wish to be distinguished. 
Adam's Religious World Displayed, vol. iii. 
pp. 192—212. 

SEEKERS, a denomination which 
arose in the year 1645. They derived 
their name from maintaining that the true 
church, ministry, Scripture, and ordinances, 
were lost, for which they were seeking. 
They taught that the Scriptures were un- 
certain ; that present miracles were neces- 
sary to faith ; that our ministry is without 
authority ; and that our worship and ordi- 
nances are unnecessary, or vain. Adam's 
Victo of all Religions, p. 281. 
941 



SE'IR, Tytfr, signifies rough, hairy; other- 
wise, a kid, or a damon ; otherwise, barley- 
like, that is, bearded ; or season. Seir, the 
Horite, whose dwelling was east and south 
of the Dead Sea, in the mountains of Seir, 
where at first reigned the descendants of 
Seir the Horite. (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 21—30. 
1 Chron. i. 38,39, &c.) 

The posterity of Esau afterwards pos- 
sessed the mountains of Seir, and Esau him- 
self dwelt there when Jacob returned from 
Mesopotamia. (Gen. xxxii. 3. ; xxxiii. 14. ; 
xxxvi. 8, 9.) Moses acquaints us (Deut. ii. 
12.) that Esau made war with the Horites, 
and destroyed them ; but we know no par- 
ticulars. Seir, the father of the Horites, 
must needs be very ancient, since his chil- 
dren were already a powerful and nume- 
rous people in the time of Abraham, before 
the birth of Isaac, when Chedorlaomer and 
his confederates came to make war against 
the kings of Pentapolis. (Gen. xiv. 6. ) It is 
without good reason, what some have ad- 
vanced, that Esau himself had borne the 
name of Seir, or the hairy ; for he was never 
known by this name, though his country is 
often called the country of Seir, because of 
its original inhabitants. 

Seir, or the mountains of Seir, were east 
and south of the Dead Sea. Moses tells us, 
there were eleven days' journey between 
Horeb and Kadesh-barnea, by the way of 
Seir. (Deut. i. 2. 4, 5. 8, &c.) Deborah 
says, that the Lord is come forth from Seir. 
(Judges v. 4.) Moses affirms, that the Lord 
appeared to his people at Seir, at Sinai, 
and at Paran. (Deut. xxxiii. 2.) This 
proves, that the mountains of Seir were 
south of the Dead Sea, inclining toward 
Elath and Ezion-geber, on the Red Sea. 

Jacob, at his return from his journey to 
Mesopotamia, (Gen. xxxii. 3. ; xxxiii. 16.) 
fearing that Esau should injure his company, 
sent to him at Seir ; and Esau came to 
meet him, between Peniel and Jordan, and 
returned the same day to Seir. Therefore 
he must have lived not far off, in the moun- 
tains east of the Dead Sea. Joshua (xi. 17- ; 
xii. 7-) seems to say, that they stretched out 
still farther north, since he relates, that he 
made a conquest of all the country, from 
Seir, to Baal-gad, at the foot of Libanus, 
and of Mount Hermon, and that he distri- 
buted this country among the children of 
Israel. But it is known that the Israelites 
had no possessions beyond the country of 
Moab, east or south. (2 Chron. xx. 10. 
22, 23. Ezek. xxv. 8.) Lastly, Moab 
and Mount Seir are frequently mentioned 
together ; but Moab inhabited east of the 
Dead Sea. See Idume*. 

SE'IRATH, nrwyw, oeipaQa, signifies 
hairy, derated. After Ehud had killed 
Eglon, king of Moab, who oppressed the 
Israelites, he fled to Seirath ; which place 
is thought to be near Bethel or Giigal. 

SE'LAH. The Hebrew word nbD, Selah, 



SEL 



SEL 



is found seventy-four times in the book of 
Psalms, and thrice in Habakkuk. The 
Septuagint read it still oftener, since they 
have put AicupaXfia in some places where 
we do not find Selah in the Hebrew. The 
interpreters, Symmachus and Theodotin, 
generally translate selah by diapsalma, which 
signifies a rest or pause in singing. 

We make no doubt, says Calmet, but 
Selah intimates the end, or a pause, and 
that this is its proper signification ; but as 
we do not always find it at the end of the 
sense, or at the end of a canticle, we guess 
that the ancient musicians sometimes put 
Selah in the margin of their psalters, to 
show where a musical pause was to be made, 
and where the tune ended. 

Rabbi Kimchi, the eminent Jewish tea- 
cher, whose opinion on the subject has been 
adopted by Grotius and others, says, that 
Selah is both a musical note, and a note of 
emphasis in the sense, by which we are called 
to observe something more than usually re- 
markable. It is derived from the Hebrew 
word salal, which signifies he raised, or ele- 
vated ; and denotes the elevation of the voice 
in singing, and at the same time the lifting 
of the heart, the serious considering and 
meditating on the thing that is spoken. 

Professor Wilson has announced the fol- 
lowing ingenious conjecture respecting the 
derivation and import of the word Selah. 
The root of the word, he remarks, appears 
evidently to lie in the first two letters bD, 
which are in contraction for bbv, to raise, to 
exalt, to magnify. The n he considers as an 
abbreviation for m ; so that the word nbv 
(seLaH) is a contracted form of mbD, cele- 
brate ye Jehovah, or exalt the Lord, namely, 
in songs of praise, accompanied with musi- 
cal instruments, and is nearly of the same 
import with rT'ibbn, in our characters Halle- 
lujah, in Greek letters ' AWifKovia, that is, 
' Praise ye the Lord.' This conjecture re- 
ceives strong confirmation from the latter 
part of the fourth verse of Psalm lxviii. 
which is thus translated, Extol him that 
rideth upon the heavens by the name Jah. It 
is highly probable that the meaning here 
assigned to Selah is the true one, as it cor- 
responds to the dignity and chief end of 
devotional music, in which the singers and 
players were frequently reminded of the 
sacred intention of their solemn prayers, 
praises, and adoration. All were designed 
to magnify the name, the nature, the per- 
fections, the excellencies, and works of 
Jehovah, the only true God. In this sub- 
lime exercise the church on earth are fellow- 
worshippers, in perfect concord with the 
church in heaven. See Rev. xix. 1 — 8. 
Wilson's Elements of Hebrew Grammar, pp. 
315, 316, 4th edit. ; Home's Introduction, 
vol. iv. pp. 119, 120. 

SELEU'CIA, StXcvKEia, signifies commo- 
tion, or shaken together; otherwise, fluctu- 
ating. Seleucia was a city of Syria, on the 
942 



Mediterranean, near where the river Orontes 
falls into this sea. Paul and Barnabas 
arrived at Seleucia, where they embarked 
for Cyprus. (Acts xiii. 4.) This is the 
Seleucia which is mentioned in 1 Mace, 
xi. 8. 

This city was built by Seleucus Nicator, 
who took an augury from thunder, and 
had it consecrated, and worshipped as a 
deity, with hymns and sacred ceremonies ; 
in consequence, thunder was the titular 
deity of the city, and was symbolized on 
almost all its coins. However, it did not 
confine itself to this deity, but worshipped 
others also ; among whom Jupiter Cassius 
is conspicuous, and was represented under 
the image of a rocky mountain. It is 
thought that there was a Mount Cassius in 
the neighbourhood. Sacred Geography. 

SELEUCIANS, disciples of Seleucus, a 
philosopher of Galatia, who about the year 
380 adopted the sentiments of Hermogenes, 
and those of Audaeus. He taught, with the 
Valentinians, that Jesus Christ assumed a 
body only in appearance. He also main- 
tained that the world was not made by God, 
but was co-eternal with him ; that the soul 
was only an animated fire, created by the 
angels ; that Christ does not sit at the right 
hand of the Father in a human body, but 
that he lodged his body in the sun, accord- 
ing to Psalm xix. 4. ; and that the pleasures 
of beatitude consisted in corporeal delights. 
Broughton's Dictionary of all Religions, vol. 
ii. p. 559 ; Adam's View of all Religions, 
p. 281. 

SELF-EXAMINATION is one of the 
noblest and most important employments in 
which the mind can be engaged. The most 
useful knowledge is the knowledge of our- 
selves ; and this can be obtained only by 
attentively reflecting on what is passing 
within ourselves, on the state of our thoughts, 
our passions, and affections, our habits and 
our conduct. Such knowledge will give us 
a clear insight into our moral constitution ; 
will show us its defects, and suggest the 
proper remedies ; and will furnish the most 
effectual help to the execution of the most 
difficult undertaking, the government of 
ourselves. 

Self-examination will supply the best cure 
to pride ; for pride is generated by a mis- 
taken opinion of ourselves, a false estimate 
of our ability or worth. Hence we are in- 
clined to exact homage when none is due, 
and to demand a preference where others 
have a superior claim ; for in proportion as 
we think of ourselves above what we ought 
to think, we are apt to think of others less 
worthily than they deserve. That know- 
ledge of ourselves, which frequent and dili- 
gent self-examination will produce, not only 
tends to make us think humbly of our- 
selves, but to render us patient and rer 
signed in the calamities and sufferings, 
which Providence inflicts. For, in such 



StiL 



SEM 



cases, our impatience and discontent are 
greatly aggravated by our pride. We think 
ourselves hardly dealt with, and that our 
conduct is requited with more evil or with 
less good than it deserves. But a more 
accurate acquaintance with our many im- 
perfections and much unworthiness, will 
soothe this acrimony, and check this queru- 
lousness, and will teach us that the physical 
evil which we endure is not more than pro- 
portioned to the moral evil which we have 
committed ; and that the severest chastise- 
ments of God originate in the sincerest 
tenderness and love. As that thorough ac- 
quaintance with ourselves, with our minds 
and hearts, which a diligent self-examina- 
tion will supply, will prevent us from think- 
ing too highly of ourselves, so it will prevent 
us from judging uncharitably, and speaking 
slightingly and despitefuJly, of our fellow- 
creatures. For the more sensible we are of 
our own defects, the less disposed we shall be 
to remark or to blame the defects of others. 
None are so quick in observing, or so bitter 
in reproving, the faults of their fellow-crea- 
tures, as those who are puffed up with a 
conceited opinion of themselves, and form a 
false estimate of their own integrity and 
worth. But, if we be conscious of our own 
manifold transgressions and infirmities, can 
we rigidly censure what others do amiss ? 

Self-examination, producing the know- 
ledge of ourselves, will promote our security 
and success. The better we are acquainted 
with ourselves, the less likely shall we be 
to engage in undertakings which we have 
not strength to surmount, or to encounter 
temptations which we have not virtue to 
overcome. Men who have never studied 
their own minds and hearts, and know little 
of their own inward dispositions and affec- 
tions, are ever the most inclined to engage 
in rash and hazardous enterprises, which 
involve them in ruin or disgrace. Their 
choice in any affair is not so much influenced 
by cool deliberation, as by the impulses of 
imagination ; and they mistake the first fer- 
vours of desire for vigour of action, or con- 
stancy of resolution. Hence the same igno- 
rance of our nature is apt to involve us in 
misery and crimes. It is the maxim of our 
Saviour, ' Watch and pray, that ye enter 
not into temptation ;' but what can so 
strongly incite our vigilance, or animate 
our supplications, as a radical knowledge of 
ourselves, our thoughts and affections, the 
sins to which we are least, and those to 
which, from habit or temperament, we are 
most inclined ? A man who knows not him- 
self, who has never attentively considered 
the bearings and tendencies of his dispo- 
sition to sensuality or pride, may make it 
his most ardent wish, and his most strenuous 
pursuit, to obtain the greatest degree of 
wealth which ever man possessed, while an- 
other, who is better acquainted with him- 
self, and aware of the many lures to sin 
943 



which there are in a prosperous fortune, 
which he distrusts his own ability to over- 
come, may pray with Agur, ' Give me nei- 
ther poverty nor riches : feed me with food 
convenient for me.' 

A frequent reflection on ourselves will, 
above all, be useful in biinging us acquaint- 
ed with the true state of our souls. It will 
show us our errors in opinion and in prac- 
tice, and it will point out not only the evil, 
but suggest the cure. Now, what can give 
us this insight into the moral state of our 
hearts and minds but diligent self-examina- 
tion ? When we know the lust, the appe- 
tite, the passion, which has the greatest sway 
over us, by which we are most easily sub- 
dued, and the times and circumstances in 
which it is most prevalent, we are enabled 
with the greater circumspection and chance 
of success to guard against its intrusion, 
and to defeat its wiles. There are tempta- 
tions which are more potent, or which we 
find it more difficult to resist at some times 
than at others; and in some state of dispo- 
sition than others ; and against these tempta- 
tions, a right acquaintance with ourselves, 
and a serious conviction of the danger of 
sin, will render us more particularly vigi- 
lant. The more thoroughly we know our- 
selves, the less willing shall we be to put 
ourselves in the way of temptation ; and 
when temptations do assail us, the more 
vigilant shall we be, not to afford them any 
advantage over us by our own supineness 
or indifference. 

Serious self-examination is likely to im- 
press us with that sober conviction of our 
own unworthiness, which is seldom unac- 
companied with humility and charity. For 
what has a stronger tendency to make us 
judge charitably of others than an humble 
opinion of ourselves? And the same low- 
liness of heart will correct our fretfulness 
and impatience, and render us meek and 
resigned under our affliction. For our im- 
patience chiefly originates in an idea, that 
we are hardly dealt with, and that Pro- 
vidence shows us less favour than we de- 
serve. But the study of ourselves will 
convince us that our nature is such as to 
require a rigid discipline ; and that pain 
and suffering are, in the moral order of 
things, necessary to, and designed for, our 
improvement. Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol.ii. pp. 101—118. 

SEMI-ARIANS were thus denominated, 
because, in profession, they condemned the 
errors of the Arians, but in reality main- 
tained their principles, only palliating and 
concealing them under softer and more 
moderate terms. They would not allow, 
with the orthodox, that the Son was dfxoov- 
oioq, of the same substance, but only 6f.ioiov- 
atoc, of a like substance with the Father; 
and thus, though in expression they differed 
from the orthodox in a single letter only, 
yet in effect they denied the divinity of 



SEM 



SEN 



Jesus Christ. The Semi-arianism of the 
moderns consists in their maintaining that 
the Son was, from all eternity, begotten by 
the will of the Father ; contrary to the 
doctrine of those who teach that the eternal 
generation is necessary. Buck's Theolog. 
Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 424. 

SEMI-PELAGIANS, a branch of the 
Pelagians in the fifth century. The monk 
Cassian was the leader of this denomination. 
In order to accommodate the difference 
between Augustine and Pelagius, he main- 
tained the following doctrines: — 1. That 
God did not dispense his grace to one more 
than to another, in consequence of predes- 
tination, that is, an eternal and absolute 
decree ; but was willing to save all men, if 
they complied with the terms of the Gospel : 
2. That Christ died for all men : 3. That 
the grace purchased by Christ, and neces- 
sary to salvation, was offered to all men : 4. 
That man, before he received grace, was 
capable of faith and holy desires: 5. That 
man, born free, was consequently capable of 
resisting the influences of grace, or com- 
plying with its suggestions. 

The Pelagians, and Semi-Pelagians differ 
in this respect: the Pelagians assert that 
there is no necessity for inward grace ; but 
the Semi- Pelagians maintain that none can 
advance in virtue without the assistance of 
divine grace, though they subject this in- 
ward grace to the freedom of the will. 
Adam's View of all Religions, pp. 281, 282. 

SENNACHE'RIB, nnroD, signifies bush 
of the destruction, of the sword, of solitude, of 
drought: otherwise, according to the He- 
brew and Syriac, the sword, or the destruction 
of the enemy. This word is foreign to the 
Hebrew language. Sennacherib, king of 
Assyria, was son and successor of Shalma- 
neser ; he began to reign in the year of the 
world 3290. He reigned only four years ; 
being killed by his own sons, in the year of 
the world 3?94. Hezekiah, king of Judah, 
having shaken off the yoke of the Assy- 
rians, by which king Ahaz, his father, had 
suffered under Tiglath-pileser, king of As- 
syria ; Sennacherib, on notice of this revolt, 
marched against him, and took all the 
strong cities of Judah. Hezekiah, seeing 
he had nothing left but Jerusalem, which, 
perhaps, he found difficulty enough to se- 
cure, sent ambassadors to Sennacherib, then 
at the siege of Lachish, saying, I have com- 
mitted a fault ; but withdraw your army out 
of my territories, and I will bear whatever 
you shall impose upon me. Sennacherib 
demanded three hundred talents of silver, 
and thirty talents of gold ; which Hezekiah 
remitted to him soon after ; yet the king of 
Assyria would not leave his dominions. 

. He sent from Lachish to Jerusalem three 
of his chief officers, Tartan, Rabsaris, and 
Rab-shakeh, to summon Hezekiah. Rab- 
shakeh uttered many blasphemies against 
God, and many insults against Hezekiah. 
944 



In the mean time Sennacherib quitted the 
siege of Lachish, and applied himself to 
that of Libnah. Rab-shakeh having re- 
ported what he had said to Hezekiah, and 
that he returned no answer, Sennacherib 
wrote a letter to Hezekiah, urging him to 
return to his duty, and to follow the ex- 
ample of so many other nations that had 
submitted. At the same time he went with 
all his army to meet Tirhakah, king of 
Ethiopia, who was marching towards him. 
But the Lord sent a destroying angel 
against the army of Sennacherib, who slew 
in one night 185,000 men. (2 Kings xix. 
35.) Sennacherib was forced to return 
with all speed to Nineveh ; where, while he 
was paying his adorations to his god Nis- 
roch, in his temple, his two sons, Adram- 
melech and Sharezer slew him with their 
swords, and fled into Armenia. Esarhaddon 
his son reigned in his stead, in the year of 
the world 3294. (2 Chron.xxxii. 21.) 

Herodotus, speaking of Sennacherib, re- 
lates his disaster in a very different manner. 
He quotes the Egyptian priests, who said 
that Sethon, king of Egypt, and priest of 
Vulcan, being attacked by Sennacherib, king 
of the Arabians and the Assyrians, and see- 
ing himself deserted by his own soldiers, 
begged of Vulcan some speedy assistance. 
Vulcan appeared to him the night following, 
and promised help. Sethon, therefore, 
marching with a few troops, advanced to 
Pelusium. The same night a body of field- 
rats came into the camp of the Assyrians, 
and gnawed the thongs of their bucklers, 
and the strings of their bows ; so that, next 
morning, they found themselves in no con- 
dition to use their arms, but fled. 

Most commentators are of opinion, that 
the army of Sennacherib was destroyed be- 
fore Jerusalem, preparing for the siege of 
that city. But it appears plainly from Isa- 
iah (x. 24, 25, 26.) that Sennacherib did not 
form the siege of Jerusalem, and that in his 
march against Tirhakah this calamity befel 
him. Berosus tells us, that Sennacherib 
had carried the war into Egypt, and had 
subdued all Asia. Josephus relates thai 
this prince, having spent a long time in the 
siege of Pelusium, when his works were ad- 
vanced, and he was on the point of becom- 
ing master of the place, he was obliged to 
raise the siege, lest the king of Ethiopia 
should surprise him, who came with a vast 
army to assist the Egyptians. 

It is generally thought, that the army of 
Sennacherib perished bymeans of the samiel, 
a hot wind, which God caused to blow against 
them, a wind very common in those parts, 
which makes great ravages there, stifling 
thousands of persons in a moment, as often 
happens to those great caravans of Maho- 
metans, that go yearly pilgrimages to Mecca. 
Jeremiah (li. 1.) calls this wind a destroying 
wind. The threatening made by Isaiah 
(xxxvii. 7-) to Sennacherib : ' Behold I will 



SEP 



SEP 



send a blast upon him, and he shall hear a 
rumour,' seems also to insinuate this great 
wind. See Hezekiah. 

SE'PHAR, m2D, (TuHptipa, signifies book, 
or writing ; otherwise history, or number : in 
Syriac, a door. Sephar is a mountain of 
the East, probably about Armenia. The 
sons of Joktan had their dwelling from 
Mesha, 'as thou goest unto Sephar, amount 
of the East,' (Gen. x. 30.) Calmet believes 
these mountains to have been the dwelling 
of the Sepharvaim, and of the Saspires, of 
whom geographers speak. Dr. Wells places 
Sephar west of the river Indus, and east of 
the Caspian Sea ; and a late writer sup- 
poses it to be Mount Cassius, between Syria 
and Egypt. Sacred Geography. 

SEPHARVA'IM, cm9D, (reir<pavlv, sig- 
nifies books, or writings ; otherwise, narra- 
tion, or numbers, or the book, or numbers of 
his sea; otherwise, from the Hebrew and 
Syriac, gate of the sea. When Shalmaneser, 
king of Assyria, carried away Israel from 
Samaria to beyond the Euphrates, he 
brought other people in their stead into 
Palestine, among whom were the Sephar- 
vaim, (2 Kings xvii. 24. 31.); in the year 
of the world 3283. The place of their for- 
mer habitation is not exactly known : some 
pretend they inhabited the city of Siphera, 
on the Euphrates. Calmet thinks their 
dwelling to have been in the mountains of 
Sephar, (Gen. x. 30.); and that the Sas- 
pires, who, according to Herodotus, were 
the only people that inhabited between the 
Colchians and the Medes, are the Sephar- 
vaim. Strabo places the Sarapares in Ar- 
menia. 

The Scripture speaks (Isaiah xxxvii. 13. 
2 Kings xix. 13.) of the king of the city of 
Sepharvaim, which, probably, was the capi- 
tal of this people ; and the king of Sephar- 
vaim is, the god of these people. This 
appears pretty plainly, from comparing these 
passages (2 Kings xviii. 34.) ' Where are 
the gods of Hamath and of Arpad ? Where 
are the gods of Sepharvaim, of Hena, and 
Ivah?' Lastly, (2 Kings xvii. 31.) the Se- 
pharvites burnt their children in the fire 
to Adrammelech and Anammelech, the gods 
of Sepharvaim. There is, therefore, great 
probability, that Hena and Ivah are the same 
as Anammelech and Adrammelech, the gods 
of the Sepharvites. But Anammelech ap- 
parently stands for the moon, and Adram- 
melech for the sun. 

SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a 
Greek version of the books of the Old Tes- 
tament. It is so called, because the trans- 
lation is supposed to have been made by 
seventy-two Jews, who are usually called 
the seventy interpreters ; seventy being a 
round number. Aristaeas relates the his- 
tory of this translation as follows : 

1 Demetrius Phalereus, librarian to king 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who had erected a 
library at Alexandria, filled with the most 
945 



curious and valuable collection of books, 
from all parts of the world, told the king 
one day, that he had been informed that 
the laws of the Jews, and the history of that 
people, deserved to have a place in his li- 
brary ; but that they ought first to be trans- 
lated from the Hebrew into the Greek. The 
king replied, " that he would write to the 
high-priest of the Jews respecting it." Then 
Aristaeas, author of this narrative, who was 
present, and who had the honour of being 
of the life-guard to this prince, thought of 
a matter which he had had a good while in 
his mind, and which he had communicated 
to Sosibius of Tarentum, and to Andreas, 
two of his friends, that were chief officers 
in the king's guards ; which was, to procure 
the liberty of a great number of Jews, whom 
king Ptolemy, father of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, had brought captive into Egypt. 
Aristseas, Sosibius, and Andreas, took 
therefore this opportunity to tell the king, 
that since he desired the translation of 
the sacred books of the Jews, it would 
become his liberality and magnificence, to 
free from servitude a great number of Jews 
now in his territories ; that the whole nation, 
being obliged by this favour, might the more 
readily send him the books he desired. The 
king asking how many these captives might 
be ? was answered, about one hundred 
thousand. This large number did not dis- 
courage Philadelphus, and he promised them 
liberty. At the same time, he gave orders 
that twenty drachmas a head should be dis- 
tributed to all persons who had Jewish slaves, 
who were forthwith to be made free. He 
published an edict in their favour, in which 
he restored to liberty not only all the Jews 
which his father or himself had brought into 
Egypt, but all others who might happen to 
be in servitude there on any account. The 
king's expense, on this occasion, was above 
six hundred talents (136,875/.) taking the 
talent to be the Egyptian Attic, or Euboean 
talent of silver of 228| pound. After this, 
Philadelphus wrote to the high-priest Ele- 
azer, to desire of him the books of the law, 
and translators capable of rendering them 
out of Hebrew into Greek. This letter was 
carried by ambassadors with rich presents, 
and Andreas and Aristaeas were of the num- 
ber. Eleazer readily complied with the 
king's request, and sent him the book of the 
law, together with seventy-two Jews, skil- 
ful in the Greek and Hebrew tongues, to 
translate those sacred books. He wrote also 
to the king, with thanks for his rich pre- 
sents, and to i-ommend his piety towards 
God, and his generosity to the Jews in his 
dominions. Philadelphus received Elea- 
zer's commissioners with great humanity, 
expressed great respect for the holy books 
they had brought ; worshipped them, and 
bowed himself before them seven times ; ad- 
mired the beauty of the vellum, and the 
writing in gold letters; also the variety of 
3 Pp 



SEP 



SEP 



the colours, and embellishments of the 
leaves. He assured these deputies, that he 
should always look upon the day of their 
arrival as a festival. And, as this day fell 
on the same on which this prince had over- 
come Antigonus in a sea-fight, he did them 
the honour of making them eat with him. 
At dinner, he put several questions to them, 
to which they returned answers entirely to 
his satisfaction. And the king was so pleased 
with their conversation, that he treated them 
seven days together, that he might hear 
them all one after another. Three days 
after this Demetrius Phalereus took these 
seventy-two Hebrews into the isle of Pharos, 
and led them into a very fine house at the 
northern part of the island, on the sea- 
shore, and far from any noise, that they 
might, with the greater tranquillity, apply 
themselves to the translation of the holy 
books. They began, therefore, their work, 
and discussing among themselves what dif- 
ficulties they might meet with, when they 
had fixed on any thing, and brought it to 
a condition of being entered fair, they re- 
ported it to Demetrius, who had it fairly 
writ down by his copyers. They laboured 
thus from morning to the ninth hour, that 
is, till three hours before the sun-set ; they 
then returned into the city, where they were 
plentifully furnished with necessaries. This 
they continued for seventy or rather seventy- 
two days together. When the work was 
finished, they put it into the hands of De- 
metrius, who read it in an assembly of the 
Jews at Alexandria, that they might judge 
of its agreement with the original. They 
were much pleased with it, and generally 
extolled, as well Demetrius, who had pro- 
cured this version, as the interpreters who 
had made it. After this, they pronounced 
an anathema against any one who should 
make an alteration in this version in any 
manner. The king, being informed of what 
had passed, expressed much satisfaction. 
He had the law of Moses read to him, and 
greatly admired the wisdom of it. He asked 
Demetrius, " why no historian, or poet, had 
made any mention of so divine a work ?" 
Demetrius replied, it was from that respect 
which had always been paid to this divine 
book, that Theopompus, having inserted 
something of it in his history, had been 
struck with a disease which deprived him 
of his understanding ; and that Theodotus, 
a tragic poet, endeavouring to put some- 
thing of it in his poems, had been struck 
with blindness ; but that both had been 
miraculously cured, after having acknow- 
ledged and confessed the fault. Philadel- 
phus therefore received the work of the in- 
terpreters with great veneration, and caused 
it to be laid up in his library, to be kept 
with great care. He greatly caressed the 
seventy translators, invited them to come 
often to see him, and sent them back into 
Judea with ample rewards, and rich pi-esents 
946 



for Eleazer.' This is the substance of the 
history of Aristaeas, which this author ad- 
dresses to his brother Philocrates, to whom 
he gives an account of all this, as an eye- 
witness, and one who was perfectly well in- 
formed of every thing that passed. The 
same story we read in Josephus, who has 
taken it out of Aristaeas. Philo also speaks 
of the version of the Septuagint, as having 
been performed by inspired writers : but he 
makes no mention either of Aristaeas, or De- 
metrius Phalereus. 

Justin Martyr's account is very different. 
He says that Ptolemy, king of Egypt, be- 
ing informed that the Jews had ancient his- 
tories written in Hebrew, he sent for se- 
venty men from Jerusalem to translate these- 
works into Greek. He had these men put 
into the island of Pharos, into seventy dif- 
ferent cells, that they might study without 
interruption, and without communicating 
with each other ; so that he might be the 
more secure of the faithfulness of their 
translation. God himself ordered it so, that 
they should translate in so uniform a man- 
ner, as not only to use the same words, but 
also in the same number. This caused in 
the king so vast admiration, that he gave 
them great rewards, and sent them back 
with honour into their own country. Justin 
adds to this, that when he was at Alexan- 
dria, they showed him, in the isle of Pharos, 
the ruins of those cells in which these in- 
terpreters had been shut up. The same 
Justin, in his second apology, relates this in 
another manner. 

Epiphanius says, that the king wrote to 
the Jews for a copy of their sacred books. 
The Jews sent him the two-and-twenty 
books of the Old Testament, written in 
golden letters ; as also seventy-two Apo- 
cryphal books. But these works being in 
Hebrew, the king desired them to send him 
interpreters, to render them into Greek. 
They sent him seventy-two chosen men, 
'six of each tribe ; and in order that the 
translation might be as exact as possible, 
and that the interpreters might have no 
communication with each other, the king 
caused to be built, in the isle of Pharos, 
thirty-six cells, in each of which he shut up 
two translators, that they might study toge- 
ther. Each two interpreters had a book 
given them, and when they had translated 
it, it passed through the hands of those in 
the next cell, and so on till all the books 
were translated thirty-six times. When the 
whole work was finished, the king sat upon 
his throne, and had the work read to him. 
Thirty-six readers held the thirty-six copies 
of the translation, and a thirty -seventh held 
the Hebrew original. In confronting all 
these versions, it was found, they were so 
perfectly alike, that what one had added or 
retrenched, had also been added or re- 
trenched by every one ; and that what was 
retrenched was really useless and super-' 



SEP 



SEP 



fluous. This convinced all the assembly 
that the interpreters had been inspired by 
the Holy Ghost. 

The Samaritans have also laid claim to 
the honour of this translation ; they relate, 
that the king of Egypt having caused the 
high-priest of the Samaritans to come to 
him, and also that of the Jews, with other 
assistants on both sides to translate the Holy 
Scriptures into Greek, the translation of the 
Samaritans was preferred before that of the 
Jews, and laid up in the library of Alex- 
andria. 

The greatest part of modern critics un- 
dertake to show the falsity of what has been 
said concerning the manner in which the 
version of the Septuagint was made ; and it 
must be owned, that their reasons have 
great appearance of truth. They show, 
first, the diversity of opinions, in this mat- 
ter. Secondly, Aristaeas, said to be the au- 
thor of the oldest account we have of this 
matter, ill supports the part he acts. He 
would pass for a Pagan, yet he speaks and 
acts like a zealous Jew. Thirdly, he speaks 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, as of a wise and 
religious prince, full of respect for the true 
God, for his temple, and his Scriptures ; yet 
it is known from history that he was a very 
corrupt and wicked prince. Fourthly, he 
tells us, that Demetrius Phalereus was 
friend, and library-keeper to king Phila- 
delphus ; whereas it is known, that Deme- 
trius having advised Ptolemy, son of Lagus, 
to exclude his son Ptolemy Philadelphus 
from the kingdom, Philadelphus was so 
provoked at this advice, that, when he came 
to the throne, he exiled Demetrius, till he 
should determine farther about him. But 
Demetrius, not being able to bear the tire- 
someness of this banishment, put himself to 
death by the bite of an asp. Fifthly, they 
observe the same style, and that a style full 
of Hebraisms, throughout the history of the 
pretended Aristaeas ; and in the letters of 
Philadelphus to the high-priest Eleazer; 
and in those of Eleazer to the king ; and in 
the petition of Demetrius to Philadelphus. 
Other remarks are made on the history of 
Aristaeas, which render it very suspicious, 
and give reason to consider it as the work 
of some Jew, who has borrowed the name 
of Aristaeas, the better to disguise the for- 
gery. 

What then are we to think of the ancient 
Greek version of the Bible, that we have in 
our hands, under the name of Septuagint ? 
It is agreed that this must be an ancient 
version, and it might well have been made 
in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Aris- 
tobulus, Philo, and Josephus, all speak of 
this translation as made by seventy-two in- 
terpreters, under the care of Demetrius 
Phalereus, in the reign of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus. All Christian writers during the 
first fifteen centuries of the Christian era 
have admitted this account of the Septua- 
947 



gint as an undoubted fact: but, since the Re- 
formation, critics have boldly called it in 
question. But whatever difference of opi- 
nion may exist as to the mode of transla- 
tion, it is universally acknowledged that 
such a version, whole or in part, existed ; 
and it is pretty evident that most of the 
books must have been translated before our 
Saviour's time, as they are quoted by him. 
1 Some learned men,' says Bishop Tomline, 
' have supposed that it was called the Sep- 
tuagint Translation, because it was approved 
by the Sanhedrim, whose number was se- 
venty. But whatever was the origin of its 
name, it is certain that this version was 
made in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
and that it was in great esteem among the 
Jews in the time of our Saviour. Most of 
the quotations in the New Testament are 
made from it, excepting in St. Matthew's 
Gospel.' It has been with great propriety 
observed, ' that there are many words and 
forms of speech in the New Testament, the 
true import of which cannot be known but 
by their use in the Septuagint. This ver- 
sion also preserves many important words, 
some sentences, and several whole verses, 
which originally made a part of the Hebrew 
text, but have long ago entirely disappeared. 
This is the version, and this only, which is 
constantly used and quoted in the Gospels, 
and by the apostles, and which has thereby 
received the highest sanction which any 
writings can possibly receive.' Archbishop 
Usher supposes the Septuagint transla- 
tion to have been made 277 years before 
Christ. 

There are four principal or cardinal edi- 
tions of the Septuagint, from one or more 
of which all the other editions of the Sep- 
tuagint have been copied ; namely, the 
Complutensian, the Aldine, the Roman of 
Sixtus V., and Grabe's edition. The Com- 
plutensian Septuagint bears the date of 
1515 ; it was printed from a collation of 
Greek manuscripts, which the editors highly 
extol, but of which we have no further 
knowledge. The Aldine edition was pub- 
lished at Venice in 1518, two years after 
the death of Aldus Manutius. The text of 
this edition was likewise formed from seve- 
ral Greek manuscripts, but was interpo- 
lated in various places from other Greek 
versions. The Roman edition of Sixtus V., 
which appeared in 1587, was copied from 
the celebrated Codex Yatieanus, with the 
exception of such words as the editors re- 
garded in the light of errata. Grabe's edi- 
tion was taken from the no less celebrated 
Codex Alexandrinus, and was printed at 
Oxford in four folio volumes, at different 
times, from 1707 to 1720. But though this 
edition has the Codex Alexandrinus for its 
basis, it is far from being a mere copy of 
that manuscript; for Grabe, and Lee who 
continued it after Grabe's death, adopted 
many readings partly from the Roman edi- 
3 p 2 



SEP 



SEP 



tion, partly from other manuscripts, where 
those readings were believed to be genuine. 
The most convenient edition is that of 
Breitinger, published at Zurich in 1730 — 
1732, in four quarto volumes; for it con- 
tains the text of Grabe's edition, with the 
deviations of the Roman edition in the 
margin. 

In 1788 Dr. Holmes, afterwards Dean of 
Winchester, published at Oxford proposals 
for a collation of all the known manuscripts 
of the Septuagint. The undertaking was 
promoted by the delegates of the Clarendon 
press ; a subscription was made toward de- 
fraying the expense ; literary men were en- 
gaged in various parts of the continent for 
the business of collation ; and Dr. Holmes 
published annually an account of the pro- 
gress which was made. In 1798 he pub- 
lished at Oxford the Book of Genesis, which 
was successively followed by the other books 
of the Pentateuch, making together one 
folio volume, with one title page, and one 
general preface. From this general pre- 
face it appears, that eleven Greek manu- 
scripts in uncial letters, and more than a 
hundred manuscripts in small letters, con- 
taining either the whole or parts of the Pen- 
tateuch, were collated for this edition. As 
the text of this edition is a copy of the Ro- 
man edition of 1 587, the deviations from it 
observable in the three other cardinal edi- 
tions, the Complutensian, the Aldine, and 
Grabe's edition, are constantly noted. The 
quotations, which are found in the works of 
the Greek fathers, are likewise alleged; 
and finally, the various readings of the an- 
cient versions, namely, of such as were 
made from the Septuagint ; for versions 
made immediately from the Hebrew can 
furnish no various readings for the emen- 
dation of the Greek. The plan therefore 
of this edition is good. Nor is the execu- 
tion of the plan to be less commended ; it 
displays uncommon industry, and appa- 
rently great accuracy. The learned editor 
died in 1806; but shortly before his death 
he published the Book of Daniel, both ac- 
cording to the Septuagint version and that 
of Theodotion, the latter only having been 
printed in former editions, because the Sep- 
tuagint version of this book is not contained 
in the common manuscripts, and was un- 
known till it was printed at Rome in 1772, 
from a manuscript belonging to Cardinal 
Chigi. After the death of Dr. Holmes, the 
continuation of this important work was 
undertaken by the Rev. J. Parsons, A.M. 
under whose editorial care the sacred 
volume was completed in 1818. This 
volume comprises all the historical books 
from Joshua to the Second Book of Chro- 
nicles inclusively ; the several fasciculi of 
which were published in the following or- 
der, namely, Joshua in 1810, Judges and 
Ruth in 1812, 1 Kings in 1813, and the five 
remaining books in the four succeeding 
948 



years, the whole being printed off in the 
early part of 1818. The third and fourth 
volumes, containing the Book of Job to the 
prophet Jeremiah inclusive, were published 
between the years 1819 — 1825 ; and the re- 
maining or fifth volume, which contains the 
Apocryphal books, between the years 1825 
and 1827. The plan laid down by Dr. 
Holmes was followed by his learned suc- 
cessor, who has proved himself well worthy 
of the task which had been committed to 
his care ; and the whole of this magnificent 
undertaking, the honour of which belongs 
to the University of Oxford, has been exe- 
cuted in the most splendid and accurate 
manner. Dr. Herbert Marsh's Course of 
Lectures, Lecture xii. pp. 124 — 127; Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, 
vol. i. p. 14, note ; Home's Introduction, vol. 
ii. Appendix, p. 38. 

SEPULCHRE. The Hebrews were 
always very careful about the burial of 
their dead. Many of their sepulchres were 
hewn in rocks; for example, that bought 
by Abraham for the burying of Sarah, 
(Gen. xxiii. 4. 6.) those of the kings of 
Judah and Israel ; and that in which our 
Saviour was laid in Mount Calvary. Some- 
times, also, their graves were dug in the 
ground ; and commonly without their towns, 
in burying-places set apart. Generally 
they put some hewn stone, or other pre- 
servative over a grave, to show it was 
a burying-place, that passengers might be 
warned to avoid it, that they might not be 
polluted. 

Jesus Christ (Matt, xxiii. 27.) says, that 
the Pharisees were like whited sepulchres, 
which appeared fine without, but inwardly 
were full of rottenness and corruption. 
Lightfoot shows, that every year, on the 
15th of February, they whitened them 
anew. In Luke (xi. 44.) our Saviour 
compares the Pharisees to ' graves which 
appear not, and the men that walk over them 
are not aware of them ;' or, know not that 
these places are unclean, so that they con- 
tract an involuntary impurity. 

Sepulchre of Moses. After the death of 
this famous law-giver, the arch-angel 
Michael (Jude 9.) disputed with the devil 
about his body. What was the subject 
of this dispute has been much contested. 
Some have thought, that the devil with- 
stood the burial of Moses, maintaining, that 
he had not deserved this honour, having 
unjustly killed an Egyptian in Egypt. 
Some have maintained, that Moses was 
buried by the hands of angels, without 
letting the Hebrews have any knowledge 
of it, for fear they should be tempted to 
pay him divine honours after his death. 
Some pretend that the devil would have 
had him be buried with solemnity, that the 
people might thence take occasion of fre- 
quenting his tomb, and worshipping him 
as a god. Some think he did not die like 



SEP 



SEP 



other men, but was translated out of this 
world into paradise. The text of Deute- 
ronomy (xxxiv. 6.) says expressly, that no 
one knows the place of his burial to this 
day. Yet, for all this, it is pretended 
that in October, 1655, as some Maronite 
shepherds where feeding their goats in the 
mountains of Nebo and Abarim, they dis- 
covered it. 

Sepulchre of David. This is a magnifi- 
cent edifice, now without the walls of Jeru- 
salem, but probably, anciently within the 
walls. You first enter a large court, about 
twenty-six feet square, cut out of the rock, 
which is marble. On the left-hand is a 
gallery cut out of the rock likewise, as also 
the pillars that support it. At the end of 
the gallery is a little opening, through which 
you pass, by creeping on the ground into 
a large chamber of about twenty- four feet 
square, round about which are other smaller 
chambers, which communicate one with the 
other, by doors of stone. The ceiling, the 
doors, as well as the rest, their hinges, their 
posts, their frames, &c. are all cut out of 
the same rock. In the sides of the small 
chambers are several niches, within which 
the bodies of the kings were deposited in 
stone coffins. This work is perhaps the 
only real one that now remains of ancient 
Jerusalem. 

Sepulchre or Tomb of our Lord Jesus Christ. 
This was upon Mount Calvary, north-west 
of Jerusalem, and was hewn out of a rock, 
as Mark (xv. 46.) informs us. It is a kind 
of small chamber, almost square within : 
its height from bottom to top eight feet 
one inch, its length/ six feet one inch, its 
breadth five feet ten inches. The entrance, 
which looks towards the east, is but four 
feet high, and two feet four inches wide ; 
this door was shut up by a stone of the 
same rock : to this stone the chief priests 
affixed their seal, (Matt xxvii. 66.) and on 
this stone the angel sat, after Jesus Christ 
was come out of the tomb. (Matt, xxviii. 
2.) The place where the body of our 
Saviour was laid takes up one side of this 
cave ; it is a stone raised from the ground 
to the height of two feet four inches ; its 
length is five feet eleven inches, and its 
breadth two feet eight inches, placed 
lengthwise from east to west. It remains 
to this day, but is now incrusted with white 
marble. 

The following account of the church of 
the Holy Sepulchre is extracted from the 
narrative of a late celebrated traveller who 
visited it. 

' The church of the Holy Sepulchre is 
very irregular, owing to the nature and 
situation of the places which it was de- 
signed to comprehend. It is nearly in 
the form of a cross, being one hundred 
and twenty paces in length, exclusive of 
the descent to the Discovery of the Holy 
Cross, and seventy in breadth. It has 
949 



three domes, of which that covering the 
Holy Sepulchre serves for the nave of the 
church. It is thirty feet in diameter, and 
is uncovered at top like the rotunda at Rome. 
There is no cupola, it is true, the roof 
being supported only by large rafters, 
brought from Mount Lebanon. This church 
had formerly three entrances; but now there 
is but one door, the keys of which are cau- 
tiously kept by the Turks, lest the pilgrims 
should gain admittance without paying the 
nine sequins, or thirty-six livres, demanded 
for this indulgence. I allude to those from 
Christendom ; for the Christian subjects of 
the Grand Signior pay no more than half 
that sum. The door is always shut, and 
there is only a small window crossed with 
an iron bar, through which the people with- 
out hand provisions to those within, who are 
of eight different nations. 

' On entering the church, you come to 
the Stone of Unction, on which the body 
of our Lord was anointed with myrrh and 
aloes, before it was laid in the sepulchre. 
Some say that it is of the same rock as 
Mount Calvary; and others assert that it 
was brought to this place by Joseph and 
Nicodemus, secret disciples of Jesus Christ, 
who performed this pious office, and that 
it is of a greenish colour. Be this as it 
may, on account of the indiscretion of cer- 
tain pilgrims, who broke off pieces, it was 
found necessary to cover it with white mar- 
ble, and to surround it with an iron railing, 
lest people should walk over it. This stone 
is eight feet, wanting three inches, in length ; 
and two feet, wanting one inch, in breadth ; 
and above it, eight lamps are kept conti- 
nually burning. The Holy Sepulchre is 
thirty paces from this stone, exactly in the 
centre of the great dome, of which I have 
already spoken ; it resembles a small closet, 
hewn out of the solid rock. The entrance, 
which faces the east, is only four feet high, 
and two feet and a quarter broad, so that 
you are obliged to stoop very much when 
you go in. The interior of the sepulchre 
is nearly square. It is six feet, wanting an 
inch, in length ; and six feet, wanting two 
inches, in breadth ; and from the floor to 
the roof, eight feet one inch. There is a 
solid block of the same stone, which was 
left in excavating the other part. This is 
two feet four inches and a half high, and 
occupies half of the sepulchre ; for it is six 
feet, wanting one inch, in length, and two 
feet and five-sixths wide. On this table the 
body of our Lord was laid, with the head 
towards the west, and the feet to the east : 
but on account of the superstitious devotion 
of the Orientals, who imagine that, if they 
leave their hair upon this stone, God will 
never forsake them, and also because the 
pilgrims broke off pieces, it has received 
a covering of white marble, on which mass 
is now celebrated. Forty- four lamps are 
constantly burning in this sacred place, and 



SEP 



SER 



three holes have been made in the roof for 
the emission of the smoke. The exterior of 
the sepulchre is also faced with slabs of 
marble, and adorned with several columns, 
having a dome above. At the entrance of 
the sepulchre there is a stone about a foot 
and a half square, and a foot thick, which 
is of the same rock, and served to support 
the large stone which closed the access to 
the sepulchre. Upon this stone was seated 
the angel when he spake to the two Marys : 
and as well on account of this mystery, as 
to prevent the sepulchre from being en- 
tered, the first Christians erected before it 
a little chapel, which was called the Angel's 
Chapel. Twelve paces from the Holy Se- 
pulchre, turning towards the north, you 
come to a large block of grey marble, about 
four feet in diameter, placed there to mark 
the spot where our Lord appeared to Mary 
Magdalene in the form of a gardener. 
Further on is the Chapel of the Apparition, 
where, as tradition asserts, our Lord first 
appeared to the Virgin Mary after his re- 
surrection. This is the place where the 
Franciscans perform their devotions, and 
to which they retire ; and hence they pass 
into chambers with which there is no other 
communication. 

' It is obvious, in the first place, that the 
Church of the Holy Sepulchre is composed 
of three churches : that of the Holy Sepul- 
chre, properly so called ; that of Calvary ; 
and the church of the Discovery of the Holy 
Cross. The first is built in the valley at 
the foot of Calvary, on the spot where it is 
known the body of Christ was deposited. 
This church is in the form of a cross, the 
chapel of the Holy Sepulchre constituting 
in fact the nave of the edifice. It is circu- 
lar, like the Pantheon at Rome, and is 
lighted only by a dome, beneath which is 
the sepulchre. Sixteen marble columns 
adorn the circumference of this rotunda : 
they are connected by seventeen arches, and 
support an upper gallery, likewise com- 
posed of sixteen columns and seventeen 
arches, of smaller dimensions than those 
of the lower range. Niches corresponding 
with the arches appear above the frieze 
of the second gallery, and the dome springs 
from the arch of these niches. The latter 
were formerly decorated with mosaics, re- 
presenting the twelve apostles, St. Helena, 
the emperor Constantine, and three other 
portraits unknown. The choir of the church 
of the Holy Sepulchre is to the east of the 
nave of the tomb : it is double, as in the 
ancient cathedrals ; that is to say, it has 
first a place with stalls for the priests, and 
beyond that a sanctuary raised two steps 
above it. Round this double sanctuary 
run the aisles of the choir, and in these 
aisles are situated the chapels. It is like- 
wise in the aisle on the right, behind the 
choir, that we find the two flights or steps, 
leading, the one to the Church of Calvary, 
950 



the other to the Church of the Discovery of 
the Holy Cross. The first ascends to the top 
of Calvary, the second conducts you down 
underneath it : for the cross was erected 
on the summit of Golgotha, and found again 
under that hill. To sum up, then, what we 
have already said, the Church of the Holy 
Sepulchre is built at the foot of Calvary ; its 
eastern part adjoins that eminence, beneath 
and upon which have been constructed 
two other churches, connected by walls 
and vaulted staircases with the principal 
edifice.' 

Objections to the site of the Holy Sepul- 
chre, and of Calvary, in which it is fixed, 
were urged, even by pious Christians, at a 
very early period, and Quaresmius under- 
took to answer them. These have again 
been renewed by Dr. Clarke, one of the 
latest, and, for a long time, the only Pro- 
testant traveller into the Holy Land, who 
had enough of the love of Scriptural illus- 
tration to think the topography of Jerusalem 
worth inquiring about. According to the 
opinion of some of the critics, he has suc- 
ceeded in proving that the spot assumed for 
Calvary and the Holy Sepulchre, is not the 
one which they really occupied; while 
others think the matter still doubtful, and 
incline rather to the hypothesis which he 
has attempted to overturn. See Jeru- 
salem. Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, 
vol. ii. pp. 11, 12. ; Chateaubriand's Travels 
in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary, 
vol. ii. pp. 8 — 17- 

SERAI'AH, rmir, aapova, aaptaq, sig- 
nifies prince of the Lord, or the Lord is my 
prince, or song of the Lord. Seraiah was son 
ofNeriah, and brother of Baruch, the com- 
panion and secretary of Jeremiah. Seraiah 
was sent to Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon, in 
the fourth year of the reign of Zedekiah, in 
the year of the world 3409. Seraiah was 
head of the prophecy, according to some 
translations, or chief of the embassy, ap- 
pointed to carry the denunciations againstBa- 
bylon. Jer. Ii. 59. The Hebrew reads, 'prince 
of Menucha,' which may be understood of a 
city or district of Benjamin. (1 Chron. ii. 
52. 54.; viii. 6.) Our English version 
renders the original, ' he was a quiet prince.' 
Others will have it to signify the prince of 
rest ; or guard of the king's chamber or 
bed ; or prince of the presents, distributor 
of the king's liberalities, his almoner, or in- 
tendant of the offerings the king made to 
the temple ; or rather, in this deputation. 
Seraiah was charged with the tributes or 
presents that Zedekiah sent to Nebuchad- 
nezzar ; and this acceptation of the words 
corresponds with that of the Vulgate, prin- 
ceps prophetiae, head of the embassy, or 
deputation. 

When therefore Seraiah went to Babylon 
with king Zedekiah, or was sent there by 
king Zedekiah, as some interpreters under- 
stand the original, Jeremiah sent a letter by 



SER 



SER 



him, which was to he read to the captives 
there. This letter contained a prophecy of 
the fall of Babylon ; and after it was read, 
Seraiah was ordered to tie it to a stone, and 
to throw it into the Euphrates, and say ; 
'Thus shall Babylon sink, and shall not 
rise from the evil that I will bring upon 
her.' Baruch went with his brother Sera- 
iah, upon this commission. 

SER'APHIM, o-s-w, signifies burning, 
full of fire. Seraphim (Isai. vi. 2.) denotes 
a kind of angels, who were around the 
throne of the Lord : each had six wings ; 
with two of which he covered his face, with 
two he covered his feet, and flew with the 
two others. They cried to one another, 
and said ; Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of 
hosts ! the whole earth is full of his glory. 
In the distinction of angels, Seraphim is put 
first, above Cherubim. 

SER'GIUS, Sepyioc. The etymology is 
unknown. Sergius Paulus, proconsul, or 
governor, of the island of Cyprus, was con- 
verted by St. Paul, A.D. 45. (Acts xiii. 7-) 
This proconsul was a man of prudence, but 
had a magician about him, whom he con- 
sidered as a man favoured by God. Having 
heard of the arrival of Paul and Barnabas 
in the island of Cyprus, he sent for them, 
and desired to hear the word of God. Ely- 
mas did what he could to hinder him from 
it, but was struck by Paul with blindness. 
When Sergius Paulus beheld this, he em- 
braced the Christian faith. 

SERPENT; serpens; in Greek 6>c, 
Ophis ; in Hebrew, itro Nachash. Inter- 
preters have much speculated concerning 
the nature of that serpent which tempted 
Eve. Some have thought, that then the 
serpent had feet. But there is no proba- 
bility that this animal was otherwise than 
what it is now. And it cannot be doubted, 
but that under the name of serpent, 
(Nachash) we are to understand the devil, 
who made use of a real serpent to seduce 
the first woman. (Gen. iii. 13.) 

Dr. Adam Clarke supposes that the crea- 
ture which beguiled Eve, was a monkey, 
and of that species called the ouran outang. 
But, as Mr. Bellamy has observed on this 
subject, there are two things which decidedly 
make against Doctor Clarke's opinion. ' It 
is expressly said, that the serpent should 
go on its belly, " on thy belly shalt thou go ;" 
now these words are more evidently against 
the monkey than the serpent, as an agent in 
this business. The Doctor informs us, that 
if it had been a serpent, it must, before the 
fall, have walked on its tail, and I contend, 
that if it had been a monkey, the divine 
command was not obeyed, for that animal 
does not go on its belly, any more than the 
whole race of quadrupeds : and as to the 
tale of its walking erect before the Fall, it 
walked no more erect then, than it does 
now ; for the ouran outang monkey always 
goes erect, when it has occasion ; he will 
051 



frequently attack men, and has the power of 
rendering himself more formidable, by 
fighting with offensive weapons. The 
second, which this writer has forgot to 
notice with due effect, is concerning its 
speech. We are told that it conversed with 
Eve, and though it had not the power of 
walking, or going erect, which we are neces- 
sarily led to believe was the case if it were a 
literal serpent, or a monkey, the Scripture 
does not say that it should lose the gift of 
speech ; though we might reasonably sup- 
pose, that if by this organ the fall of man 
had been brought about, God would have 
pronounced a curse on it, and would have 
taken away the gift of speech by a solemn 
denunciation to that effect ; instead of con- 
demning it to go on its belly. Therefore, 
whether it were the serpent or the monkey, 
the gift of speech must necessarily have re- 
mained, as that power was not by the di- 
vine command taken away. Dr. Clarke 
says, " God did not qualify the serpent with 
speech for the occasion,"— true ; neither has 
he proved that God qualified the monkey 
" with speech for the occasion," but by sup- 
posing that this was the case ; and suppo- 
sition proves nothing.' 

We are told that Eve was deceived and 
tempted to transgress the law of God by 
some moral agent, who could speak and 
argue, called by Moses Nachash, the serpent ; 
which, he saith, was more subtil than any 
other beast of the field which the Lord God 
had made. But a beast of the field, how subtil 
or sagacious soever, could not speak and 
reason. Who then was the moral agent that 
deceived Eve? St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 3.) 
speaks of this deceiver in the same manner 
as Moses doth : ' I fear, lest by any means, 
as the serpent beguiled Eve through his 
subtilty, so your minds should be corrupted 
from the simplicity that is in Christ.' The 
apostle did not suppose the Corinthians 
might be corrupted by the subtilty of an 
irrational creature ; consequently he did not 
suppose that Eve was beguiled by the sub- 
tilty of an irrational creature. But St. John 
comes nearer to the point, (Rev. xii. 9. ; xx. 
2.) where he speaks of the serpent as a 
* deceiver,' and describes him after this 
manner ; — ' and the great dragon was cast 
out, that old serpent, called' otherwise in 
in Scripture, ' the Devil, and Satan, which 
deceiveth the whole world.' A dragon is a 
huge overgrown serpent. That old serpent, 
means that sex-pent, which of old, at the be- 
ginning of the world, deceived Eve, and 
still was deceiving the world. And in 
several other places of Scripture, the Devil's 
temptation of Eve is plainly alluded to. 
Therefore this serpent, and the Devil, and 
Satan, are synonymous, and mean one and 
the same being. Hence divines have justly 
concluded, that it was the Devil or Satan, 
an evil or malignant spirit, which tempted 
Eve, in the body, or assuming the form and 



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shape of a serpent ; which then might be a 
very beautiful as well as sagacious animal, 
familiar with Adam and Eve, and much ad- 
mired by them. 

The craft, the wisdom, the subtilty of the 
serpent, are insisted on in Scripture, as 
qualities distinguishing this animal from 
others. Moses, intending to prepare the 
mind of his reader for the relation of Eve's 
temptation, begins with affirming, (Gen. iii. 
1.) ' Now the serpent (Nachash) was more 
subtil than any beast of the field which the 
Lord God had made.' And Jesus Christ 
himself recommends to his apostles, the 
wisdom of the serpent. (Matt. x. 16.) They 
bring several proofs of this subtilty of the 
serpent. They tell us, that the Cerastes 
hides himself in the sand, in order to bite 
the horse's foot, that he may throw the 
rider. Jacob alludes to this in the blessing 
of Dan: (Gen. xlix. 17-) 'Dan shall be a 
serpent by the way, an adder in the path, 
that biteth the horse's heels, so that his 
rider shall fall backward.' 

Epiphanius brings several proofs of the 
wisdom of the serpent ; among which is 
that property of stopping up its ears, that it 
may not hear the voice of the charmer or 
enchanter. The Psalmist takes notice of 
this piece of subtilty of the adder : (Psalm 
lviii. 4, 5.) ' Like the deaf adder that stoppeth 
her ear, which will not hearken to the voice 
of the charmers, charming never so wisely.' 

Among the kinds of serpents mentioned 
in Scripture, are those fiery flying serpents, 
that made so great a destruction among the 
Israelites, and were the death of so many 
people in the desert. (Numb. xxi. 6.) The 
Hebrew word here used for serpent is 
saraph, which properly signifies to burn ; 
and it is thought, that this name was given 
it, either because of its colour, or because of 
that heat and thirst it creates by its biting. 
Herodotus, who had seen these serpents, 
says, they had great resemblance to those 
which the Greeks and Latins called hydrae. 
Bochart endeavours to prove they were real 
hydrae. The same Herodotus tells us, he 
went on purpose to the city of Butus, to see 
those flying serpents of which he had heard. 
He saw near this city great heaps of bones, 
and the spines of those animals that had 
been killed and devoured by the Ibis. The 
place, says he, is a narrow neck of ground 
that widens towards Egypt. When, there- 
fore, at the beginning of spring, these ser- 
pents come out of Arabia into Egypt, the 
Ibis attacks them, and destroys great num- 
bers of them. The wings of these serpents 
are not feathers, like the wings of birds, but 
membranes rather like those of bats. 

He also says, that these serpents are not 
large ; they are speckled, or of several 
colours ; and are in such great quantities in 
Arabia, that the inhabitants could not sub- 
sist for them, if Providence had allowed 
them to multiply according to the usual 
952 



laws of nature. But the Arabians affirm, 
that the female puts the male to death 
when they engender ; and that the young 
ones at their birth kill their mother. 

Brazen Serpent (Numb. xxi. 9.) was 
a figure of the serpent saraph, which Moses 
elevated on the top of a pike, promising 
the Hebrews, that all who were bitten by ser- 
pents, and who should look towards this 
image, should be healed ; as the event 
proved. Our Saviour (John iii. 14.) informs 
us, that this serpent was a representation 
of his crucifixion. This brazen serpent was 
preserved in Israel to the time of Hezekiah, 
who, being informed that the people paid a 
superstitious worship to it, had it broken 
in pieces, and in contempt gave it the name 
of Nehushtan [a play on the word Nachash] 
a brazen bawble, or trifle. (2 Kings xviii. 

The worship of the serpent is observed 
through all Pagan antiquity. The devil, who 
tempted the first woman under the shape of 
a serpent, takes a pleasure to deify this ani- 
mal, as a trophy of his victory over man- 
kind. The Babylonians, in Daniel's time 
worshipped a dragon, which was demolished 
by this prophet ' This species of idolatry,' 
says a late writer, ' in its origin did not con- 
sist in the unmeaning adoration of the image, 
or figure, but was introduced to represent 
the passions and affections in man ; such 
was the principle of circumspection, sub- 
tilty, or prudence of the sensual principle. 
For which qualities it was then, and is al- 
lowed now by the best writers on those sub- 
jects, to be more famous than any other 
animal : and therefore a more proper sub- 
ject could not have been chosen in outward 
nature to represent those qualities in man. 
This was the custom of the first race of 
men, as is obvious from the Scriptures, 
where we find that clean and unclean beasts 
are introduced by the inspired writers, to 
signify the pure and impure affections; 
agreeing with the natural propensities of 
the animals mentioned. Thus, as the ser- 
pent among the primeval people signified 
in a good sense the principle of circum- 
spection, or prudence, to watch over the 
appearance of evil ; so in an opposite sense 
it also was meant by them to represent the 
subtilty of the sensual principle in those 
who were perpetually watching to commit 
evil, by the gratification of that passion to 
the injury of others ; for perpetual watching 
is a peculiar property of this creature.' 
Bellamy's History of all Religions, pp. 92, 93; 
Bellamy's Ophion, pp. 6 — 8. ; Watson's Theo- 
logical Tracts, vol. i. p. 49 ; Calmet's Dic- 
tionary of the Holy Bible. 

SERVANT. This word generally sig- 
nifies a slave : because formerly among the 
Hebrews, and the neighbouring nations, 
the greater part of servants were slaves; 
they belonged absolutely to their masters, 
who had a right to dispose of their persons, 



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their bodies, goods, and even of their lives 
in some cases. 

2. The Hebrews had two sorts of ser- 
vants, or slaves. (Lev. xxv. 44, 45, &c.) 
Some were strangers, bought, or taken in 
war, and their masters kept them, exchanged 
them, or sold them, as their goods. The 
others were Hebrew slaves, who, being poor, 
sold themselves, or were sold, to pay their 
debts ; or were delivered for slaves by their 
parents in cases of necessity. This sort of 
Hebrew slaves continued in slavery only to 
the year of Jubilee, when they might re- 
turn to liberty, and their masters could not 
detain them against their wills. If they 
desired to continue with their masters, they 
were brought before the judges ; here they 
made a declaration, that for this time they 
disclaimed the privilege of the law, and had 
their ears bored with an awl against the 
door posts of their master's house; after 
which they had no longer any power of re- 
covering their liberty, till the next year of 
Jubilee after nine and forty years. (Exod. 
xxi. 2. 5, 6, 7, &c.) 

3. Servant, a man who dedicates him- 
self to the service of another, by his own 
choice, will, and inclination. Thus, Joshua 
was the servant of Moses, Elisha of Elijah, 
Gehazi of Elisha ; St. Peter, St. Andrew, 
St. Philip, &c, were servants of Jesus 
Christ. 

4. Servants, the subjects [rather the offi- 
cers] of a prince. The servants of Pharaoh, 
the servants of Saul, of David, that is, their 
subjects in general ; and their domestics in 
particular. In like manner the Philistines, 
the Syrians, and other nations, were ser- 
vants of David ; that is, they obeyed him, 
they paid him tribute. 

5. Servants of God, the servants of the 
Lord, the priests, the prophets, those who 
make profession of a particular p'ety. The 
name, man of God, and servant of God, is 
often given to Moses by way of eminence ; 
and St. Paul often takes the same charac- 
ter. He gives excellent rules of morality 
to Christian slaves. (1 Cor. vii. 21, 22, &c. 
Ephes. vi. 5, 6, 7. Coloss. iii. 22. 2 Tim. 
ii. 9.) 

6. Servants, or slaves ; as opposed to 
those who are free, and to the Children of 
the Promises, represents the Jews, in con- 
tradistinction from the Christians. The 
Jews were the slaves represented by Ha- 
gar and Ishmael ; Christians are the chil- 
dren of liberty, represented by Sarah and 
Isaac. 

SE'RUG, rntt>, signifies branch, layer ; 
otherwise twining. Serug was son of Reu, 
and father of Nahor. (Gen. xi. 20, 21, 22. 
I Chron. i. 20.) It is pretended that Serug 
was the first after the deluge that began to 
worship creatures. In his time men formed 
a multitude of idols, by which the devil per- 
formed many prodigies. Serug thought he 
might adore the images of men who had 
953 



distinguished themselves by their virtues, 
and by their good deeds performed for man- 
kind. This introduced the worship of the 
dead, and by consequence, idolatry and 
polytheism. ' From him, Bochart conjec- 
tures, that the town of Sarug was named, 
which was near Charrae in Mesopotamia.' 
Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book i. p. 53. 

SETH, nt:*, signifies put, or who puts. 
Seth, son of Adam and Eve, was born in 
the year of the world 130. (Gen. v. 3. 6. 
10, 11.) Seth, at the age of one hundred 
and five years, begat Enos, in the year of 
the world 235. He lived after this eight 
hundred and seven years ; in all, nine hun- 
dred and twelve years : and he died in the 
year of the world 1042. Seth was the chief 
of the race of the saints, and of the sons of 
God, as the Scripture calls them, (Gen. vi. 
2.) ; who preserved the true religion and 
piety, when the descendants of Cain had 
abandoned themselves to wickedness. 

SHAKERS, the name of a sect which 
first appeared in North America, in 1774, 
and which seems to be a branch of the 
Welsh Jumpers. The enthusiasm of this 
sect is vented in jumping, dancing, and vio- 
lent exertions of the body, which causing 
shaking, or shuddering, as if under an ague, 
occasioned their being termed Shakers. Anna 
Leese, or Lecos, whom they styled the Elect 
Lady, was the founder and head of their 
first society, at Harvard, Massachusetts ; or, 
according to Hannah Adams, at Nisqueunia, 
above Albany, in the state of New York, 
' whence they have spread their doctrine, 
and increased to a considerable number.' 
A. Leese died in 1784, when her power de- 
volved on James Whitaker, who was suc- 
ceeded by Joseph Meacham, whom they look 
up to, not only as their head, but also as a 
prophet. The chief elders are his deputies 
and substitutes in their different settlements. 

The Shakers assert that A. Leese was 
the woman spoken of in the twelfth chapter 
of the Revelation ; — that she spoke se- 
venty-two tongues, and that though those 
tongues were unintelligible to the living, 
she conversed with the dead, who under- 
stood her language. They further add, 
that she was the mother of all the elect ; 
that she travailed for the whole world ; 
and that no blessing can descend to any 
person, but only by and through her, and 
that in the way of her being possessed of 
their sins, by confessing and repenting 
of them, one by one, according to her 
direction. 

The tenets which peculiarly distinguish 
the Shakers are comprised in seven ar- 
ticles. 1. They assert that the first resur- 
rection is already come; that now is the 
time to judge themselves; and that, under 
this new dispensation, the people of ti<>d 
are not to be guided by the written word, 
but by the immediate influence of the Holy 



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Ghost. 2. They believe that they have 
power to heal the sick, to raise the dead, 
and to cast out devils. This, they say, is 
performed by the preaching of the word of 
God, when it is attended with the divine power 
— the wonderful energy and operation of the 
Holy Spirit, which performs those things, by 
healing the broken-hearted — raising up those 
who are dead in trespasses and sins to a life 
of holiness and righteousness, which causes 
the devils to be cast out. (Matt. x. 8.) 3. That 
they have a correspondence with angels, the 
spirits of the saints, and their departed 
friends. This they attempt to prove from 
1 Cor. xii. 8—10. 4. That they speak with 
divers kinds of tongues in their public assem- 
blies. This they think is done by the divine 
power and influence of the Holy Spirit. 
5. That it is lawful to practise vocal music, 
with dancing, in the Christian churches, if 
it be practised in praising the Lord. 6. 
That they, being the children of the resur- 
rection, must neither marry nor be given in 
marriage ; but that their church is come out 
of the order of natural generation to be as 
Christ was; and that those who have wives 
ought to be as though they had none ; — that, 
by these means, heaven begins upon earth, 
&c. They suppose that some of their 
people are of the number of the 144,000, who 
were redeemed from the earth, that were not 
defiled with women. 7« That the word ever- 
lasting, when applied to the punishment 
of the wicked, refers only to a limited space 
cf time ; excepting in the case of those who 
fall from their sect. ; but for such 'there is 
no forgiveness, neither in this world, nor in 
that which is to come.' To prove this, they 
quote St. Matthew, (xii. 32.) 

The Shakers also maintain, with the 
Quakers, that it is unlawful to swear, game, 
or use compliments to each other ; and that 
water baptism and the Lord's Supper are 
abolished. They deny the imputation of 
Adam's sin to his posterity ; and they seem 
to be less Calvinists in other respects like- 
wise, than their brethren, the Jumpers, in 
Wales. 

Their form of of government is said to be 
republican, under the chief elder, whom 
they elect, and whose power is unlimited. 
Like the Moravians, they are divided into 
classes ; and subordinate to the chief elder 
are inspectors of all classes, invested with 
different degrees of authority. Their dis- 
cipline is founded on the supposed per- 
fection of their leaders. Confession is made 
of every secret, by all, from the oldest to 
the youngest; and the people are made 
to believe that they are seen through in 
the Gospel glass of perfection by their 
teachers, who behold the state of the dead, 
and innumerable worlds of spirits, good and 
bad. 

As marriage is prohibited by them, and 
married persons are admitted to become 
members only on condition that they re- 
954 



nownce each other, their society is recruited 
merely by proselytes. They send mis- 
sionaries through the country to make prose- 
lytes ; and their meetings, which sometimes 
continue ' day and night for a considerable 
time,' are often attended by converts from 
a great distance, who stay from * two to 
twenty days.' In these meetings they have 
praying, preaching, singing, and dancing; 
the men in one apartment, the women in 
another. 

They vary their exercises of devotion. 
Their heavy dancing, as it is called, is per- 
formed by a perpetual springing from the 
house-floor, about four inches up and down, 
both in the men's and women's apartment, 
moving about with extraordinary transport, 
singing, sometimes one at a time, and some- 
times more. They sometimes clasp their 
hands, and leap so high as to strike the 
joists above their heads. This elevation 
affects the nerves so that they have inter- 
vals of shuddering, as if they were in a vio- 
lent fit of the ague. They even throw off 
their outside garment, in these exercises, 
and spend their strength very cheerfully in 
this way ; and when the chief speaker calls 
for their attention, after joining in prayer 
with him, or listening to his harangue, they 
immediately renew their dancing with in- 
creased vigour, f Sometimes there will be 
short intermissions, but in a minute or two 
one of the chiefs will spring up, crying, 
" As David danced, so will we before God ;" 
the others follow this signal ; and thus al- 
ternately, dancing, praying, and singing, 
they pass night after night, and often until 
morning.' 

They assert that their dancing is the 
token of the great joy and happiness of the 
Jerusalem state, and denotes the victory 
over sin. One of their most favourite ex- 
ertions is turning round very swiftly for an 
hour or two ; and this, they say, is to show 
the great power of God. They sometimes 
fall on their knees, and make a sound like 
the roaring of many waters, in groans and 
cries to God, as they say, for the wicked 
world who persecute them. It is, however, 
observed, that though, at first, they used 
these violent gesticulations, now they have 
' a regular, solemn, uniform dance, or genu- 
flection, to as regular, solemn, a hymn, 
which is sung by the elders, and as regularly 
conducted as a proper band of music' 
Adams's View of Religions, pp. 283 — 285; 
New York Theological Magazine, November 
and December 1 795 ; Adam's Religious 
World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 442 — 447- 

SHALMANE'SER, nDxaobw, signifies 
peace tied or chained, or perfection and retri- 
bution, or peace taken away, or that with- 
draws. Shalmaneser or Salmaneser, king 
of Assyria, succeeded Tiglath-pileser, and 
had Sennacherib for his successor. He 
began to reign in the year of the world 
3270, reigned fourteen years, and died in 



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the year of the world 3290. (2 Kings xvii. 
3.) It is very prqbable he is called Ene- 
messar in the Greek of Tobit, (i. 2.) and 
Shalman in Hosea, (x. 14.) The Scripture 
tells us of Shalmaneser, that he came into 
Palestine, subdued Samaria, and obliged 
Hoshea, the son of Elah, to pay him tri- 
bute ; but in the third year, being weary of 
paying tribute, Hoshea took secret mea- 
sures with So, king of Egypt, to remove 
this subjection. Shalmaneser brought an 
army against him, ravaged Samaria, and be- 
sieged Hoshea, in his capital city. Not- 
withstanding the resistance of Hoshea, who 
held out three years, (2 Kings xvii. 1. 5, 6, 
7, &c. ; xviii. 9, 10.) he took the city, put 
Hoshea into bonds, carried away the peo- 
ple beyond the Euphrates ; and thus he 
ruined the city and kingdom of Samaria, 
which had subsisted two hundred and fifty- 
four years, from the year of the world 3030 
to 3283. Tobit was among the captives 
carried away by Shalmaneser, but after- 
wards got into the good graces of this 
prince, who gave him liberty to do what he 
pleased, and to live where he would. Ac- 
cording to the Greek, he even made him his 
purveyor, which was an officer to furnish 
provisions to the king's household. 

Profane authors tell us, that this prince 
made war also with the Tyrians. Eleleus 
king of Tyre, seeing the Philistines were 
much weakened by their war with Heze- 
kiah, king of Judah, took this opportunity 
of recovering to his obedience the city of 
Gath, which had revolted from him. The 
Gittites, fearing the power of the king of 
Tyre, had recourse to Shalmaneser, who 
marched with all his forces against the Ty- 
rians. At his approach, the city of Sidon, 
Ace, afterwards Ptolemais (now Acre) and 
the other maritime cities of Phenicia, sub- 
mitted to Shalmaneser. 

But the Tyrians, with only twelve ships, 
having in a sea-fight defeated the united 
fleet of the Assyrians and Phenicians, ac- 
quired by this victory so great reputation 
at sea, and became so formidable, that 
Shalmaneser durst no more engage them 
by sea. He withdrew, therefore, into his 
own dominions, but left a great part of his 
army to besiege Tyre. The besiegers made 
but a slow progress, by reason of the brave 
resistance of the besieged. The troops of 
Shalmaneser stopped up the aqueducts, and 
cut the pipes that brought the water into 
the city, which reduced the Tyrians to the 
last extremity ; but the Tyrians dug wells 
in their city, and by this means held out 
five years longer. In the mean time, Shal- 
maneser dying, they were delivered from 
the siege. Usher places this siege in the 
year of the world 3287. 

SHAM'GAR, -now, signifies, named a 

stranger ; otherwise, he is here a stranger ; 

otherwise, rumination, or desolation of the 

name ; otherwise, surprise, astonishment of 

955 



the stranger. Shamgar, or Samgar, son of 
Anath, was the third judge of Israel, after 
Ehud, and before Barak. (Judg. iii. 31.) 
The Scripture only says, that he defended 
Israel, and killed six hundred Philistines 
with an ox-goad. From the peace ob- 
tained by Ehud, in the year of the world 
2G79, to whom Shamgar succeeded, till 
the servitude under the Canaanites, in 
the year of the world 2699, are twenty 
years. . 

SHEAF. The day after the feast of the 
Passover they brought into the temple a 
sheaf of corn, as the first-fruits of the 
barley-harvest, (Levit. xxiii. 10, 11, 12.) 
with these ceremonies : — On the fifteenth 
of Nisan, in the evening, when the feast 
of the first day of the Passover was ended, 
and the second day was begun, which was 
a working day, the house of judgment 
deputed three men to go in solemnity, and 
gather the sheaf of barley. The inhabit- 
ants of the neighbouring cities assembled, 
to be present. The barley was gathered 
in the territory of Jerusalem. The depu- 
ties demanded, three times, if the sun was 
set ? They were as often answered, that it 
was. Afterwards they demanded three 
times, if they might have leave to cut the 
sheaf? Leave was as often granted. They 
reaped it out of three different fields, 
with three different sickles, and put the 
ears into three boxes, to carry them to the 
temple. 

The sheaf, or rather the three sheaves, 
being arrived in the temple, were threshed 
in the court; and they took a full omer, 
that is, about three pints of the grain ; after 
it had been well winnowed, parched, and 
bruised, they sprinkled over it a log of oil, 
that is, near a pint. 

To this they added a handful of incense ; 
and the priest who received this offering, 
waved it before the Lord, toward the four 
quarters of the world, cross-wise ; he cast 
part of it on the altar, and the rest was his 
own. After this, every one might begin the 
harvest. 

SHE'BA, jou>, signifies captivity ; other- 
wise, conversion, repose, old age. The queen 
of Sheba, (1 Kings x. 1, 2, &c. 2 Chron. 
ix. 1.) who (Matt. xii. 42. Luke xi. 31.) 
is called queen of the south, was, accord- 
ing to some, a queen of Arabia ; according 
to others, a queen of Ethiopia. Josephus 
says, that Sheba was the ancient name of 
the city of Meroe, before Cambyses gave 
it that of his sister Meroe, and that from 
hence the queen came, of whom we are 
speaking. This opinion has much pre- 
vailed. The Ethiopians at this day main- 
tain, that this princess was of their country, 
and that her posterity reigned there tor a 
long time. They preserve the catalogue 
of them, their names, and successions. The 
eunuch of queen Candace, who was con- 
verted and baptized by St. Philip, (Acts 



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viii. 27.) was an officer belonging to a prin- 
cess of the same country. The ancients 
acknowledge that women used to govern in 
this country. The isle of Meroe is some- 
times comprehended in Ethiopia ; and this 
country, as well as Egypt, is south of Pa- 
lestine. 

Those, who would have this princess to 
come from Arabia, rely, first, on the gene- 
ral consent, that there are Sabeans and 
Cushim, or Ethiopians, in Arabia. This 
princess was queen of Sheba, or of Cush, 
and Ethiopia. Secondly, Arabia is south 
from Judea. Thirdly, Arabia Felix may 
well be said to be at the uttermost parts of 
the world, (Matt. xii. 42.) because it bor- 
ders on the Southern Ocean, and formerly 
they knew no land beyond it ; Terra, fines- 
que, qua? ad orientem vergunt, Arabia ter- 
minantur, says Tacitus. Fourthly, Arabia 
abounds in gold, silver, spices, and precious 
stones, which are the presents this princess 
made to Solomon ; which cannot be con- 
veniently said of the island of Meroe. 
Lastly, several understand these verses of 
Claudian, of the Sabeans in Arabia Felix, 
where he says the women are used to go- 
vern: 

Medis, levibusque Sabaeis, 
Imperat hie sexus, reginarumque sub armis 
Barbariae pars magna jacet. 
And if popular tradition may be any thing 
relied on, that of the Arabians may be pro- 
duced, who think that queen Balkis came 
from the city of Sheba, otherwise called 
Marib or Mareb, in Yemen. 

Candaule is the name that Josephus and 
several others give to the queen of Sheba. 
She came to see Solomon, about the year of 
the world 3012. 

Mr. Bruce has given us the history of the 
queen of Sheba and her descendants, from 
the Abyssinian historians ; but he thinks 
the eunuch of Candace (Chandake) was an 
officer of the queen Hendaqui, whose ter- 
ritories lie beyond the Great Desert, south 
of Syene in Upper Egypt. ' It is probable, 
at least,' says a late writer, ' that the Sheba 
of Solomon's visitor, and the Ethiopia of 
the Acts, are distinct places, and Sheba 
the furthest off; which adds to the force 
of our Lord's comparison, as probably this 
visitor travelled from the greatest dis- 
tance, &c. of any that ever came to Je- 
rusalem. But what if the Ethiopians, 
that is, Abyssinians, at that time ruled in 
Arabia, also ? Then she might come from 
Arabia, yet be the queen of Ethiopia, which 
is only across the Red Sea ; and which 
seems to have been the fact.' Supplement. 
Addenda to Calmefs Dictionary of the Holy 
Bible. 

Sheba, or Shebo, yau>, signifies seven, 
or the seventh ; fulness, or oath. Sheba, 
son of Bichri, of Benjamin, was a turbu- 
lent fellow, who was near engaging Israel 
in a civil war. After the defeat of Absa- 
956 



lorn, when the tribe of Judah came to 
king David, and brought him over the ri- 
ver Jordan, on his way to Jerusalem, the 
other tribes resented the little notice taken 
of them. There was provoking language 
given on both sides ; insomuch, that Sheba, 
the son of Bichri, sounded a trumpet, 
and proclaimed, ' We have no share in 
David.' Thus Israel forsook David, and 
followed Sheba. (2 Sam. xx. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) 

When David came to Jerusalem, he 
sent Abishai, with what troops were at 
hand, in pursuit of this traitor. Joab also 
took soldiers ; and crossing over the coun- 
try north of Jerusalem, he arrived at Abel- 
beth-maacha, a city lying at the entrance 
of the pass between Libanus and Anti- 
libanus, whither Sheba had retired. Joab 
besieged the place ; when a woman of the 
city, wiser than the rest, persuaded the 
people to cut of Sheba's head, and to throw 
it to Joab ; upon which Joab and his army 
retired. 

SHEB'ARIM, onnw, signifies the break- 
ings, or hopes, or expectation, otherwise, 
corn ; D-"iaD, surrounding, or about the high 
places. Shebarim, or Sabarim, a place 
about Ai and Bethel. The inhabitants of 
Ai pursued the Israelites from their city 
to Shebarim. (Josh. vii. 5.) Some take She- 
barim in an appellative sense : ' They pur- 
sued them till they had entirely routed them.' 
Thus the Septuagint, "Ewe avverpupav 
avrovQ. 

SHEB'NA, nanw, <T(o(3vag, or Sobnas, 
signifies who rests himself, or who is now 
captive. Shebna, or Shebnah, was secretary 
under king Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 18.) 
This prince sent Shebna, Joah, and Asaph, 
to hear what Rabshakeh had to propose. 
Some pretend, that Shebna had been high 
priest; but the Scripture calls him the 
scribe, and the treasurer. See the pro- 
phecy pronounced against him by Isaiah 
(xxii. 15, &c.) which it is supposed was 
fulfilled in the reign of Manasseh, with 
whom, it is thought, he was taken captive, 
and carried to Babylon. Some suppose, 
from the expression in Isaiah, that Shebna 
had actually constructed a magnificent 
monument, sibi et suis, as the Latins speak. 
The contrast of such stability, with the roll- 
ings of a ball into a far country, is very 
strong. Fragments annexed to Calmefs Dic- 
tionary, No. ccx. p. 41. 

SHE'CHEM, D3tt>, cix^j <™xtfi, signi- 
fies part, portion, the back, shoulders, early 
in the morning. Shechem, son of Hamor, 
was prince of the Shechemites. He took 
Dinah, the daughter of Jacob, as she went 
to see a festival of the Shechemites, and 
dishonoured her, (Gen. xxxiv.) in the year 
of the world 2265. Afterwards, asking her 
in marriage, he obtained her, on condition 
that he and all the men of Shechem should 
be circumcised. This was agreed to ; but 



SHE 



SrfE 



on the third day after, when the wounds 
of the circumcision were at the sorest, 
Simeon and Levi, the two brothers of Dinah 
by the same mother, entered Shechem, and 
slew all the males. After this all the sons 
of Jacob, and their domestics, plundered 
the city. 

Shechem, a city of Samaria, otherwise 
called Sychar, Neapolis, or Naplouse. 
Josephus says, that the people of the coun- 
try called it Mabartha; perhaps because of 
the vale of Morch, hard by. Joshua (xvii. 
7. ; xx. 7-) appoints this city to Benjamin ; 
it was in tbe mountains of this tribe. Jacob 
bought a field in the neighbourhood of this 
city, which by way of overplus he gave to 
his son Joseph, who was buried here. 
(Gen. xlviii. 22.) Near the same city was 
Jacob's well, or fountain, at which Jesus 
Christ discoursed with the woman of Sa- 
maria. (John iv. 5.) After the ruin of 
Samaria by Shalmaneser, Shechem was the 
capital of the Samaritans ; and Josephus 
says, it was so in the time of Alexander the 
Great. It was ten miles from Shiloh, forty 
from Jerusalem, and fifty-two from Jericho. 
Jerome says, that Paula visited the church 
built on Jacob's fountain. Antoninus Mar- 
tyr, Adamnanus, and Villibaldus, who wrote 
in the eighth century, speak of this church. 
Phocas, who wrote in the twelfth century, 
makes no mention of it. 

' This town,' says Mr. Buckingham, ' is 
seated between the two hills of Gerizim, 
on the south, and Ebal on the north, and 
so fully occupies the valley between them, 
that the mountains may be said to press it 
in each side, and leave no room to add any 
thing to its breadth. Its length, however, 
is not so limited, as there is an extension 
of the valley to the east aud west, which 
would admit of the buildings being con- 
tinued in each of these directions. The 
town consists chiefly of two long streets, 
running nearly east and west, through the 
centre of the valley described, and those 
again intersected by several smaller ones, 
mostly crossing them at right angles. At 
the present time, (in the year 1816,) the 
town is populous and flourishing, and the 
grounds around it bear the marks of opu- 
lence and industry.' 

The resident population of Shechem, or 
Napolose as it is now called, is thought to 
amount to ten thousand, though Mr. Buck- 
ingham conceives it to be rather less. 
These are almost all Mahometans ; the few 
Greek Christians there, scarcely amounting 
to fifty in number. The town is governed by 
a Mutesellim, or Beg, as he is termed, sub- 
ject to Damascus ; and he has at present 
about four hundred Amaout soldiers. The 
men dress partly in the Turkish, and partly 
in the Arabian fashion ; but their general 
appearance approaches nearer to the former. 
The women have the whole face covered 
with a coloured veil, as in the towns of the 
957 



Yemen ; and the scarf thrown over their 
head and shoulders is of a yellowish white, 
with a deep red border; the stuff being, 
seemingly, a silk manufacture, or, at least, 
a mixture of that with cotton. 

' Napalose,' says Dr. Clarke, ' appears 
luxuriantly embosomed in the most delight- 
ful and fragrant bowers ; half concealed by 
rich gardens, and by stately trees collected 
into groves, all around the bold and beautiful 
valley in which it stands. Trade seems to 
flourish among its inhabitants. Their prin- 
cipal employment is in making soap ; but 
the manufactures of the town supply a 
very widely extended neighbourhood, and 
they are carried to a great distance upon 
camels. 

' The history of Shechem, referring to 
events long prior to the Christian dispensa- 
tion, directs us to antiquities which owe 
nothing of their celebrity to any tradition- 
ary aid. The traveller, directing his foot- 
steps towards its ancient sepulchres, as 
everlasting as the rocks in which they are 
hewn, is permitted, upon the authority of 
sacred and indisputable record, to contem- 
plate the spot where the remains of Joseph, 
of Eleazar, and of Joshua, were severally 
deposited. If any thing connected with the 
memory of past ages be calculated to awaken 
local enthusiasm, the land around this city 
is pre-eminently entitled to that distinc- 
tion.' 

Though Napolose is a place of consider- 
able trade with Damascus, and with the 
towns on the sea-coast, yet there were no 
Jews here who remained as permanent resi- 
dents. As for the Samaritans, though a 
remnant of them still existed so late as the 
time of Maundrell's journey, or about a cen- 
tury ago, it does not appear that there were 
in 1816 half-a-dozen families remaining, 
and they were so obscurely known, and re- 
mained in such privacy, that many who 
had passed all their days in this town, did 
not know of the existence of such a sect. 
To so low a state are the people reduced, 
who once held this city as their metropolis, 
and who established here the chief seat of 
their religious as well as of their political 
power. Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, 
vol. ii. pp. 432—434 ; Clarke's Travels, vol. 
iv. pp. 268. 270. 

SHE'KEL bpw, signifies tveight, money. 
Shekel, Siclus, an Hebrew weight and 
money. (Exod. xxx. 23, 24. 2 Sam. xiv. 
26.) Shekel is used to denote the weight 
of any thing, as iron, hair, spices, &c. 
Among the different opinions concerning 
the weight and value of the shekel, we shall 
adhere to that of Dr. Arbuthnot, who makes 
the weight of the shekel equal to Ddwt. 
2jgr. English Troy-weight ; and the value 
equal to 2s. 3§<2. sterling money : but the 
golden shekel was worth 1/. 16s. (id. English 
money. Some are of opinion that the 
Jews had two kinds of shekels, namely, the 



SHE 



SHE 



common one already noticed, and the she- 
kel of the sanctuary, which last they make 
double the former. But most authors make 
them the same, and think that the word 
sanctuary is added to express a just and 
exact weight, according to the standards 
kept in the temple or tabernacle. Moses 
(Numb, xviii. 16.) and Ezekiel (xlv. 12.) 
say, that the shekel was worth twenty 
gerahs. Arbuthnot's Tables of Ancient Coins, 
Weights, and Measures. 

SHEK'INAH, nDOW, signifies Divine 
presence [tabernacling.'] Nothing is more 
frequently mentioned in the writings of the 
Jews, than the Shekinah, by which they 
understand the presence of the Holy Spirit. 
In the Targums, or Chaldee paraphrases, 
we find the names Jehovah, or God; Me- 
mar, or the word ; and Shekinah, or the 
Holy Ghost. They suppose the Holy 
Spirit, speaking and communicating itself 
to men by revelation ; first, in the prophets; 
secondly, in the Urim and Thummim, of 
the high-priest's breast-plate ; thirdly, in 
what the Hebrews call Bath-col, or the 
daughter of the voice. The Shekinah is the 
presence of the Holy Ghost, which resided 
in the temple of Jerusalem. 

The Shekinah was the most sensible 
token of the presence of God, among the 
Hebrews ; and it rested over the propitia- 
tory, or over the golden cherubim, which 
adhered to the propitiatory, or covering of 
the ark. Here the Shekinah abode in a 
cloud ; from hence God gave forth his 
oracles vocally, as is thought, when con- 
sulted by the high-priest on account of his 
people. Hence it is often said in Scrip- 
ture, that God sits upon the cherubim, or 
between the cherubim ; that is, he gives the 
most evident tokens of his divine presence, 
by answering from hence the inquiries of 
Israel. The Rabbins tell us, that the She- 
kinah first resided in the tabernacle pre- 
pared by Moses, in the wilderness, and that 
it descended therein on the day of its con- 
secration, in the figure of a cloud. It 
passed from thence into the sanctuary of 
Solomon's temple, on the day of its dedica- 
tion by this prince ; where it continued till 
the destruction of Jerusalem, and the tem- 
ple, by the Chaldeans, and was not after- 
wards seen there. 

A late writer observes, that as to the 
nature of the fire which appeared in the 
burning bush, possibly it was the Shekinah, 
or usual token of the divine presence ; and 
if so, it may lead us to think, whether the 
Shekinah was not of a very mild and gen- 
tle, though luminous appearance. Scripture 
Illustrated. 

SHEL'OMITH, irabw, signifies my peace, 
my happiness, my recompence. Shelomith, 
Salomith, or Salumith, daughter of Dibri, 
of the tribe Dan, was mother of that blas- 
phemer, who, having blasphemed the name 
of the Lord in the camp, was condemned to 
958 



be stoned. The Scripture tells us that 
Shelomith had this blasphemer by an Egyp- 
tian ; which should be naturally understood 
of an Egyptian who had married her : but 
the Rabbins explain it otherwise. They 
say, Shelomith was a very handsome and 
virtuous woman, who having been solicited 
and tempted to criminal conversation by an 
Egyptian, an overseer of the Hebrews' 
labour, without complying with him; he 
at last found an opportunity, by night, of 
slipping into the house and bed of Shelomith, 
in the absence of her husband, and abused 
her simplicity. 

The day following, when this woman 
discovered the injury, she bitterly com- 
plained of it to her husband, when he re- 
turned. He, at first, thought of putting 
her away, but kept her some time, to see if 
she should prove with child by the Egyp- 
tian. After some months her pregnancy 
becoming evident, he sent her away, and 
with words he assaulted the officer, who 
had done this outrage. The Egyptian 
abused him still farther, both by words and 
blows. Moses, coming hither by chance, 
and hearing of this injury done by the 
Egyptian to the Israelite, took up his de- 
fence, killed the Egyptian, and buried him 
in the sand. 

The brethren of Shelomith, seeing their 
sister put away like an adulteress, pretended 
to call her husband to account for it, and to 
make him take her again. He refused; and 
they came to blows. Moses happened to 
be there again, and wished to reconcile 
them ; but the husband of Shelomith asked 
him, what he had to do in the matter? Who 
had made him a judge over them ? And, 
whether he had a mind to kill him also, as 
yesterday he killed the Egyptian 1 Moses, 
hearing this, fled from Egypt into the 
country of Midian. 

The blasphemer stoned in the wilderness 
(Lev. xxiv. 10, 11.) was, say the Jews, the 
son of Shelomith and this Egyptian. The 
officer who inspected the Hebrews' labour 
is he of whom Moses speaks. (Exod. ii. 
11, 12.) And the husband of Shelomith is 
intimated in the same place. (Exod. ii. 13, 
14.) Thus the Jews corrupt the Scripture, 
by supplying the text, and refining on its 
narrations. 

SHEM, GW, signifies name, renown; or he 
that puts, or places, or who is put, or placed. 
Shem, or Sem, son of Noah, (Gen. vi. 10.) 
was born in the year of the world 1558, 
before the deluge ninety-eight years. We 
think he was older than Japheth and Ham. 
He entered the ark with Noah his father. 
Afterwards when the good old man was 
overtaken with wine, and was naked in his 
tent, Shem and Japheth covered him, nor 
would see in him any thing indecent. 
When Noah awoke, he foretold blessings 
on Shem, saying, The Lord God of Shem 
be blessed [he shall dwell in the tents of 



SHE 



SHE 



Shcm] and let Canaan be the slave of Shem. 
The great prerogative of Shem was, that 
from his race was to proceed the Messiah, 
and the worship of the true God was to be 
preserved among his posterity. Being an 
hundred years of age he begat Arphaxad, 
and died, aged six hundred years, in the 
year of the world 2158. Shem obtained for 
his portion the best provinces in Asia. 

Shem had five sons, Elam, Asher, Ar- 
phaxad, Lud, and Aram, who peopled the 
finest provinces of the East. The princi- 
pal design of Moses being to give the his- 
tory and the laws of the Jews, he has car- 
ried the genealogy of Shem farther than 
those of the other sons of Noah, who were 
not directly included in his subject. It is 
pretended that Noah committed to Shem 
the body of Adam, which he sent and buried 
on Calvary. It is said, also, he deposited his 
will with him, by which he distributed the 
whole earth among his three sons. Among 
the heathen gods, Ham is Jupiter ; Japheth, 
Neptune ; and Shem, Pluto. 

SHEMAI'AH, rryow, signifies that hears; 
or that obeys the Lord. Shemaiah was a 
prophet, sent to Rehoboam, king of Judah, 
with a message from God, to forbid his war 
against Israel. (2 Chron. xi. 2.) Some years 
after this, Shishak, king of Egypt, came 
into Judea, against Rehoboam, and took the 
best places of his kingdom. The prophet 
Shemaiah told Rehoboam, and the princes 
of Judah, who had retired into Jerusalem, 
that they had forsaken the Lord ; and now 
he, in his turn, will forsake them, and 
deliver them over into the hands of Shishak, 
king of Egypt The king and the princes, 
being in a consternation, answered, ' The 
Lord is just ;' but they humbling them- 
selves, God moderated his anger and their 
sufferings. — Shemaiah wrote the history of 
Rehoboam. (2 Chron. xii. 15.) 

Shemaiah, the Nehelamite, was a false 
prophet who lived at Babylon while Jere- 
miah was in Judea, and at Jerusalem. (Jer. 
xxix. 24, 25 — 31, 32.) Jeremiah having 
sent prophecies to the captive Jews at Ba- 
bylon, Shemaiah the Nehelamite wrote 
back to the people at Jerusalem, to decry 
the prophet Jeremiah; and to Zephaniah, 
prince of the priests, and to the rest of the 
priests, to reproach them for not seizing and 
imprisoning Jeremiah, as one possessed 
with a spirit of false prophecy. Jeremiah, 
in his turn, wrote back to the Jews in cap- 
tivity at Babylon, The Lord says, against 
Shemaiah the Nehelamite, and against his 
posterity, None of his race shall ever sit in 
the midst of the people, and he shall not 
share in the happiness of my people. 

SHEPHERDS, or Pastors. When the 
patriarch Joseph invited his father and bre- 
thren to settle in Egypt, he bid them toll 
Pharaoh they were shepherds, or breeders 
of sheep, that they might have the land of 
Goshen assigned for their habitation ; Be- 
959 



cause, says Joseph, the Egyptians have an 
abomination to shepherds. It is inquired, 
Wherefore had the Egyptians such an abhor- 
rence to shepherds ? There are two reasons 
generally assigned for this : first, because 
the Hebrews, who bred sheep, also killed 
and ate them, or sacrificed them to their 
God ; whereas the Egyptians worshipped 
sheep and goats, and thought it a great 
crime to kill or sacrifice them. Diodorus 
Siculus says, that sheep were in great vene- 
ration throughout all Egypt. And Strabo 
assures us, that they sacrificed them only 
in the Nome, or province of Nitria, or in 
that of Mendese, according to Herodotus. 

Tacitus observes, that the Israelites sa- 
crificed sheep and lambs, as if it were to in- 
sult Jupiter Ammon, the deity of Egypt ; 
and that they killed oxen without scruple, 
to affront the ox Apis. But this does not 
prove that the employment of ox-keepers, 
or neat-herds, was of itself odious to the 
Egyptians, as the Scripture insinuates. On 
the contrary, this office would have recom- 
mended them to the esteem of the people, if 
they had not killed these animals ; as in the 
Nome of Mendese, the keepers of goats 
were honoured, because the goat was the 
favourite deity of that district. 

We must, therefore, seek another cause 
of Egyptian aversion from shepherds. Ma- 
netho relates, that an army of strangers, 
from the coasts of Arabia, or from the east, 
invaded Egypt, and finding it defenceless, 
they subdued it, and established a succession 
of kings in Lower Egypt, for about five 
hundred and eleven years. After this, the 
kings of Thebais, and of Upper Egypt, after 
a long war, at last drove them out of the 
country. These princes were called Hicsos, 
that is, king-shepherds. Some, says Mane- 
tho, affirm they were Arabians ; but we find 
in other books, that they were not kings, 
but captives. For in Egyptian, the word hie, 
when pronounced hoc, signifies a captive. 
This reason of the hatred of the Egyptians 
against the shepherds appears to be plausible. 

Abel was a keeper of sheep, (Gen. iv. 2.) 
as were the greater number of the ancient 
patriarchs. When men began to multiply, 
and to follow different employments, Jabal, 
son of Lamech and his wife Adah, was ac- 
knowledged as father, that is, founder of 
shepherds and nomades (Gen. iv. 20.) : ' He 
was the father of such as dwell in tents, and 
of such as have cattle.' God sometimes 
takes the name of Shepherd of Israel (Isa. 
xl. 11.) ; and kings, both in Scripture and 
ancient writers, are distinguished by the 
title of shepherds of the people. The people 
forsaken, are compared to a flock without 
a shepherd. Isaiah says, that the Messiah 
shall feed his flock. God calls Cyrus his 
shepherd. The prophets often- inveigh against 
the shepherds of Israel, against the kings, 
who feed themselves, and neglect their 
flocks ; who distress them, treat them ill, 



SHE 



SHI 



seduce them, and lead them astray. (Ezek. 
xxxiv. 23.) The Lord says, (Isaiah lxiii. 
11.) that he brought his people through the 
Red Sea, with their shepherds; that is, 
Moses, Aaron, and the chief of the people at 
their head. Micah says, (v. 5.) that the Lord 
shall raise seven shepherds over his people, 
and an eighth over the land of Assyria, to 
bring forth thence the people of Israel. We 
take these seven or eight shepherds, to be 
the seven princes confederate with Darius, 
son of Hystaspes, who killed Smerdis the 
Magian, that had seized the empire of Persia, 
after the death of Cambyses. 

Zechariah (xi. 8.) mentions three shep- 
herds whom the Lord had cut off in one 
month. These three were Aaron, Moses, 
and Miriam, who died in the wilderness; 
not, indeed, within the space of one month, 
but who all had the sentence of death passed 
on them in a month, and died at a little 
distance of time from one another. This is 
the explication of the Rabbins. Others 
think these three shepherds were David, 
Adonijah, and Joab, who all died in the 
space of one month. 

The same Zechariah received order from 
the Lord, saying, ' take unto thee yet the 
instruments of a foolish shepherd ; for,' says 
the Lord, ' I will raise up a shepherd in 
the land, which shall not visit those that be 
cut off,' &c. (Zech. xi. 14, 15.) The sheep 
having forsaken Jesus Christ, their lawful 
shepherd, were delivered up to foolish shep- 
herds, who plunged them into calamities; 
these are the Roman emperors, successors 
of Tiberius. Caligula succeeded Tiberius ; 
Claudius, Caligula; and Nero, Claudius. 
Every one knows the characters of these 
princes ; that they were truly foolish shep- 
herds, mad, wicked, and cruel. 

The Messiah is often called a shepherd. 
' I will set up shepherds over them, which 
shall feed them.' (Jer. xxiii. 4, 5.) Isaiah 
(xl. 11.) speaks in the same manner: ' He 
shall feed his flock like a shepherd ; he shall 
gather the lambs with his arm, and carry 
them in his bosom, and shall gently lead 
those that are with young.' And Zechariah 
(xiii. 7-) says, 'Awake, O sword, against my 
shepherd, and against the man that is my 
fellow, saith the Lord of Hosts. Smite the 
shepherd, and the sheep shall be scattered, 
and I will turn mine hand upon the little 
ones.' Jesus Christ refers this passage to 
his passion. (Matt. xxvi. 31.) He takes on 
himself the title of the good shepherd, who 
gives his life for his sheep. (John x. 11. 14, 
15.) St. Paul calls him the great Shepherd 
of the sheep, (Heb. xiii. 20.) ; and St. Peter 
gives him the appellation of Prince of shep- 
herds. (1 Pet. v. 4.) 

SHE'SHACK, pw, oktclk, signifies bag of 
linen ; otherwise, the sixth bag. By the name 
of Sheshach, or Sesach, Jeremiah (xxv. 26*. ; 
li. 41.) hints at Babylon. Jeremiah was to 
cause all nations to drink of the cup of the 
960 



Lord's fury, and the ' king of Sheshach shall 
drink after them.' And elsewhere, ' How 
is Sheshach taken, and how is the praise of 
the whole earth surprised! How is Babylon 
become an astonishment among the nations !' 
But how comes it that he gives this name to 
Babylon 1 Jerome thinks he does it out of 
caution, not to provoke Nebuchadnezzar, 
who then was besieging Jerusalem. We take 
Sheshach to be a pagan deity, chiefly wor- 
shipped at Babylon. He gives this city the 
name of its tutelar deity, as he says (Jer. 
1. 2.) ' Babylon is taken ; Bel is confounded ; 
Merodach is broken in pieces..' Bel and 
Merodach were gods of the country. She- 
shach was, probably, the moon. At Babylon 
they celebrated feasts called Sacsea, which 
greatly resembled the Roman Saturnalia. 
The servants then acted the part of masters. 
Strabo says they were celebrated in honour 
of Anais, which is Diana, or the moon. 

SHIB'BOLETH,nbnv, Vulgate. Scibbo- 
leth (Judg. xii. 6.) signifies burden, ear of corn; 
or current of water. Shibboleth, or Sibboleth, 
is an Hebrew word, which signifies an ear of 
corn, spica. After Jephthah had beat the Am- 
monites, the men of Ephraim were jealous of 
this advantage obtained by the tribes beyond 
Jordan, and complained heavily that they had 
not been called to this expedition. Jephthah 
answered with much moderation : but that did 
not prevent the Ephraimites from using con- 
temptuous words toward the men of Gilead ; 
telling them they were only fugitives from 
Ephraim and Manasseh, a kind of bastards, 
that belonged to neither of the two tribes. 
To fighting they went, and the men of 
Gilead killed a great number of Ephraim. 
After this, they set guards at all the passes 
of Jordan ; and when an Ephraimite, who 
had escaped, came to the water-side, and 
desired to pass over, they asked him, if he 
was not an Ephraimite ? If he said No ; 
they bid him pronounce Shibboleth, which 
signifies an ear of corn. But he pronouncing 
it Sibboleth, according to the pronunciation 
of the Ephraimites, and not well pronounc- 
ing the first letter, they killed him on the 
spot; on this occasion there were killed 
forty-two thousand Ephraimites. 

SHIELD. In Scripture, God is often 
called the shield of his people, (Gen. xv. 1.); 
' I am thy shield,' says God to Abraham. 
The Psalmist says, (Psalm v. 12.) 4 Thou, 
Lord, wilt bless the righteous ; with favour 
wilt thou compass him, as with a shield.' 
Princes and great men are also called the 
shield of the people. ' The shields of the 
earth belong unto God,' or are dependent 
upon him. (Psalm xlvii. 9.) The Septuagint 
have it ; — the strong gods of the earth have 
exalted themselves. 

The common materials of a shield were 
wood : it was covered with leather, with 
plates of gold, or brass. Sometimes they 
were all of gold, or brass. Solomon made 
some of massy gold, which Shishak, king of 



SHI 



SKI 



Egypt, took away ; and Rehoboam made 
others of brass to serve in tbeir stead. 
(I Kings xiv. 2G, 27-) Goliath's shield was 
of brass. Nahum (ii. 3.) describes the 
shields of the Chaldaeans as bright and 
sparkling. The Psalmist says, that God 
shall cause peace to reign among his people, 
and that they shall throw their shields into 
the fire. (Psalm xlvi. 0.) These shields, 
therefore, were of wood. 

They hung their shields around the towers 
for ornament, and to use on occasion. The 
tower of David was adorned with a thousand 
shields, hung round about it : there were 
deposited arms of all kinds. (Cant. iv. 4.) 

SHIGGAI'ON, fvyvf, signifies a song of 
trouble, or comfort. Shiggaion, Shigionoth, 
or Sigaion. This word occurs in the He- 
brew. (Psalm vii. title, and Habakkuk iii. 1.) 
The Septuagint have translated it by Psalm 
or Canticle ; but Aquila, and Symmachus, 
have rendered it, by ignorance, or sins of 
ignorance. Theodotion, in Habakkuk, has 
it, for voluntary siris ; but there is reason to 
doubt whether his text be very entire. Some 
think Shiggaion is an instrument of music; 
some a certain air, or tune, to which this 
psalm was sung. Others translate it, the 
error of David ; the secret of David ; the de- 
light of David ; the disquiet of David. Cal- 
met thinks it ought to be translated, a song 
of trouble, or, a song of consolation of David. 

SHl'LOH, ibu>, nbw, <ru\w, or Silo, sig- 
nifies peace, or abundance; otherwise, that 
deceives, or mocks, according to the Syriac. 
This term is famous among interpreters and 
commentators, on Scripture. It is used 
(Gen. xlix. 10.) to denote the Messiah. 
The Patriarch Jacob foretells his coming, in 
these words : ' The sceptre shall not depart 
from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between 
his feet, until Shiloh come, and unto him 
shall the gathering of the people be.' The 
Hebrew text reads nbw Kn s s 3 iy, ' Until 
Shiloh come.' All Christian commentators 
agree, that this word ought to be understood 
of the Messiah, of Jesus Christ ; but all are 
not agreed about its literal and grammatical 
signification. Jerome, who translates it by 
qui mittendus est, manifestly reads Shiloach, 
sent, instead of Shiloh. The Septuagint 
translate "Ewe o.v t\9y to. airoKeifieva avrcp. 
Or, "Eqjc aveXOy $ cnroKtirai. As if they 
had read ibr, instead of nbii' : ' Until the 
coming of him to whom it is reserved ; or 
till we see arrive that which is reserved for 
him.' 

It must be owned that the signification 
of the word Shiloh is not well ascertained. 
Some translate, ' the sceptre shall not depart 
from Judah, till he comes to whom it belongs,' 
nbv, or "bw, instead of ibw. Others, 'till the 
coming of the peace-maker, or, the pacific, 
or of prosperity,' nbu\ prosperatus est. Shalah 
signifies, ' to be in peace, to be in prosperity.' 
Others, 'till the birth of him who shall be 
born of a woman, without the knowledge of 
061 



man,' "rw or n^w, secundum, fluxus. Other- 
wise, ' the sceptre shall not depart from 
Judah till its end, its ruin ; till the downfall 
of the kingdom of the Jews.' Some Rabbins 
have taken the name Silo, or Shilo, for a 
city of this name in Palestine: — 'The sceptre 
shall not depart from Judah till it come to 
Shiloh,' bxv, or nbw. It has ceased, it has 
finished, says Le Clerc in Genesis, till it be 
taken from him, to be given to Saul, at 
Shiloh. But where is it said, that Saul was 
acknowledged as king, or consecrated at 
Shiloh ? If we would understand it of Jero- 
boam, the son of Nebat, the matter is equally 
uncertain. The Scripture mentions no as- 
sembly at Shiloh, that admitted him king. 
A modern author derives Shiloh from Sha- 
lah, nbVffatigare, which sometimes signifies 
to be weary, to suffer ; ' till his labours, his 
sufferings, his passion shall happen.' 

So much for the grammatical significa- 
tion of Shiloh : it is sufficient that the 
ancient Jews are, in this matter, agreed 
with the Christians, that this word stands 
for Messiah the king ; so the paraphrasts 
Onkelos and Jonathan, the ancient Hebrew 
commentaries on Genesis, and the Talmu- 
dists themselves explain it. The sceptre 
continued among the Jews : they had kings 
of their own nation, in the persons of the 
Herods ; but soon afterwards the sceptre 
was entirely taken away from them, and has 
never been restored to them since. 

The Jews seek in vain to put forced 
meanings on this prophecy of Jacob, saying, 
for example, that the sceptre intimates the 
dominion of strangers, to which they have 
been in subjection ; or, the hope of seeing, 
one day, the sceptre or supreme power 
settled again among themselves. It is 
easy to perceive that this is contrived to 
deliver themselves out of perplexity. In 
vain, likewise, they take refuge in certain 
princes of the captivity, whom they pretend 
to have subsisted beyond the Euphrates, 
exercising an authority over the nation, lit- 
tle short of absolute ; and being of the race 
of David. This pretended succession of 
princes is perfectly chimerical ; and though 
at certain times they could show a succes- 
sion, it never continued long ; and their au- 
thority was too obscure, and too limited, to 
be the object of a prophecy so remarkable 
as this. 

Shiloh, a famous city of Ephraim, (Josh, 
xviii. xix. xxi.) twelve miles distant from 
Shechem, according to Eusebius ; ten miles, 
according to Jerome : it was in Acrabatene, 
according to both. In Jerome's time Shiloh 
was ruined, and nothing remarkable was 
found there, but the foundation of the altar 
of burnt-offerings, which had been erected 
when the tabernacle was there. At Shiloh 
Joshua assembled the people, to make the 
second distribution of the Land of Promise. 
(Josh, xviii. 1, 2, 3.) Here the tabernacle 
of the Lord was set up, when the people 
3 Q 



SHI 



SHI 



were settled in the country. (Josh. xix. 51.) 
The ark and the tabernacle of the Lord 
continued at Shiloh from the year of the 
world 2560, when it was set up by Joshua, 
to the year of the world 2888, when it was 
taken by the Philistines, under the admin- 
istration of the high-priest Eli. At Shiloh 
Samuel began to prophesy. (1 Sam. iv. 4.) 
Here the prophet Ahijah dwelt. (1 Kings 
xiv. 2.) Jeremiah foretold that the temple 
of Jerusalem should be reduced to the same 
condition as Shiloh was. (Jer. vii. 12. 14. ; 
xxvi. 6. 9.) After the return of the ark out 
of the country of the Philistines, instead of 
returning it to Shiloh, the ark was taken to 
Kirjath-jearim. (1 Sam. vi. 21.) 

Reland conjectures, that, from the name 
Shiloh, Pausanias took occasion to say that 
Silenus, the companion of Bacchus, was 
buried in Palestine. Benjamin of Tudela 
affirms that the tomb of Samuel was to be 
seen here. On the medals of Shechem, or 
Neapolis, we see Silenus represented ; which 
should make us think that it was rather at 
Shechem than at Shiloh they might expect 
to find the tomb of this demi-god. 

SHIM'EI, "yEtf>, signifies that hears, or 
obeys; otherwise, name of the heap. Shimei, 
son of Gera, a kinsman of Saul's, who, when 
David was obliged to retire to Jerusalem, 
began to curse him, and throw stones, &c. 
(2 Sam. xvi. 5, 6, 7, 8, &c.) 

But when David returned to Jerusalem 
after the defeat and death of Absalom, Shi- 
mei hastened with the men of Judah, and 
with a thousand men of Benjamin, to come 
before David : he threw himself at his feet, 
desiring him to forget and forgive his fault. 
Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, expostulated in 
an angry manner ; but David disapproved 
of Abishai's zeal, and promised Shimei, 
with an oath, that he would not put him to 
death. And, in truth, he suffered him to 
live in peace, while he himself lived ; but 
before his death he recommended to Solo- 
mon not to let Shimei go entirely un- 
punished, but to exercise his discretion 
upon him. 

When Solomon therefore ascended the 
throne, he confined Shimei to Jerusalem, 
where Shimei dwelt three years, till some of 
his slaves ran away from him, and took 
sanctuary with Achish, king of Gath. Shi- 
mei went after them, and brought them to 
Jerusalem. The king, being informed of 
this, caused Shimei to come before him, 
and said to him ; Did not I assure you, 
that the day you quitted your confinement, 
you should be put to death ? So he gave 
orders to Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, to 
kill him. 

SHI'NAR, ">yw, signifies watch of him 
that sleeps ; otherwise, spoil of the tooth. 
Shinar, or Sennaar, a province of Baby- 
lonia, in which the tower of Babel was 
built. (Gen. xi. 2.) Calneh was built in 
the same country. (Gen. x. 10.) Amraphel, 
962 



king of Shinah, was a potent prince in the 
time of Abraham. (Gen. xiv. 1.) Daniel 
says, (i. 2.) that Nebuchadnezzar carried 
away the sacred vessels of the temple of 
Jerusalem, and put them in the temple of 
his god, in the land of Shinar. There is a 
great probability that the mountains of 
Singares, or Zagras, as well as the city and 
river of Singare, take their name from Shi- 
nar, Sennaar, or Sengar. 

' Shinar,' says a late writer, ' was certainly 
a considerable extent of level country ; it in- 
cluded Babylon, and probably extended fur- 
ther south ; but how much we cannot very 
well tell. It is extremely probable that the 
city Singara marks some part of this pro- 
vince ; in which case, Babylonia would be 
a part of the land of Shinar, rather than the 
land of Shinar a part of Babylonia ; and 
indeed this would lead us to consider the 
land of Shinar as that extent between the 
rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which was 
afterwards called Mesopotamia. To this 
agrees the opinion of Michaelis, which ex- 
tends Shinar so far north, as to include 
Nisibis and Edessa : Shinar might be the 
original name of this whole extent, which 
might afterwards be divided into Padan- 
aram and other parts, like as Mesopotamia 
was, under the Roman government.' Tay- 
lor's Sacred Geography. 

SHI'SHAK, pwv/, signifies, present of 
the bag, of the pot, of the thigh ; otherwise, of 
the kiss. Shishak, or Sesac, king of Egypt, 
declared war against Rehoboam, king of 
Judah, in the fifth year of Rehoboam. The 
king of Egypt had twelve thousand war 
chariots, and sixty thousand horse, with an 
innumerable multitude of people, out of 
Egypt, the countries of Lubim, of Sachim, 
and of Cush. He entered Judea, and made 
himself master of the strongest places in the 
country, advancing to Jerusalem. Then the 
prophet Shemaiah came to Rehoboam, and 
the princes of Judah, in Jerusalem, and 
said, thus saith the Lord, As you have for- 
saken me, so I have delivered you up into 
the hands of king Shishak. But they ac- 
knowledging their fault, God seeing their 
humiliation, said to Shemaiah ; Since they 
have humbled themselves under my hand, I 
will not destroy them. 

Shishak entered Jerusalem, but soon 
withdrew, taking with him the treasures of 
the Lord's house, and those of the king's 
palace. He carried away with him the 
golden bucklers that Solomon had made. 
The rabbins are of opinion, that the chief 
motive of this prince's war against Reho- 
boam, was because he coveted to possess 
the ivory throne of Solomon, with which he 
was charmed. This is the Shishak to whom 
Jeroboam fled, toward the end of Solomon's 
reign ; and when Shishak came into Judea, 
he did no harm to Jeroboam's territories, 
(2 Chron. xii. 2, 3, 4. 1 Kings xiv. 25, 
26, &c.) in the year of the world 3033. 



SHI 



SHU 



Perhaps Jeroboam might invite him to in- 
vade Rehoboam's country. Till the time 
of Shishak the Scripture mentions the 
kings of Egypt by the general name of 
Pharaoh ; Shishak is the first whose proper 
name is mentioned. Chronologists are not 
agreed as to the correct order of Shishak in 
the Egyptian dynasties. Some will have 
him to be the same as Sesonchis ; others Se- 
sostris, or Sesothis. Usher thinks him to 
be Sesonchis, and places the beginning of 
his reign in the year of the world 3026. 

This Shishak, or Sesac, according to Sir 
Isaac Newton, in his chronology of ancient 
kingdoms amended, was the greatest con- 
queror, and the most celebrated hero, of all 
antiquity, being the son of Ammon, or the 
Egyptian Jupiter, and known to the Greeks 
by the name of Bacchus, Osiris, and Her- 
cules ; was the Belus of the Chaldaeans, the 
Mars, or Mavors, of the Thracians, &c. He 
made great conquests in India, Assyria, 
Media, Scythia, Phenicia, Syria, Judea, &c. 
His army was at length routed in Greece by 
Perseus ; which disgrace, together with the 
attempts of his brother Danaus to usurp 
his kingdom in his absence, obliged him to 
return into Egypt in the ninth year of his 
expedition. From hence he drove his bro- 
ther Danaus, who took refuge in Gi-eece, 
and was there celebrated by the name of 
Neptune, Japetus, Tiphon, Pithon, &c. 

SHITTIM, a*iow, vaTTaiv, signifies that 
turn away, or divert ; otherwise scourges, rods, 
or thorns. Shittim was a sort of precious 
wood, of which Moses made the greater part 
of the tables, altars, and planks, belonging 
to the tabernacle. The Septuagint have 
rendered this word incorruptible wood. Je- 
rome says, the Shittim wood grows in the 
deserts of Arabia, and is like white-thorn 
as to its colour and leaves : but the tree is 
so large as to furnish very long planks. The 
wood is hard, tough, smooth, without knots, 
and extremely beautiful. It is thought that 
this wood is the black acacia, because, as 
they say, this is the only tree found growing 
in the deserts of Arabia. It is so hard and 
solid, as to become almost incorruptible. 
When cut, it is of the colour of a Lotos- 
tree, and planks are taken from it twelve 
cubits long. Its branches do not rise up 
in height ; its leaves are round and large, 
like those of a pear tree, soot-colour under- 
neath, and green above. 

Prosper Alpinus says, that the Acacia 
is called Sant by the Egyptians ; that it is 
found in Egypt, in places distant from the 
sea ; is very common about Mount Sinai, 
on the mountains which border on the 
Red Sea ; that it grows about as tall as a 
mulberry tree ; its trunk is of the thickness 
of a plumb-tree, its bark is black, rough, 
and covered with very sharp thorns. Its 
leaves are oblong, small, and very short. 
It bears a pale, yellowish, or white, flower. 
The male bears no fruit, but is close set 
963 



with thorns. The female bears fruit twice 
a year, and has much fewer thorns. This, 
they say, is the true description of the 
Acacia of Arabia. 

SHOSHAN'NIM, &:wv, signifies an in- 
strument of six strings. Shoshannim is a 
word in the titles of Psalms xlv. lxxx. which 
the Septuagint translate virep twv dXXoiw0rj- 
(TO[isvu>v, those that shall be changed ; Aquila, 
kiri to~iq KpivoiQ, the lilies ; Symmachus, V7rtp 
tCjv dv6u>v, the flowers. Le Clei'c takes this 
to signify only the master of a musical instru- 
ment, called shoshannim ; and Calmet thinks 
shoshannim to have been the name of a 
musical instrument of six strings, or a song 
of rejoicing. 

SHOULDER. To give or lend his shoul- 
der for bearing of a burden, signifies to 
submit to servitude, (Gen. xlix. 15.); ' Is- 
sachar bowed his shoulder to bear, and be- 
came a servant unto tribute.' The preacher 
advises his pupil to submit his shoulder to 
the yoke of wisdom. (Ecclus. vi. 26.) The 
Messiah has delivered his people from the rod, 
or from the yoke to which they were subject. 
(Isa. ix. 4.) The same prophet, (x. 27-) com- 
forting Israel with the promise of deliverance 
from Assyria, says, ' His burden shall be 
taken away from off* thy shoulder.' The Scrip- 
ture calls that a rebellious shoulder, a with- 
drawing shoulder, that will not submit to the 
yoke ; and those that bear it together with 
joint consent, ' serving with one shoulder.' 

Marks of honour and command were worn 
on the shoulder. Job (xxxi. 36.) desires of 
God to decide his cause : ' Surely I would 
take it upon my shoulder, and bind it as a 
crown to me.' Isaiah (ix. 6.) says, that the 
Messiah shall bear the insignia of his go- 
vernment on his shoulder. God promises 
Eliakim, the son of Hilkiah, to give him 
' the key of the house of David, and to lay 
it upon his shoulder.' 

' To be borne upon shoulders,' sometimes 
stands for a kind of honour and distinction. 
God says, that when he shall bring back his 
people from the captivity of Babylon, he 
will give a signal to the people, ' and they 
shall bring thy sons in their arms, and thy 
daughters shall be carried upon their shoul- 
ders.' (Isa. xlix. 22.) 

Sometimes, on the contrary, this denotes 
great weakness, great disgrace. God com- 
manded Ezekiel to make a breach in the 
wall, and carry out his goods thereby, on 
his shoulder, in the night-time; to repre- 
sent the taking of Jerusalem, and the capti- 
vity of the king and people. (Ezek. xii. 6, 7«) 

SHU'NAM, onir, signifies their change, 
their repealing ; otherwise, their second ; 
otherwise, sleep. 

Shu'namite, or Sunamite, a daughter, 
or woman, born at Shunem. This surname 
was given to Abishag, the spouse of David, 
married in his old age to keep him warm. 
(1 Kings i. 3. 15. ; ii. 17. 21, 22.) It was 
given also to the hostess of Elisha, who en- 
3 Q q 



SHU 



SHU 



tertained that prophet when he came to 
Shunem. (2 Kings iv. 12. 25. 36.) It is 
given to the spouse in Canticles (vi. 13.) by 
a corrupt reading of Sunamitis, instead of 
Sulamitis. 

SHU'SHAN, lunw, aovaoi, signifies the 
lily, or rose ; otherwise joyful. This word 
is met with in the title of Psalm lx. Cal- 
met takes it to be the name of a musical 
instrument of six strings. The Vulgate 
reads Pro his qui Immutabuntur. Le Clerc 
confesses his ignorance of the import of this 
word. 

Shushan, or Susan, the capital city of 
Susiana, or the country of Elam, that is, 
Persia. (Dan. viii. 2.) Daniel always calls 
it the Palace : ' I was at Shushan, in the 
palace ;' perhaps Shushan royal, because 
the kings of Chaldea had here a royal pa- 
lace. After Cyrus, the kings of Persia took 
a custom of passing the winter here, and the 
summer at Ecbatana. The winter was very 
moderate at Shushan, but the heat of the 
summer was so great that the very lizards 
and serpents, if surprised by it in the streets, 
were even burned up by the heat of the 
sun. This city stands upon the river Ulai. 
In this city, and on this river, Daniel had 
the vision of the ram with two horns, and 
the goat with one horn, &c, in the third 
year of the reign of Belshazzar (Dan. viii. 
1, 2, 3, &c), in the year of the world 3447. 

Also in this city of Shushan, the history 
of Esther happened. Here Ahasuerus, or 
Darius, the son af Hystaspes, generally re- 
sided and reigned. (Esther i. 1, 2. 5. &c.) 
Pliny says, he rebuilt Shushan, enlarged, 
and adorned it. Nehemiah was also at Shu- 
shan, when he obtained from king Arta- 
xerxes permission to return into Judea, and 
to repair the walls of Jerusalem. (Nehem. 
i. 1.) Benjamin of Tudela, and Abulfarage, 
place the tomb of Daniel at Chuzestan, 
which is the ancient city of Shushan, the 
capital of the province of Elam. 

Lightfoot says, that the outward gate of 
the eastern wall of the temple, was called 
the gate of Shushan, and that upon this 
gate was carved the figure of the city of 
Shushan, in acknowledgment of the de- 
cree granted at Shushan by Darius, son of 
Hystaspes, which permitted the rebuilding 
of the temple. Some, however, question 
whether this might not rather be the arms, 
or insignia, of the city Shushan, as, for in- 
stance, three lilies, proper. 

The modern name of this province, is 
Khuzistan, or Chuzestan, while that of the 
ruins of the capital is the same as before, 
being Shus or Shushan^ Mr. Macdonald 
Kinnier observes, that Shus is a Pehlivi 
word, signifying pleasant ; and that when 
Shapoor, the conqueror of Valerian, erected 
his royal city on the banks of the Karoon (not 
fifty miles from this ancient capital) he called 
it Shus-ter, which means, more pleasant. 

The ruins of Susa, in themselves, present 
964 



an appearance not at all unlike those of 
Babylon, being a succession of similar 
mounds, covered with fragments of bricks, 
tiles, &c. and stretching over a space of 
country to the extent often or twelve miles. 
Of these mounds two stand pre-eminent 
and of enormous expanse ; one being in 
circumference a mile, and the other nearly 
two; their height measures about 150 feet. 
They are composed of huge masses of sun- 
dried bricks, and courses of burnt brick and 
mortar, and stand not very far from the 
banks of the Kerrah, or Kara-Sou; from 
whose eastern shore the vestiges of this 
famous capital are yet traceable nearly to 
the banks of the Abzal, the river Euleus, 
or Ulai, approaching the town of Desphoul. 
The people of the country distinguish those 
two great mounds, by the names of the 
Castle and the Palace ; and at the foot of 
the largest appears a little dome-like build- 
ing, under which travellers are shown the 
tomb of the prophet Daniel. A dervise re- 
sides there, impressed with a belief of its 
peculiar sanctity, and points to the grave of 
the inspired son of Judah, with as much 
homage as if it belonged to one of his' own 
most respected imauns. Though covered 
by this modern structure, no doubt is held 
by Jew, Arab, or Mussulman, of the great 
antiquity of the tomb beneath ; all bearing 
the same tradition, that it indeed contains 
the remains of the prophet. 

Josephus mentions a famous edifice built 
by Daniel at Susa, in the manner of a 
castle, which, the Jewish historian adds, was 
remaining in his time, and had been finished 
with such wonderful art, that even then it 
seemed as fresh and beautiful as if only newly 
built. Within this edifice, he continues, 
was the place where the Persian and Par- 
thian kings used to be buried ; and for the 
sake of the founder, the keeping of it was 
committed to one of the Jewish nation, even 
at that day. It must be observed, that the 
copies of Josephus, now extant, do indeed 
place this building in Ecbatana in Media ; 
but St. Jerome, who also gives an account 
of it, and professes to do so word for word 
out of Josephus, places it in Susa in Persia; 
and this makes it plain, that the copy of 
Josephus, from which Jerome quoted, had it 
as he says. And this most likely is the true 
reading; for Susa having been within the Ba- 
bylonian empire (before it came into the pos- 
session of Cyrus), the Scriptures tell us that 
Daniel sometimes resided there ; and a com- 
mon tradition has existed in those parts for 
ages, that Daniel died in that city, and there 
they show his monument unto this day. Be- 
sides, it is to be observed, that Josephus calls 
this building ' Baris,' which is derived from 
the Chaldee berah, and which is often met with 
in the sense of a. palace, a great house enclosed 
on all sides, in the form of a tower, in the 
Hebrew books written after the captivity, 
as in the books of Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 



SID 



SIG 



and Esther. It is the same by which Daniel 
himself distinguishes the castle or palace of 
Shushan; for what we translate 'at Shushan 
in the palace,' (Dan. viii. 2.) is in the ori- 
ginal Besh Shushan Ha Birah : here, no doubt, 
the Birah of Daniel is the same as the Baris 
of Josephus, and both signify the palace or 
castle built at Shushan by Daniel, while 
governor of its pi'ovince. 

The site of Susa or Shushan, the once 
noble metropolis of the ancient princes of 
Elamis, is now a mere wilderness, given up 
to beasts of prey ; no human being disputing 
their reign, excepting the poor dervise who 
keeps watch over the tomb of the prophet. 
Sir R. K. Porter's Travels in Georgia, Persia, 
Sfc. ; vol. ii. pp. 411 — 414. 

SI'DON, p% signifies hunting, or craft; 
otherwise, food, or sustenance ; otherwise, the 
ship of the judge. Sidon, or Zidon, the 
eldest son of Canaan, (Gen. x. 15.) was 
founder of the very ancient city of Sidon, the 
capital of Phenicia. 

Sidon, or Zidon, a very ancient, and 
famous city, founded by Sidon the eldest 
son of Canaan. Strabo places Sidon four 
hundred stadia from Berytus, and two 
hundred from Tyre. 

The name Sidon is commonly derived from 
the Hebrew or Tyrian word mx, Zada, 
which signifies to fish. Joshua (xi. 8.) calls 
it Sidon the Great, by way of eminence. 
Hence some have taken occasion to say, 
that in his time there were two Sidons, a 
greater and a less. But no geographer has 
mentioned any other Sidon than Sidon the 
Great. Joshua assigned Sidon to the tribe 
of Asher, (Joshua xix. 28.); but this tribe 
could never get possession of it. (Judg. i. 
31.) It is situated on the Mediterranean, 
in a fine country, one day's journey from 
Paneas, or from the fountains of Jordan. It 
has a fine harbour. Abulfeda places it 
sixty miles from Damascus. This city has 
been always famous for its great trade and 
navigation. At present it is called Saide. 
There are extant some ancient medals of 
Sidon, on which are seen ancient Pheni- 
cian characters, which are the same as the 
Hebrew characters before the captivity of 
Babylon. The principal deities of the 
Sidonians were Baal and Astarte, or, the 
sun, and moon, also Hercules. The He- 
brews often fell into the idolatry of the 
Phenicians, especially after Ahab, king of 
Israel, married Jezebel, the daughter of 
Eshbaal, king of the Zidonians. (I Kings 
xvi. 31.) There is frequent mention of this 
city in the Scriptures. 

The following is Volney's account of 
Sidon : 'As we return to the sea coast, 
we must first remark Saide, the degenerate 
offspring of ancient Sidon. This town, for- 
merly the residence of the pacha, is, like 
all the Turkish towns, ill-built, and full of 
modern ruins. Saide is a considerable 
trading town, and is the chief emporium of 
965 



Damascus, and the interior country. The 
French, who are the only Europeans to be 
found there, have a consul, and five or six 
commercial houses. The exports consist in 
silk; and particularly in raw and spun cot- 
ton. The manufacture of this cotton is the 
principal art of the inhabitants, the number 
of whom may be estimated at about five 
thousand.' 

The city, as it exists at present, rises im- 
mediately from the strand ; and, when seen 
from a slight distance, presents a rather im- 
posing appearance. The interior, however, 
is wretched and gloomy. ' About half-way 
between Saide (or Sidon) and Soor (or Sour, 
Tyre) are very extensive ruins of towns 
which once connected these two cities ; but 
of these ruins there is now scarcely one 
stone left upon another. They consist chiefly 
of lines which show, rased even with the 
soil, the foundation of houses — many stones 
irregularly scattered — a few cisterns with 
half-defaced sculpture on them ; and, at a 
considerable distance from the path, there 
are at one spot several low columns, either 
mutilated or considerably sunk in the earth. 
These relics show, what it needed, indeed, no 
such evidence to prove, that in peaceable 
and flourishing times, on this road between 
two such considerable cities as Tyre and 
Sidon, there must have been many smaller 
towns for business, pleasure, and agricul- 
ture, delightfully situated by the sea-side; 
but peaceful security has long been a bless- 
ing unknown to these regions ; and we may 
apply to them the language of Judges (v. 7-) 
' The villages ceased ; they ceased in Israel.' 
Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria, pp. 
129, 130 ; Home's Introduction, vol. iii. p. 
623 ; Taylor's Sacred Geography ; Volney's 
Travels, vol. ii. p. 207- 

SIGN. This word is taken for whatever 
serves to express, or represent, another 
thing; as, when God gave to Noah the rain- 
bow, as a sign of his covenant, (Gen. ix. 12, 
13.): when he appointed circumcision to. 
Abraham, as the seal of the covenant made 
with him and his posterity. (Gen. xvii. 11.) 
The sun and the moon are appointed by 
God for signs and seasons. It is often ren- 
dered token in the English translation. 
(Gen. i. 14.) 

2. Sign is put for a miracle : Thou shalt 
do these signs and wonders, in the midst of 
Egypt, says the Lord to Moses, (Exod. iv. 
7, 8, 9.); and if the Egyptians do not be- 
lieve the first sign, they will believe the se- 
cond, &c. The word sign is very frequent 
in this sense, in Scripture. 

3. Sign, or token, is often put for the 
proof, or evidence, of a thing : so, (Exod. 
iii. 12.) ' This shall be a token (or sign) 
unto thee, that I have sent thee.' ' Show 
me a sign, that thou talkest with me,' that 
is, a proof. (Judg. vi. 17.) ' What shall 
be the sign (or evidence) that the Lord will 
heal me?' (2 Kings xx. 8.) This accepta- 



SIH 



SIL 



tion agrees with the first mentioned; also, 
(Gen. iv. 15.) 'And the Lord set a mark 
(a sign) upon Cain ;' he put a token upon 
him that he might be known, or rather, ac- 
cording to Shuckford, lie gave him a sign 
of security to ease his mind. 

4. Signs of Heaven ; signs of the Magi- 
cians ; phenomena of the heavens ; impos- 
tures of magicians, which they use to de- 
ceive the unwary. ' The Lord frustrateth 
the tokens (or signs) of the liars, and maketh 
diviners mad.' (Isaiah xliv. 25.) And in 
Jeremiah, (x. 2.) ' Be not dismayed at the 
signs of Heaven, for the heathen are dis- 
mayed at them.' 

5. ' Behold I and the children whom the 
Lord hath given me, are for signs and for 
wonders in Israel,' (Isaiah viii. 18.); that 
is, what shall happen to me shall be a pro- 
phetic similitude of what shall happen to 
the people. (Ezekiel iv. 3.) The Lord 
pours down his vengeance upon sinners, 
and makes them a sign, as a public and 
sensible proof of his wrath. (Ezek. xiv. 
8.) 

SI'HON, 7"UTD, signifies rooting out; 
otherwise, conclusion. Sihon, king of the 
Amorites, not only refusing passage to the 
Hebrews, but coming to attack them, was 
slain, and his army routed. (Numb. xxi. 
21, 22. Deut. i. 4. 11. 24. 26. 30. Psalm 
cxxxv. 11.; cxxxvi. 19.) Heshbon his ca- 
pital city was taken, and his dominions were 
distributed among Israel. This war hap- 
pened in the last year of Moses's life, some 
months before the Israelites entered the 
Land of Promise ; in the year of the world 
2553. Moses observes, that Sihon had made 
a conquest from the Moabites, of the best 
part of the country he then possessed, and 
had settled himself in their place. On this 
account, in the time of Jephthah, the Am- 
monites and Moabites demanded that coun- 
try which Israel had formerly conquered 
from Sihon, pretending it belonged to them. 
(Judg. xi. 12, 13, 14.) But Jephthah an- 
swered, that Moses and the Hebrews having 
taken it from Sihon, who was then in peace- 
able possession of it, and having conquered 
it in a fair war, it belonged to Israel, and 
that neither Moab nor Ammon had any 
right to it. 

SI'HOR, mrVtf', ffvwp, signifies black, trou- 
ble, or early in the morning. Sihor, or Si- 
chor, is a name of the Nile. (Josh. xiii. 
3.) The water of the Nile is generally tur- 
bid. 

Sihor is thought to be a city in the 
western part of the tribe of Asher. It can- 
not be far from Carmel. Reland imagines 
that this may be the city, or the river, of 
Crocodiles, which Pliny and Strabo place 
in this country. Strabo says, it' is between 
Ptolemais and the Tower of Straton, or Cae- 
sarea of Palestine. The Hebrew reads 
Shihor-libnath, (Josh. xix. 26.) ; and Calmet 
thinks Libnath to be the white promontory 
966 



between Ecdippe and Tyre, and Sihor to be 
a rivulet in this neighbourhood. 

SI'LAS, *2ikag, signifies the third. It is 
thought to be the same as Silvanus, which 
signifies one that loves the woods or forests. 
Silas, or Silvanus. was, according to St. 
Luke, (Acts. xv. 22.) one of the chief men 
among the brethren ; which gives room to 
judge, that he was of the number of the se- 
venty. When a dispute was raised at An- 
tioch, about the observance of the legal ce- 
remonies, they chose Paul, Barnabas, Judas, 
and Silas, to go to Jerusalem, to advise with 
the apostles on this question. He is be- 
lieved by Hieron, to be the same Silas, 
mentioned by the name of Silvanus, in the 
two Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalo- 
nians. St. Peter sent his first Epistle by 
him from Rome, in which he entitles him a 
faithful brother. Silas joined himself to St. 
Paul ; and, after Paul and Barnabas had 
parted on account of John Mark, (Acts 
xv. 37 — 41.) Silas went with St. Paul, to 
visit the churches of Syria and Cilicia. 
Thence they passed into Lycaonia, Phrygia, 
and Galatia ; and lastly, they crossed the 
sea, and came into Macedonia. 

At Philippi, they found a woman who 
was possessed with a spirit of Python, from 
which St. Paul dispossessed her. Her mas- 
ters, therefore, seized Paul and Silas, 
dragged them before the magistrates, and 
accused them of introducing customs con- 
trary to those of the Romans. The magis- 
trates ordered Paul and Silas to be publicly 
whipped and imprisoned. In the night 
there was a great earthquake ; and the gaol or 
was converted, and received baptism with 
his whole family. The day following the 
magistrates sent orders to liberate Paul and 
Silas ; but Paul replied, that Roman citi- 
zens were not to be used thus, and that the 
magistrates themselves should come and 
liberate them. These words of St. Paul 
give room to judge that Silas also was a 
freeman of Rome. 

From Philippi they went to Thessalonica 
and Berea ; St. Paul proceeding to Athens, 
he sent for Silas thither, who however did 
not join him again till they met at Corinth, 
in the year of Christ 52 ; here they wrote 
the two Epistles to the Thessalonians. Silas 
was very useful to him in preaching the 
Gospel. (2 Cor. i. 19.) The Greeks im- 
properly distinguish between Silas and Sil- 
vanus. Some refer to Silas what St. Paul 
says to the Corinthians, (2 Cor. viii. 18, 
19.) : ' And we have sent with him the bro- 
ther, whose praise is in the Gospel through- 
out all the churches ; and not that only, but 
who was also chosen of the churches to tra- 
vel with us with this grace, which is admi- 
nistered by us to the glory of the same 
Lord/ &c. Some have thought that Silas 
was the same as the evangelist St. Luke ; 
Silas referring to woods, and Lucus to 



S1L 



SIM 



SILOAM, nbu>, <Jt\u>afi y or Shiloah, sig- 
nifies sent, or who sends ; otherwise, dart, 
branch, or whatever is sent ; otherwise, ac- 
cording to the Syriac, that spoils, or is 
spoiled. Siloam, says Calmet, was a foun- 
tain under the walls of Jerusalem, east, be- 
tween the city and the brook Kidron. Epi- 
phanius writes, that God gave this fountain 
at the intercession of the prophet Isaiah. 
But it was in being long before this pro- 
phet ; and there is great probability that it 
is the same as the fountain En-rogel, or the 
fuller's fountain in Joshua, Samuel, and the 
Kings. (Josh. xv. 7- ; xviii. 16. 2 Sam. 
xvii. 17- 1 Kings i. 9.) The situation of 
the fountain of Rogel east of, and below, 
the walls of Jerusalem, the same as the 
fountain of Siloam, convinces us that it 
must be the same fountain ; for there was 
but one on this side. Josephus often speaks 
of the waters of Siloe, or Siloam ; he says, 
that, when Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jeru- 
salem, this fountain increased its waters; 
and that the same happened when Titus 
besieged the city. So that whereas before, 
water could hardly be bought for money, 
during the siege it abundantly supplied the 
Roman army, and was besides sufficient for 
watering the gardens. 

Reland says that there was a custom of 
drawing water out of the fountain of Siloam, 
and pouring it out before the Lord, in the 
temple, at the time of evening sacrifice; to 
which there seems to be some allusion in 
John vii. 37. A learned writer is of opi- 
nion, that Siloam was the nearest fountain 
to the temple, and not far from it. The 
man blind from his birth, was directed by 
our Lord to ' wash in the pool of Siloam.' 
Now if, observes this writer, our Lord went 
out of the temple by one of the western gates 
into the city, then he might meet with this 
blind man pretty close to the temple ; and 
most likely he sent him to Siloam, as the 
nearest fountain in which he might wash ; 
so that there was no affectation in our 
Lord's conduct (such as directing him 
through the most public streets, &c. of the 
city, in order to give this cure the greater 
publicity, &c.) but a simplicity, readiness, 
and neatness, very agreeable to his general 
character; while, at the same time, it conti- 
nued that allusion to the benefits derivable 
from the pool of Siloam, which is by inter- 
pretation sent. 

' Having descended Mount Sion,' says 
Chateaubriand, ' on the east side, we came 
at its foot, to the fountain and pool of Siloe, 
where Christ restored sight to the blind 
man. The spring issues from a rock, and 
runs in a silent stream, according to the tes- 
timony of Jeremiah, which is contradicted 
by a passage of St. Jerome. It has a kind 
of ebb and flood, sometimes discharging its 
current like the fountain of Vaucluse, at 
others retaining and scarcely suffering it to 
run at all. The pool, or rather the two 
067 



pools of the same name, are quite close to 
the spring. They are still used for washing 
linen as formerly. The water of the spring 
is brackish, and has a very disagreeable 
taste ; people still bathe their eyes with it, 
in memory of the miracle performed on the 
man born blind.' 

' The pool of Siloam,' says Mr. Bucking- 
ham, ' is now a dirty little brook, with 
scarcely any water in it ; and even in the 
rainy season, it is said to be an insignificant 
muddy stream. The illusion created by 
Milton's sublime invocation to it, in the 
opening of the Paradise Lost, is entirely 
done away by the sight of the spot itself' 
Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, vol. i. p. 
291 ; Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece, Pa- 
lestine, Egypt, and Barbary, vol. ii. pp. 34 
— 36 ; Fragments annexed to Calmet' s Dic- 
tionary of the Holy Bible, No. cxl. p. 83. 

The Tower of Siloam, (Luke xiii. 4.) It 
is said that the Tower of Siloam fell upon 
eighteen men, and buried them in its ruins. 
It is thought this Tower was near the foun- 
tain of Siloam. 

SILVER. This metal does not appear 
to have been used before the Deluge ; at 
least, Moses says nothing of it ; he speaks 
only of brass and iron, (Gen. iv. 22) : but 
in Abraham's time it was become common, 
and traffic was carried on by it. (Gen. xiii. 
2.) The Scripture observes, that this pa- 
triarch was rich in gold and silver ; that he 
bought a sepulchre for his wife Sarah for 
four hundred shekels of silver. (Gen..xxiii. 
15.) This silver (apparently) was not 
coined, but was in bars or ingots ; in com- 
merce it was always weighed. 

SIM'EON, pi/ou', signifies that hears, 
that obeys, or is heard. Simeon, son of Ja- 
cob and Leah, was born in the year of the 
world 2247. (Gen. xxix. 33.) He was 
brother to Dinah by the same mother; and 
after Shechem, the son of Hamor, had de- 
filed Dinah, Simeon and Levi revenged the 
affront, entered Shechem, killed all the men 
they found, and brought away their sister, 
(Gen. xxxiv. 25.) in the year of the world 
2265. It is thought Simeon was one who 
showed most inhumanity to his brother Jo- 
seph ; and advised his brethren to kill him. 
(Gen. xxxvii. 20.) This conjecture is 
founded on Joseph's keeping him prisoner 
in Egypt, (Gen. xiii. 24.) and treating him 
with more rigour than the rest of his bre- 
thren. Jacob, on his death-bed, showed his 
indignation against Simeon and Levi : — 
', Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce, and 
their wrath for it was cruel : I will divide 
them in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel.' 
(Gen. xlix. 5.) 

In effect, the tribes of Simoon and Levi 
were scattered and dispersed in Israel : 
Levi had no compact lot or portion ; and 
Simeon received for his portion only a dis- 
trict dismembered from the tribe of Judah, 
(Josh. xix. 1, 2, &c.) and some other lands 



SIM 



SIM 



they over-run in the mountains of Seir, and 
in the desert of Gedor. (1 Chron. iv. 24. 
39. 42.) The Targum of Jerusalem, and the 
Rabbins, followed by some ancient fathers, 
believe that the greater part of the Scribes 
and men learned in the law were of this 
tribe: and as these were dispersed through- 
out Israel, we see in this the accomplish- 
ment of Jacob's prophecy, which foretold 
that Simeon and Levi should be scattered 
among their brethren. Perhaps Jacob 
meant the dispersion of Simeon and Levi as 
an evil, a degradation ; but Providence over- 
ruled it to be an honour : so Levi had the 
priesthood, and Simeon had the learning — 
or writing-authority, of Israel, whereby 
both these tribes were honourably dispersed 
throughout Israel. Judith (ix. 2.) seems to 
vindicate this notion of Simeon ; but she 
approved only of his zeal, and not of the 
other circumstances of the action. 

The Testament of the twelve patriarchs 
intimates, that Simeon died at the age of 
one hundred and twenty years ; that he was 
a man of an intrepid, implacable, and severe 
temper. 

The sons of Simeon were Jemuel, Jamin, 
Ohad, Jachin, Zohar, and Shaul. (Exod. vi. 
15.) Their descendants amounted to 59,300 
men, at the coming out of Egypt (Numb. i. 
22.) ; but only 22,200 entered the Land of 
Promise, the rest dying in the desert, be- 
cause of their murmurings and impiety. 
(Numb. xxvi. 14.) The portion of Simeon 
was west and south of that of Judah ; having 
the tribe of Dan and the Philistines north, 
the Mediterranean west, and Arabia Petraea 
south. (Josh. xix. 1 — 9.) 

Simeon, an holy old man who was at Je- 
rusalem, full of the Holy Ghost, and ex- 
pecting the redemption of Israel. (Luke ii. 
25, 26, &c.) The Holy Ghost had assured 
him, that he should not die before he had 
seen the Christ of the Lord ; he therefore 
came into the temple, prompted by inspira- 
tion, just at the time when Joseph and Mary 
presented Jesus Christ there, in obedience 
to the law. Simeon took the child into his 
arms, gave thanks to God, &c. After this, 
Simeon blessed Joseph and Mary. It is 
believed, with good reason, that he died soon 
after he had given his testimony to Jesus 
Christ. 

It has been pretended, that Simeon, who 
received Jesus Christ into his arms, was the 
same as Simeon the Just, the son of Hillel, 
and master of Gamaliel, whose disciple St. 
Paul was. It is also said, that as Simeon 
one day was explaining that passage of 
Isaiah, ' A virgin shall conceive, and bring 
forth a son,' &c. and not being able to pene- 
trate this mystery, it was revealed to him, 
that he should not die before he had seen 
the accomplishment of it. 

SI'MON, 2<juwi>, signifies that hears or 
obeys. Simon Maccabjeus, surnamed Thas- 
si, was son of Mattathias, and brother of 
968 



Judas and Jonathan. He was chief, prince, 
and pontiff of the Jews, from the year of 
the world 3860 to 3869. He had for his 
successor John Hyrcanus his son. Matta- 
thias, the father of the Maccabees, just be- 
fore his death, said to his other sons, ' I 
know that your brother Simon is a man of 
counsel ; give ear unto him alway, he shall 
be a father unto you.' He gave proofs of 
his valour in the battle between Judas Mac- 
cabseus and Nicanor. (2 Mace, viii 22, 23.) 
On another occasion (2 Mace. xiv. 17-), Si- 
mon was sent into Galilee, to succour the 
Jews there, who were threatened with de- 
struction by the inhabitants of Tyre, Sidon, 
and Ptolemais. Simon obtained a great 
booty, brought into Judea the Israelites that 
were in Galilee, and returned triumphant. 
He again signalized his valour in the battle 
between his brother Jonathan and Apollo- 
nius, the governor of Ccelo-Syria, whom they 
defeated, and killed above eight thousand of 
his men. Simon was made governor of the 
whole coast of the Mediterranean Sea, from 
Tyre to the frontiers of Egypt, by the young 
king Antiochus Theos. He also took Beth- 
sura and Joppa, and built Adida, in the 
plain called Sephale. All these things he 
did while his brother Jonathan was chief 
and high priest of the Jews. (1 Mace. x. 82 ; 
xii. 33. 48, &c.) 

But Jonathan being surprised by Tryphon, 
and a report being spread that he was put to 
death, Simon came to Jerusalem, and having 
assembled all the people, they chose him as 
their chief. Then Simon had the walls of 
Jerusalem repaired ; and knowing that Try- 
phon was coming into Judea with a great 
army, he marched out, resolving to give him 
battle. 

When Tryphon came to Bascama, he 
there slew Jonathan and his two sons, and 
then returned into Syria. Simon fetched 
away the bones of his brother, and buried 
them honourably, at Modin, in the sepulchre 
of his fathers ; which he adorned with pil- 
lars, pyramids, and trophies of sculpture. 

Tryphon, coming into Syria, there killed 
the young king Antiochus, and usurped his 
kingdom. Simon Maccabseus would not 
acknowledge him, but his competitor, De- 
metrius Nicator, as king of Syria ; to whom 
he applied for confirming the ancient fran- 
chises of Judea, and for freedom from 
tribute. Demetrius granted Simon more 
than he asked ; so that this year, which was 
the hundred and seventieth of the Greeks, 
he began to write on the tables and public 
registers, ' The first year under Simon, sove- 
reign pontiff, chief, and prince of the Jews.' 
After this he took Gaza ; and the Syrians 
that were in the citadel of Jerusalem capi- 
tulated to him. He appointed an annual 
festival in commemoration of the reduction 
of this fortress ; which had been so long in 
the hands of foreigners. 

All Israel beheld with pleasure the pru- 



SIM 



SIM 



dent administration of this great man. His 
whole study was to advance the happiness of 
his nation, and to render it prosperous and 
secure. He took Joppa, and made a har- 
bour of it, to improve the trade of the Jews, 
and every way extended the limits of his 
country. 

He renewed the alliance of the Jews with 
the Romans and with the Lacedaemonians. 
The whole Jewish nation concurred in re- 
gistering a public act, by which they ac- 
knowledged their obligations to Simon and 
his family, and recognised him and his chil- 
dren as perpetual prince and pontiff of their 
nation, till a faithful prophet should arise 
from among them. They ordered that he 
should be obeyed in all things, that all public 
acts should pass in his name, that he should 
he clothed in purple, and adorned with gold. 
This declaration was written upon a table 
of brass, and placed in the galleries of the 
temple. 

Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria, son of 
Demetrius Soter, and brother to Demetrius 
Nicator, being informed that Demetrius 
Nicator was taken by the Parthians, wrote 
to Simon from the Isle of Rhodes, to engage 
him on his side against Tryphon. He con- 
firmed to him whatever had been granted 
by Demetrius Nicator, allowed him the pri- 
vilege of coining money, remitted to him all 
debts owing to the kings of Syria, and declared 
Jerusalem to be a free and an holy city. 
Simon sent him men and money to assist 
him in the reduction of Dora; in which 
Tryphon had shut himself up. But Antio- 
chus would not receive them, nor would he 
confirm the articles of his treaty with Simon. 
He even sent Athenobius to him, to demand 
the surrender of several places, or a thou- 
sand talents of silver ; threatening, in case 
of refusal, to enter Judea with troops, and to 
treat him as an enemy. Simon, not dis- 
couraged by his threats, answered that he 
had usurped nothing from him, but had only 
taken possession of the inheritance of his 
fathers. He offered an hundred talents for 
the city of Joppa and Gazara, of which he 
had made himself master, because they oc- 
casioned great calamities to his country. 

Antiochus sent Cendebeus with an army 
on the coasts of the Mediterranean ; but 
Cendebeus was defeated by John Hyrcanus, 
son of Simon. Three years afterwards, Si- 
mon visited the cities of Judea, and came to 
the castle of Docus, or Dagon ; where his 
son-in-law Ptolemy.son of Ambubus, resided. 
Ptolemy made him a great entertainment ; 
but in the midst of it caused him to be mas- 
sacred, with his two sons, Mattathias and 
Judas, hoping by this to make himself 
master of Jerusalem and the whole country. 
But John Hyrcanus was beforehand with 
him, and came first to Jerusalem. 

Simon, the Cyrenean. "When Jesus Christ 
was going to Calvary, and unable to bear the 
weight of his cross, the soldiers met a man, 
969 



a native of Cyrene in Libya, named Simon, 
who was father of Alexander and Rufus, 
whom they compelled to carry the cross 
after Jesus ; that is, to carry it whole and 
entire according to some ; according to 
others, to carry one end of it with Jesus ; 
according to others, to carry the cross beam. 
(Matt.xxvii. 32. Mark xv. 21.) It is asked, 
whether Simon was a Jew or a Pagan ? Se- 
veral fathers thought him a Gentile, and 
considered him as a type of that idolatrous 
people, which afterwards should be called to 
the profession of the Gospel, and to carry 
the cross after Christ. 

Simon, the Canaanite, or Simon Zelotes, 
an apostle of Jesus Christ It is doubtful 
whether the name of Canaanite was derived 
to him from the city Cana in Galilee ; or 
whether it might not be written Chananean, 
or Canaanite ; or, lastly, whether it should 
not be taken according to its signification in 
the Hebrew, by deriving it from the root 
Kana, to be zealous. St. Luke (vi. 15. 
Acts i. 13.) gives him the surname of Ze- 
lotes, the zealous or zealot, which, says, 
Calmet, seems to be the translation of the 
surname Canaanite, given by the other 
evangelists. (Matt. x. 4. Mark iii. 18.) 
Some fathers say, he was of Cana, of the 
tribe of Zebulun or Naphtali. The learned 
are still divided about the signification of 
the term Zelotes, what it may denote. Some 
take it only for the zeal he showed in em- 
bracing the Gospel of Jesus Christ ; others 
think he was of a certain sect called Zealots, 
of which mention is made in Josephus. 

Simon, brother of our Lord, (Matt. xiii. 
55. Mark vi. 3.) that is to say, his cousin- 
german, and son of Mary, the sister of the 
Holy Virgin. Calmet believes him to be 
the same as Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, 
and son of Cleophas. 

Simon, the Pharisee, with whom Jesus 
dined after he had raised the child of the 
widow of Nain. (Luke vii. 36, 37, &c.) 
While he was at table with Simon, a woman 
noted for her ill life, entered the room, 
poured out a box of perfume on the feet of 
Jesus, wiped them with her hair, washed 
them with her tears, &c. Simon seeing 
this, was astonished at it, but was reproved 
by Jesus, who forgave the sinner, but con- 
demned the unforgiving Pharisee by a simi- 
litude. 

Simon the Leper, dwelt at Bethany, near 
Jerusalem. (Matt. xxvi. 6. Mark xiv. 3. 
John xi. 1, 2. ; xii. 3, 4, 5.) Jesus coming 
thither a few days before his passion, was 
invited by Simon the Leper to eat with 
him. Lazarus, whom our Saviour had 
raised from the dead some time before, was 
at table with them. Martha, his sister, wag 
very busy in attending on them; and Mary, 
his other sister, to show her love and respect 
for our Saviour, brought a box of perfumes, 
which she poured on his feet. This enter- 
tainment is very different from that at which 



SIM 



SIN 



our Saviour had been about two years be- 
fore, in the house of Simon the Pharisee ; 
as Mary the sister of Lazarus was a dif- 
ferent person from the sinner-woman of 
Nain. 

Simon Magus, or the Sorcerer, was, as is 
said, of the village of Gitton, in the- country 
of Samaria. Philip the deacon coming to 
preach at Samaria, (Acts viii. 5 — 13.) con- 
verted several persons, and this Simon, also 
believed, and was baptized. The apostles 
Peter and John visiting Samaria, commu- 
nicated the Holy Ghost to those baptized 
by Philip ; on which Simon, full of admira- 
tion, offered money to the apostles, saying, 
' Give me also this power.' But Peter said 
to him with great indignation, ' Thy money 
perish with thee : thou art in the gall of 
bitterness, and in the bond of iniquity.' 
Simon made answer, ' Pray ye to the Lord 
for me.' 

St. Luke adds, (Acts viii. 9, 10, 11.) that 
Simon had addicted himself to magic before 
Philip came to Samaria, and, by his im- 
postures and enchantments, had seduced 
the people of this city, who said, ' This man 
is the great power of God.' 

But after St. Peter had rejected, with 
horror, his proposal of selling the power of 
imparting the Holy Ghost, Simon fell into 
much greater errors and abominations ; ap- 
plying himself to magic more than ever, 
taking pride in withstanding the apostles, 
and infecting a great number of persons 
with his impious errors. For this purpose 
it is said he left Samaria, and travelled 
through several provinces ; seeking places 
where the Gospel had not yet reached, that 
he might prejudice the minds of men against 
it. 

At Tyre, in Phenicia, says Theodoret, 
he bought a public prostitute, called Selene 
or Helene, and carried her with him, com- 
mitting crimes in secret with her. Having 
run through several provinces, and made 
himself admired by vast numbers of 
persons for his false miracles and im- 
postures, he came to Rome in the time of 
the emperor Claudius, about A.D. 41. It 
is said he was honoured as a deity by the 
Romans, and by the senate itself, who de- 
creed a statue to him, in the isle of Tyber, 
with this inscription, — ' To Simon the holy 
God.' Several other apocryphal stories are 
related concerning Simon Magus, which it 
is thought unnecessary to repeat. 

As to the heresies of Simon, besides 
those imputed to him, (Acts viii. 10.) the 
fathers accuse him of pretending to be the 
great power of God, and that he came down 
as the Father in respect of the Samaritans, 
as the Son in respect of the Jews, and as the 
Holy Ghost in respect of the Gentiles : but 
that it is indifferent which of these names he 
went by. St. Jerome quotes these blasphe- 
mous expressions out of one of his books : 
' I am the word of God, I am the beauty of 
1)70 



God, I am the Comforter, 1 am the Almighty, 
I am the whole essence of God.' He was 
the inventor of the Eons, which were as so 
many persons, of whom they composed their 
deity. His Helen he called the first intel- 
ligence, the mother of all things ; he some- 
times called her the Holy Ghost, Prunica, 
or Minerva. He said, that by this first in- 
telligence he had originally a design of cre- 
ating the angels ; but that she, knowing this 
will of her father, had descended lower, and 
had produced the angels, and the ' other 
spiritual powers, to whom she had given no 
knowledge of her father; that these angels 
and powers had afterwards made angels and 
men : that Helen had passed successively 
into the bodies of women, and among others, 
into that of Helen, the wife of Menelaus, 
who occasioned the war of Troy ; and that 
she had at last descended into the body of 
this Helen of Tyre. 

He did not acknowledge Jesus Christ 
as Son of God, but considered him as a 
rival, and pretended himself to be the 
Christ. He believed not the resurrection 
of the body, but barely a resurrection of 
the soul. He taught that men need not 
trouble themselves about good works, for 
all actions were indifferent, and that the 
distinction of actions into good and evil, 
was only introduced by the angels, to ren- 
der men subject to them. He rejected the 
law of Moses, and said he was come to 
abolish it. He ascribed the Old Testament 
to the angels ; and though he every where 
declared himself an enemy to angels, yet 
he paid them an idolatrous worship, pre- 
tending men could not be saved without 
offering to the supreme Father abominable 
sacrifices, by means of the principalities 
that he placed in each heaven. He offered 
them his sacrifices, not to obtain assistance 
from them, but to prevail with them that 
they might not oppose men. Simon formed 
a sect of heretics, which were called Simo- 
nians. 

SIN, yv, signifies bush. Sin, or Zin, 
was a city, and desert south of the Holy 
Land, in Arabia Petrea : it gave name to 
the wilderness of Sin. The Scripture dis- 
tinguishes two cities, and two deserts of Sin, 
one is writ yv, sin, with samech : the other 
ya, tzin, with tzade. 

The first was near Egypt and the Red 
Sea. The Hebrews were no sooner out of 
this sea, than they were in the wilderness of 
Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai. 
(Exod. xvi. 1.; xvii. 1.) Here God rained 
manna on them. 

The second is also south of Palestine, 
but toward the Dead Sea. Kadesh was in 
the desert of Zin, (Deut. xxxii. 51.); from 
this wilderness they sent out the spies. 
Here Moses and Aaron offended the Lord, 
at the waters of strife. (Numb. xiii. 21.) 
The land of Canaan and the tribe of Judah 
had the desert of Zin, or Zina, for their 



SIN 



SIN 



southern limit. (Numb, xxvii. 14. ; xxxiv. 3. 
Josh. xv. 3.) 

SIN is any thought, word, action, 
omission, or desire, contrary to the law of 
God. God was not the author of sin, or of 
death ; but sin and death entered into the 
world hy the malice of the devil. (James 
i. 13.) Adam by his disobedience ren- 
dered us all guilty in the eyes of God ; his 
sin merited death for us ; he is the cause 
that we are all born children of iniquity, and 
that we are inclined to evil from the womb. 
Jesus Christ, by his death, hath restored life 
to us ; his obedience has reconciled us to 
God ; he has merited for us the character of 
children of God. 

Sin against the Holy Ghost, is differently 
explained by different interpreters. ' The 
sin or blasphemy against the Holy Ghost,' 
says Bishop Tomline, ' is mentioned in 
the first three Gospels. It appears, that all 
the three evangelists agree in representing 
the sin of blasphemy against the Holy 
Ghost as a crime which would not be for- 
given ; but no one of them affirms that those, 
who had ascribed Christ's power of casting 
out devils to Beelzebub, had been guilty of 
that sin, and in St. Luke it is not men- 
tioned that any such charge had been made. 
Our Saviour, according to the account in 
St. Matthew and St. Mark, endeavoured to 
convince the Jews of their error ; but so far 
from accusing them of having committed 
an unpardonable sin in what they had said 
concerning him, he declares that, 'Whoso- 
ever speaketh a word against the Son of 
man, it shall be forgiven him,' that is, 
whatever reproaches men may utter against 
the Son of man during his ministry, how- 
ever they may calumniate the authority 
upon which he acts, it is still possible that 
hereafter they may repent and believe, and 
all their sins may be forgiven them ; but 
the reviling of the Holy Ghost is described 
as an offence of a far more heinous nature : 
' The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost 
shall not be forgiven unto men.' — ' He that 
shall blaspheme against the Holy Ghost, 
hath never forgiveness.' — ' Unto him that 
blasphemeth against the Holy Ghost, it 
shall not be forgiven.' It is plain that this 
sin against the Holy Ghost could not be 
committed while our Saviour was upon 
earth, since he always speaks of the Holy 
Ghost as not being to come till after his 
ascension into heaven. A few days after 
that great event, the descent of the Holy 
Ghost enabled the Apostles to work mira- 
cles, and communicated to them a variety 
of other supernatural gifts. If men should 
ascribe these powers to Beelzebub, or in 
any respect reject their authority, they 
would blaspheme the Holy Ghost, from 
whom they were derived ; and that sin 
would be unpardonable, because this was 
the completion of the evidence of the divine 
authority of Christ and his religion ; and 
971 



they who rejected these last means of con- 
viction, could have no other opportunity 
of being brought to faith in Christ, the only 
appointed condition of pardon and forgive- 
ness. The greater heinousness of the sin of 
these men would consist in their rejecting 
a greater body of testimony ; for they are 
supposed to be acquainted with the resur- 
rection of our Saviour from the dead, with 
his ascension into heaven, with the miracu- 
lous descent of the Holy Ghost, and with 
the supernatural powers which it commu- 
nicated; circumstances, all of which were en- 
forced by the apostles when they preached 
the Gospel ; but none of which could be 
known to those who refused to acknowledge 
Jesus as the Messiah, during his actual 
ministry. Though this was a great sin, it 
was not an unpardonable one, it might be 
atoned for by subsequent belief, by yielding 
to subsequent testimony. But, on the other 
hand, they who finally rejected the accu- 
mulated and complete evidence of Jesus 
being the Messiah, as exhibited by the in- 
spired apostles, precluded themselves from 
the possibility of conviction, because no 
farther testimony would be afforded them, 
and consequently, there being no means of 
repentance, they would be incapable of for- 
giveness and redemption. Hence it ap- 
pears, that the sin against the Holy Ghost 
consisted in finally rejecting the Gospel, as 
preached by the apostles, who confirmed 
the truth of the doctrine which they taught 
' by signs and wonders, and divers miracles 
and gifts of the Holy Ghost.' (Heb. ii. 4.) 
It was unpardonable, because this was the 
consummation of the proofs afforded to men 
of that generation of the divine mission of 
Christ. This sin was manifestly distinct 
from all other sins ; it indicated an invin- 
cible obstinacy of mind, an impious and 
unalterable determination to refuse the of- 
fered mercy of God.' 

Dr. Doddridge thus paraphrases the 
passages on this subject in the Gospels of 
St. Matthew and St. Mark : ' I therefore 
give you the most solemn and compassion- 
ate warning of your danger, for you are 
on the brink of a most dreadful precipice. 
That malignity of heart which leads you to 
ascribe these works of mine to a confede- 
racy with Satan, may incline you to pass the 
same impious sentence on the greatest and 
fullest confirmation which is to be given to 
my Gospel by the effusion of the Spirit on 
my followers ; and therefore, to prevent, if 
possible, such guilt and ruin, verily, I say 
unto you, that all other sins shall be forgiven 
to the children of men, and even all the 
other blasphemies with wliieh they shall 
blaspheme; but the blasphemy against the 
Spirit of God, in this most glorious dispell" 
sation of it, shall not be forgiven to those 
impious and incorrigible men, who shall 
dare to impute to diabolical operation those 
glorious works of divine power and good- 



SIN 



SIN 



ness. And t add, that whosoever speaks 
a contemptuous and impious word even 
against the Son of man himself, while here 
on earth, in this obscure form, he may pos- 
sibly be brought to repentance for it ; and 
so it shall be forgiven him, and, conse- 
quently, even your case, bad as it is, is not 
entirely hopeless ; but whosoever shall 
maliciously speak any thing of this nature 
against the Holy Spirit, when the grand 
dispensation of it shall open in those mira- 
culous gifts and operations that will be 
attended with the most evident demonstra- 
tions of his mighty power, it shall never be 
forgiven him at all, either in this world or 
in that which is to come ; but he is obnox- 
ious to eternal damnation, and must irre- 
coverably sink into it; nor will all the grace 
of the Gospel, in its fullest display, afford a 
remedy for so aggravated a crime, or fur- 
nish him with means for his conviction 
and recovery.' Bishop Tomline's Elements of 
Christian Theology, vol. ii. pp. 287 — 291 ; 
Dr. Doddridge's Family Expositor, vol. i. pp. 
324, 325, edit. 1810. 

Original Sin was the rebellion of the first 
man Adam against his Creator, which was 
a sin of universal efficacy, and which de- 
rives a guilt and stain to mankind in all 
the ages of the world. The account the 
Scripture gives of it is grounded on the 
relation which all men have to Adam, as 
their natural and moral principal or head. 
It is said that all men are born children of 
wrath, (Ephes. ii. 3.); that by the fault of 
one alone, sin came into the world, and 
death by sin. (Rom. v. 12.) ' By one man 
sin entered into the world, and death by 
sin, and so death passed upon all men.' 
And this is what we call original sin, so 
well descibed by Job, who says (xiv. 1 — 4.) 
' Man that is born of a woman, &c. Who 
can bring a clean thing out of an unclean ? 
Not one.' And David says, ' Behold I was 
shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my mother 
conceive me.' (Psalm li. 5.) 

' We are (says the apostle) by nature 
children of wrath.' (Ephes. ii. 3.) Not 
only by depravation or custom, and ill-con- 
tracted habits, but by nature, the first prin- 
ciple and source of action. And nature, 
we know, is as entire, though not as strong, 
in an infant as in a grown man. Indeed, 
the strength of man's natural corruption is 
so great, that every man is born an adult 
sinner. Sin is the only thing in the world 
which never had an infancy. Tantillus puer, 
tantus peecator, says Austin. Could we 
view things in semine, and look through 
principles, what a nest of impurities might 
we see in the heart of the least infant ! 
Like a knot of little snakes wrapped up in 
a dunghill. What a radical productive 
force of sin might we behold in all his facul- 
ties, ready, upon occasion and the maturity 
of age, to display itself with a cursed fer- 
tility ! When a man is grown up, his cor- 
972 



ruption does not begin to exist, but to 
appear, and to spend upon that stock which 
it had long before. Pelagius, indeed, tells 
us that the sons of Adam came to be sin- 
ners only by imitation. But then 1 would 
know of him what those first inclinations 
are which dispose us to such bad imita- 
tions ? Certainly that cannot but be sinful, 
which so powerfully and almost forcibly 
inclines us to sin. We may conclude, 
therefore, that even this original, native 
corruption renders the persons who have 
it obnoxious and liable to death. An evil 
heart will condemn us, though Providence 
should prevent its running forth into an evil 
life. Sin is sin, whether it rests in the incli- 
nations, or shoots out into the practice : and a 
toad is full of poison, though he never spits it.' 

It seems impossible to deny the doctrine 
of original sin, without at the same time 
impugning the wisdom of God, as mani- 
fested in the scheme of redemption. In 
this scheme there is an amazing apparatus, 
for which, upon the hypothesis of those who 
deny the doctrine of human depravity, 
there can be no necessity; for there cer- 
tainly can be no necessity that Christ 
should die ' for all,' if all have not sinned. 
According to this scheme, every human 
creature must be born of ' God,' be created 
' anew,' ' be quickened,' ' be reconciled to 
God by Jesus Christ,' ' be washed from his 
sins in his blood.' Here, therefore, are 
requirements and provisions where none 
are needed, if the doctrine of human depra- 
vity be unfounded. God, who alone can see 
and provide for future contingencies, has 
fancied there would be a universal apostacy, 
when there has been no such thing, — fore- 
told by his prophets, that he would provide 
a way for the restoration of his people, 
when no restoration was required; — ap- 
pointed a Saviour to die for the sins of the 
whole world, and whose blood was to wash 
away the sins of many, who had no sins to 
be thus cancelled. This, even this, is 
called ' rational religion ;' a religion that 
evidences the wisdom and goodness of God, 
conformably to the most liberal, and pure, 
and philosophical principles ! See Fall of 
Man. Dr. Olinthus Gregory's Letters on the 
Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian 
Religion, vol. ii. pp. 40, 41; South' s Sermons. 

SI'NAI *TD signifies bush ; according to 
the Syriac, enmity. Sinai, or Sina, a famous 
mountain of Arabia Petraea, on which God 
gave the law to Moses. (Exod. xix. 1.; xxiv. 
10. ; xxxi. 18. ; xxxiv. 2, 4. &c. Levit. xxv. 1. ; 
xxvi. 46.) It stands in a kind of peninsula, 
formed by the two arms of the Red Sea, one 
extended north, called the Gulf of Kolsum; 
the other extending east, called the Gulf of 
Elan. The Arabs call Mount Sinai by the 
name of Tor, that is, the mountain, by way 
of excellence ; or Gibel Monsa, the Moun- 
tain of Moses : it is 260 miles from Cairo, 
which is a journey of ten days. The wilder- 



SIN 



SIN 



ness of Sinai, where the Israelites continued 
encamped almost a year, and where Moses 
erected the tabernacle of the covenant, is 
considerably elevated above the rest of the 
country ; the ascent to it is very craggy, the 
greater part cut out of the rock ; then one 
comes to a large space of ground, which is a 
plain surrounded on all sides by rocks and em- 
inences, whose length is nearly twelve miles. 

Toward the extremity of this plain, on 
the north, two high mountains appear ; the 
highest is called Sinai, the. other Horeb. 
They are of very steep ascent, and do not 
stand on much ground, in comparison with 
their extraordinary height. Sinai is at least 
one third part higher than the other, and 
its ascent more upright, and difficult. The 
top of the mountain terminates in an un- 
even and rugged space, which might con- 
tain about sixty persons. On this emi- 
nence is built a little chapel, called St. 
Catherine's, where it is thought the body of 
this saint rested for 360 years ; but after- 
wards it was removed into a church at the 
foot of the mountain. Near this chapel 
issues a fountain of very good fresh water ; it 
is looked on as miraculous, it not being con- 
ceivable how water can flow from the brow 
of so high and so barren a mountain. 

Mount Horeb stands west of Sinai ; so 
that at sun-rising the shadow of Sinai 
covers Horeb. Besides the little fountain 
at the top of Sinai, there is another at the 
foot of Horeb, which supplies the monas- 
tery of St. Catherine. Five or six paces 
from thence they show a stone whose 
height is four or five feet, and breadth 
about three, which, they say, is the very 
stone from whence Moses caused the water 
to gush out ; its colour is of spotted grey, 
and it is, as it were, set in a kind of earth, 
where no other rock appears. This stone 
has twelve holes or channels, which are 
about a foot wide, from whence they say the 
water issued which the Israelites drank. 

' Sinai,' says Sandys, ' has three tops of 
a marvellous height ; that on the west side, 
where God appeared to Moses in a bush, 
fruitful in pasturage ; far lower than the 
middlemost, and shadowed when the sun 
riseth thereon ; which is that wheron God 
gave the law to Moses, and which is now 
called the Mount of Moses, at the foot of 
which stands the monastery called St. Ca- 
therine's, from which there were steps for- 
merly up to the very top of the mountain, 
and were computed 14,000 in number. At 
present some of them are broken, but those 
that remain are well made, and easy to go 
up and down. There are in several places 
of the ascent, good cisterns, and especially 
near the top a fair and good one. The 
third or most easterly summit is called by 
the religious in those parts, Mount Cathe- 
rine ; on the top of which there is a dome, 
under which they say was interred the body 
of this saint, brought hither by angels after 
073 



she was beheaded at Alexandria.' ' One 
may judge of the height of St. Catherine's 
Mount, which certainly is not so high as 
that of Moses by a third part, from this 
circumstance, that Thevenot found much 
snow on both when he was there, which was 
in February. The Monastery of St. Cathe- 
rine's is from Cairo some eight days' jour- 
ney over the deserts.' Hales s New Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. i. p. 408. 

SINCERITY, freedom from hypocrisy 
or dissimulation. As this grace or virtue 
respects God, it imports the sincerity of 
our piety towards him ; that we heartily 
believe, fear, and honour him ; that the 
outward expressions of our piety and obe- 
dience proceed from our inward appre- 
hensions of, and affections towards him ; 
that we sincerely love God and his truth, 
and readily embrace it. Our piety is sin- 
cere, when it proceeds from rational reli- 
gious motives; that is, when the principal 
and prevailing motives of our piety are a 
sense of God's authority over us, and of our 
duty and obligation to him ; a fear of his 
displeasure and threatenings ; and the hope 
of .that glorious reward which he hath pro- 
mised to obedience. A man may be as- 
sured his heart is not right towards God, 
when his piety and zeal for true religion 
doth either cease, cool, or abate ; for if we 
drop the profession of our religion, or neg- 
lect the practice of it; this is a plain de- 
monstration of the insincerity of our former 
piety. A sincere piety must be rooted in 
the heart, and be a living principle within 
us ; and without this, all acts of piety and 
devotion are hypocrisy ; a picture of religion 
and form of godliness, without its life and 
power. Another evidence of sincere piety 
is, when men are religious in private as 
well as in public. He is truly devout, who 
is so in his family and closet, where he hath 
no other witness than God, and his own 
soul, as well as in the church. He is a 
real honest man, who as readily performs 
his word and promise when no proof can 
be made, no law compel him to it, as if 
there had been any number of witnesses. 
He is sincerely just, who will not wrong 
any man, though he could do it with the 
greatest secrecy and safety ; nor impose 
upon others' ignorance and unskilfulness, 
though ever so much to his own benefit and 
advantage. He is truly charitable, who 
chooses to give alms in secret, rather than 
in the sight of men. A sincere piety con- 
sists in the constant practice of goodness, 
in the general course of our lives. The 
habits of any known sin, the wilful deli- 
berate neglect of our duties, and even the 
single act of more heinous crimes, will 
bring our sincerity in question, and cannot 
be screened under the name of infirmity. 
Another evidence of a sincere piety is, that 
our obedience to God be uniform and uni- 
versal, equally respecting all the laws of 



SIN 



SIN 



God, and every part of our duty. We must 
not regard some precepts of the law, and 
allow ourselves in the breach or neglect of 
the rest ; observe the duties of one table of 
the law, and omit the other ; nor obey all the 
commandments of God, one only excepted. 
For, he that keeps the whole law, saving that 
he offends in one point, is guilty of all ; that 
is, his obedience is not sincere to the rest. 

Sincerity with regard to men, signifies a 
simplicity of mind and manners in our be- 
haviour and conversation ; discovering it- 
self in a constant, plain, honest, and open 
carriage, free from craft and cunning, and 
all deceitful appearances in word or deed ; 
in a word, to speak as we think, to perform 
what we promise, to be in reality what we 
would be thought to be. We may be pru- 
dently silent, but we must not make a false 
show, and appear to be what we are not, 
either by word or action. Contrary to this 
virtue, is, I fear, much of that complaisant 
conversation among us, that pretended kind- 
ness and esteem for persons which we bave 
not, or to that degree our expressions import. 
This we call flattery, which is an odious sort 
of insincerity, because it abuses men into 
a vain opinion of themselves, and of the 
kindness of others towards them. Indeed 
all hypocrisy and insincerity are mean in 
themselves ; and are often used to the preju- 
dice of others, in their rights and interests. 
As dissimulation is contrary to sincerity, 
because it consists in a deceitful represen- 
tation of our virtues, qualities, and character; 
so falsehood, fraud, and perfidiousness, 
which men too often practise one towards 
another, is yet of a more injurious and mis- 
chievous consequence. The former betrays 
great vanity, the latter gross iniquity. 

With the sincerity of our piety towards 
God, let us join simplicity and integrity in 
our conversation with men. Let us use truth 
and plainness in all our words and actions ; 
that our tongue may be ever the true inter- 
preter of our minds, our expressions the 
lively image of our thoughts and affections, 
and our actions exactly agreeable to our 
inward purposes and intentions. The ge- 
neral want of sincerity in our conversation, 
is one of the great corruptions and degene- 
racy of our age. The world is so full of dis- 
simulation and compliment, that men's 
words are scarcely any signification of their 
thoughts. Hypocrisy and insincerity are 
vain and foolish, and though designed to 
cheat others, are in truth deceiving ourselves. 
No man would flatter or dissemble, if he 
thought that he was seen and discovered. 
But all his hypocrisy is open to the eye of 
God, from whom nothing can be hid. The 
ways of man are before the eyes of the 
Lord, and he seeth all his goings ; there 
is no darkness, nor shadow of death, where 
the workers of iniquity may hide them- 
selves. Truth and sincerity have every 
advantage over insincerity: and whoever 
974 



dissembles, and seems to be what he is not, 
thinks it right to have such a quality as he 
pretends to ; for to counterfeit and dissem- 
ble, is to put on the appearance of some real 
excellence. But the best way is, for a man 
to be in reality what he would seem to be. 
For it is difficult to personate, and act a 
false part long ; because where truth does 
not exist, nature will endeavour to return, 
and make a discovery. Truth carries its 
own light and evidence along with it ; and 
not only commends us to every man's con- 
science, but to God, the searcher of our 
hearts. Hence sincerity is the truest wis- 
dom. For integrity hatb many advantages 
over all the artful ways of dissimulation and 
deceit. It is a more plain and easy, more 
safe and secure mode of dealing. It hath 
less of trouble and difficulty, of danger and 
hazard ; it is the shortest and nearest way 
to our end, and will carry us thither in a 
straight line. 

A dissembler must be always upon his 
guard, lest he contradict his own pretences; 
for he acts an unnatural part, and puts a 
continual force and restraint upon himself. 
Truth always lies uppermost; and he that 
acts sincerely, hath an easy task, because he 
follows nature, and so needs not to invent 
pretences before, or excuses afterwards, for 
any thing he says or does. Sincerity is firm 
and substanti.il, plain and open, and fears 
no discovery, of which the crafty man is 
always in danger. Sincerity is the most 
compendious wisdom, and an excellent in- 
strument for the dispatch of business. It 
creates confidence in those we deal with, 
saves many inquiries, and brings things to a 
short issue. The inconvenience attending 
falsehood and dissimulation is perpetual, 
because it brings a man under a constant 
jealousy and suspicion ; so as not to be 
believed when he speaks truth, nor trusted 
when perhaps he means honestly. Warner's 
System of Divinity and Morality, pp. 315— 325. 

SINEW. The Hebrews do not eat the 
sinew of the thigh of animals in memory 
of the sinew of Jacob's thigh, which the 
angel touched, and which contracted such 
a numbness, that, according to some inter- 
preters, he went lame of it all his life 
after. This abstinence from the sinew of 
the thigh of animals, is not commanded 
to Israel by the law, for they must have 
abstained from it even before the law, ac- 
cording to the observation in Genesis, (xxxii. 
32.) Some interpreters think this for- 
bearance is only voluntary devotion. In 
some places they abstain wholly from the 
hind-quarter of animals ; in other places they 
content themselves with taking away the 
sinew. See Jacob. 

SIN'ITE, "3-D, or Sinaus, signifies bush, 
enmity. By the name Sinite (Gen. x. 17-) 
is denoted the eighth son of Canaan. The 
Sinites dwelt near Arce, in Mount Libanus. 
Strabo mentions the fortress of Sinnai in the 



SIN 



SLA 



mountains. By Sinai, the Arabic means the 
inhabitants of Tripoli, in Pbenicia. 

SI'ON, ix*w, ar}b)v, signifies noise, tumult. 
Sion (Deut. iv. 48.) is one of the names of 
Mount Hermon, or rather of a mountain, 
or of a chain of mountains ; the whole being 
called mountains of Hermon, from Mount 
Hermon, the principal. Probably of this 
mountain the Psalmist speaks, (cxxxiii. 3.) 
1 As the dew of Hermon, and as the dew 
that descended upon the mountains of Zion,' 
which is thought to be put for Sion. The 
union and the good understanding of bre- 
thren, is as agreeable as the dew which 
falls on Hermon and Sion, two contiguous 
mountains. 

• Mount Sion,' says a late traveller, ' of 
a yellowish colour, and barren appearance, 
is open in form of a crescent towards Jeru- 
salem. This sacred summit is distinguished 
by three monuments, or more properly by 
three ruins : the house of Caiaphas, the 
place where Christ celebrated his Last Sup- 
per, and the tomb or palace of David. From 
the top of the hill, you see, to the south, 
the valley of Ben-Hinnon; beyond this the 
Field of Blood, purchased with the thirty 
pieces of silver given to Judas ; the Hill 
of Evil Council, the tombs of the Judges, 
and the whole desert towards Hebron and 
Bethlehem. To the north, the wall of Je- 
rusalem, which passes over the top of Sion, 
intercepts the view of the city, the site of 
which gradually slopes from this place to- 
wards the valley of Jehoshaphat. The re- 
sidence of Caiaphas is now a church, 
the duty of which is performed by the Ar- 
menians. David's tomb is a small vaulted 
room containing three sepulchres of dark- 
coloured stone ; and on the spot where 
Christ held his Last Supper, stand a mosque 
and a Turkish hospital, formerly a church 
and monastery occupied by the fathers of 
the Holy Land.' Chateaubriand' 1 s Travels in 
Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary, vol. 
ii. p. 31. 

SIS'ERA xiD'D, signifies that sees a 
horse, a swallow. Sisera, or Sisara, was 
general of the army of Jabin, king of Hazor ; 
(Judg. iv. 2.) in the year of the world 2719 
he was sent by his master against Barak 
and Deborah, who had an army of ten 
thousand men on Mount Tabor. Sisera 
marched against them with nine hundred 
chariots armed with scythes, and a great 
number of infantry. Barak with his small 
army attacked Sisera with such impetu- 
osity, that he entirely routed him. Sisera 
himself fled ; quitted his chariot, and ran 
on foot towards Harosheth of the Gentiles. 
Approaching the tent of Heber the Kenite, 
Jael, the wife of Heber, desired him to 
enter and hide himself. She covered him 
with a mantle, and gave him milk to drink. 
Sisera said to her, ' Stay at the door of the 
ten!, and if any ask you who is here, answer, 
Nobody.' Jael afterwards returning, and 
975 



finding him fast asleep, she drove a tent 
nail through his temples with a hammer, 
and fastened him to the ground. When 
Barak arrived, she showed him Sisera wel- 
tering in his blood, dead. 

SISTER, Soror, in the style of the He- 
brews, has equal latitude as a brother. It is 
used not only for a sister by natural relation 
from the same father and mother, but also 
for a sister only by the same father, or by 
the same mother; or a near relation only. 
Sarah is called sister to Abraham, (Gen. xii. 
13.; xx. 12.), though only his niece, accord- 
ing to some, or sister by the father's side, 
according to others. In the law (Lev. xviii. 
18.) it is forbidden to take to wife the sister 
of a wife ; to marry two sisters ; or, according 
to some interpreters, to marry a second 
wife, having one already. Literally, Thou 
shalt not take a wife over her sister to afflict 
her, as if meaning to forbid polygamy. In 
the Gospel, the brothers and sisters of Jesus 
Christ are his cousins ; children of the sisters 
of the Holy Virgin. (Matt.xiii.56. Markvi.3.) 
In the Song of Songs (Cant. iv. 9, 10. 
12.; v. 1, 2.) the name of sister is a name 
of tenderness between the spouses. Some- 
times the word sister shows a resemblance 
of conditions and inclinations. The pro- 
phets (Jer. iii. 8. 10. ; Ezek. xvi. 46.) call 
Jerusalem the sister of Sodom and Samaria, 
because it delighted in the imitation of their 
idolatry and iniquity. 

Jesus Christ says, that those who keep 
his commandments, are his brothers and his 
sisters. (Matt. xii. 50.) Job exclaims, ' I 
have said to corruption, Thou art my father ; 
to the worm, Thou art my mother and my 
sister.' The wise man advises his pupil to 
say to wisdom, (Prov. vii. 4.) 'Thou art my 
sister,' that is, to love her, and become fa- 
miliar with her. St. Paul asks, whether 
it were not as lawful for him, as for the 
other apostles, to carry with him in his jour- 
neys some pious Christian sister. (1 Cor. 
ix. 5.) As Christians saluted each other by 
the name of brother, so they call Christian 
women sisters. St. James says, (ii. 15, 16.) 
' If a brother or a sister be naked, and des- 
titute of daily food,' &c. 

SLANDER may be defined the fabrication 
or the utterance of false and malicious re- 
ports against others. Of slander, as thus 
explained, there are some species which rise 
to such a pitch of iniquity, as to endanger 
not only the security, but the very existence 
of all that is most dear to us ; our reputa- 
tion, our property, and our lives. Indeed, 
who is there that can detail with sufficient 
accuracy, or express with sufficient energy, 
the mass of evil to which judicial falsehoods 
may expose us ? But there are species of 
slander which, in many cases, are as detri- 
mental to the peace, the character, or the 
fortune of others, as any judicial lie could 
be ; which are practised with more fre- 
quency, because they may in general be cir- 



SLA 



SLA 



culated with more secrecy, with less danger 
of detection, and less dread of punishment. 
Nothing is so precious as character : and yet 
what character is so fair which the backbiter 
may not revile, which the foul breath of the 
slanderer may not taint ? How easy is it to 
impute to men vices which they have not, 
or to deny the virtues which they have ? 
We may call a sober man a drunkard, an 
honest man a knave, a religious man a hy- 
pocrite ; and the slander, originating at first 
in secret whispers, or uncharitable sugges- 
tions, may be propagated from mouth to 
mouth, till it become impossible to trace it 
to its source, to stop its diffusion, to allay its 
virulence, or to hinder its effects. Slander 
is well described as the pestilence that 
walketh in darkness, against whose con- 
tagious influence no vigilance can guard, 
and whose destructive consequences no 
caution can avert. 

Those who are subject to the corrosive 
influence of envy and malevolence, are ever 
ready to put a wrong construction on the 
actions of others, to impute them to false 
motives, or to draw from them inferences 
unfavourable to the moral character of the 
individual. Such misrepresentations are 
among the most common effects of slander, 
and are the most certain indications of ma- 
levolence. Thus frugality is imputed to 
avarice, gravity to moroseness ; the cheerful 
are termed dissipated, the considerate crafty, 
the charitable ostentatious, the devout hy- 
pocritical. As we cannot read the hearts of 
others, as we see not their thoughts, and feel 
not their sensations, it is both presumptuous 
and uncharitable in us to judge their motives, 
or to measure the good or the evil of their 
minds and affections, by any other criterion 
than their outward conduct. Nor are we 
rashly to determine the bent of a man's cha- 
racter and disposition from any single 
action, but from a series of actions ; for it is 
not any one insulated act, but an habitual 
course of action, which clearly and indis- 
putably shows the character of the individual. 
Hence we cannot determine a man's real 
character, nor the leading tendencies of his 
conduct, from a casual glance or a momen- 
tary observation. Yet it is from a super- 
ficial knowledge, and an imperfect acquaint- 
ance, that we form our opinions and make 
up our judgments on the characters of our 
fellow-creatures. But surely, as the charac- 
ter of a man is the aggregated influence of 
his habits, no man's character can be ascer- 
tained from a few single and isolated acts ; 
for every habit is the result, not of a few 
scattered and disjointed, but of many suc- 
cessive and concatenated acts. We are not 
to call a man a drunkard, who has, once or 
twice, been known to violate the precepts of 
sobriety ; nor can we rightly denominate a 
man covetous or cruel, who, in one or two 
instances, has manifested a niggardly spirit, 
a love of money, or a. want of humanity, 
970 



who, in his general conduct, and in his ordi- 
nary behaviour, which is the clearest indica- 
tion of character, is found generous and 
humane. The best men are subject to occa- 
sional offences ; and, as there is hardly any 
rule so general that it admits of no excep- 
tions; so there, perhaps, never was any 
habit in any individual so firmly cemented, 
and so uniformly obeyed, that no deviations 
from it were ever observed. Hence we may 
see into what fatal mistakes, what unjust 
and uncharitable judgments, we may be led 
by a cursory or casual insight into the 
actions of others, and how wary we ought to 
be to pronounce on the motives of men, or 
on the general bent of their thoughts and 
dispositions, their minds and hearts, except 
on that evidence which is derived from an in ti- 
mate acquaintance with, or a diligent inquiry 
into, the habits of their lives. Let us re- 
member, that as, in passing judgment on the 
conduct of others, it is never safe to deter- 
mine without a sufficiency of information, 
so it is always sinful, whether our informa- 
tion be great or little, to err from want of 
charity. Yet it will be found to be want of 
charity, rather than want of knowledge, and 
perverseness rather than ignorance, which 
gives rise to all the slanderous aspersions, 
malicious stories, and evil reports, which are 
current in the world. 

' The tongue of the slanderer,' says the 
eloquent Massillon, ' is a devouring fire, 
which blackens whatever it touches ; which 
directs its fury on the good grain, equally 
as on the chaff; on the profane as on the 
sacred ; which, wherever it rages, produces 
nothing but devastation and ruin ; digs even 
into the bowels of the earth, and fixes itself 
on things the most hidden ; turns into vile 
ashes what, only a moment before, appeared 
to us so precious and brilliant ; acts with 
more violence and danger than ever, in the 
time when it was apparently stifled ; which 
blackens what it cannot consume ; and some- 
times sparkles and delights before it de- 
stroys. I would have told you, that evil 
speaking is an assemblage of iniquity ; a 
secret pride, which discovers to us the mote 
in our brother's eye, but hides the beam 
which is in our own ; a mean envy, which, 
hurt at the talents or prosperity of others, 
makes them the subject of its censures, and 
studies to dim the splendour of whatever 
outshines itself; a disguised hatred, which 
sheds in its speeches the hidden venom of 
the heart ; an unworthy duplicity, which 
praises to the face, and tears in pieces behind 
the back ; a shameful levity, which has no 
command over itself, or its words, and often 
sacrifices both fortune and comfort to the 
imprudence of an amusing conversation ; a 
deliberate barbarity, which goes to pierce 
your absent brother ; a scandal, where you 
become a subject of shame and sin to those 
who listen to you ; an injustice, where you 
ravish from your brother what is dearest to 



SLA 



SMY 



him. Slander is a restless evil, which dis- 
turbs society; spreads dissension through 
cities and countries; disunites the strictest 
friendships ; is the source of hatred and 
revenge ; fills, wherever it enters, with dis- 
turbances and confusion ; and, every where, 
is an enemy to peace, comfort, and Christian 
good-breeding. Lastly, it is an evil full of 
deadly poison ; whatever flows from it is in- 
fected, and poisons whatever it approaches ; 
even its praises are empoisoned; its ap- 
plauses malicious ; its silence criminal ; its 
gestures, motions, and looks, have all their 
venom, and spread it, each in their way. It 
is, above all, by the innocency of the inten- 
tion that slanderers pretend to justify them- 
selves ; that you continually say, that your 
design is not to tarnish the reputation of 
your brother, but innocently to divert your- 
selves with faults which do not dishonour 
him in the eyes of the world. But what is 
that cruel pleasure, which carries sorrow 
and bitterness to the heart of your brother ? 
Where is the innocency of an amusement, 
whose source springs from vices which ought 
to inspire you with compassion and grief? 
If Jesus Christ forbid us in the Gospel to 
invigorate the languoi-s of conversation by 
idle words, shall it be more permitted to 
you to enliven it by derisions and censures ? 
If the law curses him who uncovers the 
nakedness of his relations, shall you, who 
add raillery and insult to the discovery, be 
more protected from that malediction 1 If 
whoever call his brother fool, be worthy, 
according to Jesus Christ, of eternal fire, 
shall he who renders him the contempt and 
laughing-stock of a profane assembly escape 
the same punishment? If you love your 
brother as yourself, can you delight in what 
afflicts him ? Ah ! the church formerly held 
in horror the exhibitions of gladiators, and 
denied that believers, brought up in the 
tenderness and benignity of Jesus Christ, 
could innocently feast their eyes with the 
blood and death of these unfortunate slaves, 
or form an harmless recreation of so inhu- 
man a pleasure. But you renew more de- 
testable shows, to enliven your languor. 
You bring upon the stage, not infamous 
wretches, devoted to death, but members of 
Jesus Christ, your brethren, and there you 
entertain the spectators with wounds which 
you inflict on persons devoted to God.' 

On this subject Dr. Barrow observes as 
follows: 'If we do mark what is done in 
many (might I not say in most?) compa- 
nies, what is it but one telling malicious sto- 
ries of, or fastening odious characters upon 
another ? What do men commonly please 
themselves in so much, as in carping, and 
harshly censuring, in defaming and abusing 
their neighbours? Is it not the sport ami 
divertisement of many, to cast dirt in the 
feces of all they meet with ; to bespatter 
any man with foul imputations ? Dotb not 
in every corner a Momus lurk, from the 
«J77 



venom of whose spiteful or petulant tongue 
no eminency of rank, dignity of place, or 
sacredness of office, no innocence or inte- 
grity of life, no wisdom or circumspection 
in behaviour, no good nature, or benignity 
in dealing and carriage, can protect any 
person ? Do not men assume to themselves 
a liberty of telling romances, and framing 
characters concerning their neighbour ? Do 
they not usurp a power of playing with, of 
tossing about, of tearing in pieces, their 
neighbour's good name, as if it were the 
veriest toy in the world ? Do not many, 
having a form of godliness (some of them 
demurely, others confidently, both without 
any sense of, or remorse for what they do) 
backbite their brethren ? Is it not grown 
so common a thing to asperse causelessly, 
that no man wonders at it, that few dislike, 
that scarce any detest it? That most no- 
torious calumniators are heard, not only 
with patience, but with pleasure ; yea, are 
even held in vogue and reverence, as men 
of a notable talent, and very' serviceable to 
their party ? So that slander seems to have 
lost its nature, and not to be now an odious 
sin, but a fashionable humour, a way of 
pleasing entertainment, a fine knack, or 
curious feat of policy ; so that no man at 
least taketh himself or others to be account- 
able for what is said in this way. Is not, 
in fine, the case become such, that whoever 
hath in him any love of truth, any sense of 
justice or honesty, any spark of charity to- 
wards his brethren, shall hardly be able to 
satisfy himself in the conversations he meet- 
eth ; but will be tempted, with the Holy 
Prophet, to wish himself sequestered from 
society, and cast into solitude ; repeating 
those words of his, " Oh that I had in the 
wilderness a lodging-place of way-faring 
men, that I might leave my people, and go 
from them : for they are an assembly of 
treacherous men, and they bend their tongues 
like their bow for lies ?" ' Barrow's Works, 
vol. i. pp. 242, 243; Massillon's Sermons, 
vol. i. pp. 142 — 146, £)ig. Translation ; 
Fellowes's Body of Theology, vol. ii. pp. 318 
—324. 

SMYR'NA, 2/iwpva, from a Greek word 
that signifies myrrh. Smyrna is a city of 
Asia Minor, on the Archipelago, having a 
fine harbour. Jesus Christ, by the mouth 
of St. John, addresses the angel or bishop 
of Smyrna. (Rev. ii. 8, 9, 10.) 

It is asked, who was this angel, or bi- 
shop ? The generality think it was Poly- 
carp, who was made Bishop of Smyrna by 
the apostle John. The commendations 
given to the angel of Smyrna agree with 
Polycarp ; and it is observable, that here is 
not one word of reproach. There is some 
probability that the martyrdom of Genna- 
nicus ami others, of Smyrna, who suffered 
Under Marcus Aurelius, was what St. John 
had in view, when he says, the devil shall 
put some of them in prison. 
:; R 



SOB 



SOB 



SO, toD, ffava, a measure for grain, or 
dry matters, Heb. Sean, which the Greeks 
translate by aarov. But it is better to ac- 
knowledge, that the true etymology of this 
Egyptian word is not to be found in the 
Hebrew tongue. 

So, king of Egypt : he made an alliance 
with Hoshea, king of Israel, and promised 
him assistance, yet gave him none ; nor pre- 
vented Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, from 
taking Samaria, and subverting the king- 
dom of Israel, in the year of the world 3283. 
(2 Kings xvii. 4.) 

Usber and Marsham think So, otherwise 
Soos or Sous, is the Sabacon king of Ethio- 
pia, who is taken for the first king of the 
dynasty of Egyptians in Egypt. Usher 
says, he began to reign in the year of the 
world 3277, having taken and burnt alive 
Bocchoris, king of this country. He reigned 
eight years. He had for his successor Se- 
vechus, whom Usher thinks to be the Sethon 
of Herodotus. 

SOBER-MINDEDNESS. In the whole 
progress of tender years, till wisdom has 
become our favourite study; till virtue is 
become a settled habit in the soul, and all 
our ways are established; we stand in 
need of the directions of wise and religious 
instructors, and of being kept under pru- 
dent discipline. It cannot be reasonably 
expected that young persons, left to their 
own counsels, should be careful to enrich 
their minds with a treasure of Divine know- 
ledge, and to form them to an exalted, ar- 
duous, and heavenly virtue. The discreet 
and pious tutor will labour to bring his pu- 
pil to reflect seriously on the design of his 
beneficent Creator in making him a reli- 
gious and reasonable being ; that he may 
be disposed in every occurrence, during 
the whole course of life, to behave in cha- 
racter ; to avoid the pernicious sweets, the 
delusive joys of vice, and attain to the dig- 
nity and perfection of a devout Christian, 
an heir of eternal felicity, in regions en- 
lightened by the Almighty and the Lamb. 
Happy they ! who are ' brought up in the 
nurture and admonition of the Lord;' whose 
minds are led into an early knowledge of 
God, an unfeigned love of the duties that 
result from it, and a just aversion to every 
thing that defiles and depraves the human 
heart ; who are sedate in the flower and 
pride of life, amidst gay expectations and 
a long prospect of pleasurable enjoy- 
ments. 

When we exhort young men to be sober- 
minded, the advice is undoubtedly very 
useful and seasonable; peculiarly adapted 
to their situation and circumstances, as 
they are in great danger of being deceived 
with glittering toys, enamoured of sensual 
pleasures, and conformed to the world and 
the vain customs of a degenerate age. If 
they can be persuaded to take heed to their 
ways in that dangerous period of life, so as 
978 



not to be betrayed into vice ; if they can be 
prevailed upon to fly youthful lusts, not to 
allow themselves in what is contrary to the 
rules of right reason, and which they have 
just cause to condemn in their sober mo- 
ments ; if they can be induced to act upon 
all occasions as becometh thinking and ac- 
countable beings, uncertain how soon they 
may be consigned to happy mansions, or to 
horrid and dismal abodes ; they will, it may 
reasonably be expected, persist in a reli- 
gious course, and not depart from the way 
in which they have been taught to walk. 
However unwilling young people are to be 
reminded of the uncertainty of life and all 
the enjoyments of it, however unwilling 
they are to believe that all their strength 
and vivacity cannot preserve them one mo- 
ment from the stroke of death, such admo- 
nitions are far from being unseasonable. 
There is too much occasion for reminding 
them of their precarious situation; for re- 
peating the solemn truth, and exhorting 
them frequently to make a prudent and re- 
ligious use of their rational faculties. Could 
they be persuaded to consider their latter 
end, and often to reflect that their everlast- 
ing state will be determined according to 
their behaviour in the present life, such 
considerations would cool the heat of pas- 
sion, stop indecent sallies, and render them 
desirous of having ' God for the guide of 
their youth.' 

When we exhort young persons to be 
sober-minded, we must carefully distinguish 
between a sober mind and a gloomy coun- 
tenance, between innocent mirth and the 
affectation of unseasonable gravity. We 
must let them know that religion does not 
forbid pleasantry ; that a cheerful counte- 
nance and a joyful heart are not only con- 
sistent with it, but arise naturally out of a 
clear conscience, and a mind that has just 
reason to be satisfied with its dispositions 
and actions. Religion was never intended 
to debar us from the delights of conversa- 
tion. Social entertainments are suitable to 
human beings, render us useful to our fel- 
low-creatures, and a comfort to one another. 
Innocence and piety are the duties of every 
age and condition ; but those rigid austeri- 
ties, which give religion a forbidding aspect, 
and with which superstitious souls torment 
themselves, are not required of any by the 
good and gracious Creator. Pure and un- 
defiled religion forbids all levity of beha- 
viour, all profane, vicious, and dissolute 
mirth ; but gives her votaries in the room 
of them a perpetual serenity of mind, and 
joys which no man taketh from them. It 
consists not in enthusiastic abstractions, su- 
perstitious penances, and a retreat from 
the conversation of human beings ; but in 
making a right use of our reason, and in a 
constant and uniform practice of all divine 
and moral virtues. It does not extirpate 
but regulate our passions, and directs our 



SOD 



SOL 



affections to their proper objects. Rich- 
ardson's Divine and Moral Essays, pp. 19 
—28. 

SO'DOM, nrrrw, signifies their secret; 
otherwise, calx, or their cement. Sodom,, 
the capital city of Pentapolis, was for some 
time the dwelling-place of Lot, the nephew 
of Abraham. (Gen. xiii. 12, 13.) The 
crimes of this city rose to such a height, 
that God destroyed it by fire from heaven, 
with three other neighbouring cities, Go- 
morrah, Zeboim, and Admah ; which were 
as wicked as itself, (Gen. xix.) in the year 
of the world 2107. The plain in which 
they stood was before pleasant and fruitful, 
like an earthly paradise. It was first burned, 
and was afterwards overflowed by the wa- 
ters of the Jordan, which there formed the 
Dead Sea, or Lake of Sodom. It is believed 
Sodom was one of the southern cities that 
were destroyed ; because it was near Zoar, 
which was beyond the southernmost point 
of the Dead Sea. 

It is doubted whether it stood within the 
space of land now possessed by this sea, or 
only upon its border. The prophets men- 
tion the destruction of Sodom and Gomor- 
rah, or allude to it, and insinuate, that these 
places shall be desert and dried up, and un- 
inhabited, (Jer. xlix. 18. ; 1. 38.) ; that they 
shall be covered with briars and brambles, 
a land of salt and sulphur, where there can 
be neither planting nor sowing. (Amos iv. 
11.) In all parts of Scripture, the ruin of 
Sodom and Gomorrah is represented as 
one of the most signal effects of God's 
anger. 

The following is Volney's description of 
the present state of this district : ' The 
south of Syria, that is, the hollow through 
which the Jordan flows, is a country of 
volcanos ; the bituminous and sulphureous 
sources of the lake Asphaltites, the lava, 
the pumice-stones thrown upon its banks, 
and the hot-baths of Tabaria, demonstrate 
that this valley has been the seat of a sub- 
terraneous fire, which is not yet extin- 
guished. Clouds of smoke are often ob- 
served to issue from the lake, and new cre- 
vices to be formed upon its banks. If con- 
jectures in such cases were not too liable 
to error, we might suspect that the whole 
valley has been formed only by a violent 
sinking of a country which formerly poured 
the Jordan into the Mediterranean. It ap- 
pears certain, at least, that the catastrophe 
of five cities destroyed by fire must have 
been occasioned by the eruption of a vol- 
cano then burning. Strabo expressly says, 
' that the tradition of the inhabitants of the 
country (that is, of the Jews themselves) 
was, that formerly the valley of the lake was 
peopled by thirteen flourishing cities, and 
that they were swallowed up by a volcano.' 
This account seems to be confirmed by the 
quantities of ruins still found by travellers 
on the western border. These eruptions 
979 



have ceased long since ; but earthquakes, 
which usually succeed them, still continue 
to be felt at intervals in this country. The 
coast in general is subject to them, and his- 
tory gives us many examples of earthquakes, 
which have changed the face of Antioch, 
Laodicea, Tripoli, Berytus, Tyre, Sidon, &c. 
In our time, in the year 1759, there hap- 
pened one which caused the greatest ra- 
vages. It is said to have destroyed in the 
valley of Balbec upwards of twenty thou- 
sand persons ; a loss which has never been 
repaired. For three months the shock of 
it terrified the inhabitants of Lebanon so 
much, as to make them abandon their houses, 
and dwell under tents.' Volney's Travels, 
vol. i. p. 303. 

SOL'OMON, nobw, signifies peaceable, or 
perfect, or that recompences. Solomon, or 
Salomon, son of David and Bathsheba, was 
born in the year of the world 2971. The 
Lord loved him, and sent Nathan to David, 
to declare his affection toward this child, 
and to give Solomon the name of Jedidiah, 
or, ' beloved of the Lord.' (2 Sam. xii. 24, 
25.) This was, probably, when Nathan 
assured David that his son should succeed 
him, and that he should inherit those pro- 
mises the Lord had made him some years 
before, when he had conceived the design 
of building a temple to the Lord ; for then 
God told him, by the prophet Nathan, that 
the honour of building a temple should be 
reserved for his son. (2 Sam. vii. 5, &c.) 

From this time David prepared what was 
necessary for building the temple, and gave 
Solomon an education proportionate to the 
great designs God had ordained him to. 
But, toward the end of David's reign, 
Adonijah, David's eldest son, began to act 
as if he were to succeed to the crown. 
David did not restrain him ; Joab, Abia- 
thar, and several of the principal men of 
the court, were in his interest : but Zadok 
the high-priest informed Bathsheba, the 
mother of Solomon, of his designs ; and by 
her application to David procured the 
king's orders for the immediate coronation 
of Solomon. These orders were obeyed ; 
Solomon was anointed king of Israel ; 
brought back amid the acclamations of the 
people, and placed on the throne of David : 
who said, Blessed be the Lord, who has this 
day permitted me to see with my own eyes 
my son Solomon sitting on my throne. 

Adonijah, and his guests, being alarmed, 
fled for safety ; and were assured of it by 
Solomon. Adonijah then quitted his asy- 
lum, and came to pay his duty to king 
Solomon. 

David's death being at hand, he earn- 
estly recommended to Solomon a strict 
fidelity and piety towards God : bid him 
punish Joab and Shimei ; but show friend- 
ship to the sons of Barzillai, who had suc- 
coured him in his distress. He put into 
his hands plans for building the temple, 

' 3r 2 



SOL 



SOL 



and accounts of his treasures for erecting 
this edifice ; with many other regulations 
civil and sacred. Lastly, in a general 
assembly of the people, and of the great 
men, David delivered to him his gold, 
silver, and valuable materials, collected for 
building the temple, and exhorted all pre- 
sent to make each an offering to the Lord, 
according to his abilities. 

Solomon now entered on the full possession 
of the kingdom. Soon after this, his brother 
Adonijah made interest with Bathsheba, 
that she would entreat Solomon to give 
him Abishag, the Shunamite to wife. Bath- 
sheba recommended this request; but Solo- 
mon perceiving Adonijah's evil intentions, 
ordered Adonijah to be put to death. He 
also banished the high-priest Abiathar to 
his country-house, because he had been of 
Adonijah's party. When Joab heard what 
had happened to Adonijah and Abiathar, 
he fled into the tabernacle as a place of 
refuge. Solomon commanded him to be 
put to death. Solomon also ordered Shimei 
to build a house in Jerusalem, and not quit 
that city. Shimei obeyed this order for a 
time, but transgressing it, Solomon sent 
Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, to kill him. 

Solomon being confirmed in his kingdom, 
contracted an alliance with Pharaoh, king 
of Egypt, and married his daughter, in the 
year of the world 2991. He brought her 
to Jerusalem, and had apartments for her 
in the city of David, till he should build 
her a palace, which he did some years after- 
wards, when he had finished the temple. 
It is thought, that on occasion of this 
marriage, Solomon composed the Canticles, 
which are a kind of Epithalamium. To 
the same is referred Psalm xlv. This 
marriage has not been generally approved. 
Scripture speaks of the daughter of Pha- 
raoh, as contributing to pervert Solomon, 
(1 Kings xi. 1, 2. Nehem. xiii. 26.) and it 
is very likely, that if at first this princess 
might seem converted to the Lord, she 
afterwards might retain her private dis- 
position to idolatry, and engage her hus- 
band in it. 

Solomon, accompanied by his troops, and 
all Israel, went up to Gibeon, where was 
then the brazen altar, upon which he offered 
a thousand burnt- offerings. The night fol- 
lowing God appeared to him in a dream ; 
and said, Ask of me what you desire. So- 
lomon begged of God a wise and under- 
standing heart, and such qualities as were 
necessary for the government of the people 
committed to him. This request was agree- 
able to the Lord; and was fully granted 
by him. Solomon returned to Jerusalem, 
where he offered a great number of sacri- 
fices on the altar before the ark of the Lord, 
and made a great feast for his servants. 

Two women, who lived together in one 
house, came before the king, and complained 
that one of them had stifled her child in 
980 



her sleep, and having privately conveyed 
it to her companion, had stolen her living 
child, and pretended it to be her own. As 
each of these women eagerly claimed the 
living child, the king ordered to cut this 
child in two equal parts, that each of the 
women might have half of it. But the real 
mother of the child, moved by natural af- 
fection, said to the king, Let not the child 
be divided, rather let her take the whole 
child. Solomon, without hesitation, deter- 
mined that the child should be given to her, 
for she was the mother of it. All Israel 
hearing of this decision, were filled with 
reverence for their king, perceiving his 
great wisdom, and knowledge of the human 
heart. 

Solomon enjoyed a profound peace 
throughout his dominions : Judah and 
Israel lived in security ; and his neighbours 
either paid him tribute, or were his allies ; 
he ruled over all the countries and king- 
doms, from the Euphrates to the Nile, 
and his dominions extended even beyond 
the Euphrates : he had abundance of horses 
and chariots of war : he exceeded the 
Orientals, and all the Egyptians, in wis- 
dom and prudence : he was the wisest of 
mankind, and his reputation was spread 
through all nations. He composed, or 
collected, three thousand proverbs, and one 
thousand and five canticles. He knew the 
nature of plants and trees, from the cedar 
on Libanus, to the hyssop on the wall ; also 
of beasts, of birds, of reptiles, of fishes. 
There was a concourse of strangers from 
all countries to hear his wisdom ; and am- 
bassadors from the most remote princes. 
He made gold and silver as common in 
Jerusalem as stones in the street ; and 
cedars as plentiful as the sycamores in the 
valley. 

When Hiram, king of Tyre, knew that 
Solomon was made king of Israel, he sent 
ambassadors to congratulate his accession 
to the crown. Some time afterwards, Solo- 
mon desired him to supply wood and work- 
men, to assist in building a temple to the 
Lord. Hiram gladly undertook what Solo- 
mon desired. Solomon, on his part, obliged 
him to give 20,000 measures of wheat, and 
20,000 measures of oil. The Hebrew and 
the Vulgate have only twenty measures of 
oil ; but it is thought it ought to be twenty 
thousand. 

Solomon began to build the temple in 
the fourth year of his reign, and the second 
after the death of David ; four hundred 
and eighty years after the Exodus. He 
employed in this great work seventy thou- 
sand proselytes, descendants of the ancient 
Canaanites, in carrying burthens ; four- 
score thousand in cutting stones out of 
the quarries ; and three thousand six hun- 
dred overseers of the works. Besides 
thirty thousand Israelites in the quarries 
of Libanus. 



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SOL 



SOL 



The temple was completed in the eleventh 
year of Solomon, so that he was but seven 
years in performing this vast work. The 
dedication was made in the year following, 
in the year of the world 3001. To make 
this ceremony the more august, Solomon 
chose for it the eighth day of the seventh 
month of the holy year, which was the first 
of the civil year, and answered to our Octo • 
ber. The ceremony of the dedication lasted 
seven days, at the end of which began the 
feast of tabernacles, wbich continued se- 
ven days longer ; so that the people con- 
tinued at Jerusalem fourteen or fifteen days, 
from the eighth to the twenty-second of the 
seventh month. 

When the ark was placed in the sanc- 
tuary, while the priests and the Levites were 
celebrating the praises of the Lord, the 
temple was filled with a miraculous cloud ; 
so that the priests could no longer continue 
tbere, nor perform the functions of their 
ministry. Then Solomon, being on his 
throne, prostrated himself with his face to 
the ground ; then rising up, and turning 
toward the sanctuary, he addressed his 
prayer to God, and besought him, that the 
house which he had built might be accept- 
able to him, that he would bless and sanc- 
tify it, and hear the prayers of those who 
should address him from this holy place. 
He besought him also to fulfil the promises 
he had made to David his servant, in favour 
of his family, and of the kings his succes- 
sors. Then he turned himself to the peo- 
ple, and blessed them. Fire coming down 
from heaven consumed the victims and 
burnt-sacrifices on the altar, and the glory 
of the Lord filled the whole temple ; so that 
even the priests could not enter the temple, 
to perform their offices. 

On this day the king caused to be sacri- 
ficed 22,000 oxen, and 120,000 sheep for 
peace-offerings. And because the altar of 
burnt-offerings was not sufficient for all 
these victims, the king consecrated the 
court of the people. The Lord appeared 
a second time to Solomon in a dream ; pro- 
bably in the night that followed the first day 
of the dedication, and said to him, I have 
heard your prayer, and have chosen this 
temple to be my house of sacrifice. I will 
bless you and your posterity, if you are 
constant in my worship ; but if not, I will 
punish you, and destroy this edifice. 

Solomon afterwards built a palace for 
himself, and another for his queen, the king 
of Egypt's daughter. He was thirteen years 
in finishing these buildings, and employed 
therein whatever the most exquisite art, or 
the most profuse riches could furnish. The 
palace in which he generally resided was 
called the house of the forest of Lebanon ; 
probably because of the great quantity of 
cedar used in it. He gave Hiram twenty 
cities in the province of Galilee. Hiram 
went to see them, but did not like them. 
081 



Hiram also sent Solomon six-score talents 
of gold; probably he lent them Solomon 
to go on with his buildings. (1 Kings ix. 
14.) 

Solomon also built the walls of Jerusa- 
lem, the place called Millo, in this city ; he 
repaired and fortified Hazor, Megiddo, 
Gezer, the two Beth-horons, Upper and 
Lower, Baalath, and Palmyra, in the desert 
of Syria. He also fortified the cities where 
he had magazines of corn, wine, and oil ; 
and those where his horses and chariots 
were kept. He brought under his govern- 
ment the Hittites, the Hivites, the Amo- 
rites, and the Perizzites, which remained in 
the land of Israel. He made them tribu- 
taries, and compelled them to work at the 
public works. 

He fitted out a fleet at Ezion-geber, and 
at Elath, on the Red Sea to go to Ophir. 
Hiram, king of Tyre, furnished him with 
mariners, who instructed the subjects of Solo- 
mon. They performed this voyage in three 
years, and brought back gold, ivory, ebony, 
precious wood, peacocks, apes, and other 
curiosities. In one voyage they bi'ought 
Solomon four hundred and fifty talents of 
gold, (2 Chron. ix. 21.) or only four hun- 
dred and twenty. (1 Kings ix. 28.) 

About the same time, the queen of Sheba 
came to Jerusalem, attracted by the great 
fame of king Solomon. She brought rich 
presents of gold, spices, and precious stones. 
She proposed several enigmas, and hard 
questions ; to which Solomon gave her such 
satisfactory answers, that she owned what 
had been told her of his wisdom and mag- 
nificence was far short of what she had 
found. The king, on his' part, made her 
rich presents. 

Solomon was one of the richest, if not the 
very richest, of all princes that have ever 
lived ; and the Scripture expressly tells us 
he exceeded in riches and wisdom all the 
kings of the earth. His annual revenues 
were six hundred and sixty-six talents of 
gold, without reckoning tributes from kings 
and nations, or paid by Israelites, or sums 
received for customs. The bucklers of his 
guards, and the throne he sat on, were over- 
laid with gold. All the vessels of his table, 
and the utensils of his palaces, were of gold. 
From all parts he received presents, vessels 
of gold and silver, precious stutfs, spices, 
arms, horses, and mules ; the whole earth 
desired to see the face of Solomon, and to 
hear the wisdom God had put into his 
heart. 

But the latter actions of his life sadly dis- 
graced his character. Besides Pharaoh's 
daughter, he married wives from among the 
Moabites, Ammonites, Idumeans, Sidonians, 
and Hittites. He had 700 wives, who were 
so many queens, besides 300 concubines. 
These women perverted his heart, in his de- 
clining age, so that he worshipped Ashto- 
reth, goddess of the Sidonians, Moloch, 



SON 



SOU 



idol of the Ammonites, and Chemosh, god 
of the Moabites. To these he built temples 
on the Mount of Olives, over against, and 
east of Jerusalem. Wherefore the Lord 
said to him in a dream, Since you have not 
kept my covenant, nor obeyed my com- 
mandments, I will rend and divide your 
kingdom, and will give it to one of your 
servants. Solomon, before his death, saw 
the beginnings of revolt, in the troubles 
raised by Jeroboam, and by Hadad the 
Idumean. 

Solomon died after he had reigned forty 
years, in the year of the world 3029. We 
think he might be about fifty- eight years of 
age ; for he was about eighteen when he 
began to reign. Josephus allows him eighty 
years of reign, and ninety-four years of life ; 
but this is a manifest error. The history 
of this prince was written by the prophets 
Nathan, Ahijah, and Iddo. He was buried 
in the city of David, and Rehoboam his 
son reigned in his stead, but not over all 
Israel. 

Several interpreters are of opinion that 
the book of Ecclesiastes is a monument of 
the repentance of Solomon, being composed 
by him after his fall. 

Of all the ingenious works composed by 
Solomon, we have nothing remaining but 
his Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Canti- 
cles. Some have ascribed to him the book 
of Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus ; but these 
opinions are very improbable. 

There has also been published, The 
Psalter of Solomon, containing eighteen 
Psalms, found in Greek, in the library of 
Augsburg, by Andrew Schott ; which have 
been translated into Latin, and given to the 
public by Father de la Cerda. The learned 
are agreed that they are none of Solomon's, 
but of some Hellenistic Jew, much conver- 
sant in the sacred authors, who has com- 
posed them in imitation of the Psalms of 
David, of which he has pretty closely imi- 
tated the style ; and has inserted in them 
several fragments of the prophets Isaiah 
and Ezekiel, which he has well enough ac- 
commodated to his design. 

SONG. See Canticles. 

SO'REK, p~nu>, signifies vines, or grapes ; 
otherwise, whistle, or whistling. Sorek was 
the name of a brook that passed through 
the tribe of Dan ; and also a valley where 
dwelt the famous Delilah, Samson's mis- 
tress. (Judg. xvi. 4.) This valley of Sorek 
was famous for its choice wines. (Gen. xlxi. 
11. Isaiah v. 2. Jer. ii. 21.) 

SOSIP'ATER, SwcriTrarpoc, signifies that 
saves the father, or safety of the father. So- 
sipater, of whom St. Paul speaks, (Rom. 
xvi. 21.) was his kinsman, as some think. 
1 Lucius, and Jason, and Sosipater, my 
kinsmen, salute you.' But there is some 
difficulty in this, since Jason was of Thessa- 
lonica, and Sosipater was of Berea, in Ma- 
cedonia, very distant from Tarsus, the coun- 
982 



try of St. Paul. In what sense then does 
he call them kinsmen ? Is it because they 
were of the same nation, of the same tribe, 
of the same city, of the same religion, or 
only allied to him? Calmet thinks it may 
be confidently asserted, that this Sosipater, 
who was at Rome, A.D. 58, when St. Paul 
wrote to the Romans, cannot be the Sosi- 
pater of Berea ; since he accompanied St. 
Paul the same year 58, to Jerusalem, and 
probably went with him from Corinth, 
whence the Epistle to the Romans was 
written, to go by way of Macedonia to Je- 
rusalem. (Acts xx. 4, 5, 6, &c.) In our 
English translation he is called Sopater. 

SOS'THENES, SucBkvriQ, signifies sa- 
viour, strong and powerful. Sosthenes was 
chief of the synagogue of Corinth. The 
Jews of Corinth laying hold of St. Paul, 
carried him before the tribunal of Gallio, 
the proconsul, but he sent them away. Then 
they seized Sosthenes, the chief of the sy- 
nagogue, and began to beat him before the 
tribunal ; but Gallio disregarded it. It is 
disputed whether they were Jews or Gen- 
tiles, who seized Sosthenes and beat him. 
The printed Greek of the Acts intimates that 
they were Gentiles. St. Austin and Bede 
read in the same manner. They imagined 
that the Pagans, seeing Gallio's ill reception 
of the Jews, abused this chief of their syna- 
gogue; whether merely out of hatred to the 
Jews, or out of friendship to St. Paul. This 
opinion is followed by Cajetan, Lyran, Gro- 
tius, and some others. (Acts xviii. 17.) 

Others think that Sosthenes, though head 
of the synagogue, yet might be a friend and 
secret disciple of St. Paul ; and that the 
other Jews, seeing themselves neglected by 
Gallio, might vent their malice on Sos- 
thenes. 

SOUL, that vital, immaterial, active sub- 
stance, or principle in man, by which he 
perceives, remembers, reasons, and wills. 
We are too apt to suppose that our powers 
of perception are constituted by the organ- 
ized fibres of which our bodies are com- 
posed ; and because in this present state of 
things we have no other means of commu- 
nication with the sensible world than through 
the medium of our senses ; or, because we 
see with our eyes, hear with our ears, taste 
with our palate, smell with our nose, and 
feel with our touch, that therefore death, 
which proves the destruction of these or- 
ganic powers, must annihilate that con- 
sciousness which we have of the existence 
of other beings, and of our own existence. 
But it does not follow that the organs of 
sensation are the same thing as the sentient 
being ; or that the one ceases to be when 
the others are destroyed. May we not con- 
ceive it very probable that we may exist, 
and be conscious of existence, or be in re- 
spect to perception and intelligence the 
same beings that we are at present, with- 
out either eyes, or ears, or smell, or taste, 



sou 



STA 



or touch, in short, without any corporeal 
integument 1 

Those who maintain that death destroys 
the mind and the body of man, seem to 
suppose that the organs of perception are 
the same as the percipient power ; and 
that what destroys one, of course destroys 
the other. But there are certain facts and 
analogies which seem to prove that the sen- 
sual organs do not constitute the perceptive 
faculty, but are only the means or channel 
of correspondence between that faculty and 
the external world. We can have no ori- 
ginal perception of external objects with 
which we have not been previously made ac- 
quainted by the senses ; but when the mind 
has acquired such sensual ideas, it can re- 
tain and compound them when the sight, or 
hearing, or any other sense by which they 
were originally communicated, is destroyed. 
If the perceptive power and the perceptive 
organs were one and the same thing, the 
ideas of sense being so intimately identified 
with the organs of sense, could not survive 
their destruction ; and thus he who had lost 
his sight could no longer have any visible 
ideas. But we know that those who have 
corporeally lost their sight, do not men- 
tally cease to see ; or, in other words, do not 
cease to retain those perceptions of visible 
objects, which they were originally assisted 
in acquiring by the faculty of vision ; and in 
dreams we all know that the pei-ceptive 
faculty is often very active, when the organs 
of perception are in a state of suspension or 
temporary death. Hence it follows, that we 
may perceive without organs of perception, 
and that the perceptive faculty is something 
very different from the perceptive organs. 

The will, which puts the limbs in motion, 
must be something very different from the 
limbs, which are put in motion ; for the 
limbs are evidently the instruments of the 
will, as the will, which is the moving faculty, 
is as active after the destruction of the 
limb as it was before ; for the will can apply 
an artificial limb to the same purposes as 
the natural ; but this could not be effected 
if the faculty of motion resided in the limb, 
rather than in the mind. But the power 
of willing, or the actual faculty of percep- 
tion, seems no more to reside in the organs 
of sense, as in the eye, or ear, than in the 
spectacles or the trumpet which we often 
use to assist the operation of those organs. 
And hence we infer that our organs of sense, 
which some philosophers make to constitute 
the perceptive faculty itself, and conse- 
quently in which they suppose our personal 
identity to reside, do not constitute our- 
selves, and consequently that they may be 
annihilated without the annihilation of our 
consciousness. The relation between us and 
our senses is of the same kind, though more 
intimate and entire than that between us 
and other external objects ; and the destruc- 
tion of the one no more necessitates the 
1)83 



destruction of our personality, than the de- 
struction of the other. But if the perceptive 
faculty remain after the destruction of the 
perceptive organs ; if the power of motion 
survive the natural instruments of motion ; 
if the will continue full of life and ac- 
tivity, when the material fibres on which 
it is to operate are perished or decayed, we 
have good reason to believe that the same 
power of perception survives the shock of 
death ; for, if we may lose some of our 
most material organs without its being im- 
paired, is it not highly probable that 
when the whole corporeal frame is dis- 
solved, the percipient faculty will not be 
destroyed ? 

The power of the mind principally re- 
sides in activity of reflection ; but we have 
seen in many remarkable instances that the 
vigour of reflection often remains without 
being in the least affected by the decay of 
the body, and has sometimes shone with 
the brightest lustre, and displayed its fullest 
strength, when the lamp of animal life was 
on the point of going out. And if the re- 
flective faculty be not affected by the sick- 
ness, the decay, or the debility of the body, 
it becomes almost morally certain that it 
will remain after the total dissolution of 
the corporeal frame, and that death will 
not only not destroy the mind, but not 
even for a moment suspend its opera- 
tions. 

It is demonstrably clear that the decay 
of the sensual organ does not impair the 
vigour or impede the exercise of the think- 
ing faculty, and consequently we may infer 
that that faculty may remain entire even 
after the destruction of the whole corporeal 
frame. The powers of reflection differ from 
those of sensation, and death, which extin- 
guishes the one, may only cause the more 
vigorous expansion of the other. 

If, therefore, death, which destroys the 
corporeal organs, and makes the body 
moulder into dust, have no effect on the 
mind, as many circumstances concur to 
prove ; if it neither extinguish, nor even 
suspend its active powers ; death itself ought 
to be regarded as the period of our nativity 
to a more exalted and refined state of being. 
Thus after death there will be a continuation 
of our present existence, but under happier 
circumstances, in which all the privations 
and sufferings of this life will be removed ; 
and the mind, freed from the terrene gross- 
ness which now surrounds it, will be sus- 
ceptible of pleasures as pure as they are 
permanent. Fellowes's Body of Theology, 
vol. i. pp. 138 — 14(J. 

STAR, Sttlld ; in Hebrew, 203, cocah. 
Under the name of stars, the Hebrews com- 
prehended all the heavenly bodies, constel- 
lations, anil planets ; all the luminaries 
except the sun and the moon. 1'be Scrip- 
ture often expresses rt>elf as if it should 
seem to attribute sense and understanding 



STE 



STO 



to the stars. The sun and moon were called 
by the idolatrous Israelites, king and queen 
of heaven ; and the stars were (as it were) 
their army and militia. (Deut. xvii. 3.) Both 
received those honours which were due only 
to their Creator. 

The number of the stars was considered 
as infinite : the Psalmist, to exalt the power 
and omniscience of God, says that he num- 
bers the stars, and calls them by their 
names. He is described as a king taking a 
review of his army, and knowing the name 
of every one of his soldiers. The Scrip- 
ture, to express a very extraordinary increase 
and multiplication, uses the similitude of 
the stars of heaven, or of the sands of the 
sea : ' I will multiply thy seed as the stars 
of the heaven, and as the sand upon the 
sea shore.' (Gen. xv. 5. ; xxii. 17. ; xxvi. 4. 
Exod. xxxii. 13, &c.) Job says, (xxv. 5.) 
that in the eyes of God, the stars themselves 
are impure; that they formed a kind of con- 
cert song to his honour at the beginning of 
the creation, (xxxviii. 7-) ; that God locks 
them up, as with a key, and hinders them 
from appearing, but when he pleases. (Job 
ix. 70 

In times of disgrace and public calamity, 
it is said, the stars withhold their light, 
and are covered with darkness ; that they 
fall from heaven, and disappear. These 
figurative and emphatic expressions, it seems 
probable, frequently refer to the governing 
powers of nations. Amos (v. 26.) says, that 
the Israelites in the wilderness carried with 
them a star to which they paid divine ho- 
nours: ' Ye have borne the star of your God, 
which ye made to yourselves.' See Chiun. 

Job (ix. 9. ; xxxviii. 31.) speaks of Arc- 
turus, Orion, Pleiades, and the star of the 
south. See Arcturus. 

STE'PHEN, ^Tscpavog. Stephen; in 
Greek, Stephanos, which signifies a crown. 
Stephen, the first martyr, was probably of 
the number of those Hellenistical Jews that 
believed in Jesus Christ. Epiphanius thinks 
he was of the number of the seventy-two 
disciples of Jesus Christ : but this is not cer- 
tain. Jesus Christ appointed his seventy-two 
disciples to teach and preach ; but it seems 
that Stephen, and the six other first dea- 
cons, had not that particular designation, 
when they were chosen to serve tables ; 
which was in the year 34. St. Stephen is 
always put at their head ; and it is believed 
he had studied at the feet of Gamaliel. As 
he was full of the Holy Ghost, and of zeal, 
(Acts vi. 5, 6, &c.) he performed many 
wonderful works and miracles, and some of 
the synagogue of the freed -men of the Cy- 
renians, of the Alexandrians, and others, 
disputing with him, could not withstand his 
wisdom and spirit. 

Then they suborned false witnesses, to 

testify that they heard him blaspheme 

against Moses, and against God ; and they 

drew him before the Sanhedrim. Stephen 

981 



appeared in the midst of this assembly, 
with a countenance like that of an angel ; 
and the high-priest asking him, what he 
had to answer 1 In his defence, he showed 
—he had not said any thing either against 
Moses or the temple ; but that the Jews 
had always opposed themselves to God and 
his prophets; he upbraided them with the 
hardness of their hearts, with their putting 
the prophets to death, and, lastly, with 
slaying Jesus Christ himself. 

At these words they were enraged, and 
gnashed their teeth against him. But Ste- 
phen, lifting up his eyes to Heaven, said, 
' I see the heavens opened, and the Son of 
Man standing at the right hand of God.' 
Then the Jews cried out, stopped their ears, 
and falling on him, they drew him out of 
the city, and stoned him. The witnesses 
laid down their clothes at the feet of a young 
man called Saul, then one of the most eager 
persecutors of the Christians, but afterwards 
one of the most zealous preachers of Christ- 
ianity. Stephen called upon the Lord, and 
said, Lord, impute not this sin to them. 
After this he fell asleep in the Lord, and 
some pious persons took care to bury him, 
and accompanied his funeral with great 
mourning. (Acts viii. 2.) 

STO'ICS, SrwiKot, thus called by the 
Greeks, because they assembled and con- 
versed together under a porch or portico, 
in Greek Sroa, Stoa. Stoics were heathen 
philosophers who took their name from the 
Greek word Stoa, signifying a porch, or 
portico, because Zeno, the head of the Stoics, 
kept his school in a porch of the city of 
Athens. Diogenes Laertius in his life of 
Zeno, and others, have treated of these 
philosophers. Josephus says, that the Pha- 
risees approach very near to the sentiments 
of the Stoics. They affected the same stiff- 
ness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insen- 
sibility. The sect of the Stoics was con- 
siderable at Athens when St. Paul came 
thither, since he had conferences with them. 
(Acts xvii. 18.) The Stoics placed the 
supreme happiness of man in living agree- 
ably to nature and reason. They seem to 
have looked on God as the soul of the world. 

STONES. For the names of the pre- 
cious stones which were in the high-priest's 
breast-plate, (Exod. xxviii. 17, &c.) see 
Breast-plate. 

The Hebrews sometimes give the name 
of stone or rock to kings, to princes, or to 
God himself. Joseph in Egypt became 
' the stone of Israel.' (Gen. xlix. 24.) They 
also give the name of stones to their weights 
used in commerce. (Lev. xix. 36.) 'Just 
weights shall ye have :' the Hebrew says, 
'just stones.' 

The corner-stone, or the head stone of 
the corner, is that which is put at the angle 
of a building, whether at the foundation, or 
on the top of the wall. Jesus Christ was 
that corner-stone which, though rejected by 



STO 



STO 



the Jews, is the corner-stone of the church, 
(Psalm cxviii. 22.) and the stone that 
binds and unites the synagogue and the Gen- 
tiles in the union of the same faith. (Eph. 
ii. 20. Matt. xxi. 42.) 

Shower of stones. Joshua (x. 11.) speaks 
of its raining stones upon the Canaanites. 
' And it came to pass as they fled from 
before Israel, and were in the going down 
to Beth-horon, that the Lord cast down 
great stones from heaven upon them unto 
Azekah, and they died. They were more 
that died with hail-stones than they whom 
the children of Israel slew with the sword.' 
Some pretend that this was ordinary hail, 
but larger and more violent than usual. 
Others maintain that Joshua is to be under- 
stood literally of a shower of stones. The 
text seems to be express for this sentiment, 
and the thing is not impossible. We have 
several instances of showers of stones. 
When the Scripture speaks of these events, 
it speaks of them as of a prodigy. But a 
common shower of hail has nothing of a 
miracle in it. Masius, Bonfrere, Grotius, 
explain it literally of a shower of stones. 
Moses (Deut. xxviii. 21) speaks of a shower 
of dust and sand, with which he threatens 
Israel. The Romans, who looked on 
showers of stones as very disastrous, in 
their annals have noticed many instances of 
them. It is probable, however, that the 
stones mentioned by Livy came from an 
eruption of Mount Vesuvius, being brought 
by a tempest. But whence could those come 
that fell on the Canaanites ? The instances 
of enormous hail-stones are amply sufficient. 
(Exod. ix. 25. Rev. xvi. 21.) 

The knives of stone used by the Jews in 
circumcision were not enjoined by the law; 
but the use was founded, either on custom, 
convenience, or experience of this kind of 
instrument, being less dangerous than those 
of metal. Zipporah used a stone to circum- 
cise her son. (Exod. iv. 25.) Joshua did 
the same, when he caused such of the Israel- 
ites to be circumcised at Gilgal, as had not 
received circumcision during their journey 
in the wilderness. (Josh. v. 2.) The Egyp- 
tians used these knives of stone to open 
dead bodies that were to be embalmed. 
Pliny assures us that the priests of the 
mother of the gods had sharp stones with 
which they cut themselves, which they 
thought they could not do with any thing 
else without danger. 

Solomon says, (Prov. xvi. 8.) 'As he that 
bindeth a stone in a sling, so is he that 
giveth honour to a fool.' When a stone 
is fastened to a sling, the slinger hinders 
his own design of throwing it; he loses 
his labour ; so does the man who gives 
honour to a fool. But the words may be 
rendered, ' As he that putteth a precious 
stone in a heap of stones,' where it is ob- 
scure and lost ; and as this little stone does 
not augment the heap, nor is so much as 
985 



seen upon it, so honour heaped on a fool 
does not render him more worthy of con- 
sideration. Others translate it, ' to tie a 
stone in a piece of purple is to give honour 
to a fool.' As nothing can be so ill placed 
as a stone in a piece of fine cloth ; so are 
honours ill placed upon a fool. 

Heaps of Stones, raised in witness of any 
memorable event, and to preserve the re- 
membrance of some matter of great impor- 
tance, are the most ancient monuments 
among the Hebrews. In early ages, these 
monuments were instead of inscriptions, 
pyramids, medals, or histories. Chardin 
says, ' Upon the left hand of the road are to 
be seen large circles of hewn stone, which 
the Persians affirm to be a great sign that 
the Caous, making war in Media, held a 
council in that place : it being the custom 
of those people, that every officer that came 
to the council brought with him a stone to 
serve him instead of a chair : these Caous 
were a sort of giants. What is most to be 
admired, after observation of these stones, 
is this, that they are so big that eight men 
can hardly move one, and yet there is no 
place from whence they can be imagined 
to have been fetched, but from the next 
mountains, which are six leagues off".' 
Jacob and Laban raised such a monument 
on Mount Gilead, in memory of their co- 
venant. (Gen. xxxi. 46.) Joshua erected 
one at Gilgal, made of stones, taken out of 
the Jordan, to preserve the memorial of his 
miraculous passage over this river. (Josh. 
iv. 5, 6, 7-) The Israelites that dwelt be- 
yond Jordan also raised one on the banks of 
the river, as a testimony that they consti- 
tuted but one nation with their brethren on 
the other side. (Josh. xxii. 10.) Some- 
times they heaped such a collection of 
stones on the burying-place of odious per- 
sons, as Achan and Absalom. (Josh. vii. 
26. 2 Sam. xviii. 17.) 

A heart of stone, may be understood se- 
veral ways. Job, (xli. 24.) speaking of the 
Leviathan, says, that his heart is as hard as 
stone ; ' his heart is as firm as a stone, yea, 
as hard as a piece of the nether mill-stone :' 
that is, he is of a very extraordinary 
strength, boldness, and courage. It is said, 
(1 Sam. xxv. 37.) that Nabal's heart died 
within him, and he became as a stone ; when 
he was told of the danger he had incurred 
by his imprudence, his heart became im- 
moveable like a stone, it was contracted or 
convulsed, and this convulsion was the 
occasion of his death. Ezekiel says, (xi. 
19.; xxxvi. 28.) that the Lord will take 
away from his people their heart of stone, 
and give them a heart of flesh ; that he will 
convert them, and inspire them with milder 
and more gracious feelings Pretty near 
in the saint' sense John the liapt ist said, 
(Matt. iii. 0.) that God was able to raise up 
to Abraham children from the stones of the 
desert. 



STO 



SUB 



A stone is sometimes put for an idol of 
stone: 'Woe unto him that saith unto the 
wood, Awake, and to the dumb stone, Arise, 
it shall teach.' (Hab. ii. 9.) The Assyrians 
threw into the fire the gods of the nations ; 
for they were no gods, they were only wood 
and stone. (Isai. xxxvii. 9.) And Jeremiah 
(ii. 27.) says, ' Saying to a stock, Thou art 
my father, and to a stone, Thou hast brought 
me forth.' 

To be reduced to a heap of stones, is said 
of a city or a house which is entirely 
ruined and demolished ; ' I will make 
Samaria as an heap of the field, and as 
plantings of a vineyard.' (Mic. i. 6.) Isaiah 
says, (xvii. 1.) that Damascus shall cease to 
be a city, and shall be reduced to a heap of 
stones. Thus also our Saviour, speaking 
of the destruction of Jerusalem, says, that 
one stone shall not remain upon another, 
(Matt. xxiv. 2.) Fragments annexed to Cal- 
met's Dictionary, No. cxlvi. p. 167. 

STONING, to stone, to put to death by 
casting stones. Lapidation was a punish- 
ment much in use among the Hebrews, and 
the rabbins reckon up many crimes that 
were subject to it. 

Lapidation, say the rabbins, was per- 
formed after two manners. The first was 
when stones were thrown upon the guilty 
person till he died ; the witnesses throwing 
the first stones at him. The second man- 
ner was, when the criminal was brought 
to a steep place, whose height was at least 
that of two men, from whence one of the 
two witnesses threw him headlong, and 
the other rolled a large stone upon his body. 
If he did not die by his fall from the rock, 
they dispatched him by throwing stones 
upon him. Some suppose a reference to 
these two manners of stoning in the Gospel. 
(Matt. xxi. 44.) We see more than one 
instance in Scripture of the first manner of 
stoning ; but we have no example of the 
second ; for that of Jezebel, who was thrown 
out of a window, proves nothing. (2 Kings 
ix. 33.) 

What we have said, that they generally 
stoned criminals out of the city, is true 
only of regular executions. For in some 
cases the Jews stoned those whom they 
thought deserved it, wherever they found 
them: for example, when by a transport 
of zeal, they stoned to death a blasphemer, 
an adulterer, or an idolater. Thus when 
they brought to Jesus a woman surprised 
in adultery, (John viii.) he said to her ac- 
cusers, Let him who is without fault cast 
the first stone at her ; and when the Jews, 
pretending he blasphemed, took up stones to 
stone him, even in the temple. (John viii. 
59. ; x. 31.) On such occasions they did not 
stay for the usual formalities, but followed 
the first transports of their passion. This 
they called the judgment of zeal. 

We are told that after a man had been 
stoned they fastened his body to a stake 
986 



by tying his hands together, and so left 
him till sun-set 5 then they untied him, and 
buried him in the Vale of Carcasses, with 
the stake to which he had been fastened. 
This, they say, was done only to blasphe- 
mers and idolaters; but it would be very 
difficult to prove this practice by Scrip- 
ture. 

SUBMISSION of our wills to the will 
of God, imports the performing of those 
things which he commands ; or patiently 
suffering the evils which God either per- 
mits, or inflicts on us. The one may be 
called an active, the other a passive, sub- 
mission to the will of God. Had man con- 
tinued in that state of innocence in which 
God at first created him, there would have 
been only required of him an active submis- 
sion to the will of God ,• for, by obeying the 
laws and commands of God, he would have 
attained to the perfection of his nature, and 
then both himself and his posterity had 
been happy for ever. But by transgressing 
the divine law, he introduced sin, with all 
its fatal consequences into the world, and 
became subject to those innumerable afflic- 
tions and calamities, which have since been 
the lot and portion of his miserable posterity. 
However, as this is now the melancholy 
condition of mankind, it becomes us pati- 
ently to submit ourselves, and to behave 
with resignation and pomposure of mind, 
whenever any calamity or affliction be- 
fals us. 

This submission of ourselves to God's 
will consists in the habit, and not in the 
act; and properly denotes such a temper 
and frame of mind, as is prepared cheer- 
fully to bear whatever can happen to us. 
We must repose ourselves under God's pro- 
tection, continue resigned and contented 
in adversity, as well as prosperity; when 
God writes bitter things against us, as well 
as when we enjoy the light of his counte- 
nance. It is a duty but of low attainment, 
to submit our wills to the divine, only when 
we enjoy all our hearts can wish : but can 
we take contentedly the spoiling of our 
goods, the loss of our children, the ingrati- 
tude of our friends, a painful and acute 
distemper, and then say with Job, ' the 
Lord gave, and the Lord taketh away; 
blessed be the name of the Lord?' And 
yet we ought cheerfully to submit to the 
will of God ; to rejoice and be exceeding 
glad, when we suffer for righteousness' sake ; 
'for whom God loveth he chasteneth, and 
correcteth every son whom he receiveth.' 

The reasonableness of performing this 
duty will plainly appear, if we consider that 
God is the great creator and governor of 
the world. He made us, and not we our- 
selves, and therefore may justly dispose of 
us according to his own will and pleasure : 
' Shall the clay say to the potter, Why hast 
thou made me thus ?' may not God do what 
he will with his own? Besides, God has 



SUB 



sue 



not only an absolute unlimited power over 
us, but he is also a Being of infinite wisdom, 
to conduct and bring about the great designs 
of his providence. How reasonable is it then 
that such blind ignorant beings as we are, 
should resign ourselves to the conduct of 
an infinitely wise God ; to observe his di- 
rections, execute his commands, govern 
our lives and conversations by his laws, and 
submit all our concerns to his disposal ! 
For God is not only infinitely wise and 
powerful, but also a most good and merci- 
ful Being, and naturally inclined to help 
and assist the distressed and miserable. 
Let me desire you to consider, whether, 
if some powerful friend had placed you in 
an opulent and comfortable station, and in 
the general conduct of your affairs had 
discovered the most disinterested kindness, 
you would not ascribe any occasional dis- 
couragements you received, to some un- 
known reason or cause, rather than to his 
unfaithfulness or cruelty ? Ought not the 
experience which we have had, and the 
discovery which all nature affords, of the 
Divine goodness, to lead us to put a like 
construction on the evils which we suffer 
from a hand that hath so frequently loaded 
us with good ? Have we forgotten, in the 
midst of our complaints, who brought us 
into the light of day ; who watched over 
our helpless infancy ; who reared our grow- 
ing childhood, and, through ten thousand 
surrounding dangers, has been our protec- 
tor and guardian until this day ? How 
often has he rescued us from sickness and 
death, and made our hearts glad with un- 
expected comforts? Now, that some cloud 
is thrown over our prosperity, or some 
blessing withdrawn, in which, for a time, 
we had rejoiced, can we imagine that there 
is no good cause for this change of his pro- 
ceeding? 

The good things, which at different times 
we have received and enjoyed, are much 
greater than the evils which we suffer. Of 
this fact I am sensible it will be difficult to 
persuade the afflicted But would they 
weigh, in a fair balance, the whole of their 
circumstances, they would find it true. 
Whatever persons feel at the present makes 
so strong an impression upon them as very 
commonly to obliterate the memory of all 
the past. When one is impressed with some 
painful disease in his body, or wrung with 
some sore distress of mind, every former 
comfort, at that moment, goes for nothing. 
Life is beheld in all its gloom ; a dark cloud 
seems to hang over it ; and it is reviled as 
no other than a scene of wretchedness and 
sorrow. But this is to be unjust to human 
life, as well as ungrateful to its Author. Let 
me only desire you to think how many days, 
how many months, how many years, you 
have passed in health, and ease, and com- 
fort ; how many pleasurable feelings you 
have had ; how many friends you have en- 
987 



joyed ; how many blessings, in short, of 
different kinds, you have tasted; and you 
will be forced to acknowledge, that more 
materials of thanksgiving present them- 
selves than of lamentation and complaint. 
Not only the goods of life are, upon the 
whole, greater than its evils ; but the evils 
which we suffer are seldom, or never, with- 
out some mixture of good. It we are de- 
prived of friends whom we tenderly loved, are 
there not some still remaining, from whom 
we may expect much comfort ? If our bodies 
are afflicted with sore disease, have we not 
reason to be thankful that our mind con- 
tinues vigorous and entire ; that we are in a 
situation to look around us for whatever can 
afford us ease ; and that after the decay of 
this frail and mouldering tabernacle, we can 
look forward to a ' house not made with 
hands, eternal in the heavens V In the midst 
of all distresses, there remains to every sin- 
cere Christian that mixture of pure and 
genuine consolation, which springs from the 
promises and hopes of the Gospel. As the 
evils which we suffer are thus alleviated by 
a mixture of good, so we have reason to be- 
lieve that the evils themselves are, in many 
respects, good. When borne with patience 
and dignity, they improve and ennoble our 
character. They bring into exercise several 
of the manly and heroic virtues ; and, by 
the constancy and fidelity with which we 
support our trials on earth, prepare us for 
the highest rewards in heaven. It has 
always been found that the present consti- 
tution of human nature cannot bear unin- 
terrupted prosperity, without being cor- 
rupted by it. The poisonous weeds which 
spring up in that too luxuriant soil require 
the hand of ad versi ty to extirpate them. 1 1 is 
the experience of sorrow and distress that 
subdues the arrogance of pride, tames the 
violence of passion, softens the hardness of 
the selfish heart, and humanizes the temper 
to feel for the woes of others. Many have 
had reason to say, that ' it was good for 
them to be afflicted.' (Psalm cxix. 7L) 
Blair's Sermons, vol. ii. pp. 352—357 ; War- 
ner's System of Divinity and Morality, vol. iii. 
pp. 39—42. 

SUC'COTH, jtod, signifies tabernacles, 
or tents. Succoth, or Sochoth, the first en- 
campment of the Israelites, after they left 
Egypt. (Exod. xii. 37-) Succoth signifies 
tents ; perhaps the Mischenoth, or cities of 
tents. (Exod. i. 11.) Our translation renders 
Mischenoth treasure-cities. 

Succoth, a city beyond Jordan, between 
the brook Jabbok and this river. Jacob at 
his return from Mesopotamia, passing over 
the brook Jabbok, set up his tents at Suc- 
coth, where afterwards they built a city. 
(Gen. xxxiii. 17.) Joshua assigned it to the 
tribe of Gad. (Josh. xiii. 27 ) Solomon cast 
his large brazen vessels for the service of 
the temple, between Succoth and Zarthan. 
(1 Kings vii. 46'.) Jerome says, Succoth 



SUN 



SUN 



was within the district of Scythopolis. The 
Jews tell us, the name of Darala was after- 
wards given to Succoth. Gideon tore the 
flesh of the principal men of Succoth with 
thorns and Driers, because they returned 
him an haughty answer, when pursuing the 
Midianites. (Judg. viii. 7.) 

SUC'COTH-BE'NOTH, nmvVDD, sig- 
nifies the tabernacles of young women, or the 
tents of prostitutes. (2 Kings xvii. 30.) The 
Babylonians who were brought into the 
country of Samaria by Shalmaneser, or by 
Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, continued 
the worship of their false gods, and made 
there Succoth- Benoth, that is, the tents of 
the young women, or places of prostitution, 
where all young women, once in their lives, 
prostituted themselves in honour of the god- 
dess Milytta. Herodotus says, this was thus 
practised at Babylon : all the young women 
of the country are obliged, once in their 
lives, to prostitute themselves to a stranger, 
in honour of Milytta, or Venus. The rich 
present themselves in covered chariots be- 
fore the temple, attended by a great number 
of domestics. They go only out of ceremony, 
and do not abandon themselves to strangers, 
as others do. But the common sort stand 
before the temple, having crowns on their 
heads, and being separated from one another 
by small cords, which, however, do not hin- 
der strangers from going in. and choosing 
which they like best. They throw money in 
their laps, saying, I invoke the goddess 
Milytta for you. The women must not re- 
fuse this money, be it ever so little, because 
it is appointed to uses which they call sacred; 
nor must they reject such persons as offer 
themselves. These lead them away, and 
after they have accompanied them, they may 
return to their own houses. Probably, the 
Babylonians brought with them this abo- 
minable custom into the country of Samaria. 
The Rabbins insist, that Succoth- Benoth 
signifies a hen and chickens. Eusebius and 
Jerome seem to think it is a city which these 
people built in Samaria. 

SUN, the great luminary which enlightens 
the world, and by its presence constitutes 
day. It is eight hundred and ninety thou- 
sand miles in diameter, and more than one 
hundred and twelve times larger than the 
diameter of the earth. It has been disco- 
vered, that the sun moves round its own 
axis, without moving considerably out of its 
place, in about twenty-five days ; and that 
not only the earth, but all the planets, move 
round the sun in periodical times, which 
produces the different seasons, and the 
length of days and nights. 

This great luminary God created at the 
beginning to preside over day ; as he created 
the moon to preside over night. It is 
thought it was the sun which the Phenicians 
worshipped under the name of Baal, the 
Moabites under the name of Chemosh, the 
Ammonites under that of Moloch, the Is- 
988 



raelites under that of Baal, and the king of 
the host of heaven. They united with his 
worship that of the moon. They worshipped 
on high places, in groves, on the roofs of 
their houses. Moses cautioned the Israelites 
against this worship (Deut. iv. 19.) : ' Take 
ye, therefore, good heed unto yourselves, 
lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, 
and when thou seest the sun, the moon, and 
the stars, even all the host of heaven, 
shouldest be driven to worship and serve 
them.' And in another place, (Deut. xvii. 3.) 
he condemns to death those perverted to 
worship strange gods, the sun, or the moon. 
Josiah, king of Judah, took from the temple 
of the Lord, the horses, and burnt the cha- 
riots, which the kings his predecessors had 
consecrated to the sun. (2 Kings xxiii. 11.) 
Job says (xxxi. 26, 27, 28.) that he looked 
on it as a very great crime, and as renounc- 
ing the God that is above, to kiss his hand 
in token of adoration, when he beheld the 
sun in all its beauty and splendour. Ezekiel 
saw in the Spirit, in the temple of the Lord, 
five-and-twenty-men of Judah, who turned 
their backs on the sanctuary, and had their 
faces toward the east, worshipping the sun 
at his rising. (Ezekiel viii. 16.) 

The sun furnishes matter to the greater 
part of the noble similitudes, used by the 
sacred authors. To represent great cala- 
mity, they say the sun was obscured, and 
the moon withdrew her light, &c. &c. (Isai. 
xiii. 10. ; xxiv. 23. Jer. xv. 9. Ezek. xxxii. 
7. Amos. viii. 9.) 

The Scripture acquaints us with three 
very extraordinary and miraculous accidents 
that happened to the sun. The first was, 
when it stood still at the command of Joshua, 
(Josh. x. 12, 13.) ; the second, when it re- 
turned back in the time of king Hezekiah, 
(2 Kings xx. 11.); and the third, when it 
was involved in darkness, though the moon 
was then at full, during the time of our 
Saviour's crucifixion. (Matt, xxvii. 45.) 

To express a long continuance of any thing 
glorious and illustrious, in Scripture style it 
is said, it shall continue as long as the sun. 
So the reign of the Messiah, (Psalm lxxii. 
17. ; lxxxix. 36.) that his throne is as dura- 
ble as the sun ; that, under his happy do- 
minion, the light of the moon shall be equal 
to that of the sun, and that of the sun shall 
be seven times more than ordinary (Isai.xxx. 
26.) Jesus Christ is called the Sun of Right- 
eousness. (Mai. iv. 2.) 

The compass of the whole earth is de- 
scribed by the expression, from the rising 
of the sun to the going down of the same ; 
or rather, from east to west (Psalm 1. 1. ; 
cvii. 3. ; cxiii. 3. &c.) To be hung upon a 
gibbet in the eye of the sun ; to be exposed 
in the fields to the birds of the air, to the 
heat of the sun, expresses the utmost degree 
of ignominy. ' A woman clothed with the 
sun, and the moon under her feet.' (Rev. 
xii. 1.) 



SUP 



SWE 



SUPEREROGATION, what a man does 
beyond his duty, or more than he is com- 
manded to do. Works of supererogation 
are admitted by the members of the Romish 
persuasion ; and it cannot but be matter of 
surprise, that such a doctrine should have 
prevailed in any church which calls itself 
Christian. This doctrine was first known 
about the twelfth or thirteenth century ; 
and it seems to have been founded upon 
what the Papists call " Counsels of per- 
fection," that is, rules which do not bind 
under the penalty of sin, but are only useful 
in carrying men to a greater degree of per- 
fection than is necessary to salvation. There 
is not the slightest authority in Scripture 
for these Counsels of perfection : all the 
rules there prescribed for our conduct are 
given in the form of positive commands, as 
absolutely necessary, wherever they are ap- 
plicable, to the attainment of eternal life ; 
and the violation of every one of these com- 
mands is declared to be sin. We are ordered 
to be ' perfect, even as our Father which is in 
heaven is perfect,' (Matt. v. 48.) ; and so far 
from being able to exceed what is required 
for our salvation, the Gospel assures us, 
that after our utmost care and best endea- 
vours, we shall still fall short of our whole 
duty. We are directed to trust to the mercy 
of God, and to the mediation of Christ ; { and 
to work out our salvation with fear and 
trembling.' (Phil. ii. 12.) Hence we may 
pronounce that works of Supererogation are 
inconsistent with the nature of man, irre- 
concilable with the whole tenor and general 
principles of our religion, and contrary to 
the express declarations of Scripture. Tom- 
line's Elements of Christian Theology, vol. ii. 
pp. 280, 281. 

SUPRALAPSARIANS are the most 
rigid of all those who profess to receive the 
doctrine of election. They hold that God 
had no other view than to magnify his at- 
tributes; by the salvation of some, his 
mercy, and by the condemnation of others, 
his justice ; and therefore that he ordained 
the fall of man from eternity. Their opi- 
nions on this subject seem to be the same 
as those of the modern Calvinists. See 
Calvinists. Bellamy's History of all Reli- 
gions, p. 238. 

SUPREMACY OF THE POPE, a doc- 
trine held by the Roman Catholics, who be- 
lieve that the Bishop of Rome is, under 
Christ, supreme pastor of the whole church ; 
and, as such, is not only the first bishop in 
order and dignity, but has also a power and 
jurisdiction over all Christians. The au- 
thority usurped by the popes in the dark 
ages of the church, which extended into 
this island, had no foundation whatever in 
Scripture ; nor was it asserted, or even 
mentioned, in the primitive ages of Christ- 
ianity. Irenaeus has left an account of a 
dispute which Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, 
had with Anicetus, Bishop of Rome, con- 
989 



cerning the observation of Easter ; but in 
this account no mention is made of any su- 
perior authority which belonged to Anice- 
tus ; and in fact Polycarp, and the church 
under his jurisdiction, continued to observe 
Easter according to his judgment, and in 
opposition to that of Anicetus. It is indeed 
certain that for several centuries the bishops 
of Rome neither exercised nor claimed any 
power out of their own diocese. Cyprian, 
Bishop of Carthage, in the third century, 
expressly says, ■ Nor hath any one of us set 
himself up for a bishop of bishops, nor by 
any tyrannical usage terrified his colleagues 
or fellow bishops into a necessity of stoop- 
ing and cringing to him, being duly sensi- 
ble that every bishop is at liberty to use 
his power according to his discretion, and 
is neither to judge nor to be judged by an- 
other.' And upon another occasion he says, 
that ' all the apostles were equal in power, 
and that all bishops were also equal, since 
the whole office and episcopate was one 
entire thing, of which every bishop had a 
complete and equal share.' Tomline's Ele- 
ments of Christian Theology, vol. ii. 553, 554. 
SWEDENBORGIANS denote that par- 
ticular denomination of Christians who admit 
the testimony of Baron Swedenborg, and 
direct their lives in agreement with the doc- 
trines taught in the theological writings of 
that author. 

Emanuel Swedenborg, from whom this 
denomination of Christians derive their 
name, was the son of a bishop of West 
Gothnia, in the kingdom of Sweden, whose 
name was Swedberg, a man of considerable 
learning and celebrity in his time. The son 
was born at Stockholm, January 29, 1688. 
He enjoyed early the advantages of a liberal 
education, and, being naturally endowed 
with uncommon talents for the acquirement 
of learning, his progress in the sciences was 
rapid and extensive ; and he soon distin- 
guished himself by several publications in 
the Latin language, which gave proof of 
equal genius and erudition. It may reason- 
ably be supposed, that, under the care of his 
pious and reverend father, our author's re- 
ligious instruction was not neglected. This, 
indeed, appears plain from the general te- 
nor of his life and writings, which are 
marked with strong and lively characters of 
a mind deeply impressed with a sense of the 
Divine Being, and of all the relative duties 
thence resulting. He was ennobled in the 
year 1719, by queen Ulrica Eleonora, and 
named Swedenborg; from which time he 
took his seat with the nobles of the eqius- 
trian order, in the triennial assembly of the 
states. The philosophical works published 
in Latin by Baron Swedenborg are both 
numerous and important ; but his theological 
works are said to be still more numerous; 
1. The first and principal distinguishing 
doctrine contained in the writings of BaroH 
Swedenborg, and maintained by his followers, 



SWE 



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relates to the person and character of Jesus 
Christ, and to the redemption wrought by 
that Great Saviour. On this subject, it is 
insisted, that Jesus Christ is Jehovah, mani- 
fested in the flesh, and that he came into 
the world to glorify his human nature, by 
making it one with the divine. It is, there- 
fore, insisted further, that the humanity of 
Jesus Christ is itself divine, by virtue of its 
indissoluble union with the indwelling Fa- 
ther, agreeably to the testimony of St. Paul, 
that, ' in Jesus Christ dwelleth all the ful- 
ness of the Godhead bodily,' (Coloss. ii. 9.) ; 
and that thus, as to his humanity, He is the 
Mediator between God and man, since there 
is now no other medium of God's access to 
man, or of man's access to God, but this 
Divine Humanity, which was assumed for 
this purpose. Thus it is taught, that in the 
person of Jesus Christ dwells the whole 
Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit ; the 
Father constituting the soul of the above 
humanity, whilst the humanity itself is the 
Son, and the divine virtue, or operation 
proceeding from it, is the Holy Spirit, form- 
ing altogether one God, just as the soul, the 
body, and operation of man, form one man. 

On the subject of the redemption wrought 
by this Incarnate God, it is lastly taught, 
that it consisted not in the vicarious sacri- 
fice of one God, as some conceive, to satisfy 
the justice, or, as others express it, to ap- 
pease the wrath of another God, but in the 
real subjugation of the powers of darkness 
and their removal from man, by continual 
combats and victories over them, during his 
abode in the world ; and in the consequent 
descent to man of Divine power and life, 
which was brought near to him in the thus 
glorified humanity of this combating God. 
The receivers, therefore, of this testimony 
concerning Jesus Christ, acknowledge no 
other God but him, and believe that, in ap- 
proaching his Divine Humanity, they ap- 
proach at the same time, and have commu- 
nication with all the fulness of the Godhead, 
seeing and worshipping the invisible in the 
visible, agreeably to the tenor of those 
words of Jesus Christ : ' He that believeth 
on me, believeth not on me, but on Him 
that sent me ; and he that seeth me, seeth 
Him that sent me.' (John xii. 44, 45.) 

2. The second distinguishing doctrine, 
taught by the same author, relates to the 
sacred Scripture, or word of God, which is 
maintained to be divinely inspired through- 
out, and consequently to be the repository 
of the whole will and wisdom of the Most 
High God. It is, however, insisted, that 
this will and wisdom are not, in all places, 
discoverable from the letter or history of 
the sacred pages, but lie deeply concealed 
under the letter. For it is taught by the 
author under consideration, that the sense 
of the letter of the holy word is the basis, 
the continent, and the firmament of its spiri- 
tual and celestial senses, being written ac- 
990 



cording to the doctrine of correspondencies 
between things spiritual and things natural ; 
and thus designed by the Most High as the 
vehicle of communication of the eternal 
spiritual truths of his kingdom to the minds 
of men. It is farther endeavoured to be 
shown, that Jesus Christ spake continually 
according to this same doctrine, veiling Di- 
vine and spiritual truths under natural 
images, especially in his parables, and thus 
communicating to man the most important 
mysteries, relative to himself and his king- 
dom, under the most beautiful and edifying 
figures, taken from the natural things of 
this world. Thus, according to Baron 
Swedenborg, even the historical parts, both 
of the Old and New Testament, contain vast 
stores of important and spiritual wisdom 
under the outward letter ; and this consi- 
deration, as he farther asserts, justifies the 
pages of Divine revelation, even in those 
parts which, to a common observer, appear 
trifling, nugatory, and contradictory. It is 
lastly maintained on this subject, that the 
sacred Scripture, or word of God, is the 
only medium of communication and con- 
junction between God and man, and is like- 
wise the only source of all genuine truth 
and knowledge respecting God, his king- 
dom, and operation, and the only sure guide 
for man's understanding, in whatever relates 
to his spiritual or eternal concerns. 

3. A third distinguishing doctrine, which 
marks the character of the writings of Baron 
Swedenborg, is the doctrine relative to life, 
or to that rule of conduct on the part of 
man which is truly acceptable to the Deity, 
and at the same time conducive to man's 
eternal happiness and salvation, by con- 
joining him with his God. This rule is 
taught to be simply this : • to shun all known 
evils as sins against God, and at the same time, 
to love, to cherish, and to practise whatsoever 
is wise, virtuous, and holy, as being most 
agreeable to the will of God, and to the spirit 
of his precepts.' On this subject it is strongly 
and repeatedly insisted, that evil must of 
necessity remain with man, and prove his 
eternal destruction, unless it be removed by 
sincere repentance, leading him to note 
what is disorderly in his own mind and life ; 
and, when he has discovered it, to fight re- 
solutely against its influence, in dependence 
on the aid and grace of Jesus Christ. It is 
insisted further, that this opposition to evil 
ought to be grounded on the consideration, 
that all evil is sin against God, since, if evil 
be combated from any inferior motive, it is 
not radically removed, but only concealed, 
and on that account is even more dangerous 
and destructive than before. It is added, 
that when man has done the work of re- 
pentance, by shunning his hereditary evils 
as sins against God, he ought to set himself 
to the practice of what is wise and good by 
a faithful, diligent, and conscientious dis- 
charge of all the duties of his station ; by 



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which means his mind is preserved from a 
return of the powers of disorder, and kept 
in the order of heaven, and the fulfilment 
of the great law of charity. For it is per- 
petually maintained in the writings of Baron 
Swedenborg, that the essence of charity con- 
sists in man's loving his neighbour as him- 
self, and that its principal operation consists 
in every one's discharging the relative du- 
ties which he owes to society, by acting up- 
rightly, and in the fear of God, in his parti- 
cular employment, whether it be that of a 
priest, a judge, a soldier, a gentleman, a 
merchant, or a mechanic. 

4. A fourth distinguishing doctrine, in- 
culcated in the same writings, is the doc- 
trine of Co-operation, on the part of man, 
with the Divine Grace or agency of Jesus 
Christ. On this subject it is insisted, that 
man ought not indolently to hang down 
his hands, under the idle expectation that 
God will do every thing for him in the way 
of Purification and Regeneration, without 
any exertion of his own ; but that he is 
bound by the above law of co-operation, 
to exert himself, as if the whole progress 
of his purification and regeneration de- 
pended entirely on his own exertions; 
yet, in exerting himself, he is continually 
to recollect, and humbly to acknowledge, 
that all his power to do so is from above, 
agreeably to the declaration of Jesus Christ, 
' Without Me ye can do nothing.' (John xv. 
5.) He is therefore bound, according to 
this law, to enter freely on the great work 
of self-examination, and with the same 
freedom to reject the evils which such exa- 
mination discovers to his view; and also 
to fulfil freely the duties of his station, of 
what kind soever they be. This law is 
shown to be grounded on these two distinct 
considerations: first, the consideration of 
the freedom with which man is perpetually 
invested, either to work with God, or to 
work against him; and, secondly, the con- 
sideration, that all conjunction between 
God and man must needs be reciprocal, or 
mutual, agreeably to those words of Jesus 
Christ, where he says, 'Abide in me, and 
I in you.' (John xv. 4.) It is therefore 
shown that, without perpetual freedom on 
the part of man, he would not be a man, 
but a machine, and consequently incapable 
of living in conjunction with his Heavenly 
Father. It is further shown, that, to ef- 
fect this conjunction, it is not sufficient 
that Jesus Christ be in the will and pur- 
pose to accomplish it, or that he abides in 
his disciples, but it is necessary also that 
his disciples be mutually on their part in 
the will and purpose to accomplish it also, 
or that they should reciprocally abide in 
Him. Lastly, it is insisted, on this inte- 
resting subject, that the doctrine of co- 
operation supplies no ground for the esta- 
blishment of man's merit and independence 
on the divine aid, since it is continually 
991 



taught in the writings in question, that 
all man's freedom, as well as all his power 
of co-operation, is the perpetual gift of the 
most merciful and gracious God, and con- 
sequently that all merit, properly so called, 
belongs to Jesus Christ alone, and nothing 
at all to man. 

5. A fifth, and last distinguishing doc- 
trine, taught in the theological writings of 
our author, relates to man's connexion 
with the other world, and its various in- 
habitants. On this subject it is insisted, 
not only from the authority of the sacred 
Scriptures, but also from the experience 
of the author himself, that every man is in 
continual association with angels and spi- 
rits, and that without such association he 
could not possibly think, or exert any living 
faculty. It is insisted further, that man, 
according to his life in the world, takes up 
his eternal abode, either with angels of 
light, or with the spirits of darkness ; with 
the former, if he is wise to live according to 
the precepts of God's holy word, or with the 
latter, if, through folly and trangression, he 
rejects the counsel and guidance of the 
Most High. 

Some other peculiar doctrines of lesser 
importance might be enlarged on in this 
place, if it were deemed necessary ; such as 
the doctrine concerning the human soul, 
as being in an human form; concerning 
the marriage of the good and the true, as ex- 
isting in the holy word, and in all things 
in nature ; of the Divine Providence, as ex- 
tending to things most minute respecting 
man and the world which he inhabits ; 
concerning the earths in tlie universe, by 
which it is taught that all the planets in 
our system, and in other systems, uncon- 
nected with our sun, are inhabited by 
human beings. 

In London, and some of the other cities 
and great towns in England, places of pub- 
lic worship have been opened, for the 
express purpose of preaching the preced- 
ing doctrines, and of offering up suppli- 
cations to the Divine Being, and celebrat- 
ing his praises. In all such places parti- 
cular forms of prayer have been adopted 
in agreement with the ideas of the worship- 
pers, as grounded in the religious senti- 
ments above stated, especially respecting 
the supreme object of adoration, who is 
acknowledged to be the Lord and Saviour 
Jesus Christ, in his Divine Humanity. 
But in no place have any peculiar rites and 
ceremonies been introduced, the worship- 
pers being content with retaining the cele- 
bration of the two sacraments of Baptism 
and the Holy Supper, since no other rites 
are insisted on by the author whose testi- 
mony they receive. It is believed by a 
large majority of those receivers, that it 
was never his intention that any particular 
sect should be formed upon his doctrines, 
but that all who receive them, whether iu 



SYC 



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the establishment, or in any other commu- 
nion of Christians, should be at perfect 
liberty, either to continue in their former 
communion, or to quit it, as their conscience 
dictates. England appears to be the coun- 
try where the preceding doctrines have 
been most generally received ; yet there 
are numerous readers of those doctrines 
both in Wales, Ireland, France, Germany, 
Denmark, Sweden, Russia ; and also in 
America, and the West India Islands. 

It appears that Baron Swedenborg had 
many tbeological eccentricities, but perhaps 
the most remarkable circumstance respect- 
ing him was his asserting, that, during the 
uninterrupted period of twenty-seven years, 
he enjoyed open intercourse with the world 
of departed spirits, and, during that time, 
was instructed in the internal sense of the 
sacred Scriptures, hitherto undiscovered. 
This is a correspondence, to which few or 
no writers, before or since his time, ever 
pretended, if we except the Arabian Pro- 
phet. Adam's Religious World Displayed, 
vol. iii. pp. 393—415. 

SYCAMORE, a tree called the Egyptian 
fig-tree ; its name is composed of Sycos, a 
fig-tree, and Moros, a mulberry- tree. It is 
like the mulberry- tree in its leaves, and 
the fig-tree in its fruit. This fruit grows 
sticking against the trunk of the tree. It 
does not grow ripe till rubbed with iron 
combs, after which rubbing it ripens in four 
days. Amos expresses this when he says, 
' I was no prophet, neither was I a pro- 
phet's son, but I was an herdsman, and 
gatherer of sycamore fruit, or wild figs.' 
See Fig-tree. 

SYN'AGOGUE. This Greek word sig- 
nifies either an assembly, or the place in 
which an assembly meets. In the first sense 
it is commonly understood of the church of 
the Jews, compared, or opposed, to that of 
the Christians. St. John, (Rev. ii. 9. ; iii. 
9.) speaking of false professors, calls them 
the synagogue of Satan. 

Synagogue, however, commonly signifies 
a building where the Jews assembled, to 
pray, to read, and to hear the reading of 
holy books, and other instructions* It 
is often mentioned in the Gospels, and in 
the Acts, because Jesus Christ, and his 
apostles, generally frequented and preached 
in the synagogues. The origin of these 
synagogues is not very well known. Some 
learned men have thought them a late 
institution. Dr. Prideaux affirms, that 
they had no synagogues before the Baby- 
lonish captivity; for the chief service of 
the synagogue, says he, being the reading 
of the law to the people, where there was 
no book of the law to be read, there cer- 
tainly was no synagogue. How rare the 
book of the law was throughout all Judea 
before the Babylonish captivity, many texts 
of Scripture inform us. When Jehosha- 
phat sent teachers through all Judea, to 
992 



instruct the people in the law of God, they 
carried a book of the law with them. (2 
Chron. xvii. 9.) This they needed not 
have done, if there had been any copies of 
the law in those cities to which they went ; 
and certainly there would have been, had 
there been any synagogues in them. When 
Hilkiah found the law in the temple, (2 
Kings xxii. 8.) their behaviour on that 
occasion seems to prove they had never 
seen it before ; which could not have 
been, had there been any other copies of it 
among the people. If there were no copies 
of the law at that time among them, there 
could then be no synagogues to resort to, 
for the hearing of it read. Hence Dr. 
Prideaux concludes that there could be no 
synagogues among the Jews, till after the 
Babylonish captivity. As to Psalm lxxiv. 
8. ' They have burnt up all the syna- 
gogues of God in the land,' or all 'the 
assemblies of God,' as the original may be 
translated, our learned author acknowledges 
it must be understood of places where 
the people assembled to worship God. 
But this does not infer that these places 
were synagogues, and there are none 
of the ancient versions, except that of 
Aquila, which so renders this passage. 
Those who lived at a distance from the 
temple, or from the tabernacle, before the 
temple was built, not being able at all times 
to resort thither, they built courts like those 
in which they prayed at the tabernacle, and 
at the temple, in which to offer up their 
prayers to God, and which in succeeding 
times we find called by the name ' pro- 
seuchae.' Into one of them our Saviour is 
said to have gone to pray, and to have con- 
tinued in it a whole night. (Luke vi. 12.) 
What our English version renders, ' and 
continued all night in prayer to God,' is in 
the original icai fjv ^lavvKrepevcjv kv ry 
7rpo(Tsvxy rov Qeov ; that is, ' and he con- 
tinued all night in a proseucha of God.' 
These proseuchae differed from synagogues 
in several particulars. In synagogues the 
prayers were offered up in public forms 
in common for the whole congregation ; 
in the proseuchae every one prayed apart 
by himself, as in the temple. The syna- 
gogues were covered houses ; but the pro- 
seuchae were open courts. The former 
were all built within the cities, to which 
they belonged ; the latter, without the 
cities, and commonly upon an elevated 
place. 

Some, however, are of opinion, that there 
were synagogues in more early times. Dr. 
Jennings observes, that the passage in 
Psalm lxxiv. 8. not only appears to be 
properly translated synagogues, where the 
people were statedly to meet for divine 
worship ; but that the words col and baarets, 
'all' the synagogues of God 'in the land' be- 
ing added, prevent our understanding this 
expression, as some do, only of the temple, 



SYN 



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and the holy places belonging to it at 
Jerusalem. He also takes notice, that St. 
James speaks of Moses being read in the 
synagogues of 'old time.' (Acts xv. 2L) 
However, the dispute, he says, may perhaps 
be compromised, if we allow that the custom 
of erecting tbose sorts of chapels in later 
ages called synagogues, and appropriated 
to public worship alone, first began after 
the return from the captivity ; and that in 
former times, from their first settlement 
in the land of Canaan, the people used to 
meet either in the open air, or in dwelling- 
houses, particularly in the houses of the 
prophets, (2 Kings iv. 23.) or in any other 
place or building convenient for the pur- 
pose. 

In the midst of the synagogue was a desk 
or pulpit, on which the book, or roll, of the 
law was read very solemnly. There likewise 
he stood who intended to harangue the peo- 
ple. At the highest part of the synagogue, 
towards the east, and over against the door, 
which is always west, as far as can well be, 
is the chest or press, wherein the book, or 
roll of the law, is kept, wrapped up in fine 
embroidered cloth. The women are dis- 
tinct from the men, and seated in a gallery 
enclosed with lattices ; so that they may see 
and hear, but not be seen. 

Every synagogue has its chief, or perhaps 
several chiefs and officers, according to the 
circumstances of places. One is called cha- 
zan, who appoints and chants the prayers. 
Another who keeps the keys, and is a kind 
of church-warden, they call sciamas, or ser- 
vant. The ruler of the synagogue presides 
in the assemblies, and in judicial affairs, 
which are sometimes here decided, against 
those who have given any scandal, and 
transgressed the law in any important mat- 
ter; the same presidents invite those to 
speak in the synagogue, whom they think 
capable of it, and offer that honour to stran- 
gers, if there be any who seem to have the 
gift of speaking. Thus our Saviour often 
spoke in the assemblies ; and St. Paul, 
being at Antioch in Pisidia, was invited 
by the rulers of the synagogue, to address 
them for their edification. (Luke iv. 16. 
Matt. iv. 23. ; ix. 35. ; et passim ; Acts xiii. 
13, 14, 15.) 

The Jewish authors gave this general 
rule for the construction of synagogues. 
Wherever there are ten Batelnim a syna- 
gogue ought to be built. The significa- 
tion of the word Batelnim, has been con- 
troverted. Buxtorf thinks them to be 
persons receiving a stipend for duly assist- 
ing at divine service, that there may be 
always ten persons, at least, to assemble 
together. Lightfoot imagines them to have 
been ministers and officers of the syna- 
gogue. 

It is affirmed that in the city of Jeru- 
salem alone were nearly five hundred 
synagogues. Every trading fraternity had 
993 



one of their own, and even strangers built 
some for their own nation. Hence (Acts 
vi. 9.) we. find the synagogues of the Alex- 
andrians, of the Asiatics, of the Cili- 
cians, of the Libertines, of those of Cyrene, 
erected for such inhabitants of these cities, 
or nations, as should be at Jerusalem. 
Prideaux's Connection, part i. book vi. pp. 
547, 555, 550 ; Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, 
book ii. chap. ii. 

SYR'ACUSE 'Zvpa.Kovaai, signifies that 
draws violently. Syracuse was a famous city 
of Sicily, seated on the east side of that 
island, with a fine prospect from every en- 
trance both by sea and land. This city, 
whilst in its splendour, was the largest and 
richest the Greeks possessed in any part of 
the world. St. Paul went ashore at this 
city, in his way to Rome, and continued 
there three days. (Acts xxviii. 12.) Thence 
he went to Rhegium. 

SYR'IA, D")X, Supia, Syria, or Mesopo- 
tamia, signifies sublime, or that deceives. 
Syria, in Hebrew (Gen. x. 22.) din, Aram, 
from the name of the patriarch who peopled 
the chief provinces of it. See Aram. 
The Arameans, or Syrians, possessed Meso- 
potamia, Chaldea, and part of Armenia. 
Syria, properly so called, comprehended 
between Euphrates east, the Mediterranean 
west, Celicia north, Phenicia, Judea, and 
Arabia Deserta, south. Syria of the two 
rivers, or Mesopotamia ; Syria of Damas- 
cus ; Syria of Zobah ; Syria of Maachah ; 
Syria of Reboh, &c. were only so many 
different provinces of Syria, denominated 
from their situation with respect to these 
rivers, or cities. See Aram, Mesopo- 
tamia, Damascus, and Ccelo-Syria. 

Syria, without any other appellation, 
stands for the kingdom of Syria, of which 
Antioch became the capital after the reign 
of the Seleucidae. Before that time it was 
very rare to find the name of Syria used by 
itself. The provinces of Syria were gene- 
rally expressed by the addition of the city 
which was the capital of the province. 

Syria was at first governed by its own 
kings, each of whom reigned in his own city 
and territories. David subdued them about 
the year of the world 29G0, (2 Sam. viii. 
6); and again in 2969, on occasion of his 
war against the Ammonites, to whom the 
Syrians gave assistance. (2 Sam. x. 6. 8. 13. 
16, 19.) They continued in subjection till 
after the reign of Solomon, when they shook 
off the yoke, and could not be reduced again, 
till the time of Jeroboam II. king of Israel, 
in the year of the world 31J9. Rezin king 
of Syria, and Pekah king of Israel, having 
declared war againsl Ahab king of Judah, 
this prince found himself under a necessity 
of calling to his assistance Tiglath-pUeser, 
king of Assyria, who put Rezin to death, 
took Damascus, and transported the Syrians 
out of their country to beyond the Euphra- 
tes. From that time Syria continued in 
3 S 



SYR 



SYR 



subjection to the kings of Assyria. After- 
wards it came under the dominion of the 
Chaldeans ; then under that of the Persians ; 
lastly, it was reduced by Alexander the 
Great, and was subject to all the revolu- 
tions that happened to the great empires of 
the East. 

The present inhabitants, says Volney, 
who, according to the constant practice of 
the Arabs, have not adopted the Greek 
names, are ignorant of the name of Syria, 
instead of which they call it Barr el Sham, 
which signifies country of the left; and is 
the name given to the whole space con- 
tained between two lines, drawn, the one 
from Alexandretta to the Euphrates, and 
the other fom Gaza to the desert of Arabia, 
bounded on the east by that desert, and on 
the west by the Mediterranean. This name 
' country of the left,' from its contrast with 
that of the Yamin, or ' country of the right,' 
indicates some intermediate place as a com- 
mon point, which must be Mecca. 

The plains of Acre, Esdraelon, Sour, 
Havala, and the lower Bekaa, are justly 
boasted of for their fertility. Corn, barley, 
maize, cotton, and sesamum, produce, not- 
withstanding the imperfection of their cul- 
ture, twenty and twenty-five for one. The 
country of Kaisaria possesses a forest of 
oaks, the only one in Syria. Safad fur- 
nishes cottons, which, from their white- 
ness, are held in as high estimation as those 
of Cyprus, The neighbouring mountains 



of Sour produce as good tobacco as that of 
Latakia, and in a part of them is made a 
perfume of cloves, which is reserved ex- 
clusively for the use of the Sultan and his 
women. The country of the Druses abounds 
in wine and silks : in short, from the situa- 
tion of the coast, and the number of its 
creeks, this Pachalic necessarily becomes 
the emporium of Damascus, and all the 
interior parts of Syria. 

On the most remote parts of Carmel are 
found wild vines and olive trees, which 
must have been conveyed thither by the 
hand of man : and in the Lebanon of the 
Druses and Maronites, the rocks, now 
abandoned to fir-trees, and to brambles, 
present us, in a thousand places, with ter- 
races, which prove they were anciently bet- 
ter cultivated, and, consequently, much more 
populous than in our days. Volney' s Travels, 
vol. i. p. 288; vol. ii. pp. 180—36*8. 

SYRO-PHENICIA, is Phenicia pro- 
perly so called, of which Sidon, or Zidon, 
was the capital ; which, having by right of 
conquest been united to the kingdom of 
Syria, added its old name Phenicia to that 
of Syria : the Canaanitish woman is called 
a Syro-Phenician, (Mark vii. 26.) because 
she was of Phenicia, which was then consi- 
dered as making part of Syria. St. Matthew 
calls her a Canaanitish woman, (Matt. xv. 
22, 24.) because this country was really 
peopled by the Canaanites, Sidon being the 
eldest son of Canaan. (Gen. x. 15.) 



T. 



TAB 



TAB 



TABERNACLE ; in Latin, tabernaculum ; 
in Greek GKtjvfi, scene ; in Hebrew 
bnK ohel; which properly signifies a tent. 
The patriarchs lived in tents, or taberna- 
cles. In the camp of Israel, under Moses, 
were two tabernacles : the first, the tent of 
the congregation, was that in which the 
people assembled for dispatch of their ordi- 
nary secular affairs. The other was the 
tent of testimony, or the tabernacle of the 
Lord, or simply, the tabernacle. Here the 
Israelites, while in the wilderness, per- 
formed religious exercises, offered sacrifices, 
worship, &c. 

This tabernacle was an oblong square, 
thirty cubits in length ; ten in breadth ; 
ten in height. It was divided into two 
parts. The first was called the holy place ; 
twenty cubits long, and ten wide. In this 
were placed the table of shew-bread, the 
golden candlestick, and the golden altar 
094 



of incense. The second was the sanctuary, 
or holy of holies, whose length was ten 
cubits, and breadth the same. In this was 
the ark of the covenant. The sanctuary 
was divided from the holy place by a cur- 
tain, or veil, of very rich cloth, which hung 
on four pillars of shittim-wood, covered 
with plates of gold. The holy place was 
also closed in front by a veil, hung on five 
pillars of shittim-wood, overlaid with plates 
of gold, their bases being of brass. 

On the west, north, and south sides, 
the tabernacle was inclosed by boards, 
or planks, of shittim-wood, overlaid with 
plates of gold, having bases of brass. These 
boards were eight in number on the west 
side, but twenty on the north and south 
sides. They were all ten cubits high, and 
in breadth each was a cubit and a-half. 
They were let into each other, by two tenons 
above and below. And as the whole of the 



TAB 



TAB 



tabernacle was movable, and might be 
taken down, these boards were carried by 
two bases, in which were two mortice-holes, 
by which they were joined together. To 
support them, each had five golden rings, 
at proper distances, through which were 
passed five poles of shittim-wood, covered 
with plates of gold, which supported the 
whole. 

The tabernacle had no window. It was 
covered by several curtains ; the first, on 
the inside, was of the colour of hyacinth, 
striped with purple, scarlet, and crimson. 
Over this were others of goats' hair, which 
hindered the rain from penetrating, and 
preserved the rich curtains. There were 
none of these curtains in front, but only on 
the sides and behind, so that at the en- 
trance of the tabernacle, the first rich cur- 
tain afore-mentioned might be seen, which 
enclosed the whole front. Over these veils 
of goats' hair were two others ; one of sheep- 
skins dyed red, the other of sheep-skins 
dyed azure-blue. 

Around the tabernacle was a large ob- 
long court, in length an hundred cubits, in 
breadth fifty. Tins space was encompassed 
by pillars overlaid with plates of silver, with 
capitals of silver, but their bases of brass. 
There were ten pillars to the west, six to 
the east, twenty to the north, and twenty to 
the south. On these pillars hung curtains 
made of twined linen-thread, or net-work, 
which surrounded the tabernacle ; except at 
the entrance of the court, which was closed by 
another curtain of richer materials, having 
embroidered work of hyacinth, purple, and 
scarlet. This entrance was twenty cubits 
wide ; the curtain was of the same length, 
and was sustained by four pillars overlaid 
with plates of silver, whose capitals and 
bases were of brass. 

In this court, and opposite to the en- 
trance of the tabernacle, or holy place, stood 
the altar of burnt-offerings, on which were 
burned all the sacrifices. Here was also 
water for the uses of the priests. The laity 
brought their victims as far as the altar: 
there they were killed, skinned, and offered 
to the Lord, according to their several rites 
and ceremonies. 

The entrance of the tabernacle looked 
east; the sanctuary west ; and the two sides, 
north and south. This tent was, as it were, 
the dwelling of the God of Israel, who was 
considered as residing in the midst of the 
camp. Round about it were encamped the 
tribes : Judah, Zebulun, and Issachar, to 
the east ; Ephraim, Benjamin, and Manas- 
seh, to the west ; Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, 
to the north. Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, 
to the south. The tribe of Levi, being en- 
tirely employed in sacred service, were 
placed all round the tabernacle ; Moses and 
Aaron were to the east, the family of Ger- 
shon, west, that of Merari, north, and that 
of Kohath, south. 
995 



The priests entered the holy place every 
morning to offer incense ; and to put out 
the lamps ; and every evening they went 
in to light them again. Every morning 
and evening they offered a lamb for a burnt 
sacrifice on the brazen altar. 

The tabernacle of the covenant was erec- 
ted and consecrated at the foot of Mount 
Sinai, the first day of the first month of the 
second year after the coming out of Egypt, 
in the year of the world 2514. 

Spencer has endeavoured to prove that 
this tabernacle, the ark, the cherubim, &c, 
were imitations of the worship of the Egyp- 
tians and other idolatrous people, to their 
gods ; and that the Lord appointed them to 
his people out of pure condescension ; de- 
signing to stop their strong inclination for 
idolatry, by sanctifying these customs and 
correcting them ; by cutting off all such 
practices as were impious, superstitious, or 
idolatrous, with which the pagans had pol- 
luted them. 

He undertakes to prove this opinion by 
a comparison between these and the porta- 
tive temples of the heathen, and of the 
tents in which they enclosed what was most 
sacred and venerable in their religion. It 
is certain the Gentiles carried their gods 
with them in their journeys, and in pro- 
cessions oh the shoulders of their priests. 
Virgil speaks of the Trojan deities carried 
by iEneas in his travels : 

Errantesque Deos, agitataque numina 
Trojae. 

Tabernacle is also used in Scripture to 
denote 1. 'a house or dwelling,' (Job xi. 
14. ; xxii. 23.) ; 2, Christ's human nature, 
of which the Jewish tabernacle was a type, 
in which God dwells really, substantially, 
and personally, (Heb. viii. 2.; ix. 11.); 3. 
our natural body, in which the soul lodges, as 
in a tabernacle. (2 Cor. v. 1, 4. 2 Pet. i. 13, 
&c.) 

The feast of Tabernacles; in Hebrew 
the feast of tents, (Lev. xxiii. 42, 43, 44.) 
because it was kept under green tents, or 
arbours, in memory of their dwelling in 
tents in the passage through the wilderness. 
It was one of the three great solemnities of 
the Hebrews, in which all the males were 
obliged to appear before the Lord. It was 
celebrated after harvest, on the fifteenth of 
Tisri ; which was the first month of the civil 
year, and answers to September. In this 
they returned thanks to God for the fruits of 
the earth then gathered in. (Exod. xxiii. ](»'.) 
The feast continued eight days; but the first 
day and the last were the most solemn. 
(Lev. xxiii. 34, 35, &c.) It was not allowed 
to do any labour on this feast, and particu- 
larly sacrifices were offered in it. 

The first day of the feast they cut down 
branches of the handsomest trees, with their 
fruit ; branches of palm-tre- % OX such as 
were fullest o\' leaves, and boughs of the 

willow-trees that grew by water-courses. 
3 s 2 



TAB 



TAB 



The neatest of these branches they carried 
in ceremony to the synagogue, where they 
performed what they called Lulab, that is, 
holding in their right hand a branch of a 
palm-tree, three branches of myrtle, and two 
of willow, tied together ; and having in their 
left hand a branch of a citron with its fruit ; 
they brought them together waving them 
towards the four quarters of the world, and 
singing certain songs. These branches were 
also called Hosanna, because they cried 
Hosanna ! not unlike what the Jews did at 
our Saviour's entry into Jerusalem. (Matt. 
xxi. 8, 9.) On the eighth day they per- 
formed this ceremony oftener, and with 
greater solemnity than on the other days 
of the feast ; wherefore they called this day 
Hosanna Rabbah, or the great Hosanna. 

The Jews acquaint us, that every Israelite 
on the feast day, in the morning, was obliged 
to bring these branches of trees, on penalty 
of fasting all that day. Then they made a 
procession round the altar of burnt- offerings, 
shaking their branches, and singing. At 
present, they carry these branches into the 
synagogue, and provide themselves with 
oranges and citrons, in countries where they 
do not grow. They make it a part of their 
ceremony to take a turn round the desk in 
the middle of the synagogue, once a day at 
least ; and they eat nothing till they have 
done this. 

The first day of the feast, besides the ordi- 
nary sacrifices, they offered as a burnt-of- 
fering thirteen calves, two rams, and four- 
teen lambs ; with offerings of flour, and 
libations of wine. They offered, also, a goat 
for a sin-offering. (Numb. xxix. 12, 13, 
14, &c.) 

The second day they offered twelve calves, 
two rams, and fourteen lambs, for a burnt- 
offering, with their offerings of flour, oil, and 
wine. They offered, also, a goat for a sin- 
offering; and this besides the ordinary morn- 
ing and evening sacrifices, which were never 
interrupted, nor those offered by the Israel- 
ites from private devotion, or for expiation 
of sin. These we now mention were offered 
in the name of the whole people of Israel. 
On the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh 
days of the feast were offered the same sacri- 
fices as on the second day ; with this dif- 
ference, that every day they diminished from 
the former by one calf, so that on the third 
day they offered eleven, on the fourth ten, 
on the fifth nine, on the sixth eight, and on 
the seventh only seven. But the eighth 
day, which was kept with the greatest solem- 
nity, they offered but one calf, one ram, and 
seven lambs for a burnt-offering ; and one 
goat for a sin-offering ; with the other accus- 
tomed offerings and libations. 

We are assured, that on the eighth day 
of the feast, the Jews presented at the tem- 
ple the first fruits of their later crop, that is, 
of such things as were the slowest in coming 
to maturity; that they drew water out of 
996 



the pool of Siloam, which was brought into 
the temple, and being first mingled with 
wine, was poured out by the priests at the 
foot of the altar of burnt-offerings. Per- 
haps, sometimes, 'blood and water' might 
flow together. The people, in the mean 
time, sang these words of the prophet, (Isaiah 
xii. 3.) « Therefore with joy shall ye draw 
water out of the wells of salvation.' 

Leo of Modena tells us, that the modern 
Jews, not having the opportunity of going 
to the temple, nor of performing the cere- 
monies prescribed by Moses, make each for 
himself, in some open place, a bower, or 
arbour of branches of trees, hung around, 
and adorned as much as they can. Here 
they eat and drink, and some even lie ; at 
least they pass as much time here as they 
used to pass in their houses, and this during 
the whole eight days of the festival. Sick- 
ness or old age is dispensed with from this 
ceremony; and when it rains very hard they 
retire to their houses ; for these bowers are 
not made to keep out the weather. 

TABI'THA, n/TUta, Ta(3i9a, or Dorcas; 
signifies wild goat, or kid. The Syriac word 
Tabitha signifies clear-sighted. Tabitha was 
a Christian widow who lived at Joppa, who 
abounded in alms-deeds and other good 
works. She fell sick A.D. 40, of which sick- 
ness she died ; after she had been washed, 
as customary, she was laid out on a table in 
an upper chamber, in order to be put into 
her coffin ; and it being known that St Peter 
was at Lydda, which was not far from Joppa, 
he was desired to come over. He soon 
came, and was conducted to the chamber 
where the corpse lay : the widows presented 
themselves to him weeping, and showed the 
clothes that Tabitha had made for them. 
Peter caused all to go out, betook himself 
to prayer, and turning to the body said, Ta- 
bitha, arise ; she immediately opened her 
eyes, and, seeing Peter, sat up. Then he 
called the saints and widows, and presented 
Tabitha to them. (Acts ix. 36.) 

TABLES of the law, given to Moses on 
mount Sinai ; they were written by the 
finger of God ; and contained the ten com- 
mandments. (Exod. xx.) 

Many questions have been started about 
these tables, their matter, their form, their 
number, who wrote them, and what they 
contained. Some oriental authors, says 
D'Herbelot, make them ten in number, 
others seven ; but the Hebrews reckon only 
two. Some suppose them to have been of 
wood, others of precious stone. Moses 
observes, that these tables were written on 
both sides. Many think they were trans- 
parent, so that they might be read through ; 
on one side towards the right, and on the 
other side towards the left. Others, that 
the law-giver makes this observation, be- 
cause generally, in writing tables, they 
only wrote on one side. Others thus trans- 
late, ' they were written on the two parts 



TAB 



TAD 



that were contiguous to each other :' be- 
cause, being shut upon one another, the 
two faces on which was the writing touched 
one another, so that no writing was seen 
on the outside. Some think the ten com- 
mandments were written on each of the two 
tables ; others, that the ten were divided ; 
five on one table, and five on the other. 
Some make the tables to have been of ten 
or twelve cubits in length. 

Moses says that the tables were written 
by the finger of God. These words are 
diversely explained : some understand them 
literally, that they were written by the 
operation of God himself; others under- 
stand it by the ministry of an angel ; others 
of the Spirit of God. Others explain it by 
an order of God to Moses to write them : 
this opinion may be maintained from Exod. 
xxxiv. 27, 28. where, speaking of the 
second taoles which God gave to Moses, 
God orders him to write the words of the 
covenant which he had made with Israel ; 
and a little after, Moses relates that he 
had written the words of the covenant upon 
tables. In the same chapter it is said, that 
he hewed other two tables like the former 
which he had broken. From hence some 
have concluded, that the second tables were 
not written by the hand of God, though the 
first were. But Moses, (Deut. x. 4.) repeat- 
ing what had been said of the second tables 
that God gave him, takes express notice that 
God himself had written them. Whence it 
follows, that neither was writ by the finger 
of God, or that both were so written. But 
it is sufficient, that God inspired Moses, 
and by his Spirit enabled him to write them, 
in order to give authority to his words ; and 
it is needless to have recourse to a new 
miracle. 

Table of Shew -bread. See Altar. 

TA'BOR, Ton, signifies separate. Tabor, 
or Thabor, is a mountain of Galilee, called 
by the Greeks, Ithaburius, or Athaburius. 
Eusebius says it was on the frontiers of 
Zebulun, in the middle of Galilee, ten miles 
from Diocaesarea, east ; it was also in the 
confines of Issachar and Naphtali. Joshua 
(xix. 22.) puts it on the borders of Issachar. 
Tabor, in Hebrew, signifies an eminence, 
and the navel ; because this mountain rises 
up in the midst of a wide champaign coun- 
try, called the Valley of Jezreel, or the 
Great Plain. Josephus says, that the height 
of Tabor is thirty stadia, and that there 
is a plain on the top of it, of twenty-six 
stadia in circumference, surrounded with 
walls, and inaccessible on the north side. 

'Mount Tabor,' says D'Arvieux, 'is a 
single mountain, separate from all others ; 
there are several near it on the north, but 
they are smaller than Tabor. Its shape 
is round, almost conical, like a low sugar 
loaf. It appears to be a full mile in height, 
and half a league in diameter. It is en- 
tirely covered with green oaks, and other 
997 



trees, shrubs, and odoriferous plants. 
Roads and paths are made on the south 
side of the mountain, which lead to the 
top of it, by windings ; and are sufficiently 
easy to admit of riding up to it. I chose 
this mode of ascent, leaving to those more 
devout the liberty of walking up the moun- 
tain, which they did, while our Arabs took 
charge of their horses and mules. 

' To a person standing at the foot of the 
mountain, it appears to terminate in a 
point ; but when arrived at the top, we 
were astonished to find a plain which has 
full 3000 paces in circumference, full of 
noble trees. In this plain is a great in- 
closure of ruined walls, with remains of 
towers, and a ditch, partly filled up, which 
show that here has been a considerable 
castle, in the middle of which was a square 
place of arms, with cisterns, baths, cellars, 
&c. the vaults of which have resisted the 
injury of time. 

' There is a small height on the eastern 
side, which is the place where, according 
to tradition, our Lord was transfigured. 
St. Helena built a handsome church in 
this place, in memory of that event. That 
building having been ruined, it is replaced 
by another, which is apparently posterior, 
and may be of the time of the Crusades. It 
has three little chapels, beside each other : 
they appear to be in a grotto or cave, but 
the whole is encumbered with ruins. We 
found the door-way filled up, but caused it 
to be cleared by our Arabs, and we entered 
a small passage, which led into a little 
vestibule, composed of four arcades, cross- 
ing each other, the first of which was the 
entry. That in front of the entry was the 
place where our Lord was, and is called his 
tabernacle ; those on each side of him are 
called the tabernacles of Moses and Elias. 
Each of them has an altar, at which the 
religious who were in our company said 
mass the following day, while our servants, 
armed, kept guard at the entry, to prevent 
surprise from the Arabs, or the people of the 
country, who take care of the flocks of goats 
which feed on this plain, or who come here 
in chase after the wild boars which feed on 
the acorns that fall from the trees. We 
afterwards walked about this delicious plain ; 
the air was fresh and serene, and perfumed 
with the fragrance of the aromatic plants 
growing all around.' Sacred Geography. 

TAD'MOR, Tinin, signifies admirable, 
wonderful. Tadmor was a city of Syria, built 
by king Solomon. It was situated in a wil- 
derness of Syria, on the borders of Arabia 
Deserta, towards the Euphrates. Josephus 
places it two days' journey from the Upper 
Syria, one day's journey from the Euphrates, 
and six days' journey from Babylon. lie 
says there is no water in the wilderness but 
in this place. At this day there are vast 
ruins of this city. There is nothing more 
magnificent in the whole east. There are a 



TAH 



TAL 



great number of inscriptions, most of which 
are Greek, the others in Palmyrenean cha- 
racters. Nothing relating to the Jews is 
seen in the Greek inscriptions; and the 
Palmyrenean inscriptions are entirely un- 
known, as well as the language and the cha- 
racters of that country. 

The city of Palmyra preserved the name 
of Tadmor to the time of Alexander. It 
then received the name of Palmyra, which 
it preserved for several ages. About the 
middle of the third century it became famous, 
because Odenatus and Zenobia his queen 
made it the seat of their empire. When the 
Saracens became masters of the East, they 
restored its ancient name of Tadmor, which 
it has always preserved since. Its situation 
is much like that of Ammon in Libya, being 
in the midst of deserts ; a kind of island 
in the main land, amidst an ocean of sand, 
and surrounded by sandy deserts on all 
sides. Its situation between two powerful 
empires, that of the Parthians to the east, 
and that of the Romans to the west, exposed 
it often to danger from their quarrels. But 
in time of peace it soon recovered itself, by 
its trade with both empires. For the cara- 
vans of Persia and of the Indies, which now 
unload at Aleppo, then used to stop at Pal- 
myra. From hence they carried the mer- 
chandises of the East, which came to them 
by land, to the ports of the Mediterranean ; 
and returned the merchandises of the West 
after the same manner. It is surprising 
that history gives no account, either when, 
or by whom, Palmyra was reduced to its 
present condition. 

Volney says, that remote from every great 
road, it seems neither to have been calcu- 
lated for a considerable mart of commerce, 
nor the centre of a great consumption. It 
overcame, however, every obstacle ; and 
may be adduced as a proof of what popular 
opinion may effect in the hands of an able 
legislature, or when favoured by happy cir- 
cumstances. Volney 's Travels, vol. ii. p. 303 ; 
Sacred Geography. 

TAHAPANES, Dr»S>nn, or Taphnis, sig- 
nifies secret temptation, hidden flight, covered 
standard. Tahapanes, Tahpanhes, or Taph- 
nis, a city of Egypt. Jeremiah speaks of it, 
and we are told he was buried there. (Jer. 
ii. 16. ; xliii. 7, 8, 9. ; xliv. 1. ; xlvi. 14.) 
It is thought to be the same as Daphnae Pe- 
lusiae, sixteen miles from Pelusium, south, 
according to the itinerary of Antoninus. 
Jeremiah, and the Israelites with him, re- 
tired to Taphnis, where the Lord revealed 
to Jeremiah that Nebuchadnezzar should 
take this city, and should set up his throne 
in the very place where the prophet had hid 
stones. (Jer. xliii. 7> 8, 9.) This was then 
a royal city. 

TALENT. The weight of the Jewish 

talent, according to Dr. Arbuthnot, was 113 

pounds, 10 ounces, 1 pennyweight, and lOf 

grains, of our troy weight. Its value in 

998 



English money was 342/. 3s. 9d. The talent 
of gold was of the same weight, and its value 
was 54,752/. sterling. 

Mr. Bruce seems to be of opinion, that 
the talents appropriated to different com- 
modities might be of different weights ; and 
if a talent could be discovered, which, at 
the mine, was of less weight than the ta- 
lent of Judea, perhaps we might be justi- 
fied in estimating the riches in gold of 
David, or of Solomon, by the weight of that 
talent. 

' David,' says that traveller, • took pos- 
session of two ports, Eloth and Eziongeber, 
(1 Kings ix. 26. 2 Chron. viii. 17.) from 
which he carried on the trade to Ophir and 
Tarshish, to a very great extent, to the day 
of his death. We are struck with astonish- 
ment when we reflect upon the sum that 
prince received in so short a time from these 
mines of Ophir. For what is said to be given 
by king David, (1 Chron. xxii. 14, 15. 19. ; 
xxix. 3, 4, 5, 6, 70 (three thousand He- 
brew talents of gold, reduced to our money 
is, twenty-one millions, six hundred thousand 
pounds, sterling,) and his princes, for the 
building of the temple of Jerusalem, exceeds 
in value eight hundred millions of our money, 
if the talent there spoken of is a Hebrew 
talent, and not a weight of the same de- 
nomination, the value of which was less, 
and peculiarly reserved for and used in the 
traffic of these precious metals, gold and 
silver. The value of a Hebrew talent 
appears from Exodus (xxxviii. 25, 26 ) For 
603,550 persons being taxed at half a shekel 
each, they must have paid in the whole 
301,774; now that sum is said to amount 
to 100 talents, 775 shekels only; deduct 
the two latter sums, and there will re- 
main 300,000, which divided by 100, will 
leave 3000 shekels for each of these 
talents. This talent was probably an Afri- 
can or Indian weight, proper to the same 
mine whence was gotten the gold, appro- 
priated to fine commodities only, as is the 
case with our ounce troy, different from 
the avoirdupois.' Supplement. Addenda to 
Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible. 

TALMUD, nrabn, signifies to teach. The 
Talmud is a collection of the doctrines of 
the religion and morality of the Jews. 
They have two works that bear this name : 
the first is called the Talmud of Jerusalem, 
and the other the Talmud of Babylon. 
Each of these is composed of two parts, the 
Mishna and the Gemara. 

The Talmud of Jerusalem is shorter and 
more obscure than that of Babylon, but it is 
of an older date. The Talmud which was 
compiled at Babylon, the Jews prefer to that 
of Jerusalem, as it is clearer and more ex- 
tensive. 

The Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Mish- 
na, after the Chaldee paraphrases of Onkelos, 
and of Jonathan, are the most ancient books 
of doctrine the Jews have, except the sacred 



TAM 



TAM 



authors. Lightfoot has derived a great deal 
of light from them, for explaining many 
passages of the New Testament, by com- 
paring the expressions of the Mishna with 
those of the apostles and evangelists. Mai- 
monides has made an extract, or abridgment 
of the Talmud of Babylon, which, in the 
judgment of the most knowing, is preferable 
to the Talmud itself; for he omits what is 
fabulous, childish, or useless, and collects 
only the decisions of cases, with which that 
great work abounds. 

TA'M AR, ion, signifies palm, ox palm-tree, 
Tamar, or Thamar, was daughter-in-law to 
the patriarch Judah, wife of Er and Onan, 
and mother to Pharez and Zarah. The 
Scripture says, that Er was very wicked be- 
fore the Lord, for which the Lord slew him. 
(Gen. xxxviii. 7-) 

Judah then said to Onan, his second son, 
* Go in unto thy brother's wife, and marry 
her, and raise up seed unto thy brother.' 
Onan took her in obedience to his father's 
command ; but knowing that the children 
born from this marriage would not belong to 
him, but to his brother, he withheld from 
Tamar the means of becoming a mother. 
Therefore the Lord slew him also. Judah 
said then to Tamar, ' Remain a widow at 
thy father's house till Shelah my son be 
grown ;' for he was afraid that Shelah also 
might die, as his brothers did. Tamar 
therefore lived with her father a consider- 
able time, yet did not receive Shelah as her 
husband. Some years after, when Judah 
went to a sheep-shearing feast of his friend 
Hirah, the Adullamite, Tamar being inform- 
ed of it, disguised herself as an harlot, and 
sat in a place where Judah would pass. 
Judah went in unto her, and gave her, as 
pledges, his ring, his bracelets, and his 
staff. 

After some months her pregnancy began 
to show; Judah, being informed of it, would 
have had her burned alive. But when she 
produced the ring, the bracelets, and the 
staff, and said she was with child by him 
who owned those pledges, Judah acknow- 
ledged that she was more just than he had 
been. She had twins ; of whom one was 
Pharez, the other Zarah. This happened 
about the year of the world 2277- 

Tamar, daughter of David and Maachah, 
and sister of Absalom, by courtesy reckoned 
among the king's children. (1 Chron. iii. !).) 
Her extraordinary beauty was the occasion 
of her brother Amnon's falling desperately 
in love with her, dishonouring her, then 
hating her, and forcibly expelling her. 
Tamar strewed ashes on her head, rent her 
clothes, and covering her face with her 
hands, went homeward weeping. Absalom, 
her brother, by the same mother, met her 
in this distress, took her to his own house, 
bid her be quiet, and leave revenge to him. 
In fact, he kept the resentment of this in- 
jury so much in his heart, that he killed 
999 



Amncn some time after. See Absalom and 
Amnon. 

TAM'MUZ, nan, signifies abstruse, con- 
cealed. Tammuz was a Pagan deity, thought 
to be the same as Adonis. Lucian, in his 
book of the Syrian goddess, gives us the fol- 
lowing account of the ceremonious worship 
of this deity. ' The Syrians affirm, that 
what the boar is reported to have done 
against Adonis, was transacted in their 
country, and in memory of this accident, 
they, every year, beat themselves, and la- 
ment, and celebrate frantic rites, and great 
wailings are appointed throughout the coun- 
try. After they have beaten themselves, 
and lamented, they first perform funeral ob- 
sequies to Adonis, as to one dead ; and 
afterwards, on a following day, they feign 
that he is alive, and ascended into the air 
[or heaven], and shave their heads, as the 
Egyptians do at the death of Apis; and 
whatever women will not consent to be 
shaved, are obliged, by way of punishment, to 
prostitute themselves once to strangers, and 
the money they thus earn is consecrated to 
Venus.' Hence we may discern the fla- 
grant iniquity committed, and that which 
was further to be expected, among the Jew- 
ish women who sat weeping for Tammuz, 
that is, Adonis. (Ezekiel viii. 14.) 

A late writer asks, ' to what did the wor- 
ship of Adonis refer?' Various have been 
the opinions on this subject. Most have 
thought the death of Adonis referred to the 
loss, or diminution, of the sun's effulgence, 
during the winter half year ; and the re- 
surrection of Adonis, the sun's return in 
spring. I cannot, however, wholly rest in 
this: 1. Because, the time of the year, 
the fifth day of the sixth month, August or 
September, is not remarkable for any dimi- 
nution of solar light, and certainly not for 
total loss of solar heat. 2. Because the 
worship of the sun was, in my opinion, 
accidental, not primary. 3. Other ceremo- 
nies may give us light on this, and may lead 
us to a different opinion. According to 
Julius Firmicus, on a certain night, while 
the solemnity in honour of Adonis lasted, 
an image was laid in a bed, or rather on a 
bier ; that is, as if it were a dead body ; and 
great lamentation was made over it : but, 
after a proper time spent in this sorrow — 
light, a lamp, or candle, was brought in, and 
the priest, anointing the mouths of the as- 
sistants, whispered to them with a soft voice, 
as Godwin says, ' Trust ye in God; for out 
of pain [distress] we have received salva- 
tion [deliverance].' Now these rites seem 
to be precisely the same with those described 
in the Orphic Argonautica. It' we can find 
in Scripture, a person described as emi- 
nently just, righteous, or pious, and sueh 
was the character of Noah (Gen. VI. !).) ; if 
he be also characterized as one ' who shall 
comfort us concerning our work, and the toil 
our hands,' (Gen. v. 21).): if lie was, as it 



TAR 



TEM 



were, entombed for a time, that is, in the 
ark ; if he was restored from a bad to a 
better condition ; to life and light from this 
floating grave ; if a dove appears in his his- 
tory to be a restorer of hope, and expecta- 
tion of returning prosperity ; then we may, 
I think, venture to suppose that this might 
be the person alluded to (even had he not 
been expressly mentioned) in the Orphic 
poem : and the ceremonies described in the 
poem seem to be precisely those which were 
practised in relation to Adonis or Tammuz.' 
Fragments annexed to Calmet's Dictionary of 
the Holy Bible, No. 317- pp. 21, 22. 

TARGUM, cronn, signifies explanation. 
Targum, in the plural, targumim ; that is, 
expositions, or explications. This name is 
given to the Chaldee paraphrases of the 
books of the Old Testament. They are 
called paraphrases, or expositions, because 
they are rather comments and explications 
than literal translations in the Chaldee 
tongue, which, after the captivity of Babylon, 
was more known to the Jews than Hebrew 
itself. So that when the Hebrew text was 
read in the synagogue or in the temple, they 
generally added an explication in the Chal- 
dee tongue, for the advantage of the people. 
It is probable that this custom began from 
the time of Ezra; since that learned scribe, 
reading the law to the people in the temple, 
explained it, with the other priests who 
were with him, to make it understood by 
the people. (Nehem. viii. 8, 9.) Whether 
they explained it in the Hebrew language, 
or, which to us appears most probable, in 
the Chaldee, or Syriac ; for these two lan- 
guages had then a very great conformity, 
and were almost the same ; even at this 
day they have a very near agreement. 

But, though the custom of making these 
expositions in the Chaldee language be very 
ancient, yet they had no written paraphrases, 
or targumim, before Onkelos and Jonathan, 
who lived about the time of our Saviour. 
Jonathan is placed about thirty years before 
Christ, under the reign of Herod the Great : 
Onkelos something later. The Targum of 
Onkelos is the most esteemed, and copies 
are found in which it is inserted verse for 
verse with the Hebrew. It is so short and 
so simple, that it cannot be suspected of 
being corrupted. This paraphrast wrote 
only on the books of Moses, and his style 
approaches nearly to the purity of the Chal- 
dee, as found in Daniel and Ezra. This 
Targum is quoted in the Mishna ; but was 
not known either to Eusebius, Jerome, or 
Origen. 

The Targum of Jonathan, son of Uziel, is 
on the greater and lesser prophets. He is 
much more diffuse than Onkelos, and espe- 
cially on the lesser prophets, where he takes 
great liberties, and runs on in allegories. 
His style is pure enough, and approaches 
near to the Chaldee of Onkelos. It is 
thought that the Jewish doctors who lived 
1000 



above seven hundred years after him, have 
made additions to him. They ascribe to 
him a paraphrase on the Pentateuch also ; 
but this is not his. 

The Targum of Joseph the Blind, is on the 
Hagiographa. This author is much more 
modern, and less esteemed than the former. 
He wrote on the Psalms, Job, the Proverbs, 
Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, and Esther. 
His style is a very corrupt Chaldee, with a 
great mixture of foreign woids. 

The Targum of Jerusalem is only on the 
Pentateuch, nor is that perfect. There are 
whole verses wanting, others transposed, 
others mutilated; which has made many 
conclude that this is only a fragment of some 
ancient paraphrase now lost. There is no 
Targum on Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. 

TAR'SUS, Tapffdc, signifies winged, or 
having pinions. Tarsus was the capital city 
of Cilicia. St. Paul was a native of Tarsus. 
(Acts ix. 11. ; xxi. 39.) Some think it ob- 
tained the privileges of a Roman colony, by 
its firm adherence to Julius Caesar, which 
made the inhabitants citizens of Rome; 
whence St. Paul was free of Rome, by being 
born in Tarsus. Others maintain that 
Tarsus, though a free city, was not a Roman 
colony in the time of St. Paul ; and that no 
trace is found of this on the medals, before 
the reign of Caracalla or Heliogabalus ; there- 
fore the privilege of being a citizen of Rome 
belonged to the Apostle, not as being a deni- 
zen of Tarsus, but by some personal right 
derived from his father or ancestors. 

If we may not credit the fabulous account 
of its origin, at least it proves the great 
antiquity of this city. Strabo says, that 
in process of time it received a colony 
of Argives, and by the institutions they 
formed and supported for the study of arts 
and sciences, it became so illustrious, that 
he gives it the preference in that particular 
even over Athens and Alexandria. It was 
equally renowned for the power and the 
multitude of its inhabitants. Besides the 
title of metropolis, which it assumed, it 
derived surnames from five or six Roman 
emperors. Tarsus takes the title of governed 
by its own laws, as well as that of metropo- 
lis. Sacred Geography. 

TEMPLE, the house of God, the sanc- 
tuary, the tabernacle of the Lord, the 
palace of the Most High, &c. These terms 
are often synonymous in Scripture, though, 
strictly speaking, they import very differ- 
ent things. For, the sanotuary was but 
one part of the tabernacle, or temple ; and 
the word temple does not describe the 
tabernacle, or tabernacle the temple. The 
Hebrews, before Solomon, could not pro- 
perly be said to have had a temple, yet they 
did not scruple to use the word temple for 
tabernacle : as, on the contrary, they some- 
times by the tabernacle of the Lord, express 
the temple built by Solomon. 

After the Lord had instructed David 



TEM 



TEM 



that Jerusalem was the place he had chosen, 
wherein to fix his dwelling, this pious prince 
began to think of executing his design of 
preparing a temple for the Lord, that might, 
be something worthy of his divine Majesty. 
He opened his mind on this subject to the 
prophet Nathan ; but the Lord did not think 
fit that David should execute his design, 
however laudable ; but that honour was re- 
served for Solomon, his son and successor, 
who was to be a peaceable prince ; whereas 
David had shed much blood in war. But 
David applied himself to collect great quan- 
tities of gold, silver, brass, iron, and other 
materials, for this undertaking. 

Solomon laid the foundations of the Tem- 
ple in the year of the world 2992, before 
Christ 1012, and it was finished in the year 
of the world 3000, and dedicated in 3001. 
The place chosen for erecting this magnifi- 
cent structure was Mount Moriah. Its 
entrance stood towards the east, and the 
most holy, and most retired part, was to- 
wards the west. The first book of Kings, 
and the second of Chronicles, have chiefly 
described the Temple, properly so called ; 
that is, the sanctuary, the holy place, and 
the apartments attached to them ; also the 
vessels, the implements, and ornaments of 
the Temple, giving scarce any description 
of the courts and areas, which, however, 
made a principal part of the grandeur of 
this edifice. Ezekiel has supplied this de- 
fect, by the exact plan he has given of 
these necessary parts. Indeed, it must be 
owned, that the Temple, as described by 
Ezekiel, was never restored after the cap- 
tivity of Babylon, according to the model 
and the mensurations of this prophet. But 
as the measures he sets down for the holy 
place, and the sanctuary, are within a small 
matter the same as those of the temple of 
Solomon ; and as this prophet, who was 
himself a priest, had seen the first temple, 
it may be supposed the description he gives 
us of the Temple of Jerusalem, is that of the 
Temple of Solomon. 

After the consecration, or dedication, of 
the Temple by Solomon, in the year of the 
world 3001, this edifice suffered many revo- 
lutions, which it is proper to notice here. 

In the year of the world 3033, Shishak, 
king of Egypt, took Jerusalem, and carried 
away the treasures of the Temple. (1 Kings 
xiv. 25, &c. 2 Chron. xii.) 

In the year of the world 314G, Joash, 
king of Judah, collected silver to repair the 
Temple ; they began the work in earnest in 
3148. (2 Kings xii. 4, 5, &c. 2 Chron. xxiv. 
7, 8, &c.) 

Ahaz, king of Judah, having bought the 
assistance of Tiglath-pileser, king of Assy- 
ria, against the kings of Israel and Damas- 
cus, who were at war with him, robbed the 
temple of the Lord of its riches, to give 
to this foreign king, (2 Chron. xxviii. 21, 
22, &c.) in the year of the world 3284. 
1001 



Not content with that, he profaned this 
holy place, by setting up therein an altar 
copied from one he had seen at Damascus, 
and taking away the brazen altar that Solo- 
mon had made. (2 Kings xvi. 10, 11, 12, 
&c.) He also took away the brazen sea 
from off the brazen oxen that supported it, 
and the brazen basons from their pedestals, 
and the king's throne, which was made of 
brass. These he took away to prevent 
their being carried off by the king of 
Assyria. Nor did he stop here, but car- 
ried his wickedness so far as to sacrifice to 
strange gods, and to erect profane altars 
in all the corners of the streets of Jerusa- 
lem. (2 Chron. xxviii. 24, 25.) He pil- 
laged the Temple, broke the sacred vessels, 
and shut up the house of God, from the 
year of the world 3264. 

Hezekiah, son and successor of Ahaz, 
opened again and repaired the gates of the 
Temple, which his father had shut up, and 
robbed of their ornaments, (2 Chron. xxxi. 
3, 4, &c.) in the year of the world 3278. 
He restored the worship of the Lord, and 
sacrifices, and made new sacred vessels, in 
the place of those which Ahaz had destroyed. 
But in the fourteenth year of his reign, 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, coming with 
an army into the land of Judah, Hezekiah 
was forced to. take the riches of the Temple, 
and even the plates of gold that he himself 
had put on the gates of the Temple, to give 
them to the king of Assyria. But when 
Sennacherib was gone back into his own 
country, no doubt but Hezekiah restored all 
these things to their first condition. 

Manasseh, son and successor of Heze- 
kiah, profaned the Temple of the Lord, by 
setting up altars and idols, by which he 
worshipped the host of heaven, even in the 
courts of- the house of the Lord, (2 Kings 
xxi. 4, 5, 6, 7- 2 Chron. xxxiii. 5, 6, 7-) in 
the year of the world 3306. God delivered 
him into the hands of the king of Babylon, 
who loaded him with chains, and carried 
him beyond the Euphrates, (2 Chron. xxxiii. 
11, 12, &c.) in the year of the world 3328. 
Here he acknowledged, and repented of, his 
sins ; and being sent back to his dominions, 
he redressed the profanations of the Tem- 
ple which he had committed, taking away 
the idols, destroying the profane altars, and 
restoring the altar of burnt-offerings, upon 
which he offered his sacrifices. 

Josiah, king of Judah, laboured with all 
his might in repairing the edifices of the 
Temple, which had been either neglected, or 
demolished by the kings of Judah, his pre- 
decessors. He also commanded the priests 
and Levites to replace the ark of the Lord 
in the sanctuary ; and that it should not be 
moved from place to place, as it had been 
during the reigns of the wicked kings his 
predecessors. (2 Chron. xxxv. 3.) 

Nebuchadnezzar took away a part of 
the sacred < vessels of the Temple of the 



TEM 



TEM 



Lord, and placed them in the temple of his 
god at Babylon, under the reign of Jehoia- 
kim, king of Judah, (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7-) 
in the year of the world 3398. He also 
carried away others under the reign of 
Jeconiah, (2 Chron. xxxvi. 10.) in the year 
of the world 3405. Lastly, he took the city 
of Jerusalem, and entirely destroyed the 
Temple, in the eleventh year of Zedekiah, 
in the year of the world 3416. (2 Kings xxv. 
1, 2, 3, &c. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 18, 19.) 

The Temple continued in its ruins fifty- 
two years, till the first year of the reign of 
Cyrus, at Babylon, in the year of the world 
3468. Then Cyrus permitted the Jews to 
return to Jerusalem, and to rebuild the 
Temple of the Lord. (Ezra i. I, 2, 3, &c.) 
The following year they laid the foundations 
of the second Temple ; but they had hardly 
worked at it one year, when Cyrus, or his- 
officers, gained over by the enemies of the 
Jews, forbad them to work, (Ezra iv. 5.) 
in the year of the world 3470. After the 
death of Cyrus and Cambyses, they were 
again forbid by the Magian, who reigned 
after Cambyses, and whom the Scripture 
calls Artaxerxes, (Ezra iv. 7- 17> 18.) in the 
year of the world 3483. Lastly, these pro- 
hibitions being superseded under Darius, 
son of Hystaspes, the Temple was finished 
and dedicated four years afterwards, in the 
year of the world 3489, twenty years after 
the return from the captivity. 

This Temple was profaned by order of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, in the year of the 
world 3837- The ordinary sacrifices were 
discontinued, and the idol of Jupiter 
Olympius was set up near the altar. It 
continued in this condition three years. 
(1 Mace. i. 62.) Judas Maccabaeus puri- 
fied it, and restored the sacrifices and the 
worship of the Lord, in the year of the 
world 3840. 

Herod the Great undertook to rebuild 
the whole Temple of Jerusalem ; in the 
eighteenth year of his reign, in the year of 
the world 3986. He began to lay the foun- 
dation of it in 3987, forty-six years before 
the first passover of Jesus Christ, as the 
Jews observed to him by saying, ' Forty and 
six years was this temple in building ; and 
wilt thou rear it up in three days V This 
is not saying that Herod had employed 
forty-six years in building it ; for Josephus 
assures us that he finished it in nine years 
and a-half. But, after the time of this 
prince, they still continued to make addi- 
tions to it ; and the same Josephus tells us 
that they continued working on it till the 
beginning of the Jewish war. 

This Temple built by Herod did not 
subsist above seventy-seven years, being 
destroyed in -the year of the world 4073. 
It was begun by Herod, in the year of the 
world 3987, finished in 3996, burnt by the 
Romans in 4073. 

This Temple of Herod was very different 
1002 



from that of Solomon, and from that rebuilt 
by Zerubbabel after the captivity. The 
following is an abridgment of the descrip- 
tion Josephus has left us of it, who himself 
had seen it. 

The Temple was built upon a very hard 
rock, and the foundation laid with incre- 
dible expense and labour. The superstruc- 
ture was not inferior to the grand work. 
The galleries above it were all double, sup- 
ported by pillars of white marble, all of a 
piece, and five and twenty cubits in height, 
and wainscotted with cedar, which for the 
curiosity of the work, and smoothness of the 
grain, was a delightful object, without any 
additional ornaments, either of painting 
or carving. In the open air, where there 
was no covering overhead, the ground was 
paved and chequered with all sorts of 
stones. There were several pillars orderly 
disposed with inscriptions and precepts 
upon them, in Latin and Greek, on the 
subjects of continence and chastity, and 
forbidding strangers to enter that holy 
place. 

The figure of the Temple was square, en- 
compassed with a wall, which, though forty 
cubits without, was yet only five and twenty 
within; the place being covered with the 
steps that led to it. At the top of these 
steps was a plain level of three hundred 
cubits up to the wall, and thence five steps 
more to the gates of the Temple. The wo- 
men had an oratory or place of worship by 
themselves, with a partition wall to it, and 
two gates, one on the south, the other on 
the north. Betwixt these gates, and near 
the treasury, were galleries with stately pil- 
lars to support them. Some of the gates 
were plated over with gold and silver ; but 
there was one without the temple of Corin- 
thian brass, which was by much the richest 
metal of the three. There were doors to 
every gate, each thirty cubits high and fif- 
teen broad. Within the gates were drawing- 
rooms on each hand, thirty cubits square, 
and twenty cubits high, after the manner of 
turrets ; and each of them was supported by 
pillars of twenty cubits in thickness. The 
Corinthian portal on the east side, where 
the women entered, was the largest and 
most magnificent of them all. 

The Temple itself, or the sanctuary, was 
placed in the middle, and had twelve stairs 
to it. The height of it was an hundred cu- 
bits, and the breadth as many. The height 
of the first gate was seventy cubits, and five 
and twenty over ; it had no doors to it, be- 
ing designed to represent heaven, open and 
visible to the whole world. The front and 
outside were gilded all over. The inner 
part was divided into two partitions. The 
first partition was open to the top ; it was 
ninety cubits in height, forty in length, and 
twenty in breadth. All the walls were 
plated with gold, with several curious carv- 
ings all in gold. The other partition of the 



TEM 



TEM 



Temple, being ceiled above, appeared the 
lower of the two. The doors of it were of 
gold, five and twenty cubits in height, and 
sixteen broad, with a piece of Babylonian 
tapestry hanging between them, curiously 
interwoven with a variety of colours. This 
entrance led into the lower part of the Tem- 
ple ; the height and length of it was sixty 
cubits, and the breadth twenty ; which length 
was subdivided into two unequal parts, one 
of forty cubits, and the other of twenty. The 
former part had in it the candlestick, table, 
and altar of incense. The inner part of 
the Temple, being only twenty cubits in 
length, was divided by a veil from the other, 
and nothing was in it, neither was any man 
permitted to enter it ; and it was called the 
sanctuary, or holy of holies. On the sides 
of this lower temple were several lodgings, 
leading from one to another, with three sto- 
ries above, and passages into them out of 
the great portal. 

The beauty of the Temple on the outside 
was charming beyond imagination ; it being 
faced every way with substantial plates of 
gold, that glittered like the sun. The roof 
was covered with pointed spears of gold, to 
keep off the birds from resting upon it, or 
defiling it. 

Josephus relates a circumstance, which 
he said he received by tradition from his fa- 
thers, that all the time they were at work 
upon the Temple, there fell no rain in the 
day time, but only in the night ; so that the 
workmen were not liindered in their work. 
"When the Temple was finished, the dedica- 
tion of it was performed with great solem- 
nity : the people rendered hearty thanks to 
God, and gave the king much praise and 
commendation, which he well deserved, for 
the execution of this great work. Herod 
offered to God three hundred oxen in sacri- 
fice, and all the people, with great alacrity, 
brought their victims to celebrate this august 
ceremony. 

We are informed by some or all of our 
ecclesiastical historians, who write of the 
emperor Julian, that he sent for some of 
the chief men of the Jewish nation, and in- 
quired of them, why they did not now sa- 
crifice as the law of Moses directed ? They 
told him, ' that they were not to sacrifice 
at any place, except Jerusalem ; and the 
Temple being destroyed, they were obliged 
to forbear that part of worship.' Upon this 
he promised to rebuild the Temple at Jeru- 
salem ; and we still have a letter of Julian 
inscribed, ' to the community of the Jews,' 
which, however extraordinary, must be 
reckoned genuine; for Sozomen expressly 
says, that ' Julian wrote to the patriarchs 
and rulers of the Jews, and to their whole 
nation, desiring them to pray for him, and 
for the prosperity of his reign.' That is an 
exact description of the letter which is so 
inscribed. It was written in the year 302, 
as La Bleteric supposeth ; in the beginning 
1003 



of that year, say Tillemont and Bishop 
Warburton. Julian, in the close of the 
same letter, after the above recommenda- 
tion to the Jews, adds, ' In this also you are 
deeply interested ; that after having happily 
terminated the Persian war, I may dwell in 
the holy city of Jerusalem, which you have 
long desired to see inhabited, and in that, 
restored by my labours, may with you glo- 
rify the Most High.' Julian did not wait 
so long before he gave the Jews some proofs 
of his affection, or, rather, of his hatred to 
the Christians, by the project which he 
formed of rebuilding the Temple of Jerusa- 
lem ; a project which, as Pagan writers 
themselves witness, was confounded by one 
of the most astonishing and best attested 
miracles mentioned in history. This parti- 
cular event may be considered as closing 
the history of the Jewish Temple. 

The Scripture speaks of several other 
temples in or near Palestine ; as the temple 
of Dagon at Gaza (Judg. xvi. 23.), and an- 
other at Ashdod, or Azotus, (1 Sam. v. 1, 
2, 3. 1 Mace, x. 24.) ; the temple of the 
Samaritans, upon Mount Gerizim, (2 Mace. 
v. 23. ; vi. 2.) ; the temple of Ashtaroth, one 
of the chief of the Philistines, (1 Sam. xxxi. 
10.) ; the temple of Baal, which Ahab built 
in Samaria, (1 Kings xvi. 32.); the templj 
of Rimmon, at Damascus, (2 Kings v. 18.) ; 
the temple of Nisroch, at Babylon, (Isaiah 
xxxvii. 38.) ; the temple of Bel at Babylon, 
(Dan. xiv. 9.) ; the temples of Chemosh, 
and of Moloch, built by Solomon upon the 
Mount of Olives, over against the Temple of 
the Lord, (1 Kings xi. 7-) ; the temple of 
Nannsea, which Antiochus Epiphanes at- 
tempted to plunder, (2 Mace. i. 13.) ; the 
temple of Babylon, in which Nebuchad- 
nezzar laid up the vessels of the Temple of 
Jerusalem, (Dan. i. 2.) ; the temple of the 
golden calf, at Bethel, and at Dan. 

Temple is also applied to the church of 
Jesus Christ: ' Him that overcometh will I 
make a pillar in the temple of my God.' 
(Rev. iii. 12.) And St. Paul says, (2Thess. 
ii. 4.) that Antichrist 'As God, sitteth in 
the temple of God, showing himself that he 
is God.' Temple is sometimes put for hea- 
ven, (Psalm xi. 4.) : ' The Lord is in his 
holy temple ; the Lord's throne is in hea- 
ven.' The saints in heaven are said to be 
• before the throne of God, and serve him 
day and night in his temple.' (Rev. vii. 
15.) 

The temple ot God, in a spiritual sense, 
is the soul of a righteous man. (1 Cor. iii. 
1G, 17-; vi. 11). 2 Cor. vi. 10.) Sacred 
GcoiS> apli i/. 

TEMPTATION signifies either a trial 
of our strength, for the improvement of our 
virtue, or an allurement to sin. In the 
former of these senses, Cod himself is said 
to tempt men ; that is, to call them to some 
hard and severe conflict in the spiritual 
warfare; that their virtue, being tried like 



TEM 



TER 



gold in the furnace, may shine forth with 
redoubled and increasing splendour. It 
was thus he tempted Abraham to sacrifice 
his only son. It was thus he proved the 
children of Israel in the wilderness, to try 
their obedience, and to know what was in 
their hearts. And for this reason, we are 
commanded in the Gospel, ' not to think it 
strange concerning the fiery trial that is to 
try us ;' but rather to glory in tribulations, 
and to count it all joy when we fall into 
divers temptations ; knowing that the try- 
ing of our faith worketh patience, and pa- 
tience experience, and experience hope. 
But, however glorious these temptations 
may be, when overcome, we have all just 
reason to wish not to be led into them. 

Temptation also signifies allurement to 
evil. In this sense, God cannot be pro- 
perly said to tempt us ; for he tempts no 
man to evil. Yet, since nothing can happen 
without his permissive Providence, we find 
even this kind of temptation figuratively 
ascribed to God in Scripture ; and we there- 
fore pray to him, that he would keep us 
from the hour of temptation ; that he would 
not leave us to ourselves ; that he would 
not suffer us to be led into those snares 
which may endanger our virtue. And this 
we have just reason to pray for, if we 
rightly consider our situation in life, for 
danger is around us, within us, and in every 
form. 

If we think to fly from danger, where 
shall we find a place or situation in life that 
is not full of temptation ? Are we in the 
sunshine of fortune, surrounded with its 
gilded titles and honours ? How liable are 
we to grow giddy with eminence, and to 
forget God or ourselves ! Are we sur- 
rounded with the gaieties of life, and nei- 
ther want ability nor inclination to enjoy 
them ? How likely are we to fall into riot 
and dissipation, or, if we escape this, to 
drag on a miserable existence, burthened 
with the follies and guilt of youth ! If we 
are sunk in the vale of poverty, and sur- 
rounded with distress, how great is the 
temptation to murmur against God ! Do 
we retire from the world, sick of its vani- 
ties, vexations, and deceits ? We may by 
so doing avoid the dangers of example and 
multitude, but we are not safe from the cor- 
rosions of malevolence, spleen, and discon- 
tent ; we may have our passions to contend 
with, even in the retirement of the cloister, 
or the solitude of the closet : — though we 
fly the guilty haunts of public resort, yet 
the tempter can follow us into the cell, or 
the wilderness. Every age, too, as well as 
every state, has its temptations. 

Since, then, life is ever thus full of dan- 
gers, and nature ever prone to fall a victim 
to temptation, we have just reason to pray 
that God would deliver us from evil ; that 
is, either from the evil of sin, which is the 
consequence of being overcome by tempta- 
1004 



tion ; or from the evil one, that is the devil, 
who is ever ready to tempt and devour us ; 
or, as it is well expressed in the Catechism 
of our church, ' that he would deliver us 
from all sin and wickedness, from our 
ghostly enemy, and from everlasting death ;' 
always remembering that however willing 
the spirit may be to resist temptation, yet 
the flesh is too often weak and yielding, 
unguarded, and defenceless. Carr's Ser- 
mons. 

TE'RAH, mn, signifies to breathe, to 
scent, to blow. Terah was son of Nahor, 
and father of Nahor, Haran, and Abraham, 
(Gen. xi. 24.) born in the year of the world 
1878. He begat Abraham at the age of 
seventy two years, in the year of the world 
1950. He came with Abraham out of Ur 
of the Chaldaeans, to settle at Haran in 
Mesopotamia, in the year of the world 
2082. (Gen. xi. 31, 32.) He died there the 
same year, aged two hundred and five 
years. 

The Scripture says plainly, that Terah 
had fallen into idolatry : (Josh. xxiv. 2 — 14.) 
' Your fathers dwelt on the other side of the 
flood in old times ; even Terah, the father 
of Abraham, and the father of Nahor ; and 
they served other gods.' Some think that 
Abraham himself, at first, worshipped idols : 
but that afterwards God being gracious to 
him, convinced him of the vanity of this 
worship, and that he undeceived his father 
Terah. 

The Arabians and Turks say, that one 
Azar was the father of Abraham, and that 
Terah was his grandfather. Justin says. 
that Adores, Abraham, and Israel, reigned 
successively at Damascus. Suidas assures 
us, that Abraham converted his father Te- 
rah, who was an idolater; and Georgius 
Syncellus acquaints us, that he threw his 
father Terah's idols into the fire, and that 
Haran, endeavouring to rescue them from 
the flames, was burnt with them ; that 
Terah, having at first quitted the worship 
of these false gods, afterwards relapsed into 
his former idolatry, and continued obstinate 
in it till his dying day. 

TER'APHIM, D»snn, signifies an image, 
an idol, burning. It is said (Gen. xxxi. 19.) 
that Rachel had stolen the images — Tera- 
phim of her father. It is inquired what 
these Teraphim were ? The Septuagint 
translate this word by oracle, and some- 
times by vain figures. Aquila generally 
translates it by figures. It appears, indeed, 
from all the passages in which this word is 
used, that they were idols or superstitious 
figures. Some Jewish writers tell us the 
Teraphim were human heads placed in 
niches, and consulted by way of oracles. 
Others think, they were talismans or figures 
of metal cast and engraven under certain 
aspects of the planets, to which they ascribed 
extraordinary effects. All the eastern people 
are much addicted to this superstition, and 



THA 



THA 



the Persians still call them telefin, a name 
nearly approaching to Teraphim. 

It is asked, why Rachel stole the Teraphim 
of her father Laban ? Some have thought it 
was to receive reparation for the wrongs he 
had done her. Some imagine that she 
thought to deprive him of the means of dis- 
covering their flight, by taking away his 
oracles. Some say that with the Teraphim 
she thought to take away the prosperity of 
her father's house, and transfer it to her 
husband. Others think that she intended 
to remove the occasion of her father's super- 
stitious worship, and to stop his idolatry ; 
and some believe that both she and her 
sister Leah, were addicted to this idolatrous 
superstition, which they wished to continue 
in the land of Canaan. But Jacob com- 
pelled them to discard all these false deities, 
which he afterwards hid under the oak, near 
Shechem. (Gen. xxxv. 4.) 

We are told that Michal put a Teraphim 
into David's bed, pretending he was there 
sick, (1 Sam. xix. 13.): 'And Michal took 
an image [teraphim] and laid it in the bed 
[duan.]' 

1 What,' says a late writer, ' did Michal 
mean, by placing the Teraphim on David's 
bed ? 1. to commit him, as the person who 
usually slept there, to the protection of her 
household gods ; 2. to procure a reverence 
and security for the place from her father's 
agents : as she probably foresaw her father 
would not respect even her female privacy. 
But that these Teraphim were not the size 
of a man, should appear from the consider- 
ation of the difficulty of moving such heavy 
goods, from the conspicuous idolatry they 
would have demonstrated in the family, from 
the consideration that the cushion would 
answer the purpose full as well, and was 
much more manageable, and from the time 
it would have occupied to have effected such 
a contrivance.' 

We read in the book of Judges (xvii. 5, 
&c.) that one named Micah had a house of 
gods, and made an ephod and teraphim, and 
consecrated one of his sons, who became 
his priest. These teraphim were taken away 
by the men of Dan, and set up in Laish, 
and continued there till the captivity of 
Israel. Whatever the form of these images 
was, it is probable they were looked upon 
as oracles. The learned Spencer makes the 
word teraphim to be the same as seraphim, 
by a change of the s into t ; whence it follows, 
that these images were representations of 
those angels called seraphim. M. Jurieu 
supposes them to have been a sort of Dii 
Penates, or household gods ; and this ap- 
pears to be, perhaps, the most probable 
opinion. Scripture Illustrated. 

THANKSGIVING, the act of acknow- 
ledging the mercies of God. So various and 
so striking are the instances of the Divine 
goodness, which are common to all men in 
all nations and climes, that the most igno- 
lOOo 



rant and savage people have seldom been 
found without some mode of expressing their 
gratitude and their praise. Whether in- 
tellectual man be placed in the torrid, the 
frozen, or the more temperate regions of 
the globe, he finds such a wise, and benefi- 
cent provision made for his happiness, and 
that of other creatures, suited to the rela- 
tions in which they are placed, as will prompt 
his love and his acknowledgments to the 
Author of his being. There is no part of the 
universe in which the works of the creation 
are not sufficient to attest the goodness of 
the Creator. 

Whatever may be the actual quantity of 
pain and suffering in the world, which may 
be considered as an indication of malevo- 
lence, without being viewed in connexion 
with the uses, physical and moral, temporal 
and eternal, to which it is subservient ; still, 
among the millions by whom the world is 
peopled, there are, comparatively, but a few, 
who, when they lay down their heads at 
night, can truly declare that they have not 
experienced more ease than agony, more 
pleasure than pain, more happiness than 
misery, during the day. Now if this be the 
case, if on every day, or through the greater 
part of the days of our lives, our pleasure 
greatly preponderates over our pain, our 
happiness over our misery, what strong 
grounds have we to believe that he who 
made us desires our happiness, and what 
abundant reasons have we to be thankful to 
the Author of our being ! Ought not the 
idea of the Divine goodness to be continually 
present to us, and the frequent object of our 
devout acknowledgments ? Ought we to 
rise in the morning without making it our 
first thought, or go to bed at night without 
making it our last? By frequently and at 
regular intervals meditating on the divine 
goodness, we shall greatly favour the growth 
of a grateful disposition towards God in our 
souls. And, the more impressed we are 
with right notions of the divine goodness, 
the less liable we shall be to experience 
any uneasy sensations of distrust when 
things go wrong with us, when the world 
frowns upon us, and we are oppressed with 
trouble or perplexed with care. For must 
not the consciousness that God loves us 
mitigate our grief, assuage our discontent, 
repel our suspicions, and make us rely on 
his providence ? And can we help trusting 
in God's goodness even in our most tor- 
turing hour, when we reflect on the many 
solid and convincing proofs of it which we 
see in so many instances, and when we 
ourselves have had so large an experience 
of it, ever since we were born .' For are 
we not placed in a world not by our own 
will, nor by the will of man, but by the 
will of God, in which there is a s^reat 
preponderance of happiness, and where 
only a very superficial observation is suf- 
ficient to teach us that the trouble and 



THA 



THA 



misery which are the inheritance of our 
condition, are conducive to our moral im- 
provement ? 

The Scriptures are frequently enjoining 
us to be always thinking of God, always 
making his goodness and perfections the 
theme of our meditation, the song of our 
praise, the object of our thanksgiving. 
And this they do, not because the practice 
tends to God's benefit, but to our own. For 
of all our religious services, though the ob- 
ject is God, the profit is our own ; and 
those acts which, in scriptural language, 
are said most to promote the glory of God, 
will be found ultimately the most conducive 
to our own individual advantage. The habit 
of thanksgiving, which St. Paul urges us to 
cultivate, when he tells us to be ' always 
giving thanks for all things to God and the 
Father,' will be found of this nature, which, 
while it gives glory to God in the highest, 
tends, in the highest degree, to promote the 
best interests of man. It is the habit of 
thanksgiving, the habitual feeling of grati- 
tude towards God, which the Scripture is so 
desirous of producing in us, and which can 
be produced only by a frequent perform- 
ance of particular acts and exertions of 
thanksgiving and gratitude. The favours 
of God towards us are more in number than 
the sand on the sea shore, and it would be 
impossible to recount every particular act 
of the Divine goodness which might injus- 
tice claim our devout acknowledgments, and 
our humble adoration. But we can in most 
cases thank God only for the aggregate of 
his gifts in time past, or in time present, 
since we are unable to remember or to enu- 
merate every single benefit. Let each of us, 
and particularly those who are more advanced 
in life, as far as they are able, recal the 
memory of the days that are past. From how 
many dangers and calamities, which, per- 
haps, threatened their destruction, will th ey 
find that they have been rescued ; in how 
much sickness, and in how many cares, as- 
sisted and comforted ! Has not the Divine 
arm been often stretched out to save them ? 
Has not his good providence often so dis- 
posed events as to extricate them from the 
most imminent perils, "and delivered them 
from impending penury and ruin ? And 
ought we not often to think of these 
things ? 

The ordinary favours of God, and those 
which make the least impression, are per- 
haps the greatest ; though it is their great- 
ness, the frequency of their recurrence, or 
the length of their continuance, which causes 
us to think slightly of them, or not to 
regard them with as much devotion and gra- 
titude as we ought. Consider how inestima- 
ble are the blessings of sight, hearing, smell, 
taste, touch ; and yet of these blessings and 
privileges of nature, because they are so fa- 
miliar and so universal, we seldom know the 
value, except by their privation. What 
1006 



would the wisest among the heathens have 
given to have enjoyed that clear manifesta- 
tion of the will of God, which is placed be- 
fore us in the Gospel of Christ ! Yet how 
seldom do we, who have the light of immor- 
tality shining around us, reflect, with suit- 
able devotion and gratitude, on our exemp- 
tion from the thick darkness which covered 
the heathen world ! When we consider the 
disconsolate state, and never-ending doubts, 
of the best and wisest among the heathens, 
respecting the pardon of sin, the immortal- 
ity of the soul, and a state of future retri- 
bution, what reason have we to exclaim with 
St. Peter, ' Blessed be the God and Father 
of our Lord Jesus Christ, who, according to 
his abundant mercy, hath begotten us again 
unto a lively hope, by the resurrection of 
Jesus Christ from the dead, to an inheritance 
incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not 
away !' (1 Pet. i. 3, 4.) Blessed be the eter- 
nal Futher who sent his Son into the world 
to die for our sins, and to rise again for our 
justification. Whether we look to the pre- 
sent, or to the future, we shall find abun- 
dant reason to give glory, and honour, and 
praise ; to offer up the most grateful obla- 
tions of our minds and hearts to God for his 
unspeakable gift. 

To him are we to return thanksgiving, 
who, to redeem us from misery, and advance 
us to happiness, did infinitely debase his 
only begotten Son, the brightness of his 
glorious majesty ; and who did not disdain 
to assume us into a perfect union with him- 
self, to inhabit our frail and mortal nature, 
to converse, as it were, on equal terms with 
us, and at last to taste the bitter cup of a 
most painful ignominious death for us : to 
him who is merciful, gracious, and liberal ; 
who bestows more gifts, pardons more debts, 
forgives more sins, than we live minutes v ; 
who with infinite patience endures our ma- 
nifold infirmities and imperfections, our fol- 
lies and obstinate tempers ; who overlooks 
our careless and wilful neglects ; forgives 
the very many affronts and injuries conti- 
nually offered to his Supreme Majesty by 
us, whom he can reduce to nothing at his 
pleasure ; ' who giveth freely, and upbraideth 
no man :' in a word, to him whose benefits 
are immense, innumerable, inexpressibly 
good and valuable. ' For who can tell 
the mighty acts of the Lord ? Who can 
show forth all his praise?' To this God, 
this our great, our only Patron and Benefac- 
tor, we owe this most natural, easy, just, and 
pleasant duty of giving thanks. Fellowes's 
Body of Theology, vol. i. pp. 534—546 ; Dr. 
Isaac Barrow's Works, vol. i. p. 103. 

THAR'SHISH or TARSHISH, vrvnn, 
signifies a bruise, that is, to the enemy : from 
the Syriac. There is a multitude of opinions 
concerning the country of Tharshish, whi- 
ther Solomon sent his fleet. (1 Kings x. 
22. 2 Chron. ix. 21.) Josephus, and the 
Chaldee and Arabic paraphrasts, explain it 



THE 



THE 



of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia. The Septuagint, 
Jerome, and Theodoret, understand it of 
Carthage. Eusebius derives the Spaniards 
from Tharshish. The Arabian geographer 
thinks it was Tunis in Africa. Bochart 
makes it Tartesus, an island in the Straits 
of Gades. Le Clerc understands Thassus, 
an island and city in the JEgean Sea. Gro- 
tius thinks the whole ocean was called Thar- 
shish, because of the famous city of Tartes- 
sus, now mentioned. Sanctius believes the 
sea, in general, to be called Tharshish, and 
that ships of Tharshish are those employed 
in voyages at sea, in opposition to small 
vessels used only in rivers. 

The Seventy sometimes translate Thar- 
shish by the sea ; and Scripture gives alike 
the name ships of Tharshish to those fitted 
out at Ezion-geber, on the Red Sea, and 
which sailed to the ocean, as to those fitted 
out at Joppa, and in the ports of the Medi- 
terranean, which was usually called the 
Great Sea. 

When, therefore, we see ships fitted out 
on the Red Sea, or at Ezion-geber, in order 
to go to Tharshish, we must conclude, either 
that there were two countries called Thar- 
shish, one on the ocean, another on the 
Mediterranean, which seems by no means 
probable: or, that ships of Tharshish, in 
general, signifies ships able to bear a long 
voyage ; large ships, in opposition to small 
craft intended for a home-trade in naviga- 
ble rivers ; or ships built in a particular 
manner — Tharshish-built. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS, from the 
Greek Qtbg, <pi\og, and dvOpwirog, the love 
of God and man. The Theophilanthropists 
may be ranked among the enthusiasts of 
the day, though of a more dangerous cast. 
They professed their principles in France, 
at the beginning of the Revolution. They 
were properly Deists, had their places of 
worship, as they called them, and for a time 
attracted some notice in Europe. It was 
an effort to make Deism the religion of 
France, instead of Christianity ; but they 
have dwindled into obscurity, and are known 
only by the common term of Deist. Ac- 
cording to them, the temple most worthy of 
the Divinity is the universe. Abandoned 
sometimes under the vault of heaven, to the 
contemplation of the beauties of nature, 
they render its Author the homage of ado- 
ration and gratitude. They, nevertheless, 
have temples erected by the hands of men, 
in which it is more commodious for them to 
assemble, to hear lessons concerning his 
wisdom. Certain moral inscriptions; a 
simple altar, on which they deposit, as a 
sign of gratitude for the benefits of the Cre- 
ator, such flowers or fruits as the seasons 
afford ; a tribune for the lectures and dis- 
courses ; form the whole of the ornaments 
of their temples. 

The first inscription, placed above the 
altar, recals to remembrance the two reli- 
1007 



gious dogmas which are the foundation of 
their moral code. 

First inscription. We believe in the ex- 
istence of God, in the immortality of the 
soul. — Second inscription. Worship God, 
cherish your kind, render yourselves useful 
to your country.— Third inscription. Good 
is every thing which tends to the preserva- 
tion or the perfection of man. Fvil is every 
thing which tends to destroy or deteriorate 
him. — Fourth inscription. Children ho- 
nour your fathers and mothers ; obey them 
with affection, comfort their old age. Fa- 
thers and mothers instruct your children. — 
Fifth inscription. Wives regard your hus- 
bands, the chiefs of your houses. Husbands 
love your wives, and render yourselves re- 
ciprocally happy. 

The concluding part of the manual of the 
Theophilanthropists is still further expla- 
natory of their tenets and conduct. ' If 
any one ask you,' say they, ' what is the 
origin of your religion, and of your worship, 
you can answer him thus : open the most 
ancient books which are known, seek there 
what was the religion, what the worship of 
the first human beings of which history has 
preserved the remembrance. There you 
will see that their religion was what we now 
call natural religion, because it has for its 
principle even the Author of nature. It is 
He that has engraven it in the heart of the 
first human beings, in ours, in that of all 
the inhabitants of the earth ; this religion, 
which consists in worshipping God, and 
cherishing our kind, is what we express by 
one single word, that of Theophilanthropy 
Thus our religion is that of our first pa- 
rents ; it is yours ; it is ours ; it is the uni- 
versal religion. As to our worship, it is 
also that of our first fathers. See even in 
the most ancient writings, that the exterior 
signs by which they rendered their homage 
to the Creator were of great simplicity. 
They dressed for him an altar of earth, they 
offered to him, in sign of their gratitude and 
of their submission, some of the productions 
which they held of his liberal hand. The 
fathers exhorted their children to virtue ; 
they all encouraged one another, under the 
auspices of the divinity, to the accomplish- 
ment of their duties. This simple worship 
the sages of all nations have not ceased to 
profess, and they have transmitted it down 
to us without interruption. 

* If they yet ask you of whom you hold 
your mission, answer, We hold it of God 
himself, who in giving us two arms, to aid 
our kind, has also given us intelligence to 
mutually enlighten us, and the love of good 
to bring us together to virtue ; of God who 
has given experience and wisdom to the 
aged to guide the young, and authority to 
fathers to conduct their children. 

1 If they are not struck with the force of 
these reasons, do not farther discuss the 
subject, and do not engage yourself in 



THE 



THE 



controversies, which tend to diminish the 
love of our neighbours. Our principles are 
the eternal truth ; they will subsist, what- 
ever individuals may support or attack them ; 
and the efforts of the wicked will never 
prevail against them. Rest firmly attached 
to them, without attacking or defending any 
religious system ; and remember that similar 
discussions have never produced good, and 
that they have often tinged the earth with 
the blood of men. Let us lay aside systems, 
and apply ourselves to doing good. It is 
the only road to happiness.' 

The Christian reader will admire the 
practical tendency of this new species of 
Deism, at the same time that he will lament 
the defects by which it stands characterized. 
It stands in need of the broad basis of reve- 
lation, the want of which nothing else can 
compensate. Bellamy's History of all Reli- 
gions, p. 319 ; Evans's Sketch of the Deno- 
minations of the Christian World, pp. 19 — 
21. 

' THESSALONIANS, GeffcraXovi/cFie, 
people of Thessalonica. St. Paul, being 
obliged to quit Thessalonica, retired to Be- 
rea, where he left Timothy and Silas, to 
confirm the churches of Macedonia. From 
thence he went to Athens, and from Athens 
to Corinth, where, after some months, Silas 
and Timothy came to him, and informed him 
of the state of the church at Thessalonica, 
which persisted in the faith, notwithstand- 
ing persecutions and sufferings. They told 
him also of some among them who afflicted 
themselves too much for the death of their 
relations, and who were not sufficiently in- 
structed concerning the coming of our 
Lord, and the last judgment. They re- 
ported, also, that some of them were vain, 
inquisitive, and restless. 

St. Paul therefore wrote to them, proba- 
bly in the year 52 ; and this First Epistle to 
the Thessalonians is the first in order of 
time of all St. Paul's Epistles. The series 
of the history of St. Paul's journeys suffi- 
ciently shows that it was sent from Corinth. 
The apostle instructs them concerning the 
last judgment, and about the manner, and 
measure, with which Christians should be 
afflicted for the death of their relations. He 
expresses much affection and tenderness for 
them, and an earnest desire of coming to 
see them. He reproves them with much 
mildness and prudence, mixing strokes of 
praise, and marks of tenderness, with his 
reprehensions. 

The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians 
was written from Corinth, a little time after 
the First, and probably at the end of the 
year 52. In this St. Paul animates the 
Thessalonians against the fears occasioned 
by a false interpretation of a passage in his 
First Epistle, as if he had said, that the 
day of the Lord was at hand. He exhorts 
them to continue stedfast in the doctrine 
he had taught them, and to suffer with con- 
1008 



stancy under persecution. He reproves, 
more vehemently than before, those who 
lived in idleness and vain curiosity; he 
would have them notice these people, and 
separate from them, that at least they 
might be ashamed of their trifling, and 
reform it. He signs the letter with his own 
hand, and desires them to mark it well, 
that they might not be imposed on by sup- 
posititious letters, written in his name ; by 
which they had perhaps been deceived. 

THESSALONI'CA, QeaaaXov'iKr], signi- 
fies the other victory of God ; or rather, the 
place or position of the other victory. (Acts xvii. 
1.) Thessalonica was a famous city in Ma- 
cedonia, and capital of this kingdom, stand- 
ing on the Thesmaick Sea. Stephen of 
Byzantium says, it was improved and beau- 
tified by Philip king of Macedon, and called 
Thessalonica, in memory of his victory over 
the Thessalians. Its old name was Thesma ; 
but Strabo and others affirm that it was 
named from Thessalonica, the wife of Cas- 
sander, and daughter of Philip. Here 
were a number of Jews, who were in pos- 
session of a synagogue. (Acts xvii. 1, 2, 3, 
&c.) St. Paul came hither, A.D. 50, and 
entering the synagogue, according to his 
custom, he preached to the congregation, 
out of the Scriptures, three sabbath-days 
successively. Some Jews were converted, 
and many Gentiles that feared God, and 
some women of quality. But the rest of the 
Jews, hurried away by false zeal, raised a 
tumult, and came to the house of Jason, 
to seize Paul and Silas, who lodged there, 
and to take them before the magistrates. 
But finding neither Paul nor Silas, they 
laid hold of Jason and others. However, 
Jason and the rest giving security, were set 
at liberty ; and the same night the brethren 
conducted Paul and Silas out of the city 
toward Berea. 

Thessalonica is now called Salonica. Its 
walls give a very remarkable appearance 
to the town, and cause it to be seen from 
a great distance ; as they are white-washed, 
and what is still more extraordinary, 
also painted. They extend in a semi- 
circular manner from the sea, enclosing 
the whole of the buildings within a peri- 
bolus, whose circuit is five or six miles j 
but a great part of the space within the walls 
is void. It is one of the few remaining 
cities that have preserved the form of its 
ancient fortifications ; — the mural turrets 
yet standing, and the walls that support 
them being entire. Their antiquity is per- 
haps unknown. Like all the ancient and 
modern cities of Greece, its wretched as- 
pect within is forcibly contrasted with the 
beauty of the external appearance, rising 
in a theatrical form, upon the side of a hill 
surrounded with plantations of cypress, and 
other evergreen trees and shrubs. The 
houses are generally built of unburnt bricks, 
and, for the most part, they are little better 



THE 



TIB 



than so many hovels. In the days of its 
prosperity Thessalonica boasted of an am- 
phitheatre for gladiators, and also a hippo- 
drome for the solemnization of the public 
games. 

Salonica is governed by a pasha, who in 
his absence appoints a musulim. Its popu- 
lation, according to a work published by 
Beaujour, in 1800, amounts to sixty thousand 
souls. In this number are comprehended 
30,000 Turks, 16,000 Greeks, 12,000 Jews, 
and a mixed population of Gipsies and Ethio- 
pian slaves, amounting to 2000. In some 
respects Thessalonica is the same now as 
when Christianity was first planted in this 
city : a set of turbulent Jews constituted a 
very principal part of its population ; and 
when St. Paul came hither from Philippi, 
where the Gospel was first preached, to 
communicate the ' glad tidings' to the Thes- 
salonians, the Jews were in sufficient num- 
ber ' to set all the city in an uproar.' (Acts 
xvii. 5.) In the several jurisdictions after- 
wards established for the government of the 
church, we find Aristarchus constituted by 
that apostle himself to preside at Thessa- 
lonica, and Epaphroditus at Philippi. In 
the Second Epistle which St. Paul sent to 
the busy, commercial inhabitants of Thessa- 
lonica, we may gather, from his mode of 
arguing with them, something of their Jewish 
propensities, and covetous disposition ; and 
viewing what this city now is, it is impos- 
sible not to be struck with the force of this 
appeal : ' We behaved not ourselves dis- 
orderly among you ; neither did we eat any 
man's bread for nought ; but wrought with 
labour and travail, night and day, that we 
might not be chargeable to any of you.' (2 Thess. 
iii. 7, 8.) The major part of the Thessa- 
lonians of the present day, that is to say, 
the Jews, are precisely the sort of men to 
be influenced by such a style of persuasion ; 
and there is not one of them whose way of 
life does not afford a reasonable comment on 
this passage of St. Paul. Clarke's Travels, 
vol. vii. pp. 443—473. 

THEU'DAS, Qtvdag, or Theodas, sig- 
nifies given of God, or the gift of God. Ga- 
maliel (Acts v. 36.) says, A.D. 33, that one 
Theudas set himself up some time before 
for some great person : about four hundred 
men joined him ; but he was killed ; all that 
believed in him were dispersed, and the 
matter came to nothing. Usher thinks this 
Theudas was the same as Judas, who re- 
volted at the death of Herod, mentioned by 
Josephus. 

THO'MAS the Apostle, otherwise called 
Didymus, that is, in Greek, a twin. The 
Hebrew name Thomas, signifies also, a 
twin. 

No doubt but Thomas was a Galilean, as 
well as the other apostles ; but the place 
of his birth, and the circumstances of his 
vocation, are unknown. He was appointed 
an apostle, A.D. 31. (Luke vi. 13, 14, 15.) 
1009 



and continued to follow our Saviour dur- 
ing the three years of his preaching. We 
know no particulars of his life till A.D. 33, 
a little before the passion of our Saviour ; 
when Jesus Christ intended to go to Judea 
to raise up Lazarus, Thomas said to the 
rest, ' Let us also go that we may die with 
him.' (John xi. 16.) Let us die with La- 
zarus, or, Let us die with Jesus Christ ; 
for interpreters take it in both senses. 
Thomas meant, that by going to Judea 
they should be exposed to certain death ; 
for he knew the hatred and malice of the 
Jews against Jesus Christ. Some explain 
these words as if he intended to encourage 
the apostles to this resolution ; but others 
understand them as a token of fear. 

At the last supper, (John xiv. 5, 6.) 
Thomas asked Jesus Christ whither he 
was going, and what way ? Our Saviour 
answered, ' I am the way, and the truth, 
and the life.' After the resurrection, when 
Jesus Christ appeared to his apostles in the 
absence of Thomas, he so far expressed 
his diffidence of what they assured him, as 
to tell them, ' Except I shall see in his 
hands the print of the nails, and put my 
finger into the print of the nails, and 
thrust my hand into his side, I will not be- 
lieve.' (John xx. 19 — 29.) Eight days 
after, Jesus appeared to the apostles, and 
to Thomas who was among them. Then 
Thomas, having both seen an«d touched him, 
no longer doubted, but cried out, ' My Lord, 
and my God.' Jesus said to him, 'Thomas, 
because thou hast seen, thou hast believed : 
blessed are they that have not seen, and 
yet have believed.' A few days after, when 
Thomas and some other disciples went 
a-fishing on the Sea of Galilee, Jesus ap- 
peared to them, caused them to take a very 
great draught of fishes, manifested himself 
to them, and dined with them. 

THYATI'RA, OvaTtipa, signifies fra- 
grance; otherwise, the sacrifice of labour, or 
of contrition. Thyatira, a city which some 
ascribe to Mysia, and others to Lydia, or to 
the Lesser Asia, because it is on the frontiers 
of these three provinces. St. John writes 
to the bishop, or angel, of Thyatira (Rev. 
ii. 18, 19, &c.) : ' I know thy works,' &c. 

TIBE'RIAS, Tifiepiag, signifies good siglii, 
or the navel, or breaking. Tiberias, a famous 
city of Galilee, at the southern extremity, on 
the western shore of the lake of Gennc- 
sareth, otherwise the Sea of Tiberias. It is 
thought its old name was Cinnereth, or 
Hammath, or Emath, or Rakkath, or Rec- 
chath : but R eland shows, that this is 
very doubtful, and is only founded on the 
Sea of Cinnereth being afterwards called 
the Sea of Tiberias ; which by no means 
proves that Cinnereth and Tiberias are the 
same town. Besides, he observes that the 
portion of Naphtali did not begin towards 
the south, but at Capernaum: .Matthew (iv. 
13.) says that Capernaum was on the con- 
3T 



TJB 



TIG 



fines of Zebulun and Naphtali ; and Joshua 
says, (xix. 34.) that Naphtali passes into 
Zebulun, towards the south, which is more 
to the north than Tiberias ; yet Cinnereth, 
Hammath, and Rakkath, belong to the por- 
tion of Naphtali. (Josh. xix. 35.) Tiberias, 
therefore, could not; since we know that it 
was south of the lake of Tiberias. 

Josephus tells us that this city was built 
in honour of Tiberius, by king Herod 
Agrippa. Pretty near it were baths oi hot 
water ; and it stood in a place where were 
many tombs and dead bodies, which was 
contrary to the usages and customs of the 
Jews. Tiberias was thirty furlongs from 
Hippos, sixty from Gadara, and a hundred 
and twenty from Scythopolis, and thirty 
from Tarichea. 

The present town of Tiberias, or Tabareeah, 
as it is now called, is in the form of an irre- 
gular crescent, and is enclosed towards the 
land by a wall flanked with circular towers. 
It lies nearly north and south along the 
western edge of the lake, and has its eastern 
front opposed to the water, on the brink of 
which it stands, as some of the houses there 
are almost washed by the sea. Its southern 
wall approaches close to the beach ; but the 
north-western angle of the northern wall, 
being seated upon a rising ground, recedes 
some little distance from the water, and thus 
gives an irregular form to the inclosure. The 
whole does not appear a mile in circuit, and 
cannot contain more than five hundred 
separate dwellings, from the manner in 
which they are placed. There are two gates 
visible from without, one near the southern, 
and the other in the western wall, the latter 
of which is in one of the round towers, and 
is the only one now open ; there are appear- 
ances also of the town having been sur- 
rounded by a ditch, but this is filled up with 
cultivable soil. 

To the northward of the town is the road 
to Nazareth, along the Lake of Tiberias ; to 
the southward, the ruins of the ancient city, 
and a hot bath, still frequented, as well as 
the burying-ground of the Mahometans and 
the Jews ; on the east, the broad expanse 
of the lake stretches over to the opposite 
shore ; and on the west, it has a small space 
of plain fit for cultivation, from whence the 
land suddenly rises into the lofty hills which 
almost overhang the town. 

The interior presents only few objects of 
interest besides the ordinary habitations, 
which are, in general, small and mean. There 
is a mosque, with a dome and minaret. 
There is also an ancient church, of an oblong 
square form, to which is a descent by steps. 
There is reason to believe that this was the 
first place of Christian worship erected in 
Tiberias, and that it was constructed as 
early as the fourth century. It has even 
been thought by some to be the oldest place 
of Christian worship now extant in Pales- 
tine. It is a vaulted room, about thirty feet 
1010 



by fifteen, and perhaps fifteen feet in height; 
and it stands nearly east and west, having 
its door of entrance at the western front, 
and its altar immediately opposite in a shal- 
low recess. Over the door is one small 
window, and on each side four others, all 
arched and open. The masonry of the 
edifice is of an ordinary kind. During Mr. 
Buckingham's visit to this church, morning 
mass was performing by the Abuna, with 
whom he lodged, and the congregation con- 
sisted of only eleven persons, young and 
old, and the furniture and decorations of the 
altar and the priest were exceedingly scanty 
and poor. 

This edifice, which is called ' The House 
of Peter,' is thought by the people here to 
have been the very house which Peter in- 
habited at the time of his being called from 
his boat to follow Christ. It, however, has 
evidently been constructed for a place of 
worship, though it may have been erected 
on the spot which tradition had marked as 
the site of Peter's more humble habitation. 
' If,' says Dr. Clarke, ' it be not the building 
erected by Helena, on the spot where our 
Saviour is said to have appeared to St. 
Peter after his resurrection, it is probably 
that which Epiphanius relates to have been 
built by a native of Tiberias, one Josephus, 
who, under the auspices of Constantine, 
erected the churches of Sephoris, and Ca- 
pernaum.' 

The whole population of Tiberias does 
not exceed two thousand souls, according to 
the opinion of the best-informed residents. 
Of these, about the half are Jews, many of 
whom are said by Mr. Buckingham to be 
from Europe, particularly from Germany, 
Russia, and Poland, and the rest are Maho- 
metans, exclusively of about twenty Christian 
families of the Catholic communion. Dr. 
Clarke, however, thinks that the Jews ' are 
perhaps a remnant of refugees, who fled 
hither after the capture of Jerusalem by the 
Romans.' He likewise observes, that ' the 
Christian inhabitants of this town are also 
numerous : of this we were convinced, by 
the multitude we saw coming from the morn- 
ing service of the church.' Dr. E. D. 
Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 213—233; 
Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. pp. 
355-359. 

TI'DAL, bmn, Qapyak, signifies that 
breaks the yoke ; otherwise, knowledge of ele- 
vation. Tidal was king of nations, or of Goim. 
(Gen. xiv. i.) Some think he was king of 
Galilee, of the Gentiles, beyond Jordan. 
Symmachus translates it king of Pamphylia ; 
the Syriac, king of the Galites; Joshua 
speaks of a king of the nations of Gilgal, or 
of Galilee, according to the Septuagint. 
(Josh. xii. 23.) 

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER. iDMbs-nban, 
IDNbsrnban, 9eyXa9-<paXacrdp, signifies that 
binds or takes away captivity, miraculous, or 
ruinous. Tiglath-pileser, or Tiglath-pilneser, 



TIM 



TIM 



king of Assyria, was son and successor of 
Sardanapalus ; he began to reign at Nine- 
veil in the year of the world 3257- (1 Chron. 
v. 6. 2 Kings xv. 29. ; xvi. 10.) He re- 
stored the kingdom of Assyria, after the 
dismembering of it by Belesis and Arbaces. 

Ahaz, king of Judah, finding himself 
pressed by Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, 
king of Israel, and unable to oppose them, 
sent ambassadors to Tiglath-pileser, to de- 
sire his assistance against these kings. (2 
Kings xvi. 7; 8, 9, &c.) At the same time, 
he sent him all the gold and silver found in 
the treasuries of the temple, and of the 
palace. Tiglath-pileser marched against 
Rezin, killed him, plundered Damascus, 
and transported the inhabitants .to places on 
the river Cyrus. Ahaz went to meet this 
prince at Damascus, (2 Chron. xxviii. 20, 
21.) but Tiglath-pileser was not satisfied 
with the presents of Ahaz, but entered Judea, 
where he found no opposition, and ravaged 
the whole country. 

He did the same in Samaria, carried away 
the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and the half- 
tribe of Manasseh, and transplanted them 
to Halah, Habor, and Hara, upon the river 
Gozan. (1 Chron. v. 26.) He took also 
the cities Ijon, Abel-bethmaachah, Janoah, 
Kedesh, Hazor, Galilee, and the countries 
of Gilead and Naphtali, and carried away the 
inhabitants into Assyria. (2 Kings xv. 29.) 
Tiglath-pileser reigned nineteen years at 
Nineveh ; he died in the year of the world 
3276. His successor was his son Shalma- 
neser. 

TIM'OTHY, Ti/ioOfoc, signifies honour of 
God, or valued of God. Timothy was a na- 
tive of Lystra in Lycaonia ; his father was a 
Gentile ; but his mother, whose name was 
Eunice, was a Jewess, (Acts xvi. i.) and 
educated her son with great care in her own 
religion. (2 Tim. i. 5. ; iii. 15.) Paul calls 
Timothy his ' own son in the faith' (1 Tim. 
1, 2.) ; from which expression it is inferred, 
that Paul was the person who converted him 
to the belief of the Gospel ; and as, upon 
Paul's second arrival at Lystra, Timothy is 
mentioned as being then a disciple, and as 
having distinguished himself among the 
Christians of that neighbourhood, his con- 
version, as well as that of Eunice his mother, 
and Lois his grandmother, must have taken 
place when St. Paul first preached at Lystra, 
in the year 46. Upon St. Paul's leaving 
Lystra in the course of his second apostolical 
journey, he was induced to take Timothy 
with him, on account of his excellent cha- 
racter, and the zeal which, young as he was, 
he had already shown in the cause of Christ- 
ianity ; but before they set out, Paul caused 
him to be circumcised; not as a thing ne- 
cessary to his salvation, but to avoid giving 
offence to the Jews, as he was a Jew by the 
mother's side, and it was an established rule 
among the Jews, that ' partus sequitur ven- 
trem.' Timothy was regularly appointed to 



the ministerial office by the laying on of 
hands, not only by Paul himself, (2 Tim. i. 6.) 
but also by the presbytery. (1 Tim. iv. 14.) 
From this time Timothy acted as a minister 
of the Gospel ; he generally attended St. 
Paul, but was sometimes employed by him 
in other places ; he was very diligent and 
useful, and is always mentioned with great 
esteem and affection by St. Paul, who joins 
his name with his own in the inscription of 
six of his Epistles. He is sometimes called 
bishop of Ephesus, and it has been said 
that he suffered martyrdom in that city some 
years after the death of St. Paul. 

Several learned men think that the First 
Epistle to Timothy was written subsequent 
to St. Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, 
and therefore, after the period at which the 
Acts of the Apostles end : and as St. Paul 
was liberated in the year 63, the writing of 
this Epistle, and the journey to which it 
refers, have been placed in the year 64. 
The principal design of this Epistle was to 
give instructions to Timothy concerning 
the management of the church of Ephesus ; 
and it was probably intended that this Epis- 
tle should be read publicly to the Ephesians, 
that they might know upon what authority 
Timothy acted. 

That the Second Epistle to Timothy was 
written while Paul was under confinement 
at Rome, appears from the two following 
passages : — ' Be not thou therefore ashamed 
of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me 
his prisoner.' (i. 8.) ' The Lord give 
mercy unto the house of Onesiphorus, for 
he oft refreshed me, and was not ashamed 
of my chain, but when he was in Rome he 
sought me out very diligently, and found 
me,' (i. 16, 17-) And if we have done 
rightly in dating the First Epistle to Timo- 
thy, after St. Paul's first imprisonment at 
Rome, it will follow that this Second Epistle 
must have been written during his second 
imprisonment in that city, and probably in 
the year 65, not long before his death. It 
is by no means certain where Timothy was, 
when this Epistle was written to him. It 
seems most probable that he was somewhere 
in Asia Minor, since St. Paul desires him to 
bring the cloak with him which he had left 
at Troas (iv. 13.); and also, at the end of 
the first chapter, he speaks of several per- 
sons whose residence was in Asia. St. Paul, 
after his usual salutation, assures Timothy 
of his most affectionate remembrance ; he 
speaks of his own apostleship, and of his 
sufferings, exhorts Timothy to be stedfast 
in the true faith (i.) ; to be constant ami 
diligent in the discharge of his ministerial 
office; to avoid foolish and unlearned ques- 
tions; and to practise and inculcate die 
great duties of the Gospel (ii.) ; he describes 
the apostacy and general wickedness of the 
last days, and higldy commends the Holy 
Scriptures (iii.) ; he again solemnly exhorts 
Timothy to diligence; speaks of his own 
3 t 2 



TIR 



TOL 



danger, and of his hope of future reward ; 
and concludes with several private direc- 
tions, and with salutations, (iv.) Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, 
vol. i. pp. 423—442. 

TIR/HAKAH, npmn, signifies inquirer, 
examiner, or dull observer, whose eyes are 
stopped, or whose sight is disturbed ; other- 
wise, turtle, or law made dull. Tirhakah, 
king of Ethiopia, was of the land of Cush, 
bordering on Palestine and Egypt. This 
prince, at the head of a powerful army, 
attempted to relieve Hezekiah, then at- 
tacked by Sennacherib. (2 Kings xix. 9.) 
in the year of the world 3291. Sennacherib 
was then engaged in the siege of Lachish ; 
yet he raised the siege, and went out to 
meet him. But the angel of the Lord 
smote his army that night, and killed of 
them to the number of a hundred and 
eighty-five thousand men. It does not 
appear that this prince had given Tirhakah 
battle ; his army was routed before he came 
up to him. Tirhakah is called Thearchon 
by Strabo. This geographer quotes Megas- 
thenes, who related that this prince had 
carried his conquests as far as Europe, and 
even to the pillars of Hercules. 

TI'TUS, Tiroc, signifies honourable. Ti- 
tus, a disciple of St. Paul, was a Gentile by 
religion and birth, (Gal. ii. 3.) but was 
probably converted by St Paul, who calls 
him his son. (Tit. i. 4.) St. Paul took him 
with him to Jerusalem, A. D. 49. (Gal. ii. 
1.) about the time of the question, Whether 
the converted Gentiles should become sub- 
ject to the ceremonies of the law. Some 
would then have obliged him to circumcise 
Titus ; but neither he nor Titus would con- 
sent. He probably accompanied St. Paul 
in his second apostolical journey, and from 
that time he seems to have been constantly 
employed by him in the propagation of the 
Gospel : he calls him his partner and fellow- 
helper. (Gal. ii. 1, &c.) Paul sent him 
from Ephesus with his First Epistle to the 
Corinthians, and with a commission to in- 
quire into the state of the church at Co- 
rinth; and he sent him thither again from 
Macedonia, with his Second Epistle, and to 
forward the collections for the 'saints in 
Judea.' From this time we hear nothing 
of Titus till he was left by Paul in Crete, 
after his first imprisonment at Rome, ' to 
set in order the things that were wanting, 
and to ordain elders in every city.' (Tit. i. 
5.) It is probable that he went thence to 
join St. Paul at Nicopolis, (Tit. iii. 12.) 
that they went together to Crete to visit the 
churches there, and thence to Rome. Dur- 
ing St. Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, 
Titus went into Dalmatia, (2 Tim. iv. 10.) ; 
and after the apostle's death, he is said to 
have returned into Crete, and to have died 
there in the ninety-fourth year of his age: he 
is often called bishop of Crete by ecclesias- 
tical writers. St. Paul always speaks of Titus 
1012 



in terms of high regard, and entrusted him, 
as we have seen, with commissions of great 
importance. 

It is by no means certain from what place 
St. Paul wrote his First Epistle to Titus. 
But as he desires Titus to come to him at 
Nicopolis [probably in Epirus], and declares 
his intention of passing the winter there, 
some have supposed that, when he wrote it, 
he was in the neighbourhood of that city, 
either in Greece or Macedonia (Titus iii. 12.); 
others have imagined that he wrote it from 
Colosse. As it appears that St. Paul, not 
long before he wrote this Epistle, had left 
Titus in Crete, for the purpose of regulating 
the affairs of the church, and at the time 
he wrote it had determined to pass the 
approaching winter at Nicopolis, and as the 
Acts of the Apostles do not give any ac- 
count of St. Paul's preaching in that island, 
or of visiting that city, it is concluded that 
this Epistle was written after his first im- 
prisonment at Rome, and probably in the 
year 64. The principal design of this 
Epistle was to give instructions to Titus 
concerning the management of the churches 
in the different cities of the island of Crete, 
and it was probably intended to be read 
publicly to the Cretans, that they might 
know upon what authority Titus acted. St. 
Paul, after his usual salutation, intimates 
that he was appointed an apostle by the 
express command of God, and reminds 
Titus of the reason of his being left in 
Crete ; he describes the qualifications neces- 
sary for bishops, and cautions him against 
persons of bad principles, especially Judaiz- 
ing teachers, whom he directs Titus to re- 
prove with severity; he informs him what 
instructions he should give to people in 
different situations of life, and exhorts him 
to be exemplary in his own conduct ; he 
points out the pure and practical nature 
of the Gospel, and enumerates some parti- 
cular virtues which he was to inculcate, 
avoiding foolish questions and frivolous dis- 
putes ; he tells him how he is to behave to- 
wards heretics, and ends with salutations. — 
Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christian The- 
ology, vol. i. pp. 444 — 447. 

TOLERATION, says Dr. Paley, ' is of 
two kinds ; the allowing to dissenters the 
unmolested profession and exercise of their 
religion, with an exclusion from offices of 
trust and emolument in the state ; which 
is a partial toleration : and the admitting 
of them, without distinction, to all the civil 
privileges and capacities of other citizens ; 
which is a complete toleration. The expe- 
diency of toleration, and consequently the 
right of every citizen to demand it, as far 
as relates to liberty of conscience, and the 
claim of being protected in the free and safe 
profession of his religion, is sufficiently evi- 
dent. The advancement, and discovery of 
truth, is that end to which all regulations 
concerning religion ought principally to be 



TOL 



TOL 



adapted. Hence, every species of intole- 
rance which enjoins suppression and si- 
lence, and every species of persecution 
which enforces such injunctions, is ad- 
verse to the progress of truth, since it 
causes that to be fixed by one set of men, 
at one time, which is much better, and with 
much more probability of success, left to 
the independent and progressive inquiries 
of separate individuals. Truth results from 
discussion and from controversy ; is investi- 
gated by the labours and researches of pri- 
vate persons. Whatever, therefore, prohi- 
bits these, obstructs that industry and that 
liberty, which it is the common interest of 
mankind to promote. In religion, as in 
other subjects, truth, if left to itself, will 
almost always obtain the ascendency. If 
different religions be professed in the same 
country, and the minds of men remain un- 
fettered and unawed by intimidations of law, 
that religion which is founded in maxims 
of reason and credibility, will gradually 
gain over the other to it. It is not meant 
that men will formally renounce their an- 
cient religion, but that they will adopt into 
it the more rational doctrines, the improve- 
ments and discoveries of the neighbouring 
sect ; by which means the worse religion, 
without the ceremony of a reformation, will 
insensibly assimilate itself to the better. 

' Concerning the admission of dissenters 
from the established religion to offices and 
employments in the public service, which 
is necessary to render toleration complete, 
doubts have been entertained, with some 
appearance of reason. It is possible that 
such religious opinions may be holden, as 
are utterly incompatible with the necessary 
functions of civil government ; and which 
opinions consequently disqualify those who 
maintain them from exercising any share 
in its administration. I perceive, however, 
no reason why men of different religious 
persuasions may not sit upon the same 
bench, deliberate in the same council, or 
fight in the same ranks, as well as men of 
various or opposite opinions upon any con- 
troverted topic of natural philosophy, his- 
tory, or ethics. There are two cases in 
which test-laws are wont to be applied, and 
in which, if in any, they may be defended. 
One is, where two or more religions are con- 
tending for establishment ; and where there 
appears no way of putting an end to the 
contest, but by giving to one religion such 
a decided superiority in the legislature and 
government of the country, as to secure it 
against danger from any other. I own that 
I should assent to this precaution with 
many scruples. If the dissenters from the 
establishment become a majority of the 
people, the establishment itself ought to be 
altered or qualified. 

' The second case of exclusion, and in 
which the measure is more easily vindi- 
cated, is that of a country in which some 
1013 



disaffection to the subsisting government 
happens to be connected with certain reli- 
gious distinctions. The state undoubt- 
edly has a right to refuse its power and its 
confidence to those who seek its destruc- 
tion. If, therefore, the generality of any 
religious sect entertain dispositions hostile 
to the constitution, and if government have 
no other way of knowing its enemies than 
by the religion which they profess, the pro- 
fessors of that religion may justly be ex- 
cluded from offices of trust and authority. 
But even here it should be observed, that 
it is not against the religion that govern- 
ment shuts its doors, but against those poli- 
tical principles, which, however independent 
they may be of any article of religious faith, 
the members of that communion are found 
in fact to hold. Nor would the legislator 
make religious tenets the test of men's 
inclinations towards the state, if he could 
discover any other that was equally certain 
and notorious. The result of our examina- 
tion of those general tendencies, by which 
every interference of civil government in 
matters of religion ought to be tried, is 
this : that a comprehensive national reli- 
gion, guarded by a few articles of peace 
and conformity, together with a legal pro- 
vision for the clergy of that religion ; and 
with a complete toleration of all dissenters 
from the established church, without any 
other limitation or exception, than what 
arises from the conjunction of dangerous 
political dispositions with certain religious 
tenets, appears to be, not only the most 
just and liberal, but the wisest and safest 
system which a state can adopt ; inasmuch 
as it unites the several perfections which a 
religious constitution ought to aim at : — 
liberty of conscience, with means of instruc- 
tion ; the progress of truth, with the peace of 
society ; the right of private judgment, with 
the care of the public safety.' 

Milton, whose tenets will not be sus- 
pected as adverse either to civil or religious 
liberty, contends that Papists are not proper 
subjects of toleration, on the following poli- 
tical and religious considerations : 1. Their 
intolerance and avowed hostility to the 
members of all other Christian churches 
except their own, counting them both he- 
retics and schismatics, excluding them from 
salvation, and persecuting them, when in 
their power, with the utmost barbarity ; 2. 
Their mischievous state-activities (as he 
quaintly styles their political intrigues) in- 
cessantly labouring to undermine and over- 
turn, either covertly or openly, all Protes- 
tant governments that have been so incau- 
tious or imprudent as to give them footing. 
The Pope, ever since we have shaken off 
his Babylonish yoke, has incessantly endea- 
voured to destroy the government, and se- 
duce and pervert the people from their al- 
legiance. 3. The idolatrous nature of their 
worship, such as cannot be exercised pub- 



TOR 



TOR 



licly without grievous scandal to all con- 
scientious Christians, and neither publicly 
nor privately, without the most heinous of- 
fence to a jealous God, who abhors all man- 
ner of idolatry, in public, (Exod. xx. 5.) 
and in private. (Isaiah lxvi. 17- Ezek. viii. 
7 — 16.) Such abominations, wherever they 
are licensed or countenanced by the state, 
tend, sooner or later, to draw down God's 
judgments upon that people or nation. 
Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. 
book ii. p. 1369 ; Paley's Moral and Political 
Philosophy, vol. ii. pp. 334 — 345. 

TORMENTS, future. Different opinions 
have been formed respecting the duration 
of future torments. By some it is said, that 
' since God is a Being, whose goodness and 
mercy are indisputably infinite, he may na- 
turally be expected to overlook inconsider- 
able errors ; and even when he does punish, 
to observe a proportion between offences 
and punishments, and not punish temporary 
sins by inflicting eternal suffering, because 
that is unjust ; he is bound by his nature 
and attributes to be merciful as well as just; 
and therefore not to make the greater por- 
tion of his intelligent creatures for ever 
unhappy.' But to this it is replied, that 
the Scriptures sufficiently caution us against 
relying on mere mercy, ' uncovenanted 
mercy,' by being assured that ' the wrath of 
God abideth on' unbelievers, and that ' he 
shall have judgment without mercy, that 
hath showed no mercy.' (John iii. 36. 
James ii. 13.) If God is bound by his own 
nature to be merciful to his frail creatures, 
and to restore them to his favour after they 
have expiated their sins by intense suffer- 
ing of limited duration, the work of redemp- 
tion by Jesus Christ must be unnecessary. 
Hence this argument nearly destroys all ob- 
ligation to Jesus Christ for dying to expiate 
human guilt ; and it imputes to a Being of 
unbounded wisdom, justice, and love, the 
injustice of bruising his dearly-beloved Son, 
of putting him to grief and shame, and lead- 
ing him to an ignominious death, to cancel 
the sins of mankind, which he was bound to 
forgive without any such sacrifice. The 
loss of the chief good, and exclusion from 
heaven, are the necessary consequences of 
transgression ; and a consciousness of this 
loss, as well as remorse and self-condemna- 
tion on account of it, naturally follow from 
the existence of the soul ; these may con- 
stitute the venom of ' the worm that never 
dies,' and the fierceness of ' the fire that is 
not quenched ;' and it is easy to see that it 
may be perfectly equitable in the Divine 
Being, to suffer these to continue. It by 
no means follows that, because impenitent 
sinners will be eternally punished, God 
makes the greater portion of his intelligent 
creatures for ever unhappy. Let it be re- 
collected, that at least half the children 
which are born, die before they are seven 
years old, and are, doubtless, happy in a fu- 
1014 



ture world, their faculties being expanded 
so as to prepare them for the full enjoy- 
ment of heaven ; that such of the heathen 
as ' do by nature the things contained in 
the law,' and whose consciences ' excuse' or 
acquit them, conformably to the true mean- 
ing of the apostle, (Rom. ii. 14, 15.) will be 
admitted into bliss for the Redeemer's sake; 
that though, for ages, true Christians may 
have been the minority, yet a time will 
come, and that not of short duration, when 
' the earth shall be full of the knowledge 
of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea' 
(Isaiah xi. 9.) : let these, I say, be recol- 
lected, and duly considered, and there will 
not remain the shadow of a suspicion, that 
the greater part of mankind will be eter- 
nally miserable. 

The grand current of the arguments 
against the eternal duration of future tor- 
ments, flows from the affirmed limited 
meaning of the words aiwv aiwviov, &c. 
There is certainly no allusion to either ulti- 
mate virtue or happiness in the express de- 
claration, ' these shall go away into ever- 
lasting punishment ; but the righteous into 
life eternal ;' or, at least, if the wicked may 
extract a grain "of hope from so strong a 
passage, the righteous have equal reason to 
dread that, after a similar duration, they 
may lapse from virtue and happiness into 
wickedness and misery ; and thus the good 
and the bad may change places at the ter- 
mination of that aeonian period, which is 
here alike placed before each class of per- 
sons. It can never be consistent with 
sound criticism, to interpret the same word 
used twice, in the same sentence and con- 
nexion, and in both directly applicable to 
the soul, which is naturally immortal, so as 
to indicate eternity in the one instance, aud 
terminable in the other. But we are told 
that the word alojviog is sometimes employed 
to express a limited but very long duration, 
and is three or four times, perhaps, so used 
in Scripture; being, indeed, derived from 
aiwv, which denotes duration or continu- 
ance of time, but with great variety ; and 
therefore it can never mean eternity. Thi3 
Greek word, which is so frequently used in 
Scripture with regard to a future world, 
expresses correctly a proper eternity. In 
Rev. xx. 10. the phrase eig rovg ai&vag, twv 
aiwviov, is so energetic, that if it do not 
fully signify eternity to come, nothing in 
the Greek language does. In 2 Cor. iv. 
ult., the things which are seen, all things 
visible or material, the world and every 
thing in it, are put in complete opposition 
to the unseen future state ; the things which 
are seen being said to be for a short time 
(or temporary) while the things which are 
not seen are everlasting. 

The awful picture of the duration and 
terrible nature of future torments exhibited 
in St. Mark's Gospel, is calculated to pro- 
duce the deepest conviction in the minds of 



TOR 



TIIA 



all who receive the Scriptures as the word 
of God. ' If thy hand offend thee, cut it 
off: it is better for thee to enter into life 
maimed, than having two hands, to go into 
hell, into the fire that never shall be 
quenched : where their worm dieth not, and 
the fire is not quenched. And if thy foot 
offend thee, cut it off: it is better for thee 
to enter halt into life, than having two feet, 
to be cast into hell, into the fire that never 
shall be quenched : where their worm dieth 
not, and the fire is not quenched. And if 
thine eye offend thee, pluck it out : it is 
better for thee to enter into the kingdom of 
God with one eye, than having two eyes, to 
be cast iuto hell fire : where their worm 
dieth not, and the fire is not quenched. For 
every one shall be salted with fire.' (Mark 
ix. 43 — 49.) The expression, ' where their 
worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched,' 
is reiterated with solemn and dreadful 
energy : and the declaration, ' every one 
shall be salted with fire,' implies, if it imply 
any thing, that as salt preserves from pu- 
trefaction flesh to which it is applied, so 
those unhappy victims of Divine justice, 
shall be salted with fire, and, instead of be- 
ing consumed by it, shall, in the wretched 
abodes to which they are consigned, conti- 
nue immortal in the midst of their flames. 
How far the misery of the eternal state will 
be corporeal, and how far mental, cannot 
be so easily determined. 

A late writer observes, that '- though fu- 
ture torments are most evidently and ex- 
pressly revealed in Holy Scripture, yet men 
are very unwilling to believe it, and strive 
all they can to cavil at and oppose what 
really is most clear and certain. There are 
some who conjecture that sinners will be 
consumed in hell-fire, or turned into no- 
thing. But this is a vain imagination ; it 
being evident, that mankind are endued 
with immortal souls, and designed to endure 
for ever. This is the excellency and dig- 
nity of our nature ; and the Scriptures also 
assure us, that there will be a resurrection 
both of the just and unjust. The bodies of 
wicked men will be raised and re-united to 
their immortal souls ; and at the resurrec- 
tion, what before was corruptible, will then 
become incorruptible and immortal. But 
this need not be, were they not to endure 
for ever. For can we suppose, that the 
bodies of wicked men should be raised im- 
mortal, only to appear before God's tribu- 
nal, and immediately after judgment to be 
consumed in hell-fire ? Besides, the Scrip-' 
ture assures us, that the torments of sin- 
ners are everlasting ; but this is only pos- 
sible on beings that exist to all eternity; 
for what does not exist, cannot be said to 
suffer torment. The apostle declares, that 
sinners shall be punished with everlasting 
destruction ; which would be a very impro- 
per expression, if they were only to be ever- 
lastingly destroyed.' 
1015 



Some will not believe what they cannot 
comprehend ; — others what cannot be de- 
monstrated ; — many what opposes their cor- 
rupt passions and inclinations; — others 
what militates against human pride and 
self-righteousness:— and others what must 
fill their guilty consciences with the most 
alarming fears. Hence the denial, as of 
other fundamental truths of Christianity, 
so also of the eternal duration of future 
punishments : and, as has been well ob- 
served on this subject by an able divine, 
few complain • that eternal punishments 
are too severe, but those for whom they 
are not severe enough to keep them from 
them.' This is one thing, it is true, of 
which we cannot have ocular demonstra- 
tion ; but to believe punishment to be not 
eternal, is to return to the discarded notion 
of purgatory ; or that those who have not 
duly repented and believed upon earth, 
may be reformed by sufferings after death. 
See Hell and Universalists. Adam's 
Religious World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 385, 
386 ; Warner's System of Divinity and Mo- 
rality, vol. iv. p. 393; Dr. Olinthus Gre- 
gory's Letters on the Evidences, Doctrines, 
and Duties of the Christian Religion, vol. ii. 
pp. 258—274. 

TRACHONI'TIS, Tpaxwvinc, signifies 
rough, strong. St. Luke (iii. 1.) speaks of 
Trachonitis ; he says, that in the fifteenth 
year of Tiberius, Philip, son of Herod the 
Great, was tetrarch of Iturea, and of Tra- 
chonitis. This province had Arabia De- 
serta east, Batanea west, Iturea south, and 
the country of Damascus north. Tracho- 
nitis is often ascribed to Arabia ; to which 
it rather belongs than to Palestine. Jose- 
phus says, it is situated between Palestine 
and Ccelo-Syria, and was peopled by Hush, 
or Chush, the son of Aram. The road to 
Trachonitis lay toward the lake Phiala, 
where were the sources of the Jordan. 
This province was full of rocks, which 
served to harbour a great number of thieves 
and robbers, who often found employment 
for Herod the Great, as may be seen in 
Josephus. Eusebius says, that the tribe of 
Manasseh extended into Trachonitis, to- 
wards Bostra, and elsewhere, that Iturea 
penetrated also into Trachonitis, and into 
the desert that was near Bostra. Jerome 
says, that Trachonitis is beyond Bostra, 
inclining towards Damascus. Strabo speaks 
of two mountains called Trachones, which 
were above Damascus, towards Arabia and 
Iturea, where are steep mountains with caves 
in them that would afford retreats to a thou- 
sand men. 

TRANSFIGURATION. After our Sa- 
viour had inquired of his disciples, what 
men thought of him t and, what they them- 
selves thought of him ? St. Peter answered, 
That he was the Son of the living God. 
Then Jesus Christ began to speak of his 
passion, which was at hand. (M>;tt. x\ i. 



TRA 



TRA 



28.) adding, 'Verily, I say unto you, there 
be some standing here which shall not taste 
of death, till they see the Son of man 
coming in his kingdom.' Six days after this 
promise, ' Jesus taketh Peter, James, and 
John his brother, and bringeth them up 
into an high mountain apart, and was 
transfigured before them, and his face did 
shine as the sun, and his raiment was white 
as the light: and behold there appeared 
unto them Moses and Elias talking with 
him.' It is observable, that Matthew (xvii. 
1.) says, this took place six days after the 
promise ; but Luke (ix. 28.) mentions eight 
days, probably because he counted inclu- 
sively, reckoning the day of the promise, 
and the day of the execution ; whereas, the 
other evangelist had regard only to the six 
intermediate days. One evangelist also says 
about eight days ; the other, after six days. 

Mount Tabor, in Galilee, is usually sup- 
posed to have been the scene of this won- 
drous transaction, in which Jesus unveiled 
a portion of his divine glory, even in the 
flesh, as the only genuine Son of God. But 
there is reason to doubt the correctness of 
the tradition. It seems rather to have been 
some mountain near Cesarea Philippi ; for 
Jesus did not return to Galilee until some 
time after this transaction. (Matt. xvii. 22. 
Mark ix. 30.) Lightfoot on Mark (ix. 2.) 
ingeniously conjectures that it was the 
highest mountain of that country, according 
to Josephus, hanging over the springs of 
Jordan, at the foot of which Cesarea Phi- 
lippi was built ; which had been the scene 
of the early idolatry of the Danites, but 
now of the presence of the eternal Son of 
God. Hales' s New Analysis of Chronology, 
vol. ii. book ii. p. 795. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the con- 
version or change of the substance of the 
bread and wine in the eucharist into the body 
and blood of Jesus Christ, which the mem- 
bers of the Church of Rome suppose to be 
wrought by the consecration of the priest. 
They 'profess, that in the mass there is 
offered unto God, a true, proper, and pro- 
pitiatory sacrifice for the quick and the 
dead, and that, in the most holy sacrament 
of the eucharist, there is truly, really, and 
substantially, the body and blood, together 
with the soul and divinity of our Lord 
Jesus Christ ; and that there is a conver- 
sion made of the whole substance of the 
bread into the body, and of the whole sub- 
stance of the wine into the blood ; which 
conversion the whole Catholic Church call 
Transubstantiation.' 

The idea of Christ's bodily presence in 
the eucharist was first started in the begin- 
ning of the eighth century, and it owed its 
rise to the. indiscretion of preachers and 
writers of warm imaginations, who, instead 
of explaining judiciously the lofty figures 
of Scripture language upon this subject, 
understood and urged them in their literal 
1016 



sense. Thus the true meaning of these 
expressions was grossly perverted ; but as 
this conceit seemed to exalt the nature of 
the holy sacrament, it was eagerly received 
in that ignorant and superstitious age : 
and when once introduced, it soon spread, 
and was by degrees carried farther and far- 
ther, by persons still less guarded in their 
application of these metaphorical phrases, 
till at length, in the twelfth century, the 
actual change of the bread and wine into 
the body and blood of Christ, by the conse- 
cration of the priest, was pronounced to be 
a Gospel truth, by the pretended authority 
of the Church of Rome. 

In arguing against this doctrine, we may 
first observe, that it is contradicted by our 
senses, since we see and taste that the bread 
and wine after the consecration, and when 
we actually receive them, still continue to be 
bread and wine without any change or al- 
teration whatever. And again, was it pos- 
sible for Christ, when he instituted the 
Lord's Supper, to take his own body and 
his own blood into his own hands, and 
deliver them to every one of his apos- 
tles? Or was it possible for the apos- 
tles to understand our Saviour's command 
to drink his blood literally, when they were 
forbidden, under the severest penalties, to 
taste blood by the law of Moses, of which 
not only they themselves, but Christ also, 
had been strict observers 1 They ex- 
pressed not the slightest surprise or reluc- 
tance, when Christ delivered to them the 
bread and wine ; which could not have been 
the case, had they conceived themselves 
commanded to eat the real body, and drink 
the real blood, of their Lord and Master. 
The bread and wine must have been con- 
sidered by them as symbolical ; and indeed 
the whole transaction was evidently figura- 
tive in all its parts; it was instituted when 
the Jews, by killing the paschal lamb, com- 
memorated their deliverance from Egyptian 
bondage by the hand of Moses, which was 
typical of the deliverance of all mankind 
from the bondage of sin by the death of 
Christ, the Lamb slain from the foundation 
of the world ; and as the occasion was typi- 
cal, so likewise were the words used by our 
Saviour : ' This is my body which is broken, 
and this is my blood which is shed.' But 
his body was not yet broken, nor was his 
blood yet shed ; and therefore, the breaking 
of the bread, and the pouring out of the 
wine, were then figurative of what was about 
to happen, as they are now figurative of 
what has actually happened. He also said, 
' This cup is the New Testament in my 
blood,' (1 Cor. xi. 25.) which words could 
not be meant in a literal sense ; the cup 
could not be changed into a covenant, 
though it might be a representation or 
memorial of it Our Saviour called the 
wine, after it was consecrated, the ' fruit 
of the vine,' ( Matt. xxvi. 29.) which im- 



TRI 



TRI 



plied that no change had taken place in 
its real nature. The fathers constantly call 
the consecrated elements, the figures, the 
signs, the symbols, the types, and anti- 
types, the commemoration, the representa- 
tion, the mysteries, and the sacraments of 
the body and blood of Christ ; which ex- 
pressions plainly show that they did not 
consider the bread and wine as changed 
into the very substance of Christ's body 
and blood. Tomline's Elements of Christian 
Theology, vol. ii. pp. 480—486*; Nightin- 
gale's Portraiture of the Roman Catholic Reli- 
gion, p. 310. 

TRINITARIANS, is a name applied to 
all those who profess to believe the doc- 
trine of the Trinity, in opposition to Arians 
and Socinians, who style themselves Unita- 
rians and Anti-Trinitarians. A great pro- 
portion of the Trinitarians receive the creed 
that goes under the name of Athanasius ; 
and to these only should the term Athana- 
sian be applied, and not to all Trinitarians, 
as is sometimes the case. The Presby- 
terians in Scotland, and the three classes 
of Protestant dissenters in England in 
general, with many others, both at home 
and abroad, are Trinitarians, but do not re- 
ceive the Nicene or the Athanasian creeds, 
though they hold the substance of the doc- 
trine which they contain ; they therefore 
cannot properly be called Athanasians. 

Notwithstanding the strongest evidence 
that is constantly given them to the con- 
trary, the Jews and others still insist that 
Trinitarians destroy the Divine Unity, and 
worship three Gods, and, of consequence, 
are Tritheists ; a name which is not, 
perhaps, applicable to any class of Christ- 
ians in our day. Even Crellius, who has 
been reckoned the most acute of the Soci- 
nians, is candid enough to acknowledge, 
that they who hold the Trinity, are not 
justly chargeable with believing more Gods 
than one, because of the strict unity which 
they maintain to subsist in the Divine 
Essence. 

The enemies of the doctrine of the Tri- 
nity insist, that it was an invention of the 
first ages of the church ; or, that it was bor- 
rowed from the Platonic school. But in 
the opinion of its friends, the understanding 
of man can never be more grossly insulted, 
than when such people labour to persuade 
them, that a truth, so awfully sublime as 
that of the Trinity, could ever be the off- 
spring of human invention ; nor, according 
to them, can history be more violated, than 
when it is made to assign the origin of this 
doctrine to Plato, or to any of the schools 
of Greece. 

Most writers, before Vossius, took it for 
granted, that what is called the Athanasian 
Creed, was drawn up by Athanasius, Bishop 
of Alexandria, in the fourth century ; but 
it is now generally thought not to be his, and 
to have been written originally in Latin, 
1017 



for the use of some part of the Western 
Church. It is commonly attributed to Vi- 
gilius, the African, who lived about the end 
of the fifth century; but Dr. Waterland 
concludes, from five reasons which he as- 
signs, that Hilary, Bishop of Aries, about 
the year 430, composed the Exposition of 
Faith, which now bears the name of the 
Athanasian Creed, for the use of the Gallican 
clergy, and particularly those of the diocese 
of Aries.' This creed obtained in France, 
about A.D. 850, and was received in Spain 
and Germany about 100 or 180 years later. 
It was in common use in some parts of 
Italy in 960, and was received at Rome 
about 1014. And we have clear proofs of 
its having been sung alternately in the 
churches of Britain in the tenth century. 
We do not learn, however, that it ever had 
the sanction of any council ; nor is it yet to 
be fully ascertained, how far it is acknow- 
ledged by the Greek and Eastern churches. 
As to the matter of this creed, according to 
all those that embrace its doctrines, it is a 
summary of the true orthodox faith, and a 
condemnation of all heresies, respecting the 
object of our faith, both ancient and mo- 
dern. But, unhappily, it has proved a 
fruitful source of controversy ; for, because 
there are some clauses in it which threaten 
damnation to all those who do not give their 
assent to the doctrines laid down in it, 
some, even of those who do assent to them, 
have taken occasion from thence to object 
against the use of it altogether. It is not, 
however, so much from a dislike to these 
clauses, that a great proportion of Trinita- 
rians, namely, the Presbyterians, &c. have 
not formally adopted this and the Nicene 
Creed ; as from the difficulty, in their minds, 
of reconciling some passages in them to the 
Scriptural doctrine of Three Persons in one 
Essence : particularly, ' Light of Light, God 
of God ;' as, say they, ' there can be no com- 
munication of the Divine Essence,— no de- 
rivation of essence, but of personality only.' 
By following up these expressions far be- 
yond their original design, they further ob- 
serve, some have fallen into Arianism, even 
when writing against it.. See Athanasian 
and Nicene Creeds. 

Whilst Unitarians address God in the 
person of the Father only, Trinitarians 
and Athanasians pray to one God in three 
persons ; and they, in general, look for ac- 
ceptance, and an answer to their prayers, 
only through the merits and mediation of 
Christ. Almost all professing Christians, 
the Sabellians, Arians, and Socinians, ex- 
cepted, believe in the Trinity ; but the 
Greek Church differs from other Trinita- 
rians in maintaining, that the Holy Ghost 
proceeds from the Father only, and not 
from the Father and the Son. See TRI- 
NITY. Adam's Religious World Displayed, 
vol. ii. pp. 101—111. 
TRINITY is not a Scriptural term, but 



TRI 



TRI 



was introduced into the church in the 
second century, to express the union of 
the three persons in the Godhead. * Equally 
above the boldest flight of human genius 
to invent, as beyond the most extended 
limit of human intellect fully to compre- 
hend, is the profound mystery of the ever- 
blessed Trinity. Through successive ages 
it has remained impregnable to all the shafts 
of impious ridicule, and unshaken by the 
bolder artillery of blasphemous invective. 
It is ever in vain that man essays to pierce 
the unfathomable arcana of the skies. By 
his limited faculties, and superficial ken, 
the deep things of eternity are not to be 
scanned. Even among Christians the Sa- 
cred Trinity is more properly a subject of 
belief than of investigation ; and every at- 
tempt to penetrate into it, farther than God, 
in his holy word, has expressly revealed, is 
at best an injudicious, and often a danger- 
ous effort of mistaken piety. If we extend 
our eye through the remote region of anti- 
quity, we shall find this very doctrine, which 
the primitive Christians are said to have 
borrowed from the Platonic school, univer- 
sally and immemorially flourishing in all 
those Eastern countries where history and 
tradition have united to fix those virtuous 
ancestors of the human race, who, for their 
distinguished attainments in piety, were 
admitted to a familiar intercourse with Je- 
hovah, and the angels, the divine heralds of 
his commands,' &c. Mr. Maurice supposes, 
that the doctrine of a Trinity was delivered 
from the ancient patriarchs, and diffused 
over the East, by the migration and disper- 
sion of their Hebrew posterity. 

It is, however, evident that the devo- 
tions of the ancient church in the aposto- 
lical, and every succeeding age, were paid 
to every person of the Trinity. St. Stephen, 
the Protomartyr, breathed his last in a 
prayer to Christ (Acts vii. 59, 60.) ; and St. 
Paul always baptized in the name of Christ. 
(1 Cor. i. 13.) In the second century, 
Pliny, who took the confession of some re- 
volting Christians, tells us, they declared to 
him, that they used to meet on a certain 
day, before it was light, and, among other 
parts of their worship, sing a hymn to 
Christ, as their God. Not long after this 
lived Polycarp, who joins God the Father, 
and the Son, together, in his prayers for 
grace and benediction upon men. Soon 
after lived Justin Martyr, who, to exculpate 
Christians from the charge of Atheism 
brought against them, declares that they 
worshipped the God of righteousness, and 
his Son, as also the Holy Spirit of pro- 
phecy. Minucius Felix, in answer to an 
objection, that the Christians worshipped 
a crucified man, says, He whom they wor- 
shipped was God, and not a mere mortal 
man. Irenaeus, speaking of the miracles 
wrought by the Christians in his time, as- 
sures us, they were done, not by magic or 
1018 



enchantment, but by invocation of the name 
of Christ. To these may be added the tes- 
timonies of Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, 
Clemens Alexandrinus, and Tertullian, the 
last writer of the second age. In the third 
century, we have an illustrious testimony 
of the worship of Christ, as God, in the 
fragments of Caius, a Roman presbyter, 
preserved by Eusebius. And Origen, in 
particular, asserts the worship of Christ, 
against the common objection, renewed by 
Celsus, that the Christians worshipped one 
who had but lately appeared in the world. 
Add to these the testimonies of St. Cyprian, 
Arnobius, and Lactantius. And as that age 
abounded in martyrs, so those holy men 
usually directed their last prayer to Christ, 
in imitation of St. Stephen ; instances of 
which practice are innumerable. Polycarp's 
doxology is to the whole Trinity ; and Jus- 
tin Martyr declares, that the object of their 
worship was the whole Trinity. To this 
they add the testimony of Origen, who, 
comparing the practice of heathens and 
Christians, says, that the former having for- 
saken the Creator, worshipped the creature ; 
but the latter worshipped and adored no 
creature, but only the Father, Son, and 
Holy Spirit. 

The doctrine of the Trinity, as professed 
in the Christian church, is briefly this : — 
That there is one God, in three distinct Per- 
sons, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost: the 
term Person here characterizing the mode 
of subsistence in the Essence, which the 
Greek Fathers called Hypostasis. The Fa- 
ther, Son, and Holy Ghost, are believed to 
be three distinct Persons in the Divine na- 
ture, because the Holy Scriptures, in speak- 
ing of these Three, do distinguish them 
from one another, as we use, in common 
speech, to distinguish three several per- 
sons; and each of these Three Persons is 
affirmed to be God, because the names, 
properties, and operations of God, are, in 
Scripture, attributed to each of them. 

The Athanasian Creed makes the Su- 
preme Being to consist of Three Persons, 
the same in substance, equal in power and 
glory. The first of those Three Persons it 
makes to be the Father ; the second Person 
is called the Son, and is said to be descended 
from the Father, by an eternal generation 
of an ineffable and incomprehensible nature 
in the essence of the Godhead ; the third 
Person is the Holy Ghost, derived from the 
Father and the Son, but not by generation, 
as the Son is derived from the Father, but 
by an eternal and incomprehensible proces- 
sion. Each of these Persons is very and 
eternal God, as much as the Father himself; 
and yet, though distinguished in this man- 
ner, they do not make three Gods, but one 
God. ' The Catholic faith is this, — that we 
worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in 
Unity : for there is one Person of the Fa- 
ther, another of the Son, and another of the 



TRI 



TRI 



Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, 
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all 
one; the glory equal, the majesty co- 
eternal.' 

This system also includes in it the belief 
of two natures in Jesus Christ, namely, the 
divine and human, subsisting in one per- 
son. The Divinity of Jesus Christ is proved 
from the following texts, among many others. 
St. John says, ' The Word was God' (John 
i. 1.) ; St. Paul, that ' God was manifested 
in the flesh, (1 Tim. iii. 16.) ; that Christ is 
• over all, God blessed for ever.' (Rom. ix. 
5.) Erernityis attributed to the Son; 'the 
Son hath life in himself.' (John v. 26.) Per- 
fection of knowledge ; ' As the Father know- 
eth me, so know I the Father.' (John x. 
15.) The creation of all things ; ' All things 
were made by him, and without him was not 
any thing made that was made.' (John i. 3.) 
And we are commanded to 'honour the 
Son, as we honour the Father.' (John v. 23.) 
St. Paul exhorts the Philippians to the prac- 
tice of humility from the example of Christ 
Jesus, ' who, being in the form of God, 
thought it not robbery to be equal with God ; 
but made himself of no reputation, and took 
upon him the form of a servant, and was 
made in the likeness of men ; and being 
found in fashion as a man, he humbled him- 
self, and became obedient unto death, even 
the death of the cross : wherefore God also 
hath highly exalted him, and given him a name 
which is above every name, that at the name 
of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in 
heaven, and things in earth, and things under 
the earth ; and that every tongue should 
confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the 
glory of God the Father.' (Phil. ii. 6— 11.) 
In this text, the divinity of Christ, both before 
his incarnation and after his ascension, is 
clearly pointed out : ' Being in the form of 
God,' signifies being really God, just as, ' took 
upon him the form of a servant, and was 
made in the likeness of men,' signifies that 
he was really a man in a low and mean con- 
dition; and the following words, 'thought 
it not robbery to be equal with God,' ex- 
pressly declare Christ's equality with God. 
Indeed this passage, taken in this its obvious 
sense, so decisively proves the divinity of 
Christ, that those who deny that doctrine 
give a different meaning to one part of it, 
and assert that another part is wrongly trans- 
lated. But the reasoning, according to the 
common interpretation, is clear and strong ; 
for the apostle exhorts the Philippians to 
imitate the example of Christ's humility, 
who, though a divine person, voluntarily 
condescended to assume the lowest condition 
of human nature, and to submit to a cruel 
and ignominious death. The latter part of 
the passage states, that in consequence, and 
as a reward of his humiliation, 'God highly 
exalted him, and gave him a name which is 
above every name, that at the name of Jesus 
every knee should bow, of things in heaven, 
1010 



and things in earth, and things under the 
earth ; and that every tongue should confess 
that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of 
God the Father.' This exaltation of Christ, 
after his ascension into heaven, seems to 
indicate the glorified state of his human 
nature, just as his appearance and sufferings 
upon earth, were the humiliation of his di- 
vine nature. — St. Peter, in his First Epistle, 
represents Christ as enabling the prophets 
to foretell his own coming, with his suffer- 
ings, and the glory which was to succeed 
them : ' of which salvation the prophets 
have inquired and searched diligently, who 
prophesied of the grace that should come 
unto you : searching what, or what manner 
of time the Spirit of Christ which was in 
them did signify, when it testified before- 
hand the sufferings of Christ and the glory 
that should follow' (1 Pet. i. 10, 11.): this 
passage, therefore, proves both the pre- 
existence and divinity of Christ. ' Without 
controversy,' says St. Paul, ' great is the 
mystery of godliness: God was manifest in 
the flesh, justified in the Spirit, seen of 
angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed 
on in the world, received up into glory.' (1 
Tim. iii. 16.) All these six propositions, 
of which God is the subject, are true of 
Christ, and of no other person ; he was 
' manifest in the flesh ;' Christ appeared 
upon earth in a human form, with the flesh 
and all other properties of a man, sin only 
excepted : — ' Justified in the Spirit ;' the 
visible descent of the Holy Ghost upon 
Christ at the time of his baptism ; the ex- 
traordinary powers which he then received, 
and afterwards exercised, and the perform- 
ance of his promise by sending the Holy 
Ghost to his Apostles, and enabling them 
to work miracles, proved him to be the true 
Messiah, and justified those high preten- 
sions which he asserted during his ministry : 
' seen of angels ;' angels worshipped Christ 
at his first appearance upon earth, an- 
nounced his birth to the shepherds, minis- 
tered to him in the desert, and strengthened 
him in his last agony in the garden : — 
' preached unto the Gentiles ;' the doctrines 
taught by Christ to the Jews only, were by 
his command afterwards preached by his 
apostles to the Gentiles also, who were in- 
vited to embrace the Gospel, thus declared 
to be the universal religion of all mankind: 
' believed on in the world ;' that many be- 
lieved Jesus to be the true Messiah, is a 
fact admitted by all, and indeed the rapid 
propagation of the Gospel is always urged 
by Christians as one of the many evidences 
by which its divine origin is established : — 
'received up into glory;' Christ having 
completed his ministry, and continued upon 
earth forty days after his resurrection, was 
received up into glory by visibly ascending 
into heaven in the presence of his apostles. 
Since then these six propositions are appli- 
cable to Christ, and to Christ alone, and 



TRI 



TRO 



since St. Paul affirms them to be true of 
God, it follows that Christ is God. 'All 
these propositions,' says Bishop Pearson, 
' cannot be understood of any other, which 
either is, or is called, God ; for, though we 
grant the divine perfections and attributes 
to be the same with the divine essence, yet 
are they never in the Scriptures called God, 
nor can any of them, with the least show of 
probability, be pretended as the subject of 
these propositions, or afford any tolerable 
interpretation. When they tell us that God, 
that is, the will of God, was manifested in 
the flesh, that is, was revealed by frail and 
mortal men, and received up into glory, that 
is, was received gloriously on earth, they 
teach us a language which the Scriptures 
know not, and the Holy Ghost never used ; 
and as no attribute, so no person but the 
Son, can be here understood under the name 
of God ; not the Holy Ghost, for he is dis- 
tinguished from him as being justified in the 
Spirit ; not the Father, who was not mani- 
fested in the flesh, nor received up into 
glory. It remaineth therefore, that whereas 
the Son is the only person to whom all these 
clearly and undoubtedly belong, which are 
here jointly attributed unto God, as sure as 
the name of God is universally expressed in 
the copies of the original language, so that 
absolutely and subjectively taken must it be 
understood of Christ.' 

On the divinity of the Holy Ghost, see 
Holy Ghost. 

The doctrine of the Trinity is called a 
mystery, because we are not able to compre- 
hend the particular manner of the existence 
of the three persons in the divine nature. 
But though a doctrine be above reason, Tri- 
nitarians observe, it is not, therefore, con- 
trary to reason ; and the Divine nature being 
infinite, must consequently be above our 
comprehension. As to the seeming con- 
tradiction of an Unity in Trinity, and Tri- 
nity in Unity, that is, of One being Three, 
and Three One, it is not affirmed, that they are 
one and three in the same respect ; that the 
Divine essence can be but one, and, there- 
fore, there can be no more Gods than one ; 
but because the Scriptures, which assure us 
of the unity of the Divine essence, do like- 
wise with the Father join the Son and Holy 
Ghost, in the same attributes, operations, 
and worship, therefore they are capable of 
number, as to their relation to each other, 
though not as to their essence, which is but 
one. 

But notwithstanding all that is revealed 
on the subject of the ever-blessed Trinity, 
(and it must be admitted on all hands, that 
enough is revealed for our necessary infor- 
mation, in our present state of existence,) 
it is allowed that there is still much above 
our comprehension, and that whatever may 
be inexplicable should be charged to the 
weakness of our understandings, and not 
to the absurdity of the doctrine itself. ' He,' 
1020 



says Bishop Taylor, ' who goes about to speak 
of the mystery of the Trinity, and does it by 
words and names of man's invention, talking 
of essences and existences, hypostases, and 
personalities, priorities in co-equalities, and 
unity in pluralities, may amuse himself, and 
build a tabernacle in his head, and talk 
something he knows not what ; but the good 
man that feels the power of the Father, and 
to whom the Son is become wisdom, sanc- 
tification, and redemption, in whose heart 
the love of the Spirit of God is shed abroad ; 
this man, though he understands nothing of 
what is unintelligible, yet he alone truly 
understands the Christian doctrine of the 
Trinity.' 

The Christian Trinity is not a trinity of 
principles, like that of the Persian philoso- 
phers ; it does not consist of mere logical 
notions, and inadequate conceptions of the 
Deity, like that of Plato ; but it is a Trinity 
of subsistences or persons, joined by an in- 
dissoluble union. ' By person is not meant,' 
says Bishop Burnet, when speaking on this 
subject, ' such a being as we commonly un- 
derstand by that word, a complete intelli- 
gent being, distinct from every other being ; 
but only that every one of that blessed Three, 
has a peculiar distinction in himself, by 
which he is truly different from the other 
two.' 

' Say not,' observes Bishop Home, that the 
doctrine of the Trinity is a matter of cu- 
riosity and amusement only. Our religion 
is founded upon it ; for what is Christianity, 
but a manifestation of the three divine per- 
sons, as engaged in the great work of man's 
redemption, begun, continued, and to be 
ended by them, in their several relations of 
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Creator, Re- 
deemer, and Sanctifier, three persons one 
God ? If there be no Son of God, where is 
our redemption? If there be no Holy 
Spirit, where is our sanctification 1 Without 
both, where is our salvation ? And if'these 
two persons be any thing less than Divine 
why are we baptized, equally, in the name of 
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost ? Let no man therefore deceive you : 
" This is the true God, and eternal life." ' 
Adam's Religious World Displayed, vol. ii. 
pp. 101 — 114; Tomline's Elements of Christ- 
ian Theology, vol. ii. pp. Ill — 121 ; Brough- 
ton's Historical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 471, 
472 ; Bishop Pearson's Exposition of the Creed, 
pp. 127, 128. 

TRO'AS, Tpwac, signifies penetrated. 
Troas was a city of Phrygia, or of Mysia, 
on the Hellespont, between the city of Troy 
north, and the city of Assos south. Some- 
times the name of Troas, or the Troad, sig- 
nifies the whole country of the Trojans, the 
province where the ancient city of Troy had 
stood. But in the New Testament, in 
which the word Troas is found, it signifies a 
city of this name, which also is sometimes 
called Antigonia and Alexandria. Some- 



TRO 



TRU 



times both names are united, Alexandria- 
Troas. St. Paul was at Troas A.D. 50, (Acts 
xvi. 8, &c.) when he had a vision in the 
night, of a man of Macedonia, who requested 
Gospel assistance. He embarked, there- 
fore, at Troas, and passed over into Mace- 
donia : the apostle was several other times 
at Troas ; but we know nothing of his trans- 
actions there. (Acts xx. 5, 6. 2 Cor. ii. 12.) 
He left behind him at Troas, in the custody 
of Carpus, some clothes and books, which 
he desired Timothy to bring with him to 
Rome, A.D. G5, a little before St. Paul's 
death. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) 

TROPH'IMUS, Tpo>/zoc, signifies well- 
educated or brought up. Trophimus was a 
disciple of St. Paul, a Gentile by religion, 
and an Ephesian by birth. After St. Paul 
had converted him, he adhered constantly 
to him, nor quitted him ever after. He 
came from Ephesus to Corinth with the 
apostle, and accompanied him in his whole 
journey from Corinth to Jerusalem, A.D. 
58. (Acts xx. 4.) When St. Paul was in 
the temple there, the Jews laid hold of 
him, crying out, he hath ' brought Greeks 
also into the temple, and hath polluted this 
holy place :' this they said, because certain 
Jews of Ephesus having seen St. Paul in 
the city, accompanied by Trophimus, whom 
they looked upon as a Gentile, imagined 
that St. Paul had introduced him into the 
temple. Trophimus afterwards accompanied 
St. Paul ; for that apostle wrote to Timothy, 
that he had left Trophimus sick at Miletus. 
(2 Tim. iv. 20.) This circumstance proves, 
if any proof were wanting, that St. Paul was 
twice a prisoner at Rome ; for Trophimus, at 
the time of his first journey to Miletus, had 
not been left there, since we read of his 
arrival in Judea. (Acts xx. 15.) Home's In- 
troduction, vol. iii. p. 629. 

TRUST IN GOD, signifies that confi- 
dence in, or dependence we place on him. 
Trust in God is a duty we owe him as our 
creator, and the supreme governor of the 
world. This duty implies an entire resig- 
nation to the wisdom, a dependence on the 
power, and a firm assurance of the goodness 
and veracity of God. On him we must 
rely to supply us with all things needful 
and proper ; to give food to our bodies, 
pardon and grace to our souls. Should our 
temporal projects be full of danger, or the 
days of sorrow actually overtake us, we 
must still repose ourselves on God, who 
loves us as his children ; and when he cor- 
rects us, does it with the mercy of a father, 
and will, in the end, make all things work 
together for our good. 'Though he slay 
me,' says Job, ' yet will I trust in him.' 
Nay, if we have offended him by our sins, 
provoked him to withdraw the comforts of 
his Holy Spirit, and to hide his face from 
us; yet still we must place our whole trust 
in him, and depend on the promises he has 
made through Christ, that he will forgive 
1021 



the truly penitent, and again receive him to 
mercy and favour. 

This duty also implies, that we should 
not confide in any inferior beings. In 
order to this, we must put off all trust in 
ourselves, in our parts, abilities, or acqui- 
sitions, how great soever : nor must we 
solely confide in the friendship, assistance, 
or services of other men. for no man, 
how mighty, good, or virtuous soever he is, 
must be suffered to rival God, as to our 
trust and confidence in him. For the Holy 
Spirit hath pronounced him accursed, ' who 
trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his arm, 
and whose heart departeth from the Lord.' 
Though we are permitted to cultivate the 
friendship, and engage the benevolence of 
men, yet our confidence must terminate in 
God, from whose bounty we receive, and at 
whose pleasure we enjoy every blessing ; 
whose appointment every creature, good 
or evil, is bound to obey, who only is the 
mighty Lord, that hath power to save and 
to destroy. 

If our inquiries be after present felicity 
only, how much better is it secured to that 
man who trusts in God, rather than to him 
who depends on the creature 1 The hope 
of the former is founded on a rock, his soul 
dwells at ease, secure in the power and 
affection of his Governor, calm and uncon- 
cerned in his pursuits. He commits the 
event to God, who perfectly knows, and is 
both able and willing to do, what is best for 
him. He cheerfully and contentedly enjoys 
his present blessings, without any solicitude 
for the future. If things happen contrary 
to his expectations, he considers that it is 
the allotment of infinite wisdom and good- 
ness, and therefore submits to the disap- 
pointment without murmuring. In times 
of danger his heart standeth fast. He 
knows that all things are under the direc- 
tion of Him, whose power ruleth over all, 
and who can defend him as with a shield. 
He considers that God does not willingly 
grieve his creatures, but has wise and gra- 
cious ends in all his dispensations, though 
at present they may not appear so to us. 
But how different from this is he who trusts 
in the creature ? Uneasiness and vexation 
attend him in every stage and event of life ; 
he is in perpetual fear, lest those he relies 
on should deceive, or be disabled from serv- 
ing him. When danger becomes imminent, 
he finds the vanity of his confidence ; fear- 
fulness and trembling seize him ; he is dis- 
tracted, irresolute, and diffident of every 
resource. But when the day of adversity 
actually overtakes him, he is then com- 
pletely miserable ; he flies from one depend- 
ence to another, and finds all cither weak 
or treacherous. The riches and honours in 
which he gloried avail him nothing; and 
even the friend on whom lie relied, proves 
false and forsakes him, or looks on with 
useless pity, and cannot help him. ' He is 



TUB 



TYP 



like a man distressed with thirst in the 
parched places of the wilderness, in a salt 
land and not inhabited.' This is the man 
who has not God for his hcpe, but trusteth in 
the multitude of his riches, and strengthens 
himself in his ungodliness. 

Hence it appears, that he who trusts in 
God has much the advantage as to present 
felicity ; and with respect to futurity he 
stands alone in his hope and pretensions. 
His views are to another world, and there- 
fore he regards this with the indifference 
of a guest, whose stay is uncertain. Yet, 
he enjoys that peace of conscience and 
confidence towards God, which afford a per- 
petual spring of comfort to his soul. He 
triumphs over death, disarms it of its sting, 
and even longs to appear in the presence 
of that God in whom he has trusted, and 
through whose mercies in Christ he hopes 
to receive a blessed immortality. Warner's 
System- of Divinity and Morality, vol. iii. pp. 
28-33. 

TU'BAL, bnn, 6o(3k\, signifies the earth, 
the world ; otherwise, that is carried, or led ; 
otherwise, confusion. Tubal was the fifth son 
of Japheth. The Scripture commonly joins 
together Tubal and Meshech, which makes 
it thought that they peopled countries bor- 
dering on each other. The Chaldee inter- 
preters, by Tubal and Meshech understand 
Italy and Asia, or rather Ausonia. Jose- 
phus thinks Iberia and Cappadocia. Je- 
rome affirms that Tubal represents the 
Spaniards, heretofore called Iberians. Bo- 
chart is very copious to prove, that by 
Meshech and Tubal are intended the 
Muscovites and the Tibarenians. (Gen. x. 
2.) 

TYPE, TYPICAL. These words are 
not frequently used in Scripture ; but what 
they signify is supposed to be very fre- 
quently implied. We usually consider a 
type as an example, pattern, or general 
similitude to a person, event, or thing which 
is to come : and in this it differs from a re- 
presentation, memorial, or commemoration 
of an event, &c. which is past. 

In the nature of commemorative ordi- 
nances, Jews and Christians are agreed : 
but Christians say further, that many, or 
most, if not all the sacred institutions 
among the Jews, were figures, examples, 
hints, or notices of what was to happen 
under a more perfect dispensation. Hence 
a sacrifice, whose blood was shed before 
God, prefigured a more noble, more digni- 
fied blood, which should be shed before God, 
at some future time : that as such blood was 
shed to reconcile man and God, to mediate 
between those otherwise distant parties, 
so the nobler blood should mediate, with 
the greatest success, in restoring amity be- 
tween God and man. They say also, that 
the dwelling in tabernacles, or booths, pre- 
figured the appearance of a great personage, 
whose residence in human nature was to 
1022 



him, like a temporary dwelling; as much 
below his true dignity, as a mere hut or 
booth is below the dignity of a palace. In 
like manner, the passover lamb was an in- 
stance of a sacrifice, which exempted from 
evil, while it also prefigured a nobler de- 
liverer (and deliverance) from divine wrath 
and anger, than could possibly be accom- 
plished in the exemption of Israel from the 
stroke of the destroying angel which smote 
the first-born of the Egyptians, — a nobler 
deliverance from the moral tyranny of sin, 
than that of the Israelites was from the 
oppressive dominion of Pharaoh : which 
deliverance is accomplished by the blood of 
• the Lamb of God, which taketh away the 
sins of the world.' 

Types also differ from signs, in that signs 
were occasional, and did not look backward but 
forward ; usually to a point of time but little 
distant, in the first place, though ultimately 
to a much more distant event, of whose ac- 
complishment, the accomplishment of the 
sign was a token, an earnest, and, in some 
sense, a proof; as it manifested a divine inter- 
position in the subject to which the signs re- 
lated. So, when Ezekiel, at a great distance 
from Jerusalem, brought out his goods, and 
digged through his house, he signified the 
fate of Jerusalem. So, when Isaiah was 
ordered to beget a child (a son) by a young 
woman then a virgin, this being accom- 
plished, was a sign of a much greater birth 
to be expected in the person of Emmanuel, 
to whom the prophet expressly directs the 
reference. 

If this be correct, what should prevent 
types also from looking forward ? If it - 
pleased God to encourage the faith and 
hope of his people by occasional signs, 
why not also by permanent and lasting 
(signs) types ? Why may not the same 
ideas be conveyed every day, every year, 
on public occasions, as now and then, in 
a less conspicuous manner ? But that 
may be true of public services under a ge- 
neral idea, which it would be imprudent 
and unadvisable to apply to every minute 
circumstance attending them. The holy of 
holies in the Jewish temple may be a figure 
emblematic of heaven, the residence of 
God ; but it will not therefore be prudent to 
consider whatever may at any rate, and by 
any construction, bear a reference to the 
holy of holies, as therefore assimilated to a 
correspondent anti-type in heaven. 

Whether certain histories which hap- 
pened in ancient time, were designed as 
types of future events, it is not presumed to 
determine: but (1.) it is likely that such 
histories are recorded, being selected from 
among many which had occurred, as might 
be useful lessons, &c. &c. to succeeding 
ages. (2.) That there being a general con- 
formity in the dispensations of Providence, 
and grace to different persons, though in 
different ages, instances of former dispen- 



TYR 



TYR 



sations may very usefully be held up to the 
view of later times, and may encourage, or 
may check, may direct, or may control, 
those whose circumstances, &c. may be 
similar to what is recorded, though their 
times and their places may be widely sepa- 
rated. We have New Testament authority 
for this practice. 

Types may be considered as differing in 
degrees of that clearness which determines 
their reference to their anti-type : some 
may be evident and palpable : some more 
obscure : others may be referrible in a ge- 
neral or leading sense, or under some par- 
ticular view ; but, if only that general (or 
that particular) view was originally de- 
signed, it is not for us to particularize 
every division, every ramification, seen 
under every aspect, and tinged with every 
hue which the multiplying glass of a fertile 
imagination may offer to our inspection, or 
may induce us to admire. 

Types should be referred from a less to 
a greater, as from the death of a beast to 
the death of a man ; from a lower to a 
higher, as from earth to heaven ; from time 
present to futurity, as from this world to the 
eternal state ; from lesser degrees of perfec- 
tion to more absolute, as from man to God. 
If the sacrifice of a lamb availed to restore 
peace, and to conciliate favour, the sacri- 
fice of a Man in whom dwelt all the fulness 
of the Godhead, must be infinitely more 
available to mediate reconciliation : if par- 
don and exemption from punishment in this 
world be desirable, justification and deliver- 
ance from eternal misery is infinitely more 
desirable : if the tender feelings of a father 
in this unequal state, and amidst all the 
imperfections of the social principles be 
energetic, what must be the paternal affec- 
tions of the great Father of all, the Father 
of our spirits ! Whatever is divine is infi- 
nite, whatever is infinite eludes our com- 
prehension, and mocks our panting toil, 
however urged by the most vehement imagi- 
nation ; under this reflection, types may be 
useful by offering a similitude adapted to 
our powers ; but when that which is perfect 
is come, that which is imperfect, and partial, 
that which is feeble and unsatisfactory, shall 
be done away. Supplement. Addenda to Cal- 
metfs Dictionary of the Holy Bible. 

TYRE, iiy, rvpoQ, signifies a rock. Tyre 
or Tyrus, was a famous city of Phenicia. 
Its Hebrew name is -fiy, Tsor, or "i¥, Zor, 
which signifies a rock. The city of Tyre 
was allotted to the tribe of Asher (Josh. 
xix. 29.) with the other maritime cities of 
the same coast ; but it does not appear that 
the Asherites ever drove out the Canaanites. 
Isaiah (xxiii. 12.) calls Tyre the daughter of 
Sidon, that is, a colony from it. Homer 
never speaks of Tyre, but only of Sidon. 
Josephus says, that Tyre was built not above 
two hundred and forty years before the 
temple of Solomon ; which would be in the 
1023 



year of the world 2700, two hundred years 
after Joshua. Herodotus says, that it was 
affirmed by the priests of Tyre, that the 
temple of Hercules, in this city, was built at 
the same time as the city itself, which was 
2300 years before the time of his writing, in 
the year of the world 3596. By this ac- 
count Tyre must have been built 656 years 
before the deluge ; which by no means can 
be admitted. But it may be queried, whe- 
ther in the passage of Herodotus, we should 
not read 1300 years. Dr. Hales thinks it 
probable, that the numeral letter denoting a 
thousand, has been dropped from the text of 
Josepbus ; and this being restored, would 
give the date of the foundation of Tyre, 
2267 years before Christ ; which he inclines 
to consider as correct. 

Tyre was twofold, Insular and Continental. 
Insular Tyre was certainly the most ancient ; 
for this it was which was noticed by Joshua : 
the continental city, however, as being more 
commodiously situated, first grew into con- 
sideration, and assumed the name of Palae- 
tyrus, or Old Tyre* Want of sufficient 
attention to this distinction has embarrassed 
both the Tyrian Chronology and Geography. 
Insular Tyre was confined to a small rocky 
island, eight hundred paces long, and four 
hundred broad, and could never exceed two 
miles in circumference. But Tyre, on the 
opposite coast, about half a mile from the 
sea, was a city of vast extent, since many 
centuries after its demolition by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the scattered ruins measured nine- 
teen miles round, as we learn from Pliny 
and Strabo. Of these, the most curious and 
surprising are, the cisterns of Roselayne, 
designed to supply the city with water ; of 
which there are three still entire ; about one 
or two furlongs from the sea, so well de- 
scribed by Maundrell, for their curious con- 
struction and solid masonry. ' The fountains 
of these waters,' says he, after the descrip- 
tion, * are as unknown as the contriver of 
them. According to common tradition, 
they are filled from a subterraneous river, 
which king Solomon discovered by his great 
sagacity ; and that he caused these cisterns 
to be made as part of his recompence to 
king Hiram, for the materials furnished by 
that prince towards building the temple at 
Jerusalem. It is certain, however, from 
their rising so high above the level of the 
ground, that they must be brought from 
some part of the mountains, which are 
about a league distant; and it is as certain 
that the work was well done at first, seeing 
it performs its office so well, at so great a 
distance of time ; the Turks having broken 
an outlet on the west side of tin- cistern, 
through which there issues a stream like a 
brook, driving four corn mills between it 
and the sea.' From these cisterns was an 
aqueduct, which led to the city, supported 
by arches, about six yards from the ground, 
running in a northerly direction about an 



TYR 



TYR 



hour, when it turns to the west at a small 
mount, where anciently stood a fort, but 
now a mosque, which seems to ascertain the 
site of the old city; and thence proceeds 
over the isthmus that connects insular Tyre 
with the main, built by Alexander, when he 
besieged and took it. 

Old Tyre withstood the mighty Assyrian 
power, having been besieged in vain, by 
Shalmaneser, for five years; although he 
cut off" their supplies of water from the cis- 
terns ; which they remedied, by digging 
wells within the city. It afterwards held 
out thirteen years against Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, and was at length taken ; 
but not until the Tyrians had removed their 
effects to the insular town, and left nothing 
but the bare walls to the victor, which he 
demolished. What completed the destruc- 
tion of the city was, that Alexander after- 
wards made use of these materials to build a 
prodigious causeway, or isthmus, above half 
a mile long, to the insular city, which re- 
vived, as the phoenix, from the ashes of the 
old, and grew to great power and opulence 
as a maritime state, and which he stormed 
after a most obstinate siege of five months. 
Pococke observes, that ' there are no signs 
of the ancient city ; and as it is a sandy 
shore, the face of every thing is altered, and 
the great aqueduct is in many parts almost 
buried in the sand.' Thus has been fulfilled 
the prophecy of Ezekiel : ' Thou shalt be 
built no more : though thou be sought for, 
yet shalt thou never be found again,' 
(xxvi. 21.) 

The fate of Insular Tyre has been no less 
remarkable. When Alexander stormed the 
city, he set fire to it. This circumstance 
was foretold; ' Tyre did build herself a 
stronghold, and heaped up silver as the 
dust, and fine gold as the mire of the streets. 
Behold the Lord will cast her out, and he 
will smite her power in the sea, and she 
shall be devoured with fire.' (Zech. ix. 3, 4.) 
After this terrible calamity, Tyre again re- 
trieved her losses. Only eighteen years 
after, she had recovered such a share of her 
ancient commerce and opulence, as enabled 
her to stand a siege of fourteen months 
against Antigonus, before he could reduce 
the city. After this, Tyre fell alternately 
under the dominion of the kings of Syria 
and Egypt, and then of the Romans, until 
it was taken by the Saracens, about A.D. 
639, retaken by the Crusaders, A.D. 1124; 
and at length sacked and rased by the Ma- 
melukes of Egypt, with Sidon, and other 
strong towns, that they might no longer 
harbour the Christians, A.D. 1289. 

Maundrell, the most intelligent of modern 
travellers, who visited the Holy Land A.D. 
1697, describes it thus : ' This city, standing 
in the sea upon a peninsula, promises at a 
distance something very magnificent; but 
when you come to it, you find no similitude 
1024 



of that glory for which it was so renowned 
in ancient times, and which the prophet 
Ezekiel describes (chap, xxvi.xxvii. xxviii.). 
On the north side, it has an old Turkish 
ungarrisoned castle ; besides which you see 
nothing here but a mere Babel of broken 
walls, pillars, vaults, &c. ; there being not 
so much as one entire house left ! Its pre- 
sent inhabitants are only a few poor wretches 
harbouring themselves in the vaults, and sub- 
sisting chiefly by fishing : who seem to be 
preserved in this place by Divine Providence 
as a visible argument how God has fulfilled 
his word concerning Tyre, namely, that it 
should be as the top of a rock ; a place for 
fishers to dry their nets upon.' (Ezek. xxvi. 
14.) 

Hesselquist, who saw it in A.D. 1751, ob- 
serves as follows : ' None of those cities 
which were formerly famous, are so totally 
ruined as Tyre (now called Zur), except 
Troy. Zur now scarcely can be called a 
miserable village, though it was formerly 
Tyre, the queen of the sea. Here are about 
ten inhabitants, Turks and Christians, who 
live by fishing.' 

The following, however, is Mr. Bucking- 
ham's description of Zur or Soor, the ancient 
Tyre, which he visited in the year 1816 : 
' On approaching the modern Soor, whether 
from the sea, from the hills, from the north, 
or from the south, its appearance has no- 
thing of magnificence. The island on which 
it stands is as low as the isthmus which con- 
nects it with the main land, and, like this, 
all its unoccupied parts present a sandy and 
barren soil. The monotony of its grey and 
flat-roofed buildings is relieved only by the 
minaret of one mosque, with two low domes 
near it, the ruins of an old Christian church, 
the square tower without the town to the 
southward or south-east of it, and a few 
date-trees scattered here and there among 
the houses. At the present time the town 
of Soor contains about eight hundred sub- 
stantial stone-built dwellings, mostly having 
courts, wells, and various conveniencies at- 
tached to them, besides other smaller habita- 
tions for the poor. There are within the 
walls one mosque, three Christian churches, 
a bath, and three bazaars. The inhabitants 
are, at the lowest computation, from five to 
eight thousand ; three-fourths of whom are 
Arab Catholics, and the remainder Arab 
Mahometans and Turks. In the fair season, 
that is, from April to October, the port is 
frequented by vessels from the Greek 
islands, the coasts of Asia Minor, and Egypt; 
and the trade is considerable in all the pro- 
ductions of those parts, as Soor is con- 
sidered one of the marts of supply from 
without for Damascus, for which its local 
situation is still, as formerly, extremely 
eligible.' — Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, 
vol. i. pp. 73 — 75 ; Hales 1 s New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. i. pp. 440 — 444. 



VIS 



UNI 



V, or U. 



VISTNOU, an idol, or false god, of the 
Indian Bramins. He is considered as the 
sovereign deity by the sect, thence called 
Vistnouvas ; whilst the Seyvias, another 
sect of Bramins, ascribe the sovereignty to 
Eswara. 

The Vistnouvas pretend that Vistnouhas 
assumed ten corporeal shapes. He appeared, 
first, like Matja, or a fish : for a devil having 
carried off the Vedam, or sacred book of the 
Bramin religion, threw himself into the sea 
with the booty ; when immediately Vistnou, 
changing himself into a fish, pursued and 
killed him ; by which means the Vedam was 
preserved. 

His second transformation was into Cour- 
ma, or a tortoise ; for the mountain Merouva 
being thrown into the sea, it was so prodi- 
giously heavy, that the world, unable to 
support the weight of it, was beginning to 
sink in the abyss ; when immediately Vist- 
nou, changing himself into a tortoise, took 
the world on his back, and kept it from 
sinking. 

3. He appeared like Warraha, or a hog. 
No reason is assigned for this metamorpho- 
sis. However, among his idols is generally 
found the head of a hog, to which the Bra- 
mins pay great honours. 

4. He took the shape of Narasimka, or 
half a man and half a lion. 

His 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th shapes 
were human ; in which he assumed the 
names of Vainana, Paresje-Rama, Dejer-rata- 
Rama, Kristna, and Bouddha. The Bramins 
tell many fabulous stories concerning his 
adventures in all these shapes. 

Lastly, he assumed the shape of Kel/ci, or 
a horse. 

This god, they pretend, is carried on the 
back of the bird Garrouda, in the same 
manner as the Jupiter of the Greeks and 
Romans was mounted upon an eagle. — 
Broughton's Dictionary of all Religious, vol. 
ii. pp. 495, 496. 

UNICORN. The unicorn is frequently 
mentioned in Scripture, and the Hebrew 
word OK") Rccm, which is translated uni- 
corn, has been understood of a variety of 
animals, as the rhinoceros, the urus, the 
deer, the roebuck, and the oryx. We know 
that there are several kinds of animals in 
Ethiopia and the Indies, which have a sin- 
gle horn, some upon the nose, others upon 
the forehead, and others upon the head. 
Dalechamp has observed as far as seven 
species of this sort. Chardin saw a rhino* 
1025 



ceros in Persia, which had a horn on his 
nose, nearly of the bigness and shape of a 
small sugar-loaf. The colour of this horn 
was a dark grey, as also the skin of the 
animal. The snout of the rhinoceros is 
round, turned downward. He has but four 
teeth, two above, and two below. His eyes 
are set very low, almost over against his 
lips. His tail is small, and made up of 
nine or ten joints. His whole hide, except 
his back and head, is covered with little 
knobs or protuberances. His feet are short 
and thick, having three toes, or stubbed 
hoofs before, and a callus behind. 

It appears that the double-horned rhino- 
ceros was known anciently in Rome, and if 
in Rome, why not in Egypt ? Since he is 
extant in Ethiopia ; and if in Egypt, why 
not to the writer of the Book of Job ? Since 
this is clearly the African species. It has 
been objected, that the rhinoceros stands 
connectedly distinguished from the beeve 
kind in Sacred Scripture. But he might 
even be reckoned by the Arabians, &c. in 
the days of Job, among the beeve kind, 
since Pausanias, who was many centuries 
later, calls him ' Ethiopian Bull,' or ' bull 
of Ethiopia,' as if he was known in Ethio- 
pia by the name of a bull: but this name 
would not alter his character, or his form ; 
the creature, though called a bull, and 
ranged among the beeve kind, might never- 
theless be the rhinoceros. Again, it is said 
that the rhinoceros does not push with his 
horns as the reem is said to do, but rips up 
boughs of trees, &c. into laths. In answer, 
it may be observed, that the Hebrew word 
negar, properly signifies to drive forward, 
to propel, and some have rendered it by to 
toss up, to elevate. As to the domestic la- 
bours, &c. mentioned by way of antiphrasis, 
as not to be entrusted to the reem, they suit 
the rhinoceros quite as well as the urus ; 
since the rhinoceros, when of full age, is 
perhaps as untameable and untractable as 
any creature living. In Bengal, Siam, and 
other southern parts of India, where the 
rhinoceros is perhaps still more common 
than in Ethiopia, and where the natives are 
accustomed to tame elephants, he is re- 
garded as an irreclaimable animal, of which 
no domestic use can be made. Mr. Bruce 
mentions the rhinoceros as found in Abys- 
sinia; and Dr. Sparrman mentions him in 
South Africa. We find him also in the 
East Indies. It appears that the north 
African species of folding-skin rhino,. 

:* u 



UNI 



UNI 



has usually a single horn, but that in this 
country some are found with two horns ; that 
the rhinoceros of Bencoolen (East India) 
has much less of those folding skins, but 
has two horns ; and that the South African 
rhinoceros has no folding skins, yet has two 
horns. Scripture Illustrated; Parkhurst's 
Hebrew and English Lexicon, p. 667- 

UNITARIANS. Names.— This sect re- 
ceived the name of Socinians, from Lselius, 
and Faustus Socinus, or Sozzini, uncle and 
nephew, of Sienna in Tuscany, who both 
taught the same doctrines ; but the latter 
who died in Poland in 1604, is generally 
considered its founder. The modern Soci- 
nians, however, being strenuous advocates 
for the Divine Unity, now generally claim 
the appellation of Unitarians, as more de- 
scriptive of their tenets than that of Soci- 
nians, since they do not acknowledge all 
the doctrines of Socinus. But though they 
claim this designation, it is not generally 
admitted by others, because they claim it 
as contrasted with that of Trinitarians. It 
may indeed distinguish them, except from 
Sabellians, and from Jews, Mahometans, 
and Deists, as allowing only One Person in 
the Divine Essence ; yet they can lay no 
particular claim to the term among Christ- 
ians, for it confounds them with Arians, and 
even Trinitarians, who are equally strenuous 
for the Divine Unity, and acknowledge, as 
well as they, ' that there is none other God 
but one.' As they are zealous advocates 
for the simple humanity of Christ, or main- 
tain that our Saviour is merely a Human 
Being, some of them have taken the name 
of Humanitarians ; and we are told that in 
Wales, &c. they are also known by the name 
of Priestleians, from Dr. Priestley, the mo- 
dern Coryphaeus of the sect. 

Rise, Progress, and History. — It is difficult 
to trace the origin of this denomination. 
Many are inclined to think that the doc- 
trines by which its members are chiefly dis- 
tinguished, were first maintained by Paul 
of Samosata, who was Bishop of Antioch 
about the middle of the third century, and 
by Artemon, his contemporary. They 
themselves lay claim to a very high anti- 
quity, and even venture to say, ' that there 
is no such thing as a Trinitarian Christian 
mentioned or supposed, in the New Testa- 
ment ; all there named being perfect Unita- 
rians, the blessed Jesus himself, his apos- 
tles, and all his followers.' Their sect may 
doubtless be traced to a very early period 
of the Reformation ; and we are told by 
Mosheim, that they have been thought to 
have originated among the Anabaptists; a 
name by which those in Poland, who after- 
wards received the title of Socinians, were 
for some time known. 

John Campanus, and Michael Servetus, a 

Spanish physician, whose unhappy fate is 

well known, who both flourished about the 

middle of the sixteenth century, were among 

1026 



the first of the Reformers that distinguished 
themselves as Anti-Trinitarians, and ac- 
cording to some, in behalf of those doc- 
trines which were afterwards embraced by 
L. and F. Socinus ; under whom, particu- 
larly the nephew, the jarring opinions of 
their predecessors began to assume the ap- 
pearance of a regular system. A society 
near Venice, to which Lselius belonged, 
whose members discussed many points of 
religion, and particularly those relating to 
the Trinity, with great freedom, being dis- 
covered, and its members dispersed, they 
sought a refuge in Switzerland, Germany, 
Moravia, and other countries ; while he es- 
caped into Poland in 1551, where he sowed 
the seeds of his doctrine, which grew apace, 
and produced a rich and abundant harvest. 
Such is the account of the origin of Soci- 
nianism, as generally given by the writers 
of this sect, who date it from the year 1546, 
and place it in Italy ; but Dr. Mosheim, 
who partly rejects it, remarks that the So- 
cinians first formed themselves into a dis- 
tinct congregation, or sect, in Poland, in 
1565, when, in consequence of some violent 
contest between them and the Lutherans, 
and Swiss Calvinists, with whom they had 
been principally connected, they were re- 
quired, by a resolution of the diet of Pe- 
trikow, to separate from those denomina- 
tions. 

The followers of Laelius became so nu- 
merous and powerful, that they soon as- 
sumed almost the consequence of an esta- 
blishment, under the protection of Jo. 
Sienienius, palatine of Podolia, who gave 
them a settlement in Racow, which he had 
just built in the district of Sendomir. In 
this station the Socinians enjoyed peace 
and prosperity, until towards the middle of 
the succeeding century, when (in 1638) 
owing to the imprudence of some of their 
students at Racow, in breaking a crucifix 
with stones, the terrible law was enacted 
by the senate of Poland, by which, to ap- 
pease the Roman Catholics, it was resolved, 
' that the academy of Racow should be de- 
molished, its professors banished with igno- 
miny, the printing-house of the Socinians 
destroyed, and their churches shut.' Yet 
these were but the beginning of evils to 
this society; a still more terrible catas- 
trophe awaited them ; for, by a public and 
solemn act of the diet, held at Warsaw, 
A.D. 1658, they were banished for ever from 
the territory of Poland, and capital punish- 
ment was denounced against all those who 
should either profess their opinions, or har- 
bour their persons. In 1661 this cruel act 
was renewed, and all the Socinians that yet 
remained in Poland, were barbarously driven 
out of that country, ' some with the loss of 
their goods, others with the loss of their 
lives, as neither sickness, nor any domestic 
consideration, could suspend the execution 
of that rigorous sentence.' 



UNI 



UNI 



From Poland their doctrines had made 
their way into Hungary ; and, about A.D. 
1563, into Transylvania, where they were 
embraced by Sigismund, the reigning 
prince, and by many of tbe nobility, chiefly 
by the address and industry of George 
Blandrata, the prince's physician; and 
though they afterwards met with opposition 
from the Batori, who were chosen dukes of 
that country, yet they had there acquired 
so deep a root, that they never could be 
entirely eradicated. Hence, some of those 
unhappy exiles from Poland sought for a 
refuge among their brethren in Transyl- 
vania, while a considerable part of them 
were dispersed through the provinces of 
Silesia, Brandenburg, and Prussia; and in 
all these provinces their posterity are to be 
found at this day. Others went in search 
of a convenient settlement for themselves 
and their brethren, into Holland, England, 
Holstein, and Denmark, but with little 
success. Several other attempts also were 
made in different countries, in favour of 
their peculiar doctrines ; but the success of 
those who engaged in them is said to have 
been still less considerable ; ' nor could any 
of the European nations,' says Dr. Mo- 
sheim, ' be persuaded to grant a public set- 
tlement to a sect whose members denied 
the divinity of Christ.' 

Socinians were scarcely heard of in 
England till the time of Charles the First, 
when the famous John Biddle, who erected 
an independent congregation in London, 
adopted, and openly avowed, their tenets, 
for which he suffered various persecutions, 
and at last died in prison in 1662. The 
same tenets were soon afterwards embraced 
by several others, particularly among the 
dissenters ; but their abettors, in England, 
never made any figure as a community till 
towards the end of the last century, when 
they began to increase, and to acquire some 
distinction, from the writings and influence 
of Dr. Priestley and his associates. " I have, 
indeed, no hesitation in stating it as my 
firm conviction,' says Mr. Belsham, ' that, 
in consequence of his (Dr. Priestley's) per- 
sonal exertions, and his admirable writings, 
in connexion, with those of his able and 
learned associate in the same cause, the 
venerable Theophilus Lindsey, whom I am 
proud to call my revered friend, the number 
of converts to a pure and rational Christ- 
ianity have been multiplied a hundred fold, 
and are daily increasing among all ranks of 
society.' Dr. Priestley having met with 
much opposition, and perhaps with some ill 
treatment, in England, retired to America 
in 1794, where, in consequence of his exer- 
tions, in conjunction with those of his 
fellow labourer, Mr. William Christie, and 
others, some Unitarian congregations have 
been formed. But however much he may 
have been respected by many individuals in 
that country, it docs not appear that he met 
1027 



with much success in his favourite object, 
the propagation of Unitarianism, or that his 
friends have much cause to boast of their 
triumphs in that quarter. 

Distinguishing Doctrines. — The prede- 
cessors of the modern Unitarians generally 
believed in a Trinity of some kind or other; 
and the extreme of heresy among them 
seems to have been Arianism, till about 
the year 1586, before which time the de- 
nomination of Socinianism was unknown : 
but after they became a distinct sect, it soon 
appeared that they had totally divested 
Jesus Christ of his divinity, and wholly for- 
saken the Arian doctrine. They also denied 
the plenary inspiration of the sacred writers, 
and insinuated that mistakes had crept into 
their writings ; and, having proceeded thus 
far, they endeavoured to strip revealed 
religion of every circumstance not clearly 
intelligible by human reason ; and hence 
some of their successors now call themselves 
Rational Christians, and, in this country, 
Rational Dissenters. With regard to the 
grand point on which the more ancient 
Socinians differed from other Christians, 
they maintained that the Father, and he 
only, is truly and properly God; that Jesus 
Christ had no existence whatever, before he 
was conceived by the Virgin Mary ; and, 
that the Holy Ghost is no distinct person, 
but that the phrase is merely a figurative 
mode of expression, to denote the power or 
energy of God. They owned that the name 
of God is given in the Holy Scriptures to 
Jesus Christ ; but contended that it is only 
a deputed title, which, however, invests 
him with a great authority over all created 
beings ; they owned him to have been an 
extraordinary person, miraculously pro- 
duced, and commissioned as a divine 
teacher, in whom the prophecies relating to 
the Messiah were completely, though not 
literally, fulfilled. They admitted also the 
whole history of his ascension and glorifica- 
tion in its literal acceptation ; but, believing 
him to be a mere man like ourselves, though 
endowed with a large portion of the divine 
wisdom, they asserted that the only objects 
of his mission were, — to teach the efficacy 
of repentance, without any atonement or 
satisfaction, as a means of recovering the 
Divine favour ; to exhibit, in his life and 
conduct, an example for our imitation ; to 
seal his doctrine with his blood ; and, in 
his resurrection from the dead, to indicate 
the certainty of our resurrection at the last 
day. They affirmed that nothing is re- 
quisite to make men objects of the Divine 
favour, but such moral conduct as he has 
made them capable of. Their doctrine re- 
specting the atonement is, ' that God re- 
quires no consideration or condition of 
pardon, but the repentance of the offender ; 
and that, consequently, the death of Christ 
was no real sacrifice for sin, but is called so 
in Scripture, merely in a figurative sense, 
3 1 2 



UNI 



UNI 



by way of allusion to the Jewish sin -offer- 
ings ; as our praises, and other good works, 
are called sacrifices, because they are some- 
thing offered up to God.' With the Pela- 
gians of old, they denied the necessity of 
divine grace ; they also exploded the doc- 
trines of original sin, predestination, and 
our Saviour's mediation, and reckoned the 
sacraments nothing more than simple cere- 
monies, unaccompanied by any inward oper- 
ations. We are told by Vossius, that F. 
Socinus wrote a treatise on baptism, which 
he considers as a visible ceremony, admit- 
ting men into Christianity when they have 
been Jews or Pagans, ' but not to be used 
in a family already Christian.' Some of 
them likewise maintained the sleep of the 
soul, which, they say, * becomes insen- 
sible at death, and is raised again with the 
body at the resurrection, when the good 
shall be established in the possession of 
eternal felicity, while the wicked shall be 
consigned to a fire that will not torment 
them eternally, but for a certain duration, 
proportioned to their demerits.' 

Such were the principles of the more 
ancient Socinians. There is, however, a 
considerable difference of opinion between 
them and the modern Unitarians; for, 
while the latter hold all these articles, or 
the substance of them, one or two excepted, 
they have adopted several alterations in 
regard to some of them, and have also made 
considerable additions to their creed. Thus 
they believe the Scriptures to be faithful 
records of past transactions, but deny that 
their authors were divinely inspired as 
writers ; and they reject the miraculous 
conception, and the worship of Christ, both 
of Which were held by Socinus. The Socin- 
ians also believed, that though Jesus had no 
existence before his birth, yet that since his 
resurrection he has been advanced to the 
government of the universe, ' a notion un- 
scriptural, and most incredible,' in Mr. 
Belsham's opinion, who adds, that ' a con- 
sistent Unitarian, acknowledging Jesus as a 
man in all respects like to his brethren, re- 
gards his kingdom as entirely of a spiritual 
nature, and as consisting in the empire of 
his Gospel over the hearts and lives of its 
professors.' Modern Unitarians ' allow the 
inspiration of the writers of the New Testa- 
ment in no cases where they do not them- 
selves expressly claim it ; and are not spar- 
ing of the labour necessary to distinguish, 
even in the canonical books, what is of 
divine authority, from that which is of 
human origin.' Hence they do not believe 
in our Lord's miraculous conception, but 
are of opinion, that he was the legitimate 
son of Joseph and Mary ; and Dr. Priestley 
has taken the liberty of wholly rejecting the 
first two chapters of St. Matthew's Gospel, 
in which that doctrine is taught ; and also, 
of maintaining the consequence of this 
opinion, namely, that what was born of 
1028 



Mary was not an ' holy thing,' but was 
' naturally as fallible and peccable as 
Moses, or any other prophet.' 

Their hypothesis of the partial inspira- 
tion of the writers of the New Testament, 
he extends not only to Moses, but even to 
our blessed Lord himself; for he saw no 
reason, we are told, 'for believing that 
either Moses, or Jesus Christ, were inspired 
with supernatural knowledge, or endued 
with supernatural power, beyond the imme- 
diate objects of their missions. When the 
reason and the occasion ceased, the super- 
natural gifts would cease too. They were 
given for a certain purpose ; we are not 
warranted, therefore, in extending them 
beyond the occasion that called them forth.' 
But does not this imply, that God gave the 
Spirit by measure unto him 1 and if so, how 
does it accord with St. John, (iii. 34.) to say 
nothing of some other texts ? 

In withholding worship from Christ, the 
Unitarians doubtless act more consistently 
with their principles, and in a more rational 
manner, than their predecessors, who wor- 
shipped a person whom they conceived to be 
a mere man like themselves. Mr. Lindsey 
tells us, that he thereby means no ' want of 
respect to that kind Saviour of men,' 
whom he trusts he ' is disposed to love 
and honour, now and for ever, with the 
affection and reverence so justly due to 
him, for his perfect virtue and benevolence. 
But,' adds he, ' I cannot make him the 
Supreme God, or invoke, or pray to him, 
as such ; because I am persuaded that if he 
could hear, and make himself known to me, 
he would call out from heaven, as he did 
formerly to Paul, — " I am Jesus of Naza- 
reth ;" one who was once a mortal man like 
thyself: worship God.' 

'The Unitarians believe, upon grounds 
common to all Christians, that Jesus of 
Nazareth was a divinely commissioned 
teacher of truth and righteousness ; and 
that, having been publicly crucified by his 
enemies, he was raised from the dead on 
the third day. They regard it as an in- 
dispensable duty to believe whatever he 
was commissioned to teach. And particu- 
larly upon the evidence of his doctrine and 
resurrection, they expect a general resur- 
rection of the dead, ' both of the just and of 
the unjust ;' and a subsequent state of 
retribution, in which all shall be treated 
in exact correspondence with their moral 
characters. The Unitarians believe Jesus 
to have been a man, for the same reasons 
for which they believe the proper humanity 
of Peter and Paul, of Moses and Abraham. 
He appeared as a man, he called himself a 
man, he was believed by all his companions 
and contemporaries to be a man ; he had 
all the accidents of a man ; he was born, he 
lived, he ate and drank, he slept; he con- 
versed, he rejoiced, he wept, he suffered, 
and he died, as other men. That he was 



UNI 



UNI 



nothing more than a man, possessed of 
extraordinary powers, and invested with an 
extraordinary divine commission, and that 
he had no existence previous to his birth, 
they believe, simply upon this ground, that 
there is no evidence to prove the contrary. 
It is not incumbent upon them, nor do 
they pretend, to produce proof, that a per- 
son who appeared as a man was really such. 
If any maintains that Jesus of Nazareth 
was something more than a human being, 
whether an angelic, super-angelic, or divine 
person, it is their business to prove their 
assertion.' In this scheme of theology, 
along with our Lord's divinity, and the 
distinct personal existence of the Holy 
Ghost, the doctrines of original sin, and 
the atonement, also fall to the ground. 
According to Dr. Priestley, the pardon of 
sin is represented in Scripture ' as dispensed 
solely on account of men's personal virtue, 
a penitent upright heart, and a reformed 
exemplary life, without the least regard to 
the sufferings or merit of any being what- 
ever.' Having rejected the personal exist- 
ence of the Holy Spirit, whose office it is 
to sanctify the heart, it is natural to sup- 
pose, that the Unitarians would also reject 
the doctrine of a Divine influence upon the 
mind for moral and religious purposes. Ac- 
cordingly Dr. Priestley tells us that, at an 
early period of his theological career, and 
while he was yet an Arian, he became ' per- 
suaded of the falsity of the doctrine of 
atonement, of the inspiration of the authors 
of the books of Scripture as writers, and of 
all idea of supernatural influence, except 
for the purpose of miracles.' Mr. Belsham 
even ventures to say, ' it has never yet been 
proved, that any supernatural influence 
upon the mind is necessary under the 
Divine government, or that it has ever 
existed, except in a few very extraordinary 
cases.' 

Such are the grand and leading doctrines 
of the Unitarian system. Several other 
dogmas are maintained by most Unitarians, 
as the rejection of the existence and agency of 
the devil ; — of the spirituality and separate 
existence of the soul ; — of an intermediate 
state between death and the general resur- 
rection ; — and of the eternity of future pun- 
ishment: but these, not being essentially 
connected with their system, and being held 
by them in common with some others, ought 
not to be viewed, exclusively, as Unitarian 
doctrines. The same remark should also 
extend to the doctrines of Necessity and 
Materialism ; for though both of these, par- 
ticularly the former, are held by the most 
distinguished Unitarians of the present day, 
Mr. Belsham insists that they have no more 
connexion with their peculiar Creed, ' than 
they have with the mountains in the moon.' 
Dr. Priestley, however, seems to have held 
a different opinion. See Materialists 
and Necessitarians. 
1029 



Mr. Belsham tells us, that 'the existence 
of an evil spirit is no where expressly 
taught as a doctrine of Revelation ;' and, 
with that openness and candour which 
seem to be natural to him, he also says, 
that he, for one, is not ashamed to avow, 
that he regards the notion of a devil, and 
his agency, ' as an evanescent prejudice, 
which it is now a discredit to a man of un- 
derstanding to believe.' Dr. Priestley's opi- 
nions respecting the soul, of course, led him 
to disbelieve the doctrine of an intermediate 
state. Believing that as the whole man 
died, so the whole man would be called 
again to life at the appointed period of the 
resurrection of all men, he regarded the 
intermediate portion of time as a state of 
utter insensibility; as a deep sleep, from 
which the man would awaken, when called 
on by the Almighty, with the same associa- 
ations as he had when alive, without being 
sensible of the portion of time elapsed. With 
regard to the doctrine and the duration of 
future punishments, Dr. Priestley, we are 
told, ' had no notion of punishment, as such, 
in the common acceptation of the term. The 
design of the Creator, in his opinion, was 
the ultimate happiness of all his creatures, 
by the means best fitted to produce it.' Pun- 
ishment he considered to be merely 'the 
medkina mentis, exhibited for our good by 
the Physician of souls, nor have we any 
reason to believe that it is greater in de- 
gree, or longer in duration, than is neces- 
sary to produce the beneficial effect for 
which it is inflicted. It is the sort of pun- 
ishment which a kind but wise parent in- 
flicts on a beloved child.' 

With regard to their moral code, the 
principles of the Unitarians do not seem to 
admit their loosening, in the least, the bonds 
of duty. On the contrary, they appear to 
be actuated by an earnest desire to promote 
practical religion. The practice of virtue 
is represented by them as the only means of 
attaining happiness both here and hereafter ; 
and they teach, that the Christian religion 
' requires the absolute renunciation of every 
vice, and the practice of every virtue.' 
Love is with them the fulfilling of the law, 
and the habitual practice of virtue, from a 
principle of love to God, and benevolence 
to man, is, in their judgment, ' the sum and 
substance of Christianity.' 

Yet the Unitarians hold so few opinions 
which are peculiarly Christian, that many 
will not allow them to be reckoned among 
Christian sects, but would class them with 
Jews, Mahometans, and Deists, with whom 
they hold common principles. But should 
they not have forfeited all right to be ranked 
among Christians, if their religion be not 
what Bishop Warburton regarded it, ' a 
sort of infidelity in disguise ;' nor altogether 
what Mr. Wilberforce represents it, as a 
1 sort of half-way house from nominal ortho- 
doxy to absolute infidelity;' it is, at least, 



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in the opinion of most Christians, what Mrs. 
Barhauld is said to have called it, ' Christ- 
ianity in the Frigid Zone.' Nor do their 
doctrines seem to be tenable on the ground 
of their moral tendency, when compared 
with those of a more orthodox description. 
Morality, however excellent as a rule of 
life, will not become a living principle in 
the heart of man, if it be not mixed with 
faith, in those who are instructed in it ; and, 
notwithstanding Mr. G. Blunt may have 
overlooked the passage, it is expressly de- 
dared in the Bible, that ' without faith it is 
impossible to please God.' 

Worship, Rites, and Ceremonies. — It has 
been already observed, that the modern 
Unitarians, with perhaps more consistency 
than their predecessors, reject the worship 
of Christ ; and, as they deny the personality 
of the Holy Ghost, and call him merely a 
property or virtue, the only object of their 
religious worship is God the Father. They 
reject every thing in Christianity that has 
but the appearance of mystery, or that sur- 
passes the limits of human comprehension ; 
and neither seeing nor feeling any need of 
Divine grace to enable them to will and to 
do what is necessary, on their part, towards 
their salvation, they, of course, do not seek 
for it in the appointed means. 

1 Bound on a voyage of awful length, 
And dangers little known, 
A stranger to superior strength, 

Man vainly trusts his own. 
But oars alone can ne'er prevail, 

To reach the distant coast ; 
The breath of heaven must swell the sail, 
Or all the toil is lost.' Cowper. 

Mosheim remarks, in his account of the 
last century, that ' the Socinians, who were 
dispersed through the different countries of 
Europe, have never hitherto been able to 
form a separate congregation, or to cele- 
brate publicly divine worship, in a manner 
conformable to the institutions of their sect: 
though it is well known, that, in several 
places, they hold clandestine meetings of a 
religious kind.' He should doubtless have 
excepted those in Transylvania, who have 
long had separate congregations, and have 
upwards of 160 at this day. 

The worship of the Unitarians in England 
and America is, in general, liturgical, or 
conducted by forms. 

The form prepared by Mr. Lindsay in 
1774, for the use of his congregation in the 
Unitarian Chapel, Essex Street, Strand, is 
i The Book of Common Prayer, reformed 
according to the plan of the late Dr. Samuel 
Clarke ;' or, as it is expressed in the adver- 
tisement prefixed to it, the ' Liturgy of the 
Church of England, with the amendments 
of Dr. Clarke, and such further alterations 
as were judged necessary to render it unex- 
ceptionable with respect to the object of 
religious worship.' This form, which has 
already gone through five or six editions, 
1030 



contains almost all the offices in the Book 
of Common Prayer, except Commination ; 
and in some of them, as the Thanksgiving of 
Women after Child-birth, and the Burial of 
the Dead, but few alterations are made : the 
grand object in the publication of it being 
plainly to address the whole worship to God 
the Father, and thereby to avoid that idola- 
try which the Unitarians conceive has long 
corrupted almost the whole mass of Christ- 
ianity, and particularly the Church of Eng- 
land ; and which mars all the odour of the 
incense of her devotions. In the begin- 
ning of the Litany, which seems to be here 
used only ' on such days as the Lord's Sup- 
per is administered,' the Deity is, indeed, 
three times invoked ; but the joint invoca- 
tion of the three persons of the Trinity is 
left out, and the second and third invocations, 
or addresses to the Father, are expressed 
in these words : — ' O God ! who, by the pre- 
cious blood of thy only begotten Son, hast 
purchased to thyself an holy church, and 
placed it under thy continual protection, 
have mercy upon us miserable sinners.' — f O 
God, who, by thy holy Spirit, dost govern, 
direct, and sanctify the hearts of all thy 
faithful servants, have mercy,' &c. In 
the room of the doxologies proposed by Dr. 
Clarke, the following is introduced : — ' Now 
unto the King, eternal, immortal, invisible, 
the only wise God, be honour and glory, 
through Jesus Christ, for ever and ever. 
Amen.' Children are baptized, as by Mr. 
Carpenter, into the name of the Father, and 
of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit; and in 
the form of administration of the Lord's 
Supper, the elements are delivered with 
these words — ' Take and eat this in remem- 
brance of Christ ;' — ' Take and drink this in 
remembrance of Christ' 

It may be further remarked, in regard 
to this Book of Common Prayer Reformed, 
that the words ' For his sake,' towards the 
end of the General Confession, are left out ; 
that the Absolution, the Te Deum, the Ni- 
cene and Athanasian Creeds, together with 
the Apostles' Creed ; the Epistles and Gos- 
pels, the Catechism, &c. &c, are also left 
out : that the phrase, ' all the ministers of 
the Gospel,' is adopted instead of ' all 
bishops, priests, and deacons,' in the sup- 
plication for the clergy in the Litany; and 
that the Litany itself is made to conclude 
with the petition that it would please God 
'to give us true repentance,' &c, here 
changed into — that it may please him ' to 
accept our sincere repentance,' an amend- 
ment, which all sincere penitents, who have 
no occasion to petition God to give them 
true repentance, will, no doubt, approve 
and adopt. 

Dr. Priestley drew up a set of forms for all the 
parts of public worship, and also for all other 
occasions of a Christian society, such as are 
commonly used by dissenters in England. 
In this work, intituled Forms of Prayer, and 



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other offices, for the use of Unitarian Christians, 
Birmingham, 1783, besides forms for the 
morning and evening service of the Lord's 
day, the Doctor has given offices for infant 
and adult baptism, — a form for the cele- 
bration of the Lord's Supper, — addresses to 
the communicants for a second and third 
service, — a funeral service, — prayers for a 
fast day, — a prayer respecting the present 
state of Christians, to be used on the morn- 
ing of Easter Sunday, &c. To these is 
prefixed an introduction, in which he 
warmly recommends the formation of Uni- 
tarian societies, in which all the parts of 
public worship are to be conducted by mere 
laymen, without the assistance of ministers 
of any description. The doctor conceived 
that ministers regularly ordained, are by no 
means indispensably necessary to the con- 
stitution of a religious society, or the right 
administration of the Christian ordinances 
of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, ' in 
which there is nothing peculiarly sacred.' 
'Our Saviour,' says he, 'gives no hint of 
any difference between clergy ard laity 
among his disciples.' ' Every man who 
understands the Christian religion, I con- 
sider as having the same commission to 
teach it, that I myself have ; and I think 
my own commission as good as that of any 
bishop in England, or in Rome.' The 
Doctor seems to view it as a matter of 
little consequence, not only whether the rite 
of baptism be considered as obligatory on 
the descendants of professing Christians, 
or not ; but also whether both Baptism and 
the Lord's Supper were to be discontinued 
after the apostolic age, or meant to be stand- 
ing ordinances in the church. ' Yet,' says 
he, ' I much approve of both of those ordi- 
nances, and think them very valuable, for the 
reasons which may be found in my History 
of the Corruptions of Christianity, and I 
have accordingly drawn up forms for the 
administration of them.' 

Church Government and Discipline. — Dr. 
Mosheim observes, ' that the most eminent 
writers and patrons of the Socinians give 
no clear or consistent account of the senti- 
ments of that sect in relation to ecclesias- 
tical discipline and government, and the 
form of public worship.' ' All that we know 
is,' adds he, ' that they follow in these mat- 
ters, generally speaking, the customs re- 
ceived in the Protestant churches.' Tran- 
sylvania is the only country in which they 
are not only tolerated, but have their rights 
and privileges secured by express laws, and 
possess a sort of establishment. Their 
church government, in that country, con- 
sists of one superintendent and two consistories. 
The higher consistory is composed partly of 
laymen, partly of the inspectors or superin- 
tendents special of the eight dioceses into 
which the 1G4 Unitarian churches in that 
country are divided. It appoints persons 
for all the livings, and receives reports from 
1031 



the inferior consistory, to which the church 
discipline is entrusted. The superintendent 
general presides in the inferior consistory, 
but occupies only the second place in the 
higher. Matrimonial affairs, &c. are under 
the jurisdiction of these courts. It appears 
very likely that the Unitarians, both in 
England and America, are, in general, In- 
dependents. 

With regard to religious establishments, 
it seems to be a common principle of the 
Unitarian system, but by no means univer- 
sal, that they are in every form, and under 
every modification, unjust and unscriptural : 
— that the civil magistrate assumes an au- 
thority quite foreign to his character and 
office, when he interposes in any manner, 
or under any pretext, in matters purely reli- 
gious ; and that it is his incumbent duty to 
protect, without distinction or partiality, all 
classes and descriptions of men in the enjoy- 
ment of their religious, as well as civil 
rights and privileges. 

Countries where found, and Seminaries. — 
According to Unitarians themselves, their 
number was never so great as it is at this 
day, and their cause is still progressive. 
They are said to be numerous in Germany ; 
but it is not certainly known whether they 
have yet formed a distinct society in that 
country. In Transylvania they were, at 
one time, the most numerous party of Chris- 
tians, but their number there has decreased 
of late years, and does not now exceed 
32,000. They are principally Hungarians, 
and live divided in 194 places or villages, 
and have about 164 houses of public wor- 
ship. In Clausenburg, perhaps the same as 
Coloswar, they have a new, large, and hand- 
some church, built in 1790, with a steeple 
and bells. They have, also, at the same 
place, a printing-office, and a college, which 
is among the most respectable institutions 
of Transylvania, and consists of about 300 
scholars, who usually remove from this Uni- 
tarian college, to the University of Clausen- 
burg, to finish their studies. They have 
likewise a small college at Thorda, and a 
considerable number of inferior schools in 
the different villages which they inhabit. 

The Unitarians also occupy the village 
of Andreaswalde in Prussia, where they 
have free exercise of religion, and a proper 
house of public worship, but arc obliged to 
pay all the parochial fees to a neighbour- 
ing Lutheran parish. 

They may be found in most other parts 
of Europe, but, perhaps, no where in greater 
numbers than in England. Their body has 
become large by the numbers that have 
joined their ranks, both from the Church 
and Protestant Dissenters, particularly the 
Presbyterians ; and no small accession has 
been made to its respectability, erudition, 
anil virtue, by several clergymen o\' the 
Establishment, who, having embraced the 
Unitarian doctrine, have either, from a prin- 



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ciple of honour and conscience, voluntarily 
resigned, or else been forced to quit, their 
situations in the church. And yet say 
they, ' besides those thousands who are not 
ashamed to avow the Unitarian doctrine, 
there is reason to believe that there are 
thousands more, both in the church and out 
of it, who think with us, but who are de- 
terred by secular considerations, and the 
harsh spirit of the times, from avowing their 
real principles : ' Loving the praise of men 
more than the praise of God.' " Besides 
their college at Hackney, in which their 
youth are trained up in the Unitarian doc- 
trine, and fitted for future service in a 
world still lying in wickedness and idolatry, 
the Unitarians have a society in London 
for the distribution of books and tracts, 
entitled, ' The Unitarian Society of Great 
Britain, for promoting Christian Knowledge, 
and the Practice of Virtue.' 

Miscellaneous Remarks. — Whatever opi- 
nion should be formed of Unitarian princi- 
ples, and by whatever name their professors 
should be called, I can see no good reason 
for calling their sincerity in question ; nor 
can I doubt that they firmly believe theirs 
to be the cause of God and of true religion. 
Some of them have doubtless given strong 
proofs of their sincerity, and others assure 
us, that they will not be backward to ex- 
hibit equal proofs of it, were it to be put to 
the test. That it has not been more se- 
verely tried, may be ascribed to the mildness 
of the government under which they live ; 
and it might be well that their sense of the 
privileges which they even now enjoy, were 
to become more apparent, by their refrain- 
ing from all appearance of disrespect to- 
wards the religion of their country, by their 
not holding up its doctrines to public odium, 
as unscriptural, idolatrous, palpably absurd, 
and the like ; and, by their no longer telling 
the world, that 'Christianity, in this country, 
is not only not established, but not tolerated 
by legal authority.' 

\ I believe in God, and Mahomet his pro- 
phet,' says the disciple of the celebrated 
oriental impostor. \ I believe in God, and 
Jesus Christ, a prophet and teacher,' is the 
creed of the Unitarian. But the member 
of the Established Church will not reduce 
his faith to a level with that of Mahomet ; 
nor will he look for salvation in the Manual 
of Epictetus, or in any Offices of Cicero. 
No, he \ finds a fuller faith in Scripture, 
which is the anchor of his soul, both sure and 
certain ; a faith, which has God for its ob- 
ject, in the most perfect state of unity, but 
in whose essence are Jesus Christ, the Son 
of his love, without whose meritorious death 
and sufferings, sinners never could have 
been reconciled to the Almighty, and All- 
just ; and the Holy Spirit, without whose 
inspiration the best of men could neither 
think a good thought, nor perform a good 
action. The language of Scripture is ren- 
1032 



dered consistent by thus considering the 
great object of religious adoration. The 
true state of man's condition is laid open, 
his utter incapability of redeeming himself 
from the penalty of sin is rendered clear 
and perspicuous, his sole dependence on a 
Saviour is manifest, in whose person are 
united both the human and divine natures, 
that he might at once, though sinless him- 
self, represent that nature which had sinned, 
and at the same time afford an adequate 
propitiatory sacrifice ; and his gratitude is 
inflamed by a revelation of that holy divine 
Comforter, who descends into his heart with 
gifts and graces, the precious fruits of faith, 
and the blessed assurance of immortal hap- 
piness. ' What have heathen morals, what 
have the corrupted doctrines of Christianity 
to offer equal to these great invaluable 
blessings ? Man, who knows his own weak- 
ness, relies not on his own merits, but on 
the merits of his Saviour ; man, whose car- 
nal heart sinks under worldly oppressions, 
and worldly temptations, rises superior to 
them all, in the confidence of spiritual as- 
sistance. " If ye live after the flesh, ye shall 
die ; but if ye, through the Spirit, do mor- 
tify the deeds of the body, ye shall live. 
For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, 
they are the sons of God. For ye have not 
received the spirit of bondage again to fear; 
but ye have received the Spirit of adoption, 
whereby we cry, Abba, Father." ' (Rom. 
viii. 13, 14, 15.) Adam's Religious World 
Displayed, vol. ii. pp. 146—206 ; Brewster's 
Secular Essay, p. 267, 4" c * 

UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe 
that, as Christ died for all, so, before he 
shall have delivered up his mediatorial king- 
dom to the Father, all shall he brought to 
a participation of the benefits of his death, 
in their restoration to holiness and happi- 
ness, are called Universal Restorationists, 
or Universalists; and their doctrine, the doc- 
trine of Universal Restoration. Some of its 
friends have maintained it also under the 
name of Universal Salvation ; but perhaps 
the former name, which Mr. Vidler seems to 
prefer, is that by which it should be distin- 
guished ; for the Universalists do not hold 
any universal exemption from future pun- 
ishment, but merely the recovery of all those 
that shall have been exposed to it. They 
have likewise a just claim to this title on 
other grounds ; for their doctrine, which 
includes the restoration, or ' restitution of 
all the intelligent offspring of God,' or of all 
' lapsed intelligences,' seems to embrace 
even the fallen angels. 

From the earliest days of Christianity, it 
has been the general opinion throughout 
Christendom, that this life is the only state 
of probation with which men shall be in- 
dulged, and that after death the wicked and 
impenitent will pass into a state of endless 
misery, to be made examples of the justice 
of God in asserting the authority of his laws. 



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But though this has been the general, it has 
perhaps never been (at least it was not long) 
the universal opinion among Christians. In 
almost every period, and more especially of 
late, different sentiments have been enter- 
tained upon this mysterious subject, and 
different theories of future punishment have 
been proposed. Origen, a Christian father 
of the third century, seems to have been the 
first that openly espoused the doctrine of 
the temporary duration of future punish- 
ments ; St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, 
about the beginning of the fifth century, 
mentions some divines in his day, whom he 
calls the merciful doctors, who held it ; and 
it was also propagated by many of the Ger- 
man Baptists, even before the Reformation. 
From that time many, who have not been 
able to discover any principle in the divine 
conduct but that of benevolence, nor any 
ultimate view in his dispensations towards 
his creatures but that of their happiness, 
have concluded that eternal misery could 
not possibly enter into the divine plan; 
that God could never choose to create any 
on whom it would be necessary to inflict it ; 
and that every degree of suffering, either in 
this world, or that which is to come, will be 
emendatory, and terminate in the final hap- 
piness of such as are the subjects of it. 
Indeed, the doctrine of the final happiness 
of mankind, which presents the prospect of 
the termination of all evil, and of a period 
in which the deep shades of guilt and misery, 
which have so long enveloped the universe, 
shall be for ever dispelled, is so pleasing a 
speculation to a benevolent mind, that we 
need not wonder it has met with many who 
have maintained it. From the earliest 
period it may readily be supposed that the 
belief of it may have been secretly enter- 
tained by some who, in the face of oppo- 
sition and danger, had not resolution to 
avow it. Now, however, it has broken 
through every restraint, and walks abroad 
in every form that is most likely to convince 
the philosophic, to rouse the unthinking, 
and to melt the tender. 

The Universalists admit the reality and 
equity of future punishment; but they con- 
tend that it will be corrective in its nature, 
and limited in its duration. They ' teach 
the doctrine of election, but not in the ex- 
clusive Calvinistic sense of it. They sup- 
pose that God has chosen some, for the 
good of all ; and that his final purpose to- 
wards all is intimated by his calling his 
elect the first born and the first fruits of his 
creatures ; which, say they, implies other 
branches of his family, and a future in- 
gathering of the harvest of mankind. They 
teach also, that the righteous shall have part 
in the first resurrection, shall be blessed and 
happy, and be made priests and kings to 
God and to Christ in the millennial kingdom. 
and that over them the second death shall 
have no power; that the wicked will receive 
1033 



a punishment apportioned to their crimes ; 
that punishment itself is a mediatorial work, 
and founded upon mercy ; consequently, 
that it is a means of humbling, subduing, 
and finally reconciling the sinner to God. 
They add, that the words rendered eternal, 
everlasting, for ever, and for ever and ever, in 
the Scriptures, are frequently used to ex- 
press the duration of things that have ended, 
or must end: and if it is contended, that 
these words are sometimes used to express 
proper eternity, they answer, that then the 
subject with which the words are connected, 
must determine the sense of them ; and as 
there is nothing in the nature of future 
punishment which can be rendered as a 
reason why it should be endless, they infer 
that the above words ought always to be 
taken in a limited sense, when connected 
with the infliction of misery.' 

They say that their doctrine is most con- 
sonant to the perfections of the Deity, most 
worthy of the character of Christ, as the 
Mediator ; and that upon no other plan can 
the Scriptures be made consistent with 
themselves. They teach their followers ar- 
dent love to God ; and peace, meekness, 
candour, and universal love to men, they 
observe, are the natural result of their views. 
Their scheme appears to them to be the only 
one that in the least bids fair to unite two 
great bodies of Christians that have long 
and bitterly opposed each other (the Armi- 
nians and the Calvinists) by uniting the 
leading doctrines of both, as far as they are 
found in the Scriptures : from which union 
they think the sentiment of universal restora- 
tion naturally flows. They reason thus : 
' The Arminian proves from Scripture, that 
God is love ; that he is good to all ; that 
his tender mercy is over all his works ; that 
he gave his Son for the world ; that Christ 
died for the world, even for the whole world, 
and God will have all men to be saved. 
The Calvinist proves also from Scripture, 
that God is without variableness or shadow 
of turning ; that his love, like himself, 
alters not ; that the death of Christ will be 
efficacious towards all for whom it was in- 
tended ; that God will perform all his plea- 
sure, and that his counsel shall stand. The 
union of these scriptural principles is the 
final restoration of all men. Taking the 
principles of the Calvinists and Arminians 
separately, we find the former teaching, or 
at least inferring, that God doth not love all, 
but that he made the greater part of men to 
be endless monuments of his wrath; and 
the latter declaring the love of God to all, 
but admitting his final failure of restoring 
the greater part. The God of the former is 
great in power and wisdom, but deficient in 
goodness, and capricious in bis conduct. 
Who that views this character can sincerely 
love it? The God of the latter is exceeding 
good, but deficient in power and wisdom. 
"Who can trust such a being? If, therefore. 



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both Calvinists and Arminians love and 
trust the Deity, it is not under the character 
which their several systems ascribe to him ; 
but they are constrained to hide the imper- 
fections which these views cast upon him, 
and boast or' a God, of whose highest glory 
their several schemes will not admit,' 

The Universalists have to contend, on one 
hand, with such as believe in the eternity of 
future misery ; and on the other, with those 
who teach that destruction or extinction of 
being will be the final state of the wicked. 
In answer to the latter, they say, ' That, be- 
fore we admit that God is under the neces- 
sity of striking any of his rational creatures 
out of being, we ought to pause and inquire, 
first, whether such an act is consistent with 
the Scriptural character of the Deity, as 
possessed of all possible wisdom, goodness, 
and power ? Secondly, whether it would 
not contradict many parts of Scripture ; 
such, for instance, as speak of the resti- 
tution of all things, the gathering together of 
all things in Christ, the reconciliation of all 
things to the Father by the blood of the 
cross, the destruction of death,' &c. ? These 
texts, they think, are opposed equally to 
endless misery and to final destruction. 
* Thirdly, whether those who will be finally 
destroyed, are not in a worse state through 
the mediation of Christ, than they would 
have been without it ? This question is 
founded on a position of the friends of de- 
struction ; namely, that extinction of being, 
without a resurrection, would have been the 
only punishment of sin, if Christ had not 
become the resurrection and the life to man ; 
consequently, the resurrection and future 
punishment spring from the system of me- 
diation : but they ask, is the justification to 
life, which came upon all men in Christ 
Jesus, nothing more than a resurrection to 
endless death to millions ? Fourthly, whe- 
ther the word destruction will warrant such 
a conclusion ? It is evident that destruction 
is often used in Scripture to signify a cessa- 
tion of present existence only, without any 
contradiction of the promises that relate to 
a future universal resurrection. They think, 
therefore, that they ought to admit an uni- 
versal restoration of men, notwithstanding 
the future destruction which is threatened to 
sinners ; because, say they, the Scriptures 
teach both.' 

Those who deny the eternity of future 
punishments have not formed themselves 
into any separate body or distinct society ; 
but are to be found in most Christian coun- 
tries, and among many denominations of 
Christians. Their doctrines form part of 
the creed of some Arians, as of Mr. Whiston ; 
of many Deists, as of Mr. Hobbes, Mr. Tin- 
del, &c. ; and of most Socinians, as of So- 
cinus, Dr. Priestley, Mr. Fellowes, &c. 
Nor need we be surprised that libertines 
and Atheists hold it, and that they strive to 
bring others over to their opinion. ' The 
1034 



tyranny of priests,' says Dupont, the Atheist, 
in the National Convention, December 
1792, ' extends their opinion to another life, 
of which they have no other idea than that 
of eternal punishment; a doctrine which 
some men have hitherto had the good nature 
to believe. But these prejudices must now 
fall : we must destroy them, or they will 
destroy us.' 

The Mennonites in Holland have long 
held the doctrine of the Universalists ; the 
people called Dunkers, or Tunkers, in Ame- 
rica, descended from the German Baptists, 
hold it, and also the Shakers; Dr. Rust, 
bishop of Dromore, in Ireland, defended it 
in his ' Lux Orientalist about the end of the 
seventeenth century ; and, in England, soon 
after, Mr. Colliber and Mr. Jeremiah White 
wrote in defence of it. Archbishop Tillot- 
son seems to countenance it ; as does Dr. T. 
Burnet, master of the Charter House, more 
openly, in his work ' On the State of the 
Dead.' Mr. William Law seems to have 
maintained it. The writers who have treated 
the subject most fully of late, are, Bishop 
Newton ; Mr. Stonehouse, rector of Isling- 
ton ; Dr. Chauncy, of Boston in America ; 
Dr. Hartley, in his ' Observations on Man ;' 
Mr. Purves of Edinburgh ; Mr. E. Win- 
chester, in his ' Dialogues ;' Mr. William 
Vidler ; and Mr. N. Scarlett, in his new 
Translation of the New Testament, in which 
the Greek term aiihv is rendered age ; and 
in his Appendix, he has proposed that its 
derivative aiutviov, should be rendered age- 
lasting, instead of everlasting or eternal. 

Many deny that the punishment of eternal 
death was implied in the sentence de- 
nounced against Adam ; and many church- 
men, it is feared, explain away the strong 
language of Scripture, and of the church of 
England, respecting the punishment of 
finally impenitent sinners, and suggest 
doubts, whether ' all men' may not ' be 
happy ultimately.' Among these may be 
reckoned the late Dr. Paley, and Mr. William 
Gilpin. By teaching this doctrine of the 
final restoration of all men, divines greatly 
undermine and weaken a main bulwark 
against the general overflowings of immo- 
rality and vice. With their extenuated 
views of the effects of the fall, and of the 
rigour of the law, and of the malignity of 
sin, they do not readily conceive that the 
worst of men can deserve to suffer ' the 
bitter pains of eternal death.' It is a doc- 
trine not very reconcileable with their 
notions of the object of God in our creation, 
and their resolution of all the divine attri- 
butes into those of pure mercy and benevo- 
lence ; and from the little use they make of 
it themselves, and the severity with which 
they treat the ordinary Scripture use of it 
by others, there certainly remains a doubt 
whether they really believe the doctrine or not. 
But whatever may be said to the contrary, 
and however ungrateful the subject may be, 



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UR 



if the doctrine is really believed, nay, if it is 
only thought probable, or even possible, so 
far is its extreme awfulness from furnishing 
a reason for generally concealing it, that 
this consideration is the very strongest rea- 
son why impenitent sinners should hear it 
honestly proclaimed. 

It is maintained by the friends of the 
non-eternity of future punishment, that it 
cannot be eternal, ' because there is no pro- 
portion between temporary crimes and eter- 
nal punishments ;' and hence some of the 
ablest of them, as Chauncy, Petitpierre, 
Winchester, &c, have strenuously opposed 
the doctrine of endless punishment, on the 
ground of its injustice; but if such punish- 
ment be threatened by God, and any where 
recorded in Scripture, it cannot surely be 
unjust ; for ' shall not the Judge of all the 
earth do right V Hence Mr. Vidler very 
properly places the question on other 
grounds, and asserts that 'it is not whe- 
ther endless punishment be in itself just, 
but whether God has any where threatened 
any description of sinners with it.' And 
here they insist, that the word everlasting 
is ' not to be taken in its utmost extent ; 
and that it signifies no more than a long 
time, or a time whose precise boundary is 
unknown.' In answer to this it is alleged, 
that the same word is used, and that some- 
times in the very same place, to express the 
eternity of the happiness of the righteous, 
and the eternity of the misery of the wicked ; 
and that there is no reason to believe that 
the words express two such different ideas, 
as standing in the same connexion. See 
Torments future, and Rellyan Uni- 
VERSALISTS. Adam's Religwis World Dis- 
played, vol. iii. pp. 375 — 389 ; Evans's Sketch 
of the Denominations of the Christian World, 
pp. 183, &c. 

VOW, a promise made to God, of doing 
some good thing hereafter. The use of 
vows is observable throughout Scripture. 
When Jacob went into Mesopotamia, he 
vowed to God the tenth of his estate, and 
promised to offer it at Bethel, to the honour 
of God. (Gen. xxviii. 22.) Moses enacts 
several laws for the regulation and execu- 
tion of vows. A man might devote himself, 
or his children, to the Lord. Jephthah 
devoted his daughter, and some think he 
offered her in sacrifice. (Judg. xi. 30, 31.) 
Samuel was vowed and consecrated to the 
service of the Lord, and was really offered 
to him, to serve in the tabernacle. (1 Sam. 
i. 21, 22, &c.) If a man or woman vowed 
themselves to the Lord, they were obliged 
to adhere strictly to his service, according 
to the conditions of the vow ; but in some 
cases they might be redeemed. A man from 
twenty years of age till sixty, gave fifty 
shekels of silver ; and a woman, thirty. 
(Levit. xxvii. 3.) From the age of five 
years to twenty, a man gave twenty shekels, 
arid a woman ten: from a month old to five 
1035 



years, they gave for a boy five shekels, and 
for a girl three. A man of sixty years old, 
or upwards, gave fifteen shekels, and a wo- 
man of the same age gave ten. If the per- 
son was poor, and could not procure this 
sum, the priest imposed a ransom upon 
him, according to his abilities. 

If any one had vowed an animal that was 
clean, he had not the liberty of redeeming 
it, or of exchanging it, but was obliged to 
sacrifice it to the Lord. If it was an un- 
clean animal, and such as was not allowed 
to be sacrificed, the priest made a valuation 
of it ; and if the proprietor would redeem it, 
he added a fifth part to the value, by way 
of forfeit. They did the same in propor- 
tion, when the thing vowed was a house, or 
a field. They could not devote the first- 
born, because in their own nature they be- 
longed to the Lord. (Levit. xxvii. 28, 29.) 
Whatever was devoted by way of anathema, 
could not be redeemed, of whatever nature 
or quality it was. An animal was put to 
death, and other things were devoted for 
ever to the Lord. The consecration of Na- 
zarites was a particular kind of vow. 

The vows and promises of children were 
void of course, except they were ratified, 
either by the express or tacit consent of 
their- parents. It was the same with the 
vows of a married woman ; they were of no 
validity, except confirmed by the express 
or tacit consent of her husband. (Numb. 
xxx. 1, 2, 3, &c.) But widows, or liberated 
wives, were bound by their vows, whatever 
they were. 

UR, tin, ovp, signifies light, or fire. Ur 
was a city of Chaldea, the country of Terah, 
and of Abraham. (Gen. xi. 28.) God or- 
dered Abraham to leave Ur, that he might 
bring him into the land of Canaan, which 
he intended to give him and his posterity. 
As he was going thither, with his father 
Terah, and Lot his nephew, at Haran, a 
city of Mesopotamia, Terah fell sick and 
died. After Abraham had paid his last 
duties to him, he continued his journey into 
the land of Canaan, in the year of the world 
2082. The city of Ur was in Chaldea, as 
the Scripture assures us in more places than 
one ; but its true situation is unknown. 
Some think it was Camarina in Babylonia ; 
some, the Orcha, or Orchoe, in Chaldea, 
according to Ptolemy and Strabo ; others, 
the Ura, or Sura, in Syria, on the Euphra- 
tes. Bochart and Grotius maintain it is 
Ura in Mesopotamia, two davs' journey 
from Nisibe. It is observed that Chaldea 
and Mesopotamia are often confounded to- 
gether, and that it is said indifferently, that 
this city is in one or the other of these two 
provinces. 

The word Ur in Hebrew signifies fire ; 
and some have pretended, that when Moses 
says, *God brought Abraham out of I r of 
the Chaldees,' he alluded to a tire into which 
the Chaldees had cast him. 



UR 



UR 



Respecting Ur, however, a late writer ob- 
serves as follows : ' It is usually said that 
Aur, or Ur of the Clialdees was a city ; but 
we may be permitted to doubt this : be- 
cause, 1. it is no where, that I can find in 
Scripture, called a city. 2. It is usually 
coupled with the word land, or country, or 
district ; as where it first occurs, (Gen. xi. 
28;) ' Haran died in the land of his nati- 
vity, in Aur of the Chaldees ;' where it 
should seem that Aur is the same place as 
the land ; or else it would have been said, 
one should think, 'in the city of Aur in 
the land of his nativity.' The omission of 
the term city here seems to be of consider- 
able weight. As Aur, or Ur, signifies fire, 
or light, it seems to agree with the descrip- 
tion of the sun-rising province, and as the 
Auritae, wherever they are found, are child- 
ren of the sun, and worshippers of the sun, 
it seems to confirm our notion, of their de- 
riving rather from a province than from a 
city.' Mr. Bryant finds these persons and 
Ethiopians in many places. It is certain 
the Chaldeans were called Ethiopians, but 
they never were thought to be natives of 
either Arabian or African Ethiopia; they 
must therefore appertain to Caucasean 
Ethiopia ; wherein also we find a country 
of Auritae. 

The city of Orfah, however, is thought 
by all the learned Jews and Mahometans, 
as well as by the most eminent scholars 
among the Christians, to have been the Ur 
of the Chaldees, from whence Abraham went 
forth to dwell in Haran. This capital of 
the country between the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, the Padan-Aram, and Aram-Nahraim 
of the Hebrews, and the Mesopotamia of 
the Greeks, received from its Macedonian 
conquerors the name of Edessa; and an 
abundant fountain which the city enclosed, 
and called in Greek Callirrhoe, communi- 
cated this name to the city itself. 

'Orfah,' says Tavernier, 'is the capital 
city of Mesopotamia, built, as they say, in 
the place where Abraham lived, and where 
stood the ancient Edessa, where the people 
of the country report that king Abgarus 
held his court. There are still to be seen 
the ruins of a castle, from whence, they add, 
that the same king sent to Christ for his 
picture.' 

Orfah is seated on the eastern side of a 
hill, at the commencement of a plain ; so 
that while its western extremity stands on 
elevated ground, its eastern is on a lower 
level ; and, with very trifling variations, the 
whole of the town may be said to be nearly 
flat. The wall by which it is surrounded 
encloses a circuit of from three to four 
miles, and appears to trace out, in its 
course, an irregular triangle. The houses 
are all built of stone, and are of as good 
masonry, and as highly ornamented, as those 
of Aleppo. The bazaars are numerous, 
and well supplied, and are separated, as 
1036 



usual, into departments, each appropriated 
to the manufacture and sale of particular 
commodities. Most of the bazaars are co- 
vered, and are always fresh, cool, and 
sheltered both from rain and sunshine. 
That in which muslins, cottons, and other 
piece-goods are sold, is equal to any of the 
bazaars either at Smyrna, Cairo, Damascus, 
or Aleppo. 

The population of Orfah may be esti- 
mated at fifty thousand inhabitants, among 
whom are about two thousand Christians, 
and five hundred Jews ; the rest being all 
Mahometans. The Christians are chiefly 
Armenians and Syrians, each of whom have 
a separate church, and live in a separate 
quarter ; and they are so distinct, that, be- 
sides their different rites, their language, 
and the very character in which it is written, 
are totally unlike each other. The Arme- 
nian and Syriac tongues are confined, how- 
ever, to their domestic circles, and their 
religious duties ; for, in their intercourse 
with strangers, Turkish is the language 
chiefly used by the former, and Arabic by 
the latter. Both the Christians and the 
Jews are merchants and traders ; the one 
moving more frequently from place to place 
with caravans, and the other remaining 
stationary with the bazaars. The language 
of Orfah is mostly Turkish. In the bazaars 
scarcely any other tongue is understood; 
but Hebrew, Armenian, Syriac, Koordish, 
Arabic, and Persian, are all spoken by their 
respective classes of people. 

The lake called, ' Birket el Ibrahim el 
Khaleel,' from being in the native city of 
that patriarch, 'Abraham the Beloved, or 
the Friend of God,' is filled from a clear 
spring which rises in the south-west quarter 
of the town. It then forms a canal, which 
is two hundred and twenty-five paces long, 
by twenty-five paces broad ; and generally 
from five to six feet deep. At the west end, 
where it commences, a room is built to hang 
over the stream ; and at the east, where a 
small bridge terminates the greater canal, 
the waters run into a lesser one, which di- 
vides itself into many branches, and is dis- 
persed in streams throughout the town, for 
the convenience of manufactories, private 
dwellings, and public khans. The eastern 
half of the northern bank is occupied by 
the grand fajade of the mosque of the pa- 
triarch, whose name it bears ; and its foun- 
dations are washed by the waters of the 
lake, which are also considered to be sacred 
to him. This lake is filled with an incredi- 
ble number of fine carp, some of which are 
two feet in length, and of a proportionate 
thickness. As they are forbidden to be 
caught or molested, they multiply exceed- 
ingly ; it being regarded as a sacrilege of 
the most unpardonable kind, for any one to 
use them as food. Indeed the people here 
believe, that, even if these fish were taken, 
no process of cooking would make any im- 



URI 



UR[ 



pression on their bodies, or render them at 
all fit for food. Buckingham's Travels in 
Mesopotamia, vol. i. pp. 109 — 154; Taylor's 
Sacred Geography. Geographical Excursions, 
No. X. 

URI'JAH, rrilX, signifies the Lord is my 
light or fire, or light of the Lord. Urijah, 
chief priest of the Jews under Ahaz, king 
of Judah. Ahaz going to Damascus to 
meet Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, saw 
there an altar, whose form pleased him so 
much, that he sent a model of it to the high 
priest Urijah, with orders to set up such a 
one in the temple of Jerusalem, which Urijah 
too well performed. (2 Kings xvi. 10, 11, 
12.) Ahaz also ordered the high-priest to 
remove the brazen altar from before the 
Lord; and on this new altar to offer the 
morning and evening sacrifices, &c. reserv- 
ing to himself to dispose of the great brazen 
altar at his pleasure. Urijah obeyed the 
orders of this wicked king in eveiy thing, 
in the year of the world 3264. Urijah suc- 
ceeded Zadok the Second, and was suc- 
ceeded by Shallum. 

Urijah, a prophet of the Lord, son of 
Shemaiah of Kirjath-jearim, (Jer. xxvi. 20, 
21.) who prophesied at the same time as 
Jeremiah, and declared the same things 
against Jerusalem and Judah. Jehoiakim, 
king of Judah, and his great men, resolved 
to secure him, and put him to death ; but 
Urijah escaped into Egypt. Jehoiakim 
sent messengers after him, who brought him 
out of Egypt ; he then put him to death by 
the sword, and ordered him to be buried 
dishonourably in the graves of the meanest 
of the people, in the year of the world 
3395. 

URIM and THUMMIM : the literal 
signification of these two words is, accord- 
ing to the Hebrew, (Exod. xxviii. 30.) lights 
and perfections ; or, the shining and the per- 
fect ; according to Jerome, doctrine and judg- 
ment ; according to the seventy, &i)\u)Oiv 
Koi dXrjBeiav, declaration (or manifestation) 
and truth. Some think Urim and Thum- 
mim are only epithets, or explanations, of 
the stones on the breast-plate of the high- 
priest ; as if it were said, ' Thou shalt put 
therein stones that are shining and perfect.' 
Others believe that these two words are 
rather Egyptian than Hebrew. 

But Josephus, and after him several 
others, as well ancient as modern authors, 
maintain that the Urim and Thummim 
were the precious stones of the high-priest's 
breast-plate, which discovered the will of 
God by their extraordinary lustre, thereby 
predicting the success of events to tbose 
who consulted them. For when these stones 
gave no extraordinary lustre, it was con- 
cluded that God did not approve of the 
matter in question. Josephus adds, that it 
was two hundred years, at the time of his 
writing, since these stones had left off show- 
ing this lustre ; so that this oracle had 
1037 



ceased about one hundred and ten years be- 
fore Jesus Christ. 

Others believe that the Urim and Thum- 
mim was something belonging to the breast- 
plate, but they are not agreed what it was ; 
neither Moses, nor any other sacred writer, 
has distinctly expressed what it might be. 
Epiphanius and Suidas think, that, beside 
the twelve stones of the breast-plate, there 
was a diamond of extraordinary beauty; 
which by the liveliness of its lustre indicated 
to the high-priest whether the enterprise in 
hand was pleasing to God or no. Procopius, 
Arias Montanus, and some others, place 
two stones therein, beside the twelve men- 
tioned by Moses. But St. Austin does not 
approve of these additional stones ; nor of 
that pretended miraculous splendour of 
these stones ; since the Scripture says no- 
thing about the matter. 

St. Cyril seems to say that manifesta- 
tion and truth were written on two pre- 
cious stones, or on a plate of gold : which 
is an opinion pretty much followed, both by 
ancients and moderns. Others held that 
the words Urim and Thummim were written 
in embroidery on the breast-plate, between 
the rows of the stones, or on two borders ; 
one above, the other below, the pectoral. 
Rabbi Solomon, followed in this by Eugu- 
binus, believes that the name Jehovah, 
written on a plate of gold, was the Urim and 
Thummim. Spencer, in his dissertation on 
these words, believes they were two little 
golden figures which gave responses, which 
were shut up in the pectoral as in a purse, 
and which answered with an articulate 
voice such questions as were put to them 
by the high-priest. M. Le Clerc supposes 
that Urim and Thummim were the names 
of some precious stones which composed a 
great collar, hanging down on the breast 
of the high-priest ; which might be imi- 
tated from the Egyptians, among whom 
the chief officer of justice wore about 
his neck a figure of truth, engraved on 
precious stones, and hanging by a golden 
chain. 

There is a great diversity of opinions 
concerning the manner in which God was 
consulted by Urim and Thummim. It is 
agreed, first, that this way of consultation 
was used only in affairs of very great im- 
portance. Secondly, that the high- priest 
was the only officiating minister in it ; and 
that for this he was clothed in all his pon- 
tificial habits ; particularly he was to have 
on his pectoral, to which the Urim and 
Thummim was affixed. And thirdly, that 
he was not allowed to perform this sole inn 
consultation for a private person, but only 
for the king, for the president of. the San- 
hedrim, for the general of the army of lsra> 1, 
or other public persons. And even then 
not on any affair of a private nature, hut 
for the public welfare of church or state; 
for the common interest of the twelve tribes, 



URI 



VUL 



whose names the high-priest wore on his 
pectoral. 

.. When the Urim and Thummim was to be 
exercised, the high-priest put on his robes, 
and presented himself, not in the sanctuary, 
where he could enter but once a year, but in 
the holy place, before the curtain that parted 
the sanctum from the sanctuary. There, 
standing upright, and turning his face to- 
wards the ark of the covenant, on which 
the Divine presence reposed, he proposed 
the matter for which he consulted. Behind 
him, in a direct line, at some distance, out 
of the sanctum, stood the person for whom 
he consulted, expecting with humility and 
reverence the answer of the Lord. The 
Rabbins think that the high-priest, having 
then his eyes fixed on the stones of the 
pectoral, which was on his breast, there 
read the answer of the Lord. The letters 
that raised themselves out of their places, 
and shone with more than ordinary lustre, 
were formed into the answer desired. For 
example, when David inquired of God, 
whether he should go up to one of the cities 
of Judah ? (2 Sam. ii. 1.) it was answered 
him, nby, Alah, Go up ; that is, the three 
letters, y ain, b lamed, and n he, rose out of 
their places, as we may say, above the rest, 
to compose the answer. 

This notion is very old among the Jews, 
since Josephus understood it in this man- 
ner ; and upon their authority several of 
the ancient fathers have thus explained the 
responses by Urim and Thummim. Yet 
there are difficulties in this. First, all the 
letters of the Hebrew alphabet were not 
found on the pectoral ; there were four 
wanting, n heth, n teth, v zade, p Jcoph. To 
supply these, the Rabbins pretend that the 
names of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were 
also on the pectoral : but still n teth would 
be wanting. Therefore they say this title also 
was there Col-elle-schibte-lsrael, see here all 
the tribes of Israel But all this is advanced 
without proof, and against probability. 

Others think, with great probability, that 
God gave his answers in an articulate voice, 
heard from within the sanctuary, and from 
between the cherubim, over the ark of the 
propitiatory, called the oracle. (Exod. xxv. 
18. 20. ; xxxvii. 6.; xl. 20. Levit. xvi. 2.) 
When the Israelites made peace with the 
Gibeonites, they were blamed for not hav- 
ing inquired at the mouth of the Lord: 
which insinuates, that he had been used 
to make his voice heard, when he was con- 
sulted. 

It remains to inquire, how long the custom 
of consulting God by Urim and Thummim 
subsisted. The Rabbins think it continued 
no longer than under the tabernacle. They 
have a maxim, that the Holy Spirit spoke to 
Israel by Urim and Thummim under the 
tabernacle ; under the first temple, by pro- 
phets ; under the second temple, or after the 
captivity of Babylon, by the Bath-col, or 
1038 



daughter of the voice ; meaning a voice sent 
from Heaven, as that at the baptism of Jesus 
Christ, (Matt. iii. 17.) and at his trans- 
figuration. (Matt. xvii. 5. 2 Pet. i. 17.) 

VULGATE, the name given to what is 
called the vulgar Latin translation of the 
Bible. This is the most ancient version of 
the Scriptures into Latin, and the only one 
which the Church of Rome acknowledges as 
authentic. 

The Vulgate of the Old Testament was 
translated almost verbatim from the Greek 
of the Septuagint ; the author of it is not 
known, nor so much as guessed at. It was 
a long time known by the name of the Latin 
version, as being of very great antiquity in 
the Latin church. It was commonly in use 
before Jerome made another translation 
from the Hebrew. St. Austin preferred this 
Vulgate before all the other Latin versions, 
as rendering the words and sense of the 
sacred tex* more closely and justly than any 
of the rest. It has been since corrected 
from the emendations of Jerome ; and it is 
this mixture of the ancient Italic version, 
with the corrections of Jerome, which is 
now called the Vulgate, and which the coun- 
cil of Trent has declared authentic. 

The Vulgate of the New Testament is by the 
Romanists generally preferred to the Greek 
text. The priests read no other at the altar, 
the preachers quote no other in the pulpit, 
nor the divines in the schools. F. Bouhours 
spent the last years of his life in giving a 
French translation of the New Testament 
from the Vulgate : yet that judicious critic 
owns, that in some few passages the Greek 
appears more clear and intelligible than the 
Latin. The editors of the Oxford Greek 
Testament, 1675, declare, that there is no 
version in any language to be compared 
with the Vulgate. 

It may be worth while to observe, that 
when the emigrant French clergy, who fled 
to save their lives from the fury of the Re- 
volution in France, were in some respects 
settled in England, the University of Ox- 
ford printed two thousand copies of the 
Vulgate version of the New Testament, to 
be distributed gratis among them ; and two 
thousand more were printed for the same 
purpose at the expense of the Marquis of 
Buckingham. On this occasion arose a con- 
troversy, for and against the authority of 
the Vulgate : the general opinion of well- 
informed persons seemed to be that, con- 
sidered as a version, the Vulgate was not to 
be rejected ; but that its authority should 
be restricted to that of a version only. The 
avidity with which this present was received 
by the French clergy was sufficient to 
justify a much more serious charge against 
the Church of Rome, namely, that even this 
version, which she patronizes, is little known, 
and, consequently, less understood, even by 
the priests of her communion : most of 
whom have never seen it otherwise than 



uzz 



uzz 



mutilated in their breviary ; and very few of 
whom have considered and investigated it, 
as those ought to do who have the charge 
of instructing others. Broughton's Historical 
Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 504, 505; Supple- 
ment. Addenda to Calmet , s Dictionary of the 
Holy Bible. 

UZ, yiy, Vulgate, Us, signifies counsel; 
otherwise wood; according to the Syriac, to 
fix, to fasten to. The land of Uz or Gnutz, 
(Job i. I.) is evidently Idumaea, as appears 
from Lam. iv. 21. Uz was the grandson of 
Seir the Horite. (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 21. 28. 
1 Chron.i. 38. 42.) Seir inhabited the moun- 
tainous tract which was called by his name 
antecedently to the time of Abraham; but 
his posterity being expelled, it was occupied 
by the Idumaeans. (Deut. ii. 12.) Two 
other men are mentioned of the name Uz ; 
one the grandson of Shem, the other the son 
of Nahor, the brother of Abraham ; but 
whether any district was called after their 
name is not clear. Idumaea is a part of 
Arabia Petraea, situated on the southern ex- 
tremity of the tribe of Judah (Numb, xxxiv. 
3. Josh. xv. 1. 21.) : the land of Uz, there- 
fore, appears to have been between Egypt 
and Philistia, (Jer. xxv. 20.) ; where the 
order of the places seems to have been ac- 
curately observed in reviewing the different 
nations from Egypt to Babylon ; and the 
same people seem again to be desci'ibed in 
exactly the same situations. (Jer. xlvi. 2.) 

Nor does the statement of the inspired 
writer, that Job ' was the greatest of all the 
men of the East,' (Job i. 3.) militate against 
this situation of the land of Uz. For the 
expression ' men of the East,' ' children of 
the East,' or 'eastern people,' seems to have 
been the general appellation for that mingled 
race of people (Jer. xxv. 20.) who inhabited 
the country between Egypt and the Eu- 
phrates, bordering on Judaea from the south 
to the east ; the Idumaeans, the Amalekites, 
the Midianites, the Moabites, the Ammon- 
ites, (Judg. vi. 3. Isai. xi. 14.) ; of these 
the Idumaeans and Amalekites certainly 
possessed the southern parts. (Numb. xxiv. 
3. ; xiii. 29. 1 Sam. xxvii. 8. 10.) This 
appears to be the true state of the case : the 
whole region between Egypt and the Eu- 
phrates was called the East at first in re- 
spect to Egypt, (where the learned Joseph 
Mede thinks the Israelites acquired this 
mode of speaking,) and afterwards abso- 
lutely, and without any relation to situation 
or circumstances. Hence, though Job is 
accounted one of the Orientals, it by no 
means follows that his residence must have 
been in Arabia Deserta. See Job. Home's 
Introduction, vol. iv. pp. 79, 80. 

UZ'ZAH, nu/, signifies strength, other- 
wise, £ora£, or kid. Uzzah was son of Abina- 
dab (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4, 5, &c); in the year of 
the world 2956. He, with his brother Ahio, 
conducted the new cart, on which the ark of 
the covenant was brought from Kirjath- 
1039 



jearim to Jerusalem. When they were come 
as far as Nachon's threshing-floor, or, the 
floor that was prepared, Uzzah stretched 
out his hand to support the ark of God, 
which seemed to him in danger of falling, 
because of the stumbling of the oxen. The 
anger of the Lord smote Uzzah because of 
his rashness and ignorance ; and he died on 
the place. 

Opinions are much divided about the oc- 
casion of the death of Uzzah. Some think 
the Lord put him to death because he touched 
the ark irreverently, without showing suf- 
ficient respect to it. Others, that the Lord 
was provoked by his distrust on this occa- 
sion, in attempting to hold up the ark ; as 
if God was not able to preserve it without 
his assistance. But the true cause is suf- 
ficiently explained by David himself, when 
he says, because there were no priests to 
carry the ark, (1 Chron. xv. 13.) Uzzah, 
who was not of the race of Aaron, was so 
rash as to handle it, and was (it is presumed) 
the adviser of carrying it in a cart, instead 
of having it carried on the shoulders of the 
priests. 

It may be proper to notice, 1. that the 
law (Exod. xxv. 14.) ordered that the ark 
should be carried on the shoulders of the 
Levites; whereas in this instance it was 
drawn by oxen on a cart, as if this car- 
riage by beasts was good enough for it ; 2. 
it was by this means assimilated to the 
processions of the heathen, who drew their 
gods about in carriages ; 3. if it had been 
borne by Levites, would Uzzah have been 
one to bear it ? did he think this too much 
trouble ? was the distance too great ? &c. 

2. That the ark ought to have been en- 
veloped, wholly concealed, by the priests, 
before the Levites had approached it; whereas 
1. no priest attended this procession : 2. was 
it carried openly, exposed to view, as it was 
by the Philistines? (1 Sam. vi. 13. 19.) 
Uzzah, being a Levite, ought to have known 
these rules, and being the principal in con- 
ducting the procession, and, probably, the 
elder brother, was principallyguilty, whereas 
Ahio was subordinate to him. 

3. It is likely that the oxen drew it safely 
while in a straight road, but when they 
came to turn into the threshing-floor that 
was prepared, one of them became res- 
tive, and, refusing to go in, started aside 
\_tumbled~\, which provoked Uzzah, put him 
off his guard, and irritated his temper to 
rashness. 

But the words are capable of another 
rendering ; ' And they came to the thresh- 
ing floor prepared : and Uzzah put forth his 
hand to the ark of God, and seized it,' laid 
hold of it strongly, held it back, ' insomuch 
that' — to such a degree that — ' one of the 
oxen stumbled,' or started, ' and the Lord 
smote Uzzah upon this rashness : and he 
died on the spot with,' that is, as close as 
possible adjoining to, ' the ark.' 



uzz 



uzz 



This history then may stand thus : 
Uzzah was so intent on preventing the 
oxen from drawing the cart any further 
than the entrance of the floor prepared to 
receive it, that he pulled, with all his might, 
against the oxen, who were going on ; one 
oi them slipped, and the whole weight of the 
cart, or, rather, of the ark, falling on Uzzah, 
he was crushed on the spot. In this view 
of the story, Uzzah may be said to have 
been the cause of his own death. This 
shows also, 1. how Ahio, though equally 
blameable in not covering, or not bearing 
the ark, might escape any disaster. 2. It 
gives the reason of the prepared floor being 
mentioned, the occurrence happening at 
the entrance of it; and, 3. it agrees with 
the name given by David to the place, 



' the breach of Uzzah,' that is, where Uzzah 
was broken, — pressed out — crushed to 
death. 

Had the ark been carried on the shoulders 
of the Levites, as it ought to have been, 
such a fatal event could not have happened, 
as they could have heard and obeyed orders 
to stop, &c. so that greater respect to the 
ark, had been greater security to its atten- 
dants. This is perfectly agreeable to what 
David afterwards observes: (1 Chron. xv. 
13.) ' The Lord made a breach upon us 
formerly, because we sought him not after a 
due order,' &c. The order of the words is 
strongly in favour of this sense of the particle 
rendered insomuch ; as is its frequent im- 
port, instead of for, as in our translation. 
Supplement. Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary. 



WAH 



W. 



WAH 



WAHABEES, a numerous and power- 
ful sect in Arabia. By some they 
have been reckoned in the number of 
Deists ; but as they acknowledge the Koran 
to have been sent by Heaven to Mahomet, 
the name of Deists can scarcely belong to 
them. This sect was founded nearly a 
century ago by an Arab named Shaikh 
Mahomet, the son of Abd-ool Wahab, 
whose name they have taken. Shaikh Ma- 
homed connected himself, in an attempt to 
reform the religion of his country, with Ebn- 
Saoud, the prince of Dereah, the capital of 
the province of Nujud. Through the effort 
of the saint Shaikh Mahomet, and the tem- 
poral power of Ebn-Saoud, and of his son 
and successor, Abd-ool Azeez, the religion 
of the Wahabees is now established over the 
peninsula of Arabia. Their tenets are pecu- 
liar. They profess that there is one God, 
and that Mahomet is his prophet; but as 
the Supreme Being neither has nor can have 
any participator in his power, they say it is 
blasphemy to hold that Mahomet, the 
Imams, or any saints, have any superinten- 
dence over the affairs of men, or will render 
them any aid hereafter. They deem Ma- 
hometans infidels who deviate in any way 
from the plain literal meaning of the Koran, 
and maintain that to make war on all such is 
the duty of every Wahabee. It is one of their 
tenets, that all titles showing respect and 
honour to men are odious to God, who alone 
is worthy of high name ; and they assert 
that in conformity to what is revealed in the 
Koran, true Mahometans should wage con- 
tinual war against unbelievers, till they are 
1040 



converted, or agree to pay the tribute im- 
posed on infidels; and that in the latter 
case they should be compelled to wear the 
coarsest garments, not be allowed to ride on 
horses, nor to live in splendid dwellings. 

They maintain that the taxes levied by 
Mahomet are alone lawful; that swearing 
by Mahomet, or AH, or any person, should 
be prohibited, since an oath is calling a 
witness to our secret thoughts, which no 
one can know but God. They deem it a 
species of idolatry to erect magnificent 
tombs ; but to kiss relics, &c. is idolatry it- 
self: and they therefore affirm, that it is an 
action acceptable to God to destroy the 
tombs of Mahometan saints in Arabia and 
Persia, and to appropriate their rich orna- 
ments to worldly purposes, for which they 
were designed. They say that it is wicked 
to mourn for the dead ; for if they were 
good Mahometans their souls are in para- 
dise, at which their friends should rejoice. 

The Wahabees reject the traditions, limit- 
ing their belief to the Koran, which, they 
say, was sent from Heaven to Mahomet, 
who was an excellent man, and much be- 
loved by God. They continue to preserve 
the usages of circumcision, ablution, &c, 
which they found established, but consider 
them more as matters of practice and usage, 
than of faith. The leading principle of 
this sect, is their right to destroy and 
plunder all who differ from them; and 
those Mahometans who do not adopt their 
creed, are represented as far less entitled to 
mercy than either Jews or Christians. 
Their progress was so great about fifteen 



WAL 



WAL 



years ago, as to excite considerable alarm 
in the Turkish government. Among other 
places, they plundered the rich tombs of 
AH and his sons at Nujuff and Kerbelah. 
Their inroads are always dreadful, for they 
spare none who do not conform to their 
opinions; but they have lately met with 
some severe checks, and appear to be 
declining. Sir John Malcolm's History of 
Persia, vol. ii. pp. 263, 264, Note ; Adam's 
Religious World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 469, 
470; Monthly Magazine, vol. xxxiii. p. 
60 ; vol. xxxviii. p. 565. 

WALDENSES, or VALDENSES, a 
sect of reformers who first appeared about 
the year 1160. The learned Mosheim con- 
tends that they derive their name from 
Peter Waldo, an opulent merchant of 
Lyons. * From the Latin word vallis,' says 
the late Mr. Robert Robinson, ' came the 
English word valley, the French and 
Spanish valle, the Italian valdesi, the low 
Dutch valleye, the Provencal vaux, vaudois, 
the ecclesiastical Valdenses, Ualdenses, and 
Waldenses. The words simply signify valleys, 
inhabitants of valleys, and no more. It 
happened that the inhabitants of the valleys 
of the Pyrenees did not profess the Catholic 
faith ; it fell out also that the inhabitants of 
the valleys about the Alps did not embrace 
it ; it happened, moreover, in the ninth 
century, that one Valdo, a friend and coun- 
sellor of Berengarius, and a man of eminence 
who had many followers, did not approve of 
the papal discipline and doctrine ; and it 
came to pass about an hundred and thirty 
years after, that a rich merchant of Lyons, 
who was called Valdus [or Waldo] because 
he received his religious notions from the 
inhabitants of the valleys, openly disavowed 
the Roman religion, supported many to 
teach the doctrines believed in the valleys, 
and became the instrument of the conver- 
sion of great numbers ; all these people 
were called Waldenses.' The Albigenses 
and Waldenses, says Gretzer, were two 
branches of the same sect, and the former 
sprang from the latter. See Albigenses. 

It was not till the twelfth century that 
the Vaudois appear in ecclesiastical history 
as a people obnoxious to the church of 
Rome. Even then it seems, in a great 
measure, to have been occasioned by the 
indefatigable labours, the ardent zeal, and 
the amazing success which crowned the 
ministry of Peter Waldo of Lyons, whose 
followers first obtained the name of Leo- 
nists, and who, when persecuted in France, 
fled into Piedmont, incorporating them- 
selves with the Vaudois. Ardently soli- 
citous for the advancement of rational piety 
and Christian knowledge, Peter, about the 
year 1160, employed Stephanus de Evisa, a 
priest, to translate into French the four 
Gospels, with other books of the Holy 
Scriptures, and the most remarkable sen- 
tences of the ancient fathers. No sooner, 

1041 



however, had he perused those sacred re- 
cords with a proper degree of attention, 
than he perceived that the religion which 
was now taught in the Roman Church dif- 
fered totally from that which was originally 
inculcated by Christ and his apostles. 
Struck with this glaring departure from the 
truth, and animated with a pious zeal for 
promoting his own salvation and that of 
others, he abandoned his mercantile voca- 
tion, distributed his riches among the poor, 
and forming an association with other pious 
men, who had adopted his sentiments and 
his turn of devotion, he began, in 1180, to 
assume the character of a public teacher. 
The archbishop of Lyons, and the other 
rulers of the church in that province, op- 
posed with vigour this new instructor in 
the exercise of his ministry. But their 
opposition was unsuccessful ; for the purity 
and simplicity of the doctrines inculcated 
by these sectaries, the spotless innocence 
of their lives and actions, and their noble 
contempt of riches and honours, appeared 
so engaging to all who were possessed of 
any true sense of piety, that the number 
of their disciples and followers daily in- 
creased. Hence the Waldenses were called 
poor men of Lyons. They formed religious 
assemblies, first in France, and afterwards 
in Lombardy, whence they propagated their 
tenets throughout the other countries of 
Europe with incredible rapidity, and with 
such invincible fortitude, that neither fire 
nor sword, nor the most cruel inventions 
of merciless persecution, could damp their 
zeal, or entirely ruin their cause. 

The tenets of the Waldenses appear in 
the following confession of their faith, to 
which Sir Samuel Morland has fixed the 
date of the year 1120 : '1. We believe and 
firmly maintain all that is contained in the 
twelve articles of the symbol, commonly 
called the Apostles' Creed, and we regard as 
heretical whatever is inconsistent with the 
said twelve articles. 2. We believe that 
there is one God, Father, Son, and Holy 
Spirit. 3. We acknowledge for sacred canoni- 
cal Scriptures the books of the Holy Bible. 
(Here follows the title of each, exactly con- 
formably to our received canon.) 4. The 
books above-mentioned teach us that there 
is one God, almighty, unbounded in wisdom, 
and infinite in goodness, and who, in his 
goodness, has made all things. For he 
created Adam after his own image and like- 
ness. But through the enmity of the devil 
and his own disobedience Adam fell, sin 
entered into the world, and we became 
transgressors in and by Adam. 5. That 
Christ had been promised to the fathers 
who received the law, to the end that, 
knowing their sin by the law, and their un- 
righteousness and insufficiency, they might 
desire the coming of Christ to make satis- 
faction for their sins, and to accomplish the 
law hv himself. 6. That at the time ap- 



WAL 



WAR 



pointed of the Father, Christ was born, — 
a time when iniquity every where abounded, 
to make it manifest that it was not for the 
sake of any good in ourselves, for all were 
sinners, but that He, who is true, might dis- 
play his grace and mercy towards us. 7- 
That Christ is our life, and truth, and peace, 
and righteousness, our shepherd and advo- 
cate, our sacrifice and priest, who died for 
the salvation of all who should believe, and 
rose again for our justification. 8. And 
we also firmly believe that there is no other 
mediator, or advocate with God the Father, 
but Jesus Christ. And as to the Virgin 
Mary, she was holy, humble, and full of 
grace ; and this we also believe concerning 
all other saints, namely, that they are wait- 
ing in heaven for the resurrection of their 
bodies at the day of judgment. 9. We also 
believe, that after this life there are but two 
places, one for those who are saved, the 
other for those who are damned, which 
[two] we call paradise and hell, wholly' 
denying that imaginary purgatory of anti- 
christ, invented in opposition to the truth. 

10. Moreover, we have ever regarded all 
the inventions of men, in the affairs of reli- 
gion, as an unspeakable abomination before 
God ; such as the festival days, and vigils 
of saints, and what is called holy water, the 
abstaining from flesh on certain days, and 
such like things, but above all, the masses. 

11. We hold in abhorrence all human in- 
ventions as proceeding from antichrist, 
which produce distress, and are prejudicial 
to the liberty of the mind. 12. We consi- 
der the sacraments as signs of holy things, 
or as the visible emblems of invisible bless- 
ings. We regard it as proper and even 
necessary that believers use these symbols 
or visible forms when it can be done. Not- 
withstanding which, we maintain that be- 
lievers may be saved without these signs, 
when they have neither place nor opportu- 
nity of observing them. 13. We acknow- 
ledge no sacraments (as of Divine appoint- 
ment), but Baptism and the Lord's Supper. 
14. We honour the secular powers, with 
subjection, obedience, promptitude, and 
payment.' 

The rules of practice adopted by the 
Waldenses were extremely austere ; for they 
took as the model of their moral discipline, 
the sermon of Christ upon the mount, which 
they interpreted and explained in the most 
rigorous and literal manner ; and conse- 
quently condemned war, as the excess of 
human folly, and wickedness ; prohibited 
law-suits, and all attempts towards the ac- 
quisition of wealth ; dissuaded from the in- 
flicting of capital punishments, self-defence 
against unjust violence, and oaths of all 
kinds. The government of the church was 
committed by the Waldenses to bishops, 
presbyters, and deacons ; for they acknow- 
ledged that these three ecclesiastical orders 
were instituted by Christ himself. But they 
1042 



considered it as absolutely necessary, that 
all these orders should exactly resemble the 
apostles, and be, like them, poor in worldly 
possessions, and furnished with some labo- 
rious vocation, in order to gain by constant 
industry their daily subsistence. 

An impartial review of the doctrinal sen- 
timents maintained by the Waldenses, the 
discipline, order, and worship of their 
churches, as well as their general deport- 
ment, and manner of life, not to mention 
their determined and uniform opposition to 
the Church of Rome, affords abundant evi- 
dence of the similarity of their views and 
practices to those held by Luther, Calvin, 
and the other illustrious characters whose 
labours in the sixteenth century contributed 
so eminently to effect the glorious Reforma- 
tion. They were fully agreed in most of their 
first principles; and reasoning consequen- 
tially, their deductions generally coincided. 

During the greatest part of the seven- 
teenth century, those of the Waldenses, 
who lived in the valleys of Piedmont, and 
who had embraced the doctrine, discipline, 
and worship of the Church of Geneva, were 
oppressed and persecuted in the most bar- 
barous and inhuman manner by the minis- 
ters of Rome. This persecution was car- 
ried on with peculiar marks of rage and 
enormity in the years 1655, 1656, and 1686, 
and seemed to portend nothing less than 
the total extinction of that unhappy people. 
The most horrid scenes of violence and 
bloodshed were exhibited in this theatre of 
papal tyranny. The few Waldenses that 
survived were indebted for their existence 
and support to the intercession made for 
them by the English and Dutch govern- 
ments, and also by the Swiss cantons, who 
solicited the clemency of the Duke of Savoy 
on their behalf. Thus were the valleys of 
Piedmont dispeopled of its ancient inhabit- 
ants, and the lamp of heavenly light, which 
during a long succession of ages had here 
shined in resplendent lustre, was at length 
removed. Jones's Hist, of the Waldenses; 
Gregory's Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. 
ii. pp. 122—127. 

WAR. The Hebrews were formerly a very 
warlike nation. The books that inform us 
of their wars are written neither by ignorant 
nor flattering authors, but inspired by the 
spirit of truth and wisdom. Their warriors 
were not fabulous heroes, but commonly 
wise and valiant generals, raised up by God 
' to fight the battles of the Lord.' Such were 
Joshua, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, David, 
Josiah, &c. 

Their wars were not undertaken upon 
slight occasions, nor performed with a hand- 
ful of people. Under Joshua the affair was 
of no less importance than to conquer a vast 
country, which God had given to Israel, 
from several powerful nations, which God 
had devoted to an anathema, to vindicate an 
offended Deity, and human nature, debased 



WAR 



WEE 



by a wicked and corrupt people, who had 
filled up the measure of their iniquities. 
Under the Judges, the matter was to assert 
their liberty, by shaking off the yoke of 
powerful kings, who kept them in subjec- 
tion. Under Saul and David, to these mo- 
tives were added that of subduing such 
provinces as God had promised to his 
people. 

In the later times of the kingdoms of 
Israel and Judah, we observe their kings 
bearing the shock of the greatest powers of 
Asia, the kings of Assyria and Chaldea, 
Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, 
and Nebuchadnezzar, who made the whole 
East tremble. Under the Maccabees, the 
business was with a handful of men, to op- 
pose the whole power of the kings of Syria, 
to uphold the religion of their fathers, and 
to shake off the yoke of that authority which 
designed to subvert both their religion and 
liberty. In the last times of their nation, 
with what courage, with what intrepidity 
and constancy, did they sustain the war 
against the Romans, who were then masters 
of the world! 

We may distinguish two kinds of wars 
among the Hebrews. Some were of obliga- 
tion, as being expressly commanded by the 
Lord ; but others were free and voluntary. 
The first were, for example, against the 
Amalekites, and the Canaanites, which were 
nations devoted to an anathema. The others 
were to revenge injuries, insults, or offences 
offered to the nation. Such was that against 
the city of Gibeah, and against the tribe of 
Benjamin : and such was that of David 
against the Ammonites, whose king had 
affronted his ambassadors ; or to maintain 
and defend their allies ; as that of Joshua 
against the kings of the Canaanites, to pro- 
tect the Gibeonites. Lastly, whatever reasons 
may authorize a nation or a prince to make 
war against another, obtained likewise among 
the Hebrews. All the laws of Moses sup- 
pose that the Israelites might make war, 
and might oppose their enemies. 

When a war was resolved on, all the peo- 
ple capable of bearing arms were assembled, 
or only part of them, according to the exi- 
gence of the case, and the necessity and 
importance of the enterprize. For it does 
not appear, that before the reign of David 
there were any regular troops in Israel. A 
general rendezvous was appointed ; and a 
review was made of the people by tribes and 
by families. When Saul, at the beginning 
of his reign, was informed of tbe cruel pro- 
posal made by the Ammonites to the men of 
Jabesh-Gilead, he cut in pieces the oxen 
belonging to his plough, and sent them 
through the country, saying, ' Whosoever 
cometh not forth after Saul and Samuel, so 
shall it be done unto his oxen.' (1 Sam. 
xi. 7-) 

In ancient times, those who went to war 
commonly carried their own provisions with 
1043 



them; hence these wars were generally of 
short continuance, because it was hardly 
possible to subsist a large body of troops for 
a long time with such provisions as every 
one carried with him. When David, Jesse's 
younger son, stayed behind, to look after 
his father's flocks, while his elder brothers 
went to the war with Saul, Jesse sent David 
to carry provisions to his brothers. (1 Sam. 
xvii. 13.) We suppose that this way of 
making war prevailed also under Joshua, 
the Judges, Saul, David at the beginning of 
his reign, the kings of Judah and Israel, 
successors to Rehoboam and Jeroboam ; 
and under the Maccabees, till the time of 
Simon Maccabaeus, prince and high-priest of 
the Jews, who kept soldiers in pay. (1 Mace, 
xiv. 32.) Every one also provided his own 
arms for war. The kings of the Hebrews 
did not begin to have magazines till David. 
We do not read of any horses, either for 
the generals or the officers, under the judges, 
Saul, or David. After this time they were 
not so scarce ; and it appears that the kings 
of Judah and Israel went to war, riding in 
chariots. The officers of war among the 
Hebrews were the general of the army, the 
princes of the tribes or of the families of 
Israel, besides other princes or captains, 
some of a thousand, some of a hundred, 
some of fifty, and some of ten men. They 
had also their scribes, who were a kind of 
commissaries that kept the muster-roll of 
the troops; and these had others under 
them, who acted by their direction. 

WEEK. The Hebrews had three sorts 
of weeks: 1. Weeks of days, which were 
reckoned from one sabbath to another. 2. 
Weeks of yeai*s, which were reckoned from 
one sabbatical year to another, and consist- 
ing of seven years. 3. Weeks of seven 
times seven years ; or of forty-nine years, 
reckoned from one jubilee to another. 

The Weeks of Daniel. It is agreed that 
the famous weeks of Daniel are weeks of 
years, and not of days. But some have 
made them of seventy years ; so that the 
seventy weeks would contain four thousand 
nine hundred years. However, the gene- 
rality of interpreters suppose them to consist 
of seven lunar or Hebrew years; and by 
this reckoning the seventy weeks would 
make four hundred and ninety years. (Dan. 
ix. 24 — 27.) There are many different hy- 
potheses concerning the beginning and the 
end of Daniel's seventy weeks, even among 
Christian writers, who believe that this pro- 
phecy marks the time of the birth and death 
of our Saviour Jesus Christ. Some begin 
them from the first year of Darius the Mede, 
which is the epocha of Daniel's prophecy, 
and conclude them at the profanation of the 
temple, under the persecution of Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Some begin them from the 
first year of Cyrus at Babylon, and end them 
at the destruction of the temple by the Ro- 
mans. Others fix the beginning at the first 
3 x 2 



WHA 



WHI 



year of Darius the Mede, in which this 
revelation was made to Daniel, and their 
end at the birth of Jesus Christ. Julius 
Africanus began the seventy weeks at the 
second year of Artaxerxes, who sent back 
Nehemiah into Judea, commissioned to re- 
build the walls of Jerusalem ; and he ter- 
minated them at the death of the Messiah, 
which happened, according to him, in the 
fifteenth year of Tiberius. Dr. Hales, and 
the late David Levi, reckon the seventy 
weeks of Daniel to commence from the 
time of Nehemiah's reform, before Christ 
420 years, and to terminate with the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem by Titus, A.D. 70. This 
is also agreeable to the opinion of Mede and 
Scaliger. f The seventy weeks, or 490 years 
of which this period consists,' says Dr. Hales, 
' are historically divided into 62, 7 and 1, 
weeks ; and the one week subdivided into a 
half week. At the expiration of 62 -j- 7 = 
69 weeks, or 483 years, Messiah the Leader 
was to send forth his "armies (the Romans), 
to destroy those murderers (the Jews), and 
to burn their city." (Matt. xxii. 7-) And ac- 
cordingly, the Jewish war commenced in the 
last or seventieth week, A.D. 65, during the 
administration of Gessius Florus, whose exac- 
tions drove the Jews into rebellion, accord- 
ing to Josephus.' Hales's New Analysis of 
Chronology, vol. ii. book i. p. 564. 

WHALE, the greatest of fishes known. 
Pliny says that whales have been seen of 
six hundred feet long, and three hundred 
and sixty feet thick. And Solinus writes, 
that there have been seen some of eight 
hundred feet long. But these are fables, 
and extravagant exaggerations. We are 
however assured, that in America there are 
some so large, that they measure ninety or 
a hundred feet from head to tail ; and 
it is owned that the whales in the North 
Seas are larger than those on the coast of 
Guinea, or in the Mediterranean. They 
might be much larger formerly, before the 
harpoon cut them off long before the natural 
term of their life. 

In Scripture there is often mention made 
of the cetus or whale. But the Hebrew 
word Don thannim, translated by whale, in- 
cludes all large fishes, whether of rivers, or 
of the sea. The fish that swallowed Jonah 
was probably the carcharias, great shark, or 
sea-dog. See Fish, and Jonah. 

WHITFIELDITES, the followers of the 
late Rev. George Whitfield. About the 
year 1741, or soon after Mr. Whitfield's se- 
cond return from America, which in the 
course of his life he is said to have visited 
seven times, he entirely separated from 
Mr. Wesley and his friends, ■ because he did 
not hold the decrees.' Here was the first 
breach which warm men persuaded Mr. 
Whitfield to make, merely for a difference of 
opinion. Those, indeed, who held general 
redemption, had no desire to separate ; but 
those who believed particular redemption, 
1044 



being determined to have no fellowship with 
men that ' were in such dangerous errors,' 
would not hear of any accommodation. So 
that, from the difference of the doctrines 
which each party maintained respecting the 
decrees of God and free-will, the body of 
Methodists, already immense, divided into 
two separate communions, the Calvinistic 
and the Arminian; these holding general, 
and those particular redemption. 

Mr. Whitfield, on being excluded from 
the pulpits in the Establishment, preached 
both in chapels licensed under the Tolera- 
tion Act, in places which were unlicensed, 
in the open air, in Moorfields, on Ken- 
nington Common, in the pulpits of the 
Associated Presbytery in Scotland, in those 
also of the Scottish national church ; and ' if 
the pope himself,' said he, ' would lend me 
his pulpit, I would gladly proclaim in it the 
righteousness of the Lord Jesus Christ' He 
distinctly professed himself a minister at 
large. ' Itinerating,' he used to say, * is my 
delight.' As a preacher he was more popu- 
lar than Mr. Wesley, but not more diligent ; 
the lives of both were active and laborious 
in the extreme ; but a period was much 
sooner put to Mr. Whitfield's exertions than 
to those of Mr. Wesley ; for the former died 
in 1770, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, at 
Newbury Port, near Boston, in New Eng- 
land. 

We are told that the followers of Mr. 
Whitfield "are, in the aggregate, a body 
nearly as numerous ' as those of Mr. Wes- 
ley, but not so compact and united. ' Their 
principles, being Calvinistic, recommended 
them especially to the various denomina- 
tions of Dissenters, and to those of the re- 
formed religion in Scotland and abroad. 
A great number of these joined Mr. Whit- 
field, as well as multitudes who left the 
established church. These were formed 
into congregations in divers places, who, 
though considering themselves as one body, 
have not the same union and interchange 
as the followers of Mr. Wesley. The first 
and principal of the churches, at Totten- 
ham Court, observes the church ceremonials 
and liturgy, the others use in general free 
prayer. Yet these consider themselves not 
as distinct independent churches, but formed 
under a federal connexion : and some of 
these have no stated pastor, but are sup- 
plied by a rotation of ministers. They have 
an ordination among themselves ; and where 
there is a stationary ministry, they still hold 
connexion with each other, and come up as 
invited or called upon to the greater con- 
gregations, for a fixed space, according to 
an appointed routine. All these places of 
worship are supported, not like Mr. Wes- 
ley's, by a general fund ; but the expenses 
of the meeting, and salaries of ministers, are 
provided by the several congregations, and 
collected and expended in each by stewards 
chosen out of the principal people. 



WHI 



WIC 



Some of Mr. Whitfield's followers, how- 
ever, seeing that the order established, which 
permitted the well-disposed among them to 
preach, who were not altogether qualified 
either in language or grammar, had not so 
good an effect with the intelligent part of 
the hearers, separated themselves under the 
patronage of the Countess of Huntingdon, 
who, while she lived, was the guardian of 
a connexion, which, until this period, had 
never obtained such consequence and re- 
spectability. The cause of this prosperity 
is obvious. The intelligent among them 
saw how necessary it was for the credit of 
religion, that their preachers should receive 
instruction, that men should not be per- 
mitted to preach, who, so far from under- 
standing the original languages in which the 
Scriptures were written, did not even un- 
derstand their own language, so as to deliver 
their sentiments with that grammatical 
accuracy which is absolutely necessary for 
a public speaker. 

Accordingly, the Countess of Huntingdon 
not only erected chapels in various parts 
of the kingdom, but built a college at Tre- 
vecka, in Wales, for the purpose of educa- 
ting pious young men for the ministry. 
Her own labours, we are told, were unwea- 
ried, her liberality extensive, and her whole 
deportment humble and pious ; and in this 
connexion alone, including the country con- 
gregations, in England, Wales, and Ireland, 
it is said there are now no less than one 
hundred thousand members. She ' left all 
her numerous chapels in the hands of de- 
visees; they pursue exactly the same method 
of procedure as she did. A number of 
ministers of the established church, and 
especially from Wales, where she long re- 
sided, continue to supply in rotation the 
larger chapels of her erection ; and those who 
were her students in her college in Wales, 
or have since been educated at Cheshunt, 
with others approved and chosen for the 
work, are dispersed through Great Britain 
and Ireland. All these ministers serve in 
succession; not depending upon the con- 
gregations in which they minister for their 
support, but on the trustees, under whose 
direction they move. Every congregation 
furnishes a stipulated maintenance to the 
minister during his residence among them, 
and his travelling expenses : but in no con- 
gregation do they remain as stated pastors, 
but expect a successor as soon as the time 
affixed for their stay is completed. Nor 
can any of the congregations dismiss the 
person resident, or procure a change, but 
by application to the trustees, such being 
the conditions on which they engage to sup- 
ply them with a succession of ministers. 
If any minister is peculiarly useful, and 
request is made that his stay may be pro- 
longed, it is usually complied with ; nay, 
sometimes, at the desire of the people, he is 
allowed to settle among them, liable how- 
1045 



ever to a call of two or three months an- 
nually, to be employed in the work at large. 
And if any minister is not acceptable, or 
his ministry beneficial, his stay is shortened, 
and he is removed to another station.' 

On the death of Lady Huntingdon, which 
happened in 1791, Lady Ann Erskine, sis- 
ter, or a near relation, of Lord Erskine, 
took her situation, and is said to have been 
equally attentive to the concerns of this part 
of the religious community. The property 
left by Lady Huntingdon for carrying on 
the work in which she had so warmly en- 
gaged was seized at her death by the Ame- 
ricans of Georgia and Carolina, where it 
lay ; and her assets in England, her chapels 
excepted, were not found sufficient for her 
engagements ; ' yet however unable to re- 
cover her estates, all claims have been dis- 
charged ; and the chapels, according to her 
will, maintained with less encumbrances 
than at her decease. The seminary in 
Wales ceased at her Ladyship's death, the 
lease being just expired, and no endowment 
left, her income dying with her. But a new 
college, on a plan more promising for litera- 
ture, has been established at Cheshunt, in 
Hertfordshire, near London ; and under the 
superintending care of trustees appointed 
for that purpose.' The students are not 
received into this college too young, nor 
much advanced in life ; usually between the 
age of twenty and thirty; and the term 
allotted for their studies is three or four 
years. Their education and maintenance 
is entirely free ; ' and at the expiration of 
the term of their studies, when they have 
been examined, and judged fit to proceed to 
the ministry, they are under no restrictions, 
but may apply for admission into the esta- 
blished church, or any other denomination 
of Christians. If Christ be but preached,' 
say they, ' the end of our seminary is an- 
swered.' Dr. Haweis's History of the Church 
of Christ, vol. iii. pp. 25G— 2G3 ; Adam's 
Religious World Displayed, vol. iii. pp. 140 
—140. 

WICKLIFFITES, the followers of the 
famous John Wickliff, called 'the first re- 
former,' who was born in Yorkshire, in the 
year 1324. He was an English doctor, pro- 
fessor of divinity at Oxford, and afterwards 
rector of Lutterworth ; and according to the 
testimony of the writers of these times, he 
was a man of enterprising genius and ex- 
traordinary learning. In the year 1300, 
animated by the example of Richard, arch- 
bishop of Armagh, he first defended the 
statutes and privileges of the University 
of Oxford against all the orders of the men- 
dicants, and had the courage to throw 
out some slight reproofs against the popes, 
their principal patrons. Alter this, in the 
year 1307, he was deprived of the warden- 
ship of Canterbury-hall, in the University 
of Oxford, by Simon Langhana, archbishop 
of Canterbury, who substituted a monk in 



WIC 



WID 



his place ; upon which he appealed to Urhan 
V. : but that pontiff confirmed the sentence 
of the archbishop against him, on account 
of the freedom with which he inveighed 
against the monastic orders. Highly ex- 
asperated at this treatment, he threw off all 
restraint, and not only attacked all the 
monks, and their scandalous irregularities, 
but even the pontifical power itself, and 
other ecclesiastical abuses, both in his sermons 
and writings. He even proceeded to still 
greater lengths, and, detesting the wretched 
superstitions of the times, refuted with great 
acuteness and spirit the absurd notions 
which were generally received in religious 
matters, and not only exhorted the laity to 
study the Scriptures, but also translated into 
English the sacred books, in order to render 
the perusal of them more universal. 

These services, so important to the cause 
of rational piety, were received with very 
considerable approbation by persons of every 
rank; for all abhorred the vices of the clergy, 
the tyranny of the court of Rome, and the 
insatiable avarice of the monks. But his 
attack of the doctrine of Transubstantiation 
occasioned the defection of numbers, who 
had entered with avidity into every other 
object of his designs, and firmly attached 
themselves to his interests. 

The monks, whom Wickliff had princi- 
pally exasperated, commenced a violent per- 
secution against him at the court of Gregory 
XI. ; and, in the year 1377> that pontiff or- 
dered Simon Sudbury, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, to take cognizance of the affair, in a 
council held at London. Imminent as the 
danger evidently was, Wickliff escaped it 
by the interest of the Duke of Lancaster : 
and soon after the death of Gregory XI. the 
fatal schism of the Romish church com- 
menced, during which there was one pope at 
Rome, and another at Avignon, so that of 
necessity the controversy lay dormant for a 
considerable time. No sooner, however, was 
this embroiled state of affairs tolerably set- 
tled, than the process against him was re- 
vived by William de Courtenay, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, in the year 1385, and was 
carried on with great vehemence, in two 
councils held at London and Oxford. The 
event was, that, of the twenty-three opi- 
nions for which Wickliff had been prosecuted 
by the monks, ten were condemned as here- 
sies, and thirteen as errors. He himself, 
however, returned in safety to Lutterworth, 
where he died peaceably in the year 1387- 
He left many followers in England, and 
other countries, who were styled Wickliffites 
and Lollards, the latter of which was a term 
of popular reproach transferred from the 
Flemish tongue into the English. Wher- 
ever they could be found, they were perse- 
cuted by the inquisitors, and other ministers 
of the Romish chuich ; and, in the council 
of Constance, in the year 1415, the memory 
and opinions of Wickliff were condemned 
1046 



by a solemn decree ; and about thirteen years 
after, his bones were dug up, and publicly 
burnt. Gregory's History of the Christian 
Church, vol. ii. pp. 214—216. 

WIDOW. Among the Hebrews, even 
before the law, a widow, who had no chil- 
dren by her husband, was to marry the bro- 
ther of her deceased spouse, in order to 
raise up children who might inherit his 
goods, and perpetuate his name and family. 
We find the practice of this custom before 
the law, in the person of Tamar, who mar- 
ried successively Er and Onan, the sons oi 
Judah, and who was likewise to have mar- 
ried Selah, the third son of this patriarch, 
after the two former were dead without 
issue. (Gen. xxxviii. 6 — II.) 

The law that appoints these marriages is 
Deut. xxv. 5, &c. 

Two motives prevailed to the enacting of 
this law. The first was, the continuation of 
estates in the same family, and the other was 
to perpetuate a man's name in Israel. It 
was looked on as a great misfortune for a 
man to die without an heir, or to see his 
inheritance pass into another family. This 
law was not confined to brothers-in-law 
only, but was extended to more distant re- 
lations of the same line, as we see in the 
example of Ruth, who married Boaz after 
she had been refused by a nearer kins- 
man. 

Widowhood, as well as barrenness, was 
a kind of shame and reproach in Israel. 
Isaiah, (liv. 4.) says, ' Thou shalt forget the 
shame of thy youth,' passed in celibacy and 
barrenness, 'and shalt not remember the 
reproach of thy widowhood any more.' It 
was presumed that a woman of merit and 
reputation might have found a husband, 
either in the family of her deceased hus- 
band, if he died without children; or in 
some other family if he had left children. 

God frequently recommends to his people 
to be very careful in relieving the widow 
and orphan. (Exod. xxii. 22. Deut. x. 18. ; 
xiv. 29.) St. Paul would have us honour 
widows that are widows indeed, and desolate 
(Tim. v. 3, &c.) ; that is, have a great re- 
gard for them, and supply them in their ne- 
cessity; for this is often signified by the verb 
to honour. God forbids his high-priest to 
marry a woman who is either a widow, or 
divorced. (Levit. xxi. 14.) 

Formerly there were widows in the Christ- 
ian church, who, because of their poverty, 
were placed on the list of persons to be pro- 
vided for at the expense of the church. 
There were others, who had certain em- 
ployments in the church ; as, to visit sick 
women, to assist women at baptism, and to 
do several things which decency would not 
permit the other sex to do. St. Paul did 
not allow any woman to be chosen into this 
number, unless she were threescore years 
old at least. (1. Tim. v. 9.) They must 
have been married but once ; must produce 



WIL 



WIL 



good testimony of their good works ; must 
have given good education to their chil- 
dren ; must have exercised hospitality ; 
washed the feet of the saints ; and given suc- 
cour to the miserable and afflicted. 

WILDERNESS, or Desert, "E W oc, 
">mo; by Midbar, 'desert,' the Hebrews 
mean an uncultivated place, particularly if 
mountainous. Some deserts were entirely 
dry and barren ; others were beautiful, and 
had good pastures. The Scripture speaks 
of the beauty of the desert (Psalm lxiv. 13. 
Jer. ix. 10. Joel i. 20.) ; and it names se- 
veral deserts of the Holy Land. Indeed, 
there was scarcely a town without a desert 
belonging to it ; that is, uncultivated places, 
for woods and pastures, like our English 
commons, or common lands. 

Arabia Petr^ea, Wilderness or Desert 
of, in which the Israelites sojourned forty 
years after leaving Egypt, is particularly 
called the Wilderness or Desert. The jour- 
ney of the Israelites, forty years, from their 
departure out of Egypt, till their arrival in 
the promised land of Canaan, is the most 
extraordinary event recorded in history. 



Almost every stage of it is marked by a 
succession of miracles the most signal and 
astonishing. For the instruction and ad- 
monition of posterity, Moses was directed 
to form a journal of their several stations 
and encampments, the principal of which 
be has recorded. (Numb, xxxiii. 1 — 49.) 
Dr. Shaw, Dr. Pococke, and several others, 
have endeavoured to trace the intricate 
route of the Israelites through ' the great 
and terrible, the waste and howling wilder- 
ness ' of Arabia Petraea. By them many 
of the stages have been ascertained. How- 
ever, no part of the history of the Israelites 
is more perplexing and obscure, in its 
geography, than the stations of this people 
during their continuance in the wilderness, 
and their progress towards Canaan. For 
though the descriptions of many are so par- 
ticular, that the places are readily ascer- 
tained by them, yet this is not the case 
with all. 

The following Table of the Stations, &c. 
of the Israelites in the wilderness, is copied 
from Dr. Hales's ' New Analysis of Chro- 
nology,' vol. i. pp. 365 — 400 : 



15 



D. 

15( 1« Rameses, near Cairo 

2. Succoth 

3. Etham, or Adsjerud 

4. Pihahiroth, or Valley of Bedea 

5. Shur; — Ain Musa ..... ,\ 

6. Desert of Shur, or Etham J 

7. Marah, 'bitter,' waters healed 

8. Elim, Valley of Corondel . . 

9. Encampment by the Red Sea 

10. Desert of Sin, Valley of Ba- j 
harim J 

Manna, for 40 years 

Quails, for a day 

Sabbath renewed, or revived 

11. Dophkah 

12. Alush v 

13. Rephidim . . . . 

{ Water, from the Rock Massah 

Amalekites defeated 

Jethro's visit 

I Judges appointed 

151 14. Mount Sinai, or Horeb 

The Decalogue given 

The Covenant made 

The Golden Calf { 

The Covenant renewed .... 
The-first muster, or numbering 
1 | The Tabernacle erected .... 
Aaron consecrated, and his 1 

Sons / 

Sacrifice of Atonement 

The second Passover 

The second muster 

Nadab and Abihu destroyed j 

15. Desert of Paran 

16. Taberah 



■2') 



Exod. xii. 37- . 

xii. 37. . 

xiii. 20 . 

xiv. 2. . 



xv. 22. 

xv. 23. 
xv. 27. 



xvi. 1 . , 

xvi. 35. 
xvi. 13. 
xvi. 23. 



XVII. 1. . . 

xvii. 6. . . 
xvii. 13. 
xviii. 5.. . 
xviii. 25. 
xix. 1. . . 
xx. 1. 
xxiv. 7- 
xxxii. 6. 



Nehem. ix. 18. 

xxxiv. 27- 

xxxviii. 26. 

xl. 17. 



Levit. viii. 6. 



ix. 1. 

Numb. ix. 5. 



■ 111. 4. 

Levit. x. 1. 
Numb. x. 12. 
x. 33 



Numb, xxxiii. 3. 

xxxiii. 3. 

xxxiii. 5. 

xxxiii. 7- 

xxxiii. 8. 



xxxiii. 8. 
xxxiii. 9. 
xxxiii. 10. 

xxxiii. 1 1. 



xxxiii. 12. 
xxxiii. 13. 
xxxiii. 14. 



xxxiii. 15. 



1017 



WIL 



WIL 



40 



40 






Murmuring of the people . . . . 
17- Kibroth Hattaavah, or To- r 

phel J 

Quails for a month 

Plague of the people 

Council of LXX. appointed . . 

18. Hazeroth { 

Miriam's Leprosy 

19. Kadesh Barnea, in Rith 

mah, or ' the Desert 

Sin or Paran 

Twelve spies sent 

Their return 

The people rebel 

Sentenced to wander 40 J 

years t 

Ten of the spies destroyed . . 
The people defeated by the \ 

Amalekites J 

Rebellion of Korah, &c 

Budding of Aaron's rod .... 

20. Rimmon Parez 

21 . Libnah, or Laban 

22. Rissah 

23. Kehelathah 

24. Mount Shapher 

25. Haradath, or 

Hazar Addar, or Adar . . . . | 

26. Makheloth 

27. Tahath 

28. Tarah 

29. Mithcah 

30. Hashmonah, or 

Azmon, or Selmonah j 

31. Beeroth 

32. Moseroth, or Mosera 

33. Benejaakan, or Banea 

34. Horhagidgad, or 

Gudgodah 

35. Jotbathah, or 

Etebatha, or Elath { 

36. Ebronah 

37- Ezion Gaber, or 

Dizahab 

38. Kadesh Barnea again, after 1 

38 years J 

Miriam's death 

Water from the rock Meribah 

Moses and Aaron offend . . j 

Mount Hor, or Seir, on the 1 

edge of Edom / 

Aaron's death 

KingArad attacks the Israelites 
Kibroth Hattaavah, or To- ) 

phel, again -» 

Zalmonah, or Hashmonah,) 

again / 

The people bitten by fiery -1 

serpents J 

The brazen serpent erected . . 
42. Punon 



Numb. xi. 3. 

xi. 34. . . 1 

Deut. i. 1 J 



Numb. xi. 35. . . "I 

Deut. i. 1 j 

Numb. xii. 10. 



xii. 16. .. \ 
xxxii. 18 . / 

xiii. 2. 
xiii. 26. 
xiv. 2. 
xiv. 33. 
xxxii. 13. 
xiv. 37. 

xiv. 45. 

xvi. 1. 
xvii. 10. 



Numb, xxxiii. 16. 



xxxiii. 17. 



Deut. i. I. 



Numb, xxxiv. 4. 
Josh. xv. 3. 



Numb, xxxiv. 4. 
Josh. xv. 4. 
Deut. x. 6. 



x.7. 



ii. 8. 

1 Kings ix. 26. 



39. 



40 



41 



Deut. i. 1. 

ii. 14 

Numb. xx. 1. 

xx. 13. 

xx. 12. 

xxvii. 14. 

xx. 22. . . 

xx. 28. . , 



Deut. i. I. 



Numb. xxi. 8. 



- xxxiii. 18. 



xxxiii. 19. 
xxxiii. 20. 
xxxiii. 21. 
xxxiii. 22. 
xxxiii. 23. 
xxxiii. 24. 



xxxiii. 25. 
xxxiii. 26. 
xxxiii. 27. 
xxxiii. 28. 
xxxiii. 29. 



xxxiii. 30. 
xxxiii. 31. 
xxxiii. 32. 

xxxiii. 33. 



xxxiii. 34. 
xxxiii. 35. 

xxxiii. 36. 



xxxiii. 37. 
xxxiii. 38. 



xxxiii. 41. 



xxxiii. 42. 



1048 



WIL 



WIN 



43. Oboth 

44. Jim, or Ije Abarim, 

border of Moab . 



in the 1 



12 



10 



45. The valley and brook Zered 1 

46. Arnon 

47. Beer, or Beer Elim j 

48. Jahaz 

49. Heshbon 

Sihon defeated. 

50. Jaazer 

51. Edrei 

Og defeated. 

52. Dibon Gad 

53. Almon Diblathaim 

54. Mattanah 

55. Nahaliel 

56. Bamoth 

57. Pisgah 

58. Abarim 

59. Shittim, or Abel Shittim 

In the plains of Moab .... 

Idolatry of Baal Peor 

Midianites punished 

The third muster 

Last exhortation of Moses . . 
Joshua appointed his sue- f 

cessor 1 

Death of Moses 

A month's mourning 

60. Joshua sends two spies .... 
Passage of the river Jordan 



Numb. xxi. 10. 



xxi. 12. 

Deut. ii. 13. 

xxi. 13. 

xxi. 16. 



Isaiah xv. 8. 
Numb. xxi. 23. 
xxi. 25. 



xxi. 32. 
xxi. 33. 



Ezekiel vi. 14.. 
Numb. xxi. 18. 

xxi. 19. 

xxi. 19. 

xxi. 20. 



Numb, xxxiii. 44. 



SXV. 1 . . . ) 

.1. J 



Josh. iii. 
Numb. xxv. 3. 

xxv. 17. 

xxvi. 2. 



Deut. i. 3. 
Numb, xxvii. 18. 
Deut. xxxiv. 9. 

xxxiv. 5 

xxxiv. 8. 



— xxxiii. 45. 

— xxxiii. 46. 



— xxxiii. 47. 

— xxxiii. 48. 



Josh. ii. 1. 
iv. 13. 



WINE. Several of the ancients were 
of opinion that wine was not in use before 
the Deluge, and that Noah was the first 
that introduced this liquor. However, 
scarcely any sacrifices were made to the 
Lord, but they were accompanied with li- 
bations of wine. (Exod. xxix. 40. Numb. xv. 
5, 70 Wine was forbidden to the priests 
during the time they were in the tabernacle, 
and employed in the services of the altar. 
(Levit. x. 9.) This liquor was also for- 
bidden to the Nazarites. (Numb. vi. 3.) 
The Rechabites observed a strict absti- 
nence from wine, in pursuance of the com- 
mands they had received from their father 
Rechab. 

In the style of the sacred penmen, the 
wine, or the cup, often represents the anger 
of God : ' Thou hast made us drink the 
wine of astonishment.' (Psalm lx. 3.) The 
Lord says to Jeremiah, (xxv. 15.) 'Take 
the wine-cup of this fury at my hand, and 
cause all the nations to whom I send thee, 
to drink it.' Wine was administered me- 
dicinally to such as were in trouble and 
sorrow. ■ Give strong drink unto him that 
is ready to perish, and wine to those that 
be of heavy hearts.' (Prov. xxxi. 4, 5, 6, 
&c.) The Rabbins tell us, that they used 
to give wine and strong drink to those who 
1049 



were condemned to die, at their execution, 
to stupify them, and take off some part of 
the fear and sense of their pain. There 
were certain charitable women at Jeru- 
salem, they tell us, who used to mix cer- 
tain drugs with wine, to make it stronger, 
and more capable of abating the sense of 
pain. Some think that such a kind of mix- 
ture was offered to Jesus Christ to drink, 
before he was fastened to the cross, (Mark 
xv. 23.) ; ' And they gave him to drink 
wine mingled with myrrh : but he received 
it not.' 

We read in the Evangelists of three po- 
tions offered to our Saviour at his passion. 
St. Matthew says, (xxvii. 33.) that when 
they came to Calvary they gave him to drink 
wine mixed with gall ; but when he had 
tasted it, he would not drink it St. Mark 
says, (xv. 23.) that they offered him wine 
mixed with myrrh ; but he would not drink 
of it St. Matthew says, (xxvii. 48.) that 
Jesus Christ being upon the cross, a soldier 
filling a spunge with vinegar, put it upon 
the end of a reed, and raised it to his mouth. 
This is entirely different from the two for- 
mer. The business is, to reconcile Matthew 
and Mark, and to determine whether the 
wine mingled with gall, mentioned by .Mat- 
thew, be the wine mixed with myrrh of Mark. 



WIN 



WIS 



Some have advanced, that Matthew having 
written it was wine mixed with gall, that was 
offered to our Saviour, Mark intended to 
express the bitterness of the gall by the word 
myrrh, which is a very bitter ingredient. 
Some have conceived that these two potions 
were offered our Saviour at different times ; 
that the devout women who attended on 
him offered him myrrhed wine, to diminish 
his sense of pain, whereas that of the sol- 
diers was wine mixed with gall. Might the 
first potion be prepared by friends, the se- 
cond common to ordinary criminals ? 

Wine ofHelbon (Ezekiel xxvii. 18.) was 
sold at the fairs of Tyre. Some say, that 
wine was well known to the ancients ; they 
called it Chalibonium vinum. It was made 
at Damascus ; and the Persians had planted 
vineyards there on purpose, as Posidonius 
affirms. This author says, that the kings 
of Persia used no other wine for their com- 
mon drink. Others make Helbon a com- 
mon name, ' sweet or fat wine :' for Helbon 
comes from a word that signifies fat. 

Wine of Lebanon. Hosea (xiv. 7-) speaks 
of this wine : ' The scent thereof shall be 
as the wine of Lebanon.' The wines of 
those sides of Mount Libanus that had a 
good aspect were heretofore much esteemed. 
But some think that the Hebrew text, 
' Wine of Lebanon,' may signify a sweet- 
scented wine, wine in which perfumes are 
mixed, or other drugs, to give it a better 
flavour. Odoriferous wines were not un- 
known to the Hebrews. In the Canticles, 
(viii. 2.) mention is made of a medicated 
wine mixed with perfumes. The wines of 
Palestine being heady, they used to qualify 
them with water ; or rather, perhaps, they 
mingled two kinds of wine together; that 
they might be drunk without any inconve- 
nience. ' She hath mingled her wine ; she 
hath also furnished her table. Come, eat 
of my bread, and drink of the wine which I 
have mingled.' (Prov. ix. 2. 5.) ' The 
wicked eat the bread of wickedness, and 
drink the wine of violence,' (Prov. iv. 17-) 
that is to say, they are maintained with ill- 
gotten goods, or they abuse the good things 
that God gives them : they offend him by 
the bad use they make of the necessaries 
of life. 

In Amos (ii. 8.) it is said, ' they drink 
the wine of the condemned in the house of 
their God :' that is, they drink the wine, 
they make themselves merry at the ex- 
pense of those whom they have unjustly 
condemned. The Septuagint say, they 
drink wine earned by their slanders. The 
Chaldee, the wine of rapine, of fines, 
mulcts. 

WISDOM, sapientia; in Greek *2,o<pia 
Sophia; in Hebrew nODn, Chachemah. I. 
Wisdom signifies understanding, or the 
knowledge of things supernatural and di- 
vine. It occurs in this sense in the Psalms, 
&c. This wisdom Solomon entreated of 
1050 



God with so much earnestness, and God 
granted him with so much liberality. This 
may be called Sacred Understanding. 

2. Wisdom expresses quickness of inven- 
tion, and dexterity in the execution of works, 
which require not so much strength of body 
as exertion of mind. God told Moses that 
he had filled Bezaleel and Aholiab with wis- 
dom, and understanding, and knowledge, to 
invent and perform several sorts of work for 
the tabernacle. (Exod. xxviii. 3. ; xxxi. 3.) 
This may be called Ingenuity. 

3. Wisdom is used for craft, cunning, and 
stratagem ; whether good or evil. It is said, 
(Exod. i. 10.) that Pharaoh dealt wisely 
with the Israelites, when he oppressed them 
in Egypt. It is observed (2 Sam. xiii. 3.) 
of Jonadab, the friend of Ammon and ne- 
phew of David, that he was very wise, that 
is, very subtle and crafty. And Job says (v. 
13.) that God taketh the wise in their own 
craftiness. This may be called Subtil ty. 

4. Wisdom is taken for doctrine, learn- 
ing, and experience. (Job xii. 2 — 12.) 
' With the ancient is wisdom, and in length 
of days understanding.' This may be called 
Sagacity. 

5. Scripture gives the name of wisdom 
sometimes to magicians, enchanters, fortune- 
tellers, soothsayers, and interpreters of 
dreams. This may be called Science. 

6. Wisdom is put for eternal Wisdom, 
the Word, the Son of God. (Prov. iii. 19.) 
By Wisdom God established the heavens, 
and founded the earth; this Wisdom the 
Lord possessed ' from everlasting, from the 
beginning, or ever the earth was.' (Prov. 
viii. 22, 23) It existed before God created 
any thing, and was present with the Creator 
at his production of sensible beings. 

The Book of Wisdom is an apocryphal 
book of Scripture, and is so called from the 
wise maxims and useful instructions which 
it contains. This book is commonly as- 
cribed to king Solomon ; either because the 
author imitated that king's manner of writ- 
ing, or because he sometimes speaks in his 
name. It is certain, however, that Solomon 
was not the author of it; for it was not 
written in Hebrew, nor was it inserted in 
the Jewish canon, nor is the style like that 
of Solomon. Hence Jerome observes justly, 
that it savours much of Grecian eloquence ; 
that it is composed with art and method, 
after the manner of the Greek philosophers ; 
very different from that noble simplicity 
found in the Hebrew books. It has been 
attributed by many of the ancients to Philo, 
a Jew, but more ancient than him whose 
works are now extant. It is, however, com- 
monly ascribed to an Hellenistic Jew, who 
lived since Ezra, and about the time of the 
Maccabees. It may be divided into two 
parts : the first is a description and enco- 
mium of wisdom ; the second, beginning at 
the tenth chapter, is a long discourse, in 
the form of prayers, in which the author 



WOR 



WOR 



admires and extols the wisdom of God, and 
of those who honour him, and discovers the 
folly of the wicked, who have been the pro- 
fessed enemies of the good and virtuous in 
all ages of the world. Broughton's Histor. 
Diet, vol.ii. p. 512. 

WORD, in Heb. nm, Dabar ; in Latin, 
Verbum, or Sermo ; in Greek, prjfjia, Rhema, 
or Xoyoc, Logos. Sometimes Scripture as- 
cribes to the Word of God certain super- 
natural effects ; or represents it as animated 
and active : " He sent his Word and healed 
them." 

Word is also consecrated and appropriated 
to signify the only Son of the Father, the 
uncreated Wisdom, the second person of 
the most Holy Trinity, equal and consub- 
stantial to the Father. St. John the Evan- 
gelist, more expressly than any other, has 
opened to us the mystery of the Word of 
God, when he tells us, ' In the beginning 
was the Word, and the Word was with God, 
and the Word was God. The same was in 



the beginning with God. All things were 
made by him, and without him was not any 
thing made that was made.' The Chaldee 
paraphrasts, the most ancient Jewish writers 
extant, generally use the name Memra, or 
Word, where Moses puts the name Jehovah. 
In effect, according to them, it was Memra 
who created the world ; who appeared to 
Abraham in the plain of Mamre ; and to 
Jacob at Eethel. It was Memra to whom 
Jacob appealed to witness the covenant be- 
tween him and Laban. The same Word 
appeared to Moses at Sinai ; gave the law to 
the Israelites ; spoke face to face with that 
lawgiver ; marched at the head of that people ; 
enabled them to conquer nations, and was a 
consuming fire to all who violated the law of 
the Lord. All these characters, where the 
paraphrast uses the word Memra, clearly de- 
note Almighty God. This Word, therefore, 
was God, and the Hebrews were of this 
opinion, at the time that the Targura was 
composed. 



Y. 



YEA 

YEAR. The Hebrews had always years, 
of twelve months. But at the beginning, 
and in the time of Moses, they were solar 
years, of twelve months each, having thirty 
days to the month ; but the twelfth month 
had thirty-five days. We see, by the reckon- 
ing of the days of the deluge, (Gen. vii.) 
that the Hebrew year consisted of three 
hundred and sixty-five days. It is supposed 
that they had an intercalary month at the 
end of one hundred and twenty years ; at 
which time the beginning of their year 
would be out of its place full thirty days. 
But it must be owned that no mention is 
made in Scripture of the thirteenth month, 
or of any intercalation. It is probable that 
Moses retained the order of the Egyptian 
year, since he himself came out of Egypt, 
was born there, had been instructed and 
brought up there, and since the people of 
Israel had been long accustomed to this 
year. But the Egyptian year was solar, and 
consisted of twelve months of thirty days 
each, and had been so calculated for a very 
long time before. 

After the time of Alexander the Great, 
and of the Grecians in Asia, the Jews 
reckoned by lunar months, chiefly in what 
related to religion, and to the festivals. 
St. John (Rev. xi. 2, 3. ; xii. 6. 14. ; xiii. 5.) 
assigns but twelve hundred and sixty days to 
1051 



YEA 

three years and a half, that is, thirty days to 
every month, and three hundred and sixty 
days to a year. Maimonides tells us, that 
the years of the Jews were solar, and their 
months lunar. Since the completing of the 
Talmud, they use years purely lunar ; having 
alternately a full month of thirty days, and 
a defective month of twenty-nine days. To 
accommodate this lunar year to the course of 
the sun, at the end of three years they inter- 
calate a whole month after Adar ; which in- 
tercalated month they call Ve-adar, that is, 
second Adar. 

The civil year of the Hebrews has always 
begun at autumn, at the month Tisri (that 
is, September, and sometimes enters October, 
according as the lunations happen). But 
their sacred years, by which the festivals, 
assemblies, and other religious acts were 
regulated, begin in the spring at the month 
Nisan (March, and sometimes a part of 
April, according to the course of the moon). 

Nothing is more equivocal among the 
ancients than the term year. The year 
always has been, and still is, a source of 
dispute among the learned ; on account of its 
duration, its .beginning, or its end. Some 
nations formerly made their year to consist 
of one month, some of four, some of six, 
some of ten, others of twelve. Some have 
made one year of winter, another of sumniei . 



YEA 



YEA 



The beginning of the year was fixed some- 
times at autumn, sometimes at spring, some- 
times at mid-winter. Some used lunar, 
others solar months. Even the days have 
been differently divided ; some beginning 
them at evening, others at morning, others at 
noon, others at midnight. With some the 
hours were equal, both in winter and sum- 
mer ; with others they were unequal. They 
counted twelve hours to the day, and twelve 
to the night. In summer, the hours of the 
day were longer than those of the night ; on 
the contrary, in winter, the hours of the 
night were longest. 

The Hebrews always reckoned by weeks, 
as a memorial of the creation of the world 
in seven days. They had weeks of seven 
years each, at the term of which was the 
sabbatical year ; also weeks of seven times 
seven years, terminated by the year of jubi- 
lee ; and finally, weeks of seven days. 

' In some parts of the East,' says a late 
writer, ' the year ending on a certain day, 
any portion of the foregoing year is" taken 
for a whole year : so that supposing a child 
to be born in the last week of our December, 
it would be reckoned one year old on the 
first day of January. This sounds like a 
strange solecism to us : a child not a week 
old, not a month old, is yet one year old ! 
because born in the old year. If this mode 
of computation obtained among the Hebrews, 
the principle of it easily accounts for those 
anachronisms of single years or parts of 
years taken for whole ones, which occur in 
sacred writ ; it eases the difficulties which 
concern the half years of several princes of 
Judah and Israel, in which the latter half of 
the deceased king's last year has hitherto 
been supposed to be added to the former 
half of his successor's first year. 

' This mode of enumeration clears the 
phrase " three days," &c. where it occurs, 
reckoning as the entire first day whatever 
small portion of that day was included, even 
if only a quarter of it ; and the same as to 
the third day ; so that a few hours pass for a 



whole day in this case, as a few months or 
weeks pass for a whole year in the other case. 
' We are told (1 Sam. xiii. 1.) f a son 
of one year was Saul in his kingdom ; and 
two years he reigned over Israel,' that is, 
say he was crowned in June ; he was con- 
sequently one year old, as king, on the first 
of January following, though he had only 
reigned six months ; the son of a year ; but 
after this so following first of January he 
was in the second year of his reign, though 
according to our computation, the first year 
of his reign wanted some months of being 
completed : in this, his second year, he chose 
three thousand military &c. guards. The 
phraise (diro Sierng) used to denote the 
age of the infants slaughtered at Bethlehem, 
(Matt. ii. 16) 'from two year3 old and 
under,' is a difficulty which has been strongly 
felt by the learned. Some infants two weeks 
old, some two months, others two years, 
equally slain ! Surely those born so long 
before could not possibly be included in the 
order, whose purpose was to destroy a child, 
certainly born within a few months. This 
is regulated at once, by the idea that they 
were all nearly of equal age, being recently 
born ; some not long before the close of the 
old year, others a little time since the be- 
ginning of the new year. Now these born 
before the close of the old year, though only 
a few months, or weeks, would be reckoned 
not merely one year old, but also, in their 
second year, as the expression implies ; and 
those born since the beginning of the year, 
would be well described by the phrase ' and 
under,' that is, under one year old; — some 
two years old, though not born a complete 
twelve-month, (perhaps, in fact, barely six 
months,) others under one year old, yet born 
three, four, or five months ; and therefore, 
a very trifle younger, than those before de- 
scribed : ' according to the time which he 
had diligently inquired of the wise men.' — 
In their second year, and under. Supple- 
ment. Addenda to Calmet's Dictionary of the 
Holy Bible. 



z. 



ZAC 



ZAC 



ZACCHE'US ZcucxaZoc,, signifies pure, 
clean; according to the Syriac, just 
or justified. Judas Maccabaeus left Simon, 
Joseph, and Zaccheus, to besiege the sons of 
Bean, in two towers. (2 Mace. x. 19. 1 Mace. 
v. 4, 5,) in the year of the world 3840. But 
Simon's people being bribed with money, 
permitted some to escape. Judas put these 
1052 



traitors to death. It is not plain that Jo- 
seph, Simon, or Zaccheus, had share in 
this treachery. 

Zaccheus, chief of the Publicans ; that 
is, farmer-general of the revenue. (Luke 
xix. 1, 2, 3, &c.) A little before the death 
of our Saviour, when Jesus Christ passed 
through Jericho, Zaccheus greatly desired 



ZAC 



ZAC 



to see him, but could not, because of the 
multitude, and because he was low of sta- 
ture. He therefore ran before, and climbed 
up into a sycamore tree. When Jesus came 
to that place, he lifted up his eyes, and said 
to him, Zaccheus make haste and come 
down ; for to-day I must abide at thy house. 
Zaccheus immediately came down, and re- 
ceived him with much joy. Those who saw 
this murmured, and said within them- 
selves, ' he is gone to be a guest with a man . 
that is a sinner.' In the mean time, Zac- 
cheus said to Jesus, ' Behold, Lord, the half 
of my goods I give to the poor ; and if I have 
taken any thing from any man by false ac- 
cusation, I restore him four-fold.' The 
Roman laws condemned publicans, when 
convicted of extortion, to make restitution 
to four times the value. 

Jesus Christ answered him, ' This day is 
salvation come to this house, forasmuch as 
he also is a son of Abraham.' This is 
all that the Scripture informs us of Zac- 
cheus the publican. Some have thought 
that he was a Gentile before his conversion ; 
but the opinion of commentators is, that 
he was a Jew : for many of this nation 
exercised the employment of a publican. 
Clemens Alexandrinus says, many did not 
distinguish Zaccheus from St. Matthew, 
pretending he was advanced to the apostle- 
ship after the death of Judas. Others have 
affirmed, that St. Peter ordained him bishop 
of Cesarea in Palestine. But it is pro- 
bable they confounded him with another 
Zaccheus, bishop of this church, in the 
second century. 

Notwithstanding the great disrepute of 
publicans or tax-gatherers, Zaccheus could 
not have acquired all his property by injus- 
tice, if one eighth part of it would have en- 
abled him to make four-fold restitution : 
indeed, he seems rather to say that he had 
not wronged any, by his use of the particle 
if. Supplement. Addenda to Calmet's Dic- 
tionary of Hie Holy Bible. 

ZACHARl'AH, n-lDT, signifies, memory 
of the Lord, or male of the Lord. Zacha- 
riah, king of Israel, succeeded his father 
Jeroboam II. in the year of the world 
3220. He reigned but six months, and did 
evil in the sight of the Lord. (2 Kings xiv. 
29.) Shallum, the son of Jabesh, conspired 
against him, killed him in public, and 
reigned in his stead. Thus was fulfilled 
what the Lord had foretold to Jehu, that 
his children should sit on the throne of 
Israel to the fourth generation. (2 Kings 
xv. 8— 11.) 

Zachariah, son of Jehoiada, high-priest 
of the Jews ; probably the Azariah of 1 Chron. 
vi. 10, 11. He was put to death by 
order of Joash, in the year of the world 
3HJ4. The Scripture observes, (2 Chron. 
xxiv. 21, 22.) 'Joash the king remembered 
not the kindness which Jehoiada, father of 
1053 



Zachariah, had done to him, but he slew 
his son : and when he died, he said, The 
Lord look upon it, and require it.' The 
year following God sent the army of Syria 
against Judah, which entered Jerusalem, 
slew the princes of the people, and sent a 
great booty to Damascus. 

Several commentators are of opinion, 
that this is the Zacharias the son of Bara- 
chias, who, as our Saviour tells us (Matt 
xxiii. 34, 35.) was slain by the Jews be- 
tween the temple and the altar. See Bara- 
chias. 

Zachariah, the eleventh of the lesser 
prophets. He was son of Barachiah, and 
grandson of Iddo. He returned from Ba- 
bylon with Zerubbabel, and began to pro- 
phesy in the second year of Darius, son of 
Hystaspes, in the year of the world 3484, in 
the eighth month of the holy year, and two 
months after Haggai. These two prophets, 
with united zeal, encouraged the people to 
resume the work of the temple, which had 
been discontinued for some years. (Ezra 
v. 1 ) The time and place of the birth of 
Zachariah are unknown. Some think him 
to have been born at Babylon, during the 
captivity : others think at Jerusalem, be- 
fore Judah and Benjamin were carried away. 
Some maintained that he was a priest : 
others, that he was no priest. Many .say he 
was the son of Iddo; others, with much 
more reason, that he was the son of Bara- 
chiah, and grandson of Iddo. (Zech. i. 1.) 
He has been confounded with a Zachariah, 
the son of Barachias, contemporary with 
Isaiah (viii. 2.) and, with Zachariah, the 
father of John the Baptist ; which opinion is 
plainly incongruous. He has been thought 
to be the Zachariah, son of Barachias, whom 
our Saviour mentions, as killed between 
the temple and the altar ; though no such 
thing is any where said of this prophet. 
At the foot of Mount Olivet they show a 
tomb which they pretend belongs to the 
prophet Zachariah. Dorotheus maintains 
that he was buried in a place called Betha- 
riah, an hundred and fifty furlongs from 
Jerusalem. 

Zachariah begins his prophecy with an 
exhortation to the people to be converted 
to the Lord, and not to imitate the stub- 
bornness of their fathers. In the fourth 
year of Darius, in the year of the world 
3486, on the fourth day of the ninth month, 
the prophet was consulted by Sherezer, lle- 
gem-melech, and others, whether they ought 
to continue to fast on the fifth month, as 
they had hitherto done since the ruin of the 
temple ? He answered, that these fasts 
were of their own invention ; that what God 
chiefly required of them, was piety and 
justice, and that, finally, their days of lasting 
should be soon changed into days of joy and 
thanksgiving. He foretells, in a ven ex- 
press manner, the coming of Jesus Christ, 



ZAC 



ZAD 



a Saviour, poor, and sitting on an ass, and 
a colt, the foal of an ass, In the eleventh 
chapter he speaks of the war of the Ro- 
mans against the Jews, of the breach of the 
covenant between God and his people ; of 
thirty pieces of silver given for a recom- 
pense to the shepherd ; of three shepherds 
put to death in one month, &c. 

Zachariah is the longest and the most 
obscure of all the twelve minor prophets. 
His style is interrupted, and without con- 
nexion. His prophecies concerning the 
Messiah are more particular and express 
than those of the other prophets. Some 
modern critics, as Mede and Hammond, 
have been of opinion, that chap. ix. x. xi. 
of this prophet were written by Jeremiah ; 
because, in Matthew (xxvii. 9, 10.) under 
the name of Jeremiah we find quoted Zach. 
(xi. 12.) ; and as the aforesaid chapters make 
but one continued discourse, they concluded 
from hence that all three belonged to Jere- 
miah. But it is much more natural to sup- 
pose that the name of Jeremiah, by some 
unlucky mistake, has slipped into the text 
of St. Matthew. 

Zachariah, the son of Barachiah, or 
Jeberechiah, mentioned in Isaiah, (viii. 2.) ; 
or according to Jerome, this is the prophet 
mentioned in the Chronicles, under the 
reign of Hezekiah, or rather under that of 
Azariah, or Uzziah, (2 Chron. xxvi. 5.): 
' And he sought God in the days of Zacha- 
riah, who had understanding in the visions 
of God.' This Zachariah might live to 
the reign of^ Ahaz, in the year of the world 
3262, when the Lord said to him, ' Take 
thee a great roll, and write in it with a 
man's pen, concerning Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz.' Isaiah adds, 'And I took unto me 
faithful witnesses to record, Uriah the 
priest, and Zachariah the son of Jebere- 
chiah.' 

Zachariah, a priest of the family of 
Abia, father of John the Baptist, and 
husband to Elisabeth. (Luke i. 5. 12, &c.) 
This is what we are told in the Gospel : 
Zacharias and Elisabeth were both right- 
eous before God, walking in all the com- 
mandments and ordinances of the Lord 
blameless. And they had no child, because 
that Elisabeth was barren, and they both 
were now well stricken in years.' But in 
the year of the world 3999, about fifteen 
months before the birth of Jesus Christ, 
as Zachariah was waiting his week, and 
performing the functions of priest in the 
temple, ' according to the custom of the 
priest's office, his lot was to burn incense, 
when he went into the temple of the Lord,' 
on the altar of gold in the holy place. 
There the angel Gabriel appeared to him, 
and told him that his prayer was heard ; 
and declared that his wife Elisabeth should 
bear a son, whom he should call by the 
name of John. Zachariah asked the angel 
1054 



how he was to be convinced of that, seeing 
both he and his wife were greatly advanced 
in years. The angel told him that he should 
be dumb, and not able to speak, until the 
time that this prophecy should be accom- 
plished, because he believed not the Di- 
vine promise. 

The people were waiting till Zachariah 
came forth out of the holy place ; and they 
were surprised at his long delay. But when 
he came out he was not able to speak ; by 
his making signs to them, they found that 
he had seen a vision, and was become dumb. 
When the days of his ministry were com- 
pleted, that is, at the end of about a week, 
he returned to his own house ; and his wife 
Elisabeth conceived a son, of whom, she 
was happily delivered in due time. Her 
neighbours and kinsfolk assembled to con- 
gratulate her on this occasion ; and on the 
eighth day they circumcised the child, 
calling his name Zachariah, after the name 
of his father: but Elisabeth then inter- 
posed, and said, No ; his name is John. 
Then they desired a token from his father, 
how he would have him named ; he making 
signs for a tablet, wrote on it, His name is 
John, which was a cause of admiration to 
all present. At this instant his mouth was 
opened, his tongue was loosed, and he 
spake, praising God. And Zachariah, being 
filled with the Holy Ghost, prophesied, by 
a canticle, which St. Luke has preserved, 
(chap, ii.) Some have thought that Zacha- 
riah, the father of the Baptist, was high- 
priest; but no more appears from St. Luke 
than that he was an ordinary priest. 

ZA'DOK, p-Htf, signifies just, or justified. 
Zadok or Sadoc, son of Ahitub, high-priest 
of the Jews, of the race of Eleazar. From 
the time of Eli, the high-priesthood had 
been in the family of Ithamar, but was res- 
tored to the family of Eleazar, in the time 
of Saul, in the person of Zadok, who was 
put in the place of Ahimelech, slain by Saul, 
in the year of the world 2944. (1 Sam. xxii. 
17, 18.) While Zadok performed the func- 
tions of the priesthood with Saul, Ahime- 
lech performed it with David ; so that till 
the reign of Solomon there were two high- 
priests in Israel : Zadok of the race of Ele- 
azar, and Ahimelech of the race of Ithamar. 
(2 Sam. viii. 17.) 

When David was forced to quit Jerusa- 
lem, on account of the rebellion of his son 
Absalom, Zadok and Abiathar would have 
accompanied him with the ark of the Lord. 
(2 Sam. xv. 24.) But David would not 
permit them. To Zadok, he said, O seer, 
return into the city with Ahimaaz your son, 
and let Abiathar and his son Jonathan re- 
turn also. I will conceal myself in the 
country, till you send me news of what passes. 
Zadok and Abiathar returned therefore to 
Jerusalem ; but their two sons Ahimaaz and 
Jonathan hid themselves near the fountain 



ZAR 



ZED 



of Rogel : and when Hushai the friend of 
David had defeated the counsel of Ahitho- 
phel, they communicated this to David. 

After the defeat of Absalom, David sent 
word to Abiathar and Zadok to persuade the 
elders of Judah to show their zeal for the 
king, by making haste to come, and invite 
his return into his metropolis. (2 Sam. xix. 
11,12.) 

The high-priest, Zadok, did not engage 
in the party of Adonijah, who aspired at 
the kingdom to the exclusion of Solomon 
(1 Kings i. 5. 10, &c); and David sent 
Zadok with Nathan, and the chief officers 
of his court, to give the royal unction to 
Solomon, and to proclaim him king instead 
of his father. 

After the death of David, Solomon ex- 
cluded Abiathar from the high-priesthood, 
because he had espoused the party of Adoni- 
jah, and made Zadok high-priest alone. 
(1 Kings ii. 35.) It is not very well known 
when he died ; but his successor was his son 
Ahimaaz, who enjoyed the high-priesthood 
under Rehoboam. 

ZA'REPHATH, or Sarep'ta, nnsm, 
signifies the narrows of the puffed cheek, or 
of bread ; otherwise, blowing, or of the blow- 
ers ; otherwise, the narrows of swelling, or 
of persuasion. Zarephath, or Sarepta, was 
a city of the Sidonians, between Tyre and 
Sidon, upon the coast of the Mediterranean 
Sea. It was remarkable for being the re- 
sidence of the prophet Elijah, with a poor 
woman here, during a famine in the land 
of Israel. (1. Kings xvii. 9, 10.) In all 
probability it' is, as Mr. Maundrell observes, 
the same as that now called Sarphan, dis- 
tant about three hours' travel from Sidon 
towards Tyre. This writer says, that the 
place shown for this city consists at pre- 
sent only of a few houses on the tops of the 
mountains about half-a-mile from the sea. 
But it is more probable the principal part 
of the city stood below, in the space be- 
tween the hills and the sea, there being 
ruins of considerable extent still seen in 
that place. Wells's Geography of the Old 
and New Testament, vol. ii. p. 165. 

ZEBO'IM, Q'av, signifies young of sheep 
or goats; otherwise fair, or exemplary ; other- 
wise, puffed up ; or from the Syriac, volun- 
teers. Zeboim was one of the four cities 
of Pentapolis, consumed by fire from Hea- 
ven. (Gen. xix. 24.) Eusebius and Jerome 
speak of Zeboim, as of a city extant in 
their time, on the western shore of the 
Dead Sea. Therefore, after the time of 
Lot and Abraham, a city must have been 
re-built near where Zeboim was before. 
The valley of Zeboim is mentioned (1 Sam. 
xiii. 18.) also Zeboim a city of Benjamin. 
(Nehem. xi. 34.) 

ZEB'ULUN, yiSm, signifies to endow; 
otherwise dwelling, habitation. Zebulun, or 
Zabulon, the sixth son of Jacob and Leah. 
1055 



{Gen. xxx. 20.) He was born in Mesopo- 
tamia, about the year of the world 2256. 
His sons were Sered, Elon, and Jahleel. 
(Gen. xlvi. 14.) Moses acquaints us with 
no particulars of his life ; but Jacob, in his 
last blessing, said of Zebulun, (Gen. xlix. 
13.) ' Zebulun shall dwell at the haven of 
the sea, and he shall be for a haven of ships, 
and his border shall be unto Zidon.' His 
portion extended along the coast of the Me- 
diterranean Sea, one end of it bordering on 
this sea, and the other on the Sea of Tibe- 
rias. (Josh. xix. 10, &c.) In the last words 
of Moses, he joins Zebulun and Issachar 
together; saying, (Deut. xxxiii. 18.) 'Re- 
joice, Zebulun, in thy going out, and Issa- 
char in thy tents. They shall call the peo- 
ple unto the mountain, there they shall 
offer sacrifices of righteousness. For they 
shall suck of the abundance of the seas, and 
of treasures hid in the sand.' Meaning 
that these two tribes being at the greatest 
distance north, should come together to the 
temple at Jerusalem, to the holy mountain, 
and should bring with them such of the 
other tribes as dwelt in their way ; and that 
being situated on the coast of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, they should apply themselves 
to trade and navigation, and to the melting 
of metals and glass, denoted by those words, 
' Treasures hid in the sand.' The river 
Belus, whose sand was very fit for making 
glass, was in this tribe. 

When the tribe of Zebulun left Egypt, it 
had for its chief Eliab, the son of Elon, and 
comprehended 57,400 men able to bear 
arms. (Numb. i. 9—30.) In another re- 
view, thirty-nine years afterwards, this tribe 
amounted to 60,500 men, of age to bear 
arms. (Numb. xxvi. 26, 27.) The tribes 
of Zebulun and Naphtali distinguished 
themselves in the war of Barak and Debo- 
rah against Sisera, the general of the armies 
of Jabin. (Judg. iv. 5, 6. 10. ; v. 4. 14.) It 
is thought these tribes were the first carried 
into captivity beyond the Euphrates, by 
Pul, and Tiglath-pileser, kings of Assyria. 
(1 Chron. v. 26.) They had also the ad- 
vantage of hearing and seeing Jesus Christ 
in their country, oftener and longer than 
any other of the tribes. (Isaiah ix. 1. Matt, 
iv. 13. 15.) 

Zebulun, a city of Asher, (Josh. xix. 27-) 
but, probably, afterwards yielded to Zebu- 
lun, whence it took its name. It was not 
far from Ptolemais, since Josephus makes 
the length of Lower Galilee to be from Ti- 
berias to Ptolemais. Elon, the judge of 
Israel, was of the tribe of Zebulun, and was 
buried in this city. (Judg. xii. 12.) 

ZEDEKI'AH, wpty, signifies the Lord 
is my justice, or the justice of the Lord. Ze- 
dekiah or Mattaniah, was the last king of 
Judah before the captivity of Babylon. He 
was the son of Josiah, and uncle to Jehoia- 
chin his predecessor. (2 Kings xxiv. 17- 



ZED 



ZEP 



19.) When Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusa- 
lem, he carried Jehoiachin to Babylon, with 
his wives, children, officers, and the best 
artificers in Judea, and put in his place his 
uncle Mattaniah, whose name he changed 
into Zedekiah, and made him promise, with 
an oath, that he would continue in fidelity 
to him, in the year of the world 3405. (2 
Chron. xxxvi. 13. Ezek. xvii. 12. 14. 18.) 
He was twenty-one years old when he began 
to reign at Jerusalem, and he reigned there 
eleven years. He did evil in the sight of 
the Lord, committing the same crimes as 
Jehoiakim. (2 Kings xxiv. 18, 19, 20. 2 
Chron. xxxvi. 11, 12, 13.) He regarded 
not the menaces of the prophet Jeremiah, 
from the Lord ; but hardened his heart. The 
princes of the people, and the inhabitants 
of Jerusalem, imitated his impiety, and 
abandoned themselves to all the abomina- 
tions of the Gentiles. 

In the first year of his reign, Zedekiah 
sent to Babylon Elasah, the son of Shaphan, 
and Gemariah, the son of Hilkiah, probably 
to carry his tribute to Nebuchadnezzar. By 
these messengers Jeremiah sent a letter to 
the captives at Babylon. (Jer. xxix. 1 — 
23.) Four years afterwards, either Zede- 
kiah went thither himself, or at least he 
sent thither ; for the Hebrew text may ad- 
mit either of these interpretations. (Jer. li. 
59. Baruch i. 1. Jer. xxxii. 12.) The 
chief design of this deputation was to en- 
treat Nebuchadnezzar to return the sacred 
vessels of the temple. (Baruch i. 8.) In 
the ninth year of his reign, he revolted 
against Nebuchadnezzar. (2 Kings xxv. 
1, 2, 3.) It was a sabbatical year, in which 
the people should set their slaves at liberty, 
according to the law. (Exod. xxi. 2. Deut. 
xv. 1, 2. 12. Jer. xxxiv. 8, 9, 10.) Then 
king Nebuchadnezzar marched his army 
against Zedekiah, and took all the fortified 
places of his kingdom, except Lachish, 
Azekah, and Jerusalem. 

He sat down before Jerusalem on the 
tenth day of the tenth month of the holy 
year (which answers to our January.) Some 
time afterwards, Pharaoh Hophrah, king of 
Egypt, marched to assist Zedekiah. (Jer. 
xxxvii. 3, 4, 5. 10.) Nebuchadnezzar left 
Jerusalem, and went to meet him, defeated 
him, and obliged him to return into Egypt ; 
after which he resumed the siege of Jerusa- 
lem. In the mean while the people of Je- 
rusalem, as if freed from the fear of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, retook the slaves whom they 
had set at liberty, which drew upon them 
great reproaches and threatenings from Je- 
remiah, (xxxiv. 11. 22.) During the siege, 
Zedekiah often consulted Jeremiah, who 
advised him to surrender, and pronounced 
the greatest woes against him, if he should 
persist in his rebellion. (Jer. xxxvii. 3. 
10.;) But this unfortunate prince had 
neither patience to hear, nor resolution to 
1050 



follow, good counsels. In the eleventh year 
of Zedekiah, on the ninth day of the fourth 
month, (July) Jerusalem was taken. (2 
Kings xxv. 2, 3, 4. Jer. xxxix. 2, 3. ; lii. 
5, 6, 7) Zedekiah and his people endea- 
voured to escape by favour of the night, 
but the Chaldean troops pursuing them, 
they were overtaken in the plains of Je- 
richo. 

He was taken, and carried to Nebuchad- 
nezzar, then at Riblah, a city of Syria. The 
king of Chaldea reproaching him with his 
perfidy, caused all his children to be slain 
before his face, and his eyes to be put out ; 
then loading him with chains of brass, he 
ordered him to be sent to Babylon. (2 Kings 
xxv. 4 — 7' Jer. xxxii. 4 — 7« ; lii- 4 — 11.) 
Thus were accomplished two prophecies 
which seem contradictory : one of Jeremiah, 
who said, that Zedekiah should see, and yet 
not see Nebuchadnezzar with his eyes 
(Jer. xxxii. 4, 5. ; xxxiv. 3.) ; and the other 
of Ezekiel, (xii. 13.) which intimated that 
he should not see Babylon, though he should 
die there. The year of his death is not 
known. Jeremiah had assured him (Jer. 
xxxiv. 4, 5.) that he should die in peace, 
that his body should be burned, as those 
of the kings of Judah usually were ; and 
that they should mourn for him, saying, 
Ah, lord! 

ZEPHANI'AH, JT33V, signifies the Lord 
is my secret, or the secret of the Lord, or the 
north of the Lord. Zephaniah, son of Maa- 
seiah ; called (2 Kings xxv. 18.) the second 
priest, while the high-priest Seraiah per- 
formed the functions of the high-priesthood, 
and was the first priest. It is thought Ze- 
phaniah was his deputy, to discharge the 
duty when the high-priest was sick, or when 
any other accident hindered him from per- 
forming his office. After the taking of 
Jerusalem by the Chaldeans, Seraiah and 
Zaphaniah were taken and sent to Nebu- 
chadnezzar at Riblah, who caused them to 
be put to death, in the year of the world 
3416. Zephaniah was sent more than once 
by Zedekiah, to consult Jeremiah. (Jer. xxi. 
1. ; xxxvii. 3.) We know not whether Jo- 
siah and Hen, (Zech. vi. 10. 14.) were sons 
of this Zephaniah, or of some other. 

Zephaniah, son of Cushi, and grandson 
of Gedaliah, was of the tribe of Simeon, 
according to Epiphanius, and of Mount 
Sarabata, a place not mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. The Jews are of opinion, that the 
ancestors of Zephaniah, recited at the be- 
ginning of his prophecy, were all prophets 
themselves. Some have pretended, without 
any foundation, that he was of an illustrious 
family. We have no exact knowledge, 
either of his actions, or the time of his 
death. He lived under king Josiah, who 
began to reign in the year of the world 
3363. The description that Zephaniah 
gives of the disorders of Judah leads us to 



ZER 



zuz 



judge, that he prophesied before the eigh- 
teenth year of Josiah ; that is, before this 
prince had reformed the abuses and corrup- 
tions of his dominions. (2 Kings xxii. 3. 
10. 12.) Besides, he foretells the destruc- 
tion of Nineveh, (Zeph. ii. 13.) which could 
not fall out before the sixteenth year of 
Josiah, by allowing, with Berosus, twenty- 
one years to the reign of Nabopolassar over 
the Chaldeans. Therefore, we must neces- 
sarily place the beginning of Zephaniah's 
prophecy early in the reign of Josiah. 

This prophet denounces the judgments 
of God against the idolatry and sins of his 
countrymen, and exhorts them to repent- 
ance ; he predicts the punishment of the 
Philistines, Moabites, Ammonites, and Ethi- 
opians, and foretells the destruction of Nine- 
veh ; he again inveighs against the cor- 
ruptions of Jerusalem, and with his threats, 
mixes promises of future favour and pros- 
perity to his people, whose recall from their 
dispersion shall glorify the name of God 
throughout the world. The style of Zepha- 
niah is poetical ; but it is not distinguished 
by any peculiar elegance or beauty, though 
generally animated and impressive. Bishop 
Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, 
vol. i. pp. 127, 128. 

ZERUB'BABEL, bnrm, signifies, ba- 
nished, or a stranger at Babylon. Zerub- 
babel, or Zorobabel, was son of Salathiel, 
of the royal race of David. St. Matthew 
(i. 12.) and Chronicles (1 Chron. iii. 17. 
19.) make Jeconiah king of Judah, to be 
father to Salathiel ; but they do not agree 
as to the father of Zerubbabel. The Chroni- 
cles say Pedaiah was father of Zerubbabel ; 
but St. Matthew, St. Luke, Ezra, and Hag- 
gai, constantly make Salathiel his father. We 
must therefore take the name of son in the 
sense of grandson, and say that Salathiel 
having educated Zerubbabel, he was always 
afterwards looked upon as his father. Some 
think that Zerubbabel had also the name 
of Sheshbazzar, and that he had this name 
in Ezra (i. 8.). Zerubbabel returned to 
Jerusalem long before the reign of Darius, 
son of Hystaspes. He returned at the 
beginning of the reign of Cyrus, in the 
year of the world 3468, fifteen years before 
Darius. 

Cyrus committed to his care the sacred 
vessels of the temple, with which he re- 
turned to Jerusalem. (Ezra i. 14.) He is 
always named first, as being the chief of 
the Jews that returned to their own country. 
(Ezra ii. 2. ; iii. 8. ; v. 2.) He laid the 
foundations of the temple, (Ezra iii. 8, 9. 
Zech. iv. J), &c.) and restored the worship 
of the Lord, and the usual sacrifices. When 
the Samaritans offered to assist in rebuilding 
the temple, Zerubbabel and the principal 
men of Judah refused them this honour, 
since Cyrus had granted his commission to 
the Jews only. (Ezra iv. 2, 3.) 
1057 



ZI'BA, xn»y signifies army, fight, strength, 
flag. Ziba was a servant to Saul. (2 Sam. 
ix. 2, 3, &c.) King David having resolved 
to show kindness to some descendants of 
Saul, for the sake of Jonathan, he asked 
Ziba if there was any remaining of his 
house ? Ziba mentioned one of Jonathan's 
sons named Mephibosheth, who was lame, 
and dwelt at the house of Machir, at Lode- 
bar. David sent for him, and gave him 
the privilege of his table all the rest of lm 
life. He said to Ziba, I have given to 
Mephibosheth all that belonged to Saul ; 
therefore make the best of his estate, that 
your master may have a sufficient subsist- 
ence. Ziba replied, My lord, your ser- 
vant will obey your commands ; and Me- 
phibosheth shall be served at my table, 
when he shall please to be there, as one 
of the king's sons. Now Ziba had fifteen 
sons and twenty servants, who were em- 
ployed to attend Mephibosheth, and to 
make the best of his estate. But Mephi- 
bosheth ate at the king's table, though he 
dwelt with Ziba. 

Some years after, (2 Sam. xvi. 1, 2, &c.) 
when David was expelled from Jerusalem 
by his son Absalom, Ziba went to meet 
David, with two asses loaded with provi- 
sions. The king asked him, What do you 
mean by these ? Ziba answered, The asses 
are to mount some of the king's officers, 
and the provisions are for those that attend 
you. David then asked him, Where is 
Mephibosheth? Ziba replied, He continues 
at Jerusalem, saying, The house of Israel 
will now restore me to the kingdom of my 
father. The king then said to Ziba, I 
will give you all that belongs to Mephi- 
bosheth. 

After the defeat of Absalom, Ziba came 
to meet the king, with his fifteen sons and 
twenty servants. Mephibosheth also came 
co meet the king, and in such a plight as 
sufficiently showed his trouble for the king's 
absence. For, from the time of David's 
flight, he had neither washed his feet, nor 
trimmed his beard, nor taken any care of his 
dress. David asked him, Mephibosheth, 
why did not you go with me, but stay at 
Jerusalem ? Mephibosheth replied, My 
lord, my servant Ziba deceived me, for 
being, as you know, lame of my feet, I bid 
him prepare me an ass, to follow you ; but, 
instead of that, he went himself to accuse 
me falsely. The king interrupted him, and 
said, Say no more. What I have deter- 
mined shall stand ; you and Ziba divide the 
estate. 

ZO'AR, liny, £oyopd, aoywp, anyiop, sig- 
nifies small, or poor. Zoar, or Beta, was a 
city of Pentapolis, on the southern extre- 
mity of the Dead Sea. It was intended, as 
the other five cities, to be consumed by 
fire from Heaven; but at the intercession of 
Lot, it was preserved. (Gen. xiv. 2.) It was 
3 Y 



zuz 



zuz 



called Bela before ; but when Lot desired 
of the angel that he might take refuge in it, 
and often insisted on the small n ess of this 
city, it had the name Zoar, which in He- 
brew signifies small, or little. 

ZUZIM, omit, tOvr] icr%vod, signifies 
posts of a door ; otherwise, splendour, beauty ; 
otherwise, revolters. according to the Syriac. 
The Zuzim where certain giants who dwelt 
beyond Jordan, and who were conquered by 
Chedorlaomer and his allies, in the year of 
1058 



the world 2079. (Gen. xiv. 5.) The Vul- 
gate and the Septuagint say they were con- 
quered with the Rephaim in Ashteroth- 
karnaim. The Chaldee interpreters have 
taken Zuzim in the sense of an appel- 
lative, for stout and valiant men ; and the 
Septuagint have rendered the word Zuzim 
tOvr} io-xvpa, that is, robust nations. Cal- 
met is of opinion that the Zuzim atfe the 
same with the Zamzummim. 



THE END. 



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